VALUE ADDITION OF CONVENIENCE FOOD

USING PROCESSED MILLET POWDER

A Thesis submitted to the Pondicherry University in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN

FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION

Submitted by

M. Pushpa Devi

R22951

DEPARTMENT OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF LIFE SCIENCES

PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY

PUDUCHERRY- 605 014

INDIA

August – 201

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this thesis entitled “VALUE ADDITION OF CONVENIENCE

FOOD USING PROCESSED MILLET POWDER” is a record of research work

done by the candidate Mrs. M. Pushpa Devi during the period of her study in the

Department of Food Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences,

Pondicherry University, Puducherry, under my supervision and that it has not

previously formed the basis for the award of any

Degree/Diploma/Associateship/Fellowship of any other University or Institute.

Place: Puducherry

Date:

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work presented in the thesis entitled “VALUE ADDITION

OF CONVENIENCE FOOD USING PROCESSED MILLET POWDER” is the

result of investigation carried out by me in the Department of Food Science and

Technology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry under the

guidance of Dr. Narayanasamy Sangeetha, Assistant Professor, Department of Food

Science and Technology, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University,

Puducherry, and it has not been submitted for the award of any

Degree/Diploma/Associateship/Fellowship of any other University or Institute.

Place : Puducherry

Date : (M. Pushpa Devi)

R22951

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am extremely indebted to Prof. (Dr.) CHANDRA KRISHNAMOORTHY,

Vice Chancellor, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, and

Shri RAAJIV YADUVANSHI, IAS, Registrar, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,

for not only providing opportunity to pursue doctorate program and infrastructural

facilities in this esteemed university but also afforded with scholarship which helped

and fueled my financial needs towards my research.

I take this opportunity to sincerely acknowledge and thank Dr. J. SAMPATH,

Controller of Examinations, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, for having

rendered academic guidelines for smooth conduct of research throughout the study

period. I would like to express my profound gratitude to Prof. ANISA BASHEER

KHAN, Dean, School of Life Sciences, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, for

providing academic support at various phases of the Ph.D. program.

I owe a great deal of appreciation, profound gratitude and sincere thanks to

Dr. H. PRATHAP KUMAR SHETTY, Associate Professor, Head i/c. , Department

of Food Science and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, for his

valuable advice, constructive criticism and his extensive discussions around my work.

At this moment of accomplishment, I pay homage to my beloved and energetic

guide, Dr. NARAYANASAMY SANGEETHA, Assistant Professor, Department of

Food Science and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry. This work

would not have been possible without her guidance, support and encouragement. She

patiently provided the vision, encouragement and advice necessary for me to proceed

through the doctorial program and complete my thesis. She has been a strong and

supportive adviser to me throughout my career. She has always given me great

freedom to pursue independent work. Under her guidance I successfully came over

many difficulties and learnt a lot. I can’t forget her hard times. Despite of her ill

health she used to review my thesis progress. Her unflinching courage and conviction

will always inspire me, and I hope to continue to work with her noble thoughts. I can

only say a proper thanks to her through my future accomplishments.

I gratefully acknowledge my Doctoral Committee Member (External)

Dr. Anil Jacob Purty MD, DNB, MNAMS, Registrar, Professor & Dean (PG),

Department of community Medicine, Pondicherry Institute of Medical Science,

Puducherry, for his understanding and encouragement which provided good and

smooth basis for my Ph.D. tenure.

My heartfelt thanks to Doctoral Committee Member (Internal),

Dr. S. HARIPRIYA, Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science and

Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, who always triggered my

knowledge, boosted my interest and supported towards the progress of my research.

I am also thankful to Dr. JOHN DON BOSCO, Associate Professor,

Department of Food Science and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,

for his guidance, technical support, ideas and positive comments to complete my work

successfully.

I thank Dr. K.V. SUNOOJ, Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science

and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, for his valuable censure

during my study and also facilitated me in operating texture analyzer and

Dr. G. SEGHAL KIRAN, Assistant Professor, Department of Food Science and

Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry, for her encouragement in

completion of my research work.

I express my gratitude to Mrs. ANUSUYA and Mr. GANESH, Guest Faculty,

Department of Food Science and Technology, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,

who supported and provided immense help in statistical interpretation.

I thank Indian Institute of Crop Processing and Technology (IICPT),

Thanjavur and Anna University, Chennai for providing additional equipment to

pursue my experiment work for the extrusion and for their encouragement and

support in the formulation of products.

Most of the results described in this thesis would not have been obtained

without the help rendered by Central Instrumentation Facility (CIF), Pondicherry

University to utilize few of major equipments.

I am much indebted to Dr. K. SUNDAR, Young Scientist DST, for his

inspiration given to complete my research. I am indebted to my many scholar

colleagues for providing a stimulating and fun filled environment to complete the

Ph.D. programme. A special thanks to Ms.P.Vasantha Kumari who has been very

supportive of my decision to relate to the academics and she helped me during

writing, and incented me to strive towards my goal. I render my profound thanks to

other scholars S. Uma Maheswari, D. Sumitha, C. Saravanan, Sanjay Prathap Singh,

K. Devi, S. J. Cynthia, Soumya Bhol, Ravindra Kumar Agarwal, Ch. Koteeswara

Reddy, K. Kumarakuru, Shabir Ahmed Mir, P.Vandarkuzhali, Mansoor ahmed shah,

S.Santhalakshmi, G.Venkadesaperumal, K.Ragul, Amritha Balagopal, Ankitha Lakede

and Mudhasir Bashir Mir for their help offered during my research period and for the

moral support given.

I also thank G. RAMYA, S. KAMASHI AND M. SURYA, Research Assistants

who willingly devoted so much time during the inevitable ups and downs in conduct of

my research.

I extend my thanks to the non-teaching staffs Mrs. GOMATHI,

Mr. CHAKRAVARTHY, Mrs. KOLANCHIAMMAL, Mrs. CHANDRA,

Mrs. VALLIAMMAL, Mr. PRADEEP Mr. ANGAPPAN and Mr. SITHANANDHA

BARATHI for helping me with the needed amenities.

Last but not the least, I would like to pay high regards to my MOTHER and

FATHER and my BROTHER for their sincere encouragement and inspiration

throughout my research work and lifting me uphill in this phase of life as well. I owe

everything to them. I would like to thank my HUSBAND for his support,

encouragement and help. Besides this, several people have knowingly and

unknowingly helped me in the successful completion of this project. Thanks to all!

I surrender my thesis which is the end result of hard work and endurance to

the Almighty, for His showers of blessings throughout my research and my dear

Mam Late. JACQUELINE ELIZABETH.

(M. Pushpa Devi)

ABBREVIATIONS

FF&V - Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

WHO - World Health Organization

AOAC - Association of Official Analytical Chemists

AACC - American Association of Cereal Chemists

HPLC - High Performance Liquid Chromatography

GC-MS - Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy

ANOVA - Analysis of Variance

DMRT - Duncan‟s Multiple Range Test

DPPH - Diphenyal Picrylhydrazyl

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

LSD - Least Significant Difference

SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences

CVD - Cardiovascular Diseases

USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

FAOSTAT - Food and Agriculture Organization Statistical Databases

ATP - Adenosine Tri-Phosphate

LDL - Low Density Lipoprotein

HDL - High Density Lipoprotein

LP -Linear Programming

IVPD -In Vitro Protein Digestibility

EFA - Essential Fatty Acids

UNU - United Nations University

SEM - Scanning Electron Microscope

RTE - Ready To Eat

LDPE - Low Density Poly Ethylene

CFU - Colony-forming unit

MAP - Modified Atmospheric Package

PHLSG - Public Health Laboratory Service Guidelines

ICMSF - International Commission on Microbiological Specifications

IU - International Unit

EFA - Essential Fatty Acid

FM - Finger Millet

PM - Pearl Millet

KM - Kodo Millet

LM - Little Millet

FOM - Foxtail Millet

CM - Composite Millet Powder

FCTD - Forced Convection Tray Drying

SD - Sun Drying

FD - Freeze Drying

TPC - Total Plate Count

PAG - Protein Advisory Group

WAC -Water Absorption Capacity

BD -Bulk Density

ABSTRACT

Millet is an underutilized species holding great genetic diversity and

consumed by the people of low socio economic status. Despite their nutritional

superiority, utilization of millets is restricted due to non-availability of refined and

processed millets in ready to eat form. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize a

processed composite millet powder for the development of convenience food with

application of processing and drying methods. The techniques used for processing

millets are soaking, preparation of slurry from millets, dehydration and milling were

carried out for development of millet powder. The selected raw materials were

weighed and soaked for a period of 6 hours, after which the excess water was drained.

The processed millet grains were ground into fine slurry using wet grinding

technique. The obtained millet slurry was subjected to drying methods namely sun

drying (T0:18 hours), forced convection tray drying (T1: 60ºC-70°C, 15-16 hours) and

freeze drying (T2: –50°C to 30°C, 14-16 hours). The dried millet powder was milled

in stone miller to obtain fine powder which was packed in LDPE and stored in air

tight container for the development of convenience foods. Convenience foods namely

pasta and extrudates were formulated and evaluated for their physical, nutritional,

functional and shelf life characteristics. The results indicate that in general the drying

methods adopted did not influence the proximate principles, nutrient content but the

physical characteristics of composite millet powder were altered slightly. However,

the slight change observed in the nutritional profile of composite millet powder could

be attributed to the natural existence of the nutrients present in the selected millets.

After several permutation and combination, 70 % composite millet powder and 30%

of refined wheat flour (70:30) has proved to improve the nutritional and sensory

property of pasta where a significant increment (p≤0.05) in the protein, fat, minerals

and vitamin content was observed. The incorporation of egg white powder in pasta

formulated using composite millet powder caused a significant reduction in cooking

loss showed an increase in phytochemicals and essential amino acid profile which are

considered as desirable qualities of pasta. The extrudates obtained from the composite

millet powder exhibited significant difference (p≤0.05) in the protein, carbohydrate,

vitamins, minerals and essential amino acid profile when compared to control.

Among the drying methods adopted, the composite millet powder subjected to freeze

drying and thereby the products developed had better retention of nutrients,

phytochemical, essential fatty acid and essential amino acids exhibited better

antioxidant activity (p<0.05) when compared to forced convection tray drying. As the

products were heat treated, the storage study revealed that the convenience food

developed was found to hold good shelf life in terms of total plate count and sensory

parameters up to six months. Hence, consumption of millets in the daily diet would

benefit the health and wellbeing of the people and moreover is receiving tremendous

attention among the vulnerable population.

CONTENTS

CHAPTE

R NO.

TITLE PAG

E NO.

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION 1-3

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4

2.1. Production, cultivation and consumption of millet grains

2.2. Therapeutic significance of millet grains

2.3. Nutritional and functional properties of millet grains

2.4. Effect of different processing methods on millet grains

2.5. Utilization of millet grains in the preparation of value

added products

4

7

10

15

20

3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Selection and pre-processing of raw materials

3.2. Steps involved in preparation of processed millet powder

3.3. Optimization of composite millet powder

3.4. Finalized parameters for further analysis and product

development

3.5. Process involved in development of convenience food

3.6. Quality analysis of developed convenience food and the

powder

3.7. Statistical interpretation of the data

26

27

31

32

32

36

37

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38

4.1. Effect of drying methods on the quality characteristics of

processed millet powder

4.2. Effect of drying methods on the physic-chemical

properties of composite millet powder (CM)

4.3. Evaluation of quality characteristics of convenience food

developed using composite millet powder

4.4. Functional characterization of protein in the convenience

food developed using composite millet powder exposed to

freeze drying

38

55

71

117

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 120

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

NO. TITLE

PAGE

NO.

1. Optimization of composite millet powder (%) 31

2. Composition of raw material for formulation of pasta 33

3. Analysis of quality characteristics of developed composite millet

powder and convenience food 36

4. Proximate principles of processed millet powder 40

5. Mineral (mg/100g) content of processed millet powder 45

6. Bulk density (g/cm3) of the processed millet powder 47

7. Swelling index (%) of the processed millet powder 48

8a. Foam capacity (ml) of the processed millet powder 49

8b. Foam stability (ml) of the processed millet powder 49

9. Water absorption capacity (ml/g) of the processed millet powder 50

10. Color values of the processed millet powder 54

11. Total microbial count (cfu/g) of processed millet powder 55

12. Physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder 56

13. Color values of composite millet powder 61

14. Pasting properties of the composite millet powder 62

15.

Essential amino acids (mg/100g) profile of composite millet

powder 64

16. Vitamin content of the composite millet powder 66

17. Essential fatty acids (mg/100g) composition of composite millet

powder 67

18. Phytochemical profile of composite millet powder 68

19. DPPH scavenging activity of composite millet powder 70

20. Reducing power of composite millet powder 71

21. Nutritional properties of pasta 72

22. Physical properties of pasta 75

23. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of pasta 77

24. Vitamin content of pasta 78

25. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of pasta 79

26. DPPH scavenging activity of pasta 80

27. Reducing power of pasta 81

28. Color values of pasta 82

29. Textural profile of pasta 84

30. Sensory properties of pasta 91

31. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of pasta 93

32. Total plate count (cfu/g) of pasta during storage 94

33. Nutritional properties of extrudates 95

34. Physical properties of extrudates 98

35. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of extrudates 100

36. Vitamin content of extrudates 101

37. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of extrudates 102

38. DPPH scavenging activity of extrudates 103

39. Reducing power of extrudates 104

40. Color values of extrudates 105

41. Textural profile of extrudates 106

42. Sensory properties of extrudates (plain) 112

43. Sensory properties of extrudates with choco milk 112

44. Sensory properties of extrudates - spice mix 113

45. Effect of storage on the overall acceptability of extrudates 115

46. Effect of storage on total plate count of extrudates 116

47. Protein fraction of composite millet powder and products 118

LIST OF PLATES

PLATE

NO. TITLE

PAGE

NO.

1. Raw materials selected for processing and product

development

26

2. Process of soaking involved in the preparation of millet

powder

27

3. Process involved in the preparation of slurry from processed

millets

28

4. Millet slurry exposed to sun drying 29

5. Millet slurry exposed to forced convection tray drying 29

6. Millet slurry exposed to freeze drying 30

7. Processed millet powder in LDPE pouch 30

8. Pastas obtained from composite millet powder 34

9. Extrudates obtained from composite millet powder 35

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

NO. TITLE

PAGE

NO.

1. Process involved in the preparation of millet powder 31

2. Process involved in the formulation of pasta 34

3. Steps involved in the formulation of extrudates 35

4. Proximate principles of processed millet powder 42

5. Mineral content of processed millet powder 46

6. Physical properties of processed millet powder 52

7. Color values of processed millet powder 54

8. Physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder 60

9. Colour values of composite millet powder 61

10. Pasting properties of composite millet powder 63

11. Morphological structure of composite millet powder 64

12. Essential amino acids (mg/100g) profile of composite millet

powder

65

13. Vitamin content of the composite millet powder 66

14. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of composite millet

powder

67

15. Phytochemical profile of composite millet powder 68

16. DPPH scavenging activity of composite millet powder 70

17. Reducing power of composite millet powder 71

18. Nutritional properties of pasta 74

19. Physical properties of pasta 76

20. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of pasta 78

21. Vitamin content of pasta 79

22. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of pasta 80

23. DPPH scavenging activity of pasta 81

24. Reducing power of pasta 81

25. Color values of pasta 83

26. Textural profile of pasta 86

27. Morphological structure of pasta 88

28. Pasting properties of pasta 90

29. Sensory properties of Pasta 92

30. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of pasta 94

31. Nutritional properties of extrudates 97

32. Physical properties of extrudates 99

33. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of extrudates 101

34. Vitamin content of extrudates 102

35. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of extrudates 103

36. DPPH scavenging activity of extrudates 103

37. Reducing power of extrudates 104

38. Color values of extrudates 106

39. Textural properties of extrudate 107

40. Morphological structure of extrudates 109

41a. X-ray diffractograms of composite millet powder 109

41b. X-ray diffractograms of extrudates 109

42. Pasting properties of extrudates 111

43a. Sensory properties of extrudates (plain) 115

43b. Sensory properties of extrudates (choco mix) 115

43c. Sensory properties of extrudates (Spice mix) 115

44. Effect of storage on the overall acceptability of extrudates 116

45. Protein solubility of composite millet powder and products 117

1. INTRODUCTION

Millet is one of the indigenous foods known to human and has been widely

used in India as a staple food for thousands of years. Millet, a versatile grain is highly

nutritious, non-glutinous and non-acid forming food. It contains high amount of

macro as well as micro nutrients and also rich in phytochemicals including lignans,

phenolic acids and phytosterols. Minor millets in particular are used as food sources

mainly in arid and semiarid regions of the world. They play an important role in the

food and nutritional security of the poor.

Millet is gluten free and therefore an excellent option for anyone suffering

with bowel diseases. The phytochemicals present in millets lowers cholesterol level,

helps to prevent colon cancer, aid in elimination and improves insulin sensitivity. It

has relatively higher proportion of non-starchy polysaccharides, dietary fiber and low

glycemic index which helps to reduce the risk of degenerative diseases both in urban

and rural population. The nutritional factors and also the ease of digestion of millet

are the basis for their recommended use for pregnant women, nursing mothers,

children and the elderly. The health status of the targeted population will be improved

through millet foods consumption keeping many deficiencies (nutrient) and diseases

at bay. The most popular millet produced in India are pearl millet/spiked millet

(Bajra), finger millet (Ragi), great millet/sorghum (Jowar), foxtail millet (Kheri), little

millet (Samai) and barnyard millet (Jhungori).

However, their presence in the Indian food basket has been declining over the

years. The major reason for this decline is the increased availability of rice, wheat and

maize. In addition, the lack of modern technologies for their effective processing and

utilization is another important reason for their decline. On the other hand, increasing

urbanization and decreasing time for domestic chores in rural households are

discouraging traditional processing of millets. In addition with the increasing

availability of other cereals, minor millet consumption in Asia is getting restricted to

the poorest of the poor and to those having traditional affinity. In order to overcome

this problem, suitable processing techniques should be adopted to utilize millets as

one of the major ingredients in food preparations. Millets are largely consumed as

traditional preparations like conjee (porridge) or as fermented food (koozhu) for

consumption. They would probably be more widely used if processing was improved

and sufficient good-quality flour was made available to meet the demand. Traditional

processing techniques that are commonly used for cereals include decorticating,

malting, fermentation, roasting, flaking and grinding. The processing of millets

enhances the flavor and palatability of foods, increases the bioavailability of nutrients

by reducing the anti-nutritional factors, growth inhibitors and heam-agglutins and also

helps in new food formulations.

While formulating new foods, ultimate emphasis should be given to the food

trends and food transitions which are being strongly bonded with modern society that

has moved towards designer foods, convenience foods, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals

and ready-to-eat snack foods. Convenience foods are defined as fully or partially

prepared foods in which a significant amount of preparation time, cooking skills or

energy inputs that has been transferred from home kitchen to the food processor and

distributor (Candel, 2001 and Costa et al., 2001). These types of foods require

minimum preparation and are packaged for a long shelf life with little loss of flavor

and nutrients over time. In the preparation of convenience foods, extrusion technique

has become more popular which has dramatically transformed the cereal industry, the

key thing being quality extruded products offered to consumer at competitive price.

They also bring more choices for the quick consumers who want to eat a good meal,

thus offering a good business opportunity for food product developers, service and

retail providers (Sloan, 1999). Ready-to-eat extruded products is an ideal food for

people in modern-day lifestyle, where speed and convenience, as well as complete

nutritional values are desirable food characteristics for ready-to-eat millet based

products that gives a healthful addition for a better lifestyle.

Though several snack foods of different cereals including wheat, rice,

barley etc., are being prepared and marketed to the public using varying type of

traditional processing techniques, snack foods prepared by incorporating processed

millets would probably be an effective way to motivate the preparation of gluten free

ready-to-eat snack food. Hence, an attempt is taken to explore on the preparation of

convenience foods using processed composite millet powder possessing immense

nutritional and functional properties by different drying methods which would help in

increasing the consumption of millets among non-millet consumers and production of

novel food product. With this background, the following objectives were framed.

Studying the effect of processing methods on the quality characteristics of

processed millet powder.

Optimization and process development of convenience foods using composite

millet powder and its evaluation of quality characteristics.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The functional foods has been used for foods that promote health through

prevention of specific degenerative diseases like diabetes, CVD, cancer, Parkinson‟s

disease, cataract etc. This effect is due to the presence of health-promoting and

bioactive phytochemicals in plant foods. Some of the known nutrients like

vitamins, minerals, essential fatty acids also have benefits in terms of prevention of

degenerative diseases, besides their known functions of preventing nutritional

deficiency diseases. Millets which are a treasure hunt of health-promotive

phytochemicals have received attention for their potential role as functional foods.

Being non-glutinous, millets are safe for people suffering from gluten allergy and

celiac disease. Hence their importance in terms of nutritional composition, health

benefits, processing and utilization for the food product development was reviewed in

detail. The literature pertaining to the present study entitled, “Value addition of

convenience food using processed millet powder” is presented under the following

heads.

2.1. Production, cultivation and consumption of millet grains

2.2. Therapeutic significance of millet grains

2.3. Nutritional and functional properties of millet grains

2.4. Effect of different processing methods on millet grains

2.5. Utilization of millet grains in the preparation of value added products

2.1. Production, cultivation and consumption of millet grains

In India, the last land production was reported as 9, 26, 10,000 hectares in

2010 according to a World Bank report published in 2012. The production of cereal

was found throughout the history and which is the most important sources of plant

food for human‟s and livestock. Millets are one of the oldest foods known to

humans & possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets

are small seeded cereal grains consumed as food by millions of people throughout the

world. They are often referred to as „poor man‟s cereal, because people with a choice

prefer other cereals such as wheat or rice. But recently Prof. M. S. Swaminathan

designated millets as „nutritious millets‟ and it deserves to be reclassified because of

its nutritive properties. The millet is considered as a crop for poor people, it is grown

mainly in china, Bangladesh and India. In the world level, most of the millet grains

are cultivated and grown in Asia, Africa and USSR. In India, cereal security is very

important, because it was characterized by history of drought and famines, vast and

expanding population and social structure still not fully evolved up to the expectation

of our civil society. The increase in productivity during the last four decades has been

accompanied by increase in personal income. The total millet production in the world

is around 31,875,597 tonnes. In 2007, the top ten millet producing (Tonnes) countries

were found to be India (10,610,000), Nigeria (7,700,000), Niger (2,781,928), China

(2,101,000), Burkina Faso (1,104,010), Mali (1,074,440) Sudan (792,000), Uganda

(732,000), Chad (550,000) and Ethiopia (500,000).

India is the biggest producer of millets in the world and millets remain a

staple crop for numerous households. In India, eight millets species sorghum

(Sorghum bicolor), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), pearl millet

(Pennisetum glaucum), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), barnyard millet

(Echinochloa crus-galli), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), kodo millet

(Paspalum scrobiculatum) and little millet (Panicum sumatrense) are commonly

cultivated under rain fed conditions. The pearl millet and sorghum is primary crop and

allied crops respectively in the desert regions and eastern parts of Rajasthan and

Gujarat. Likewise, Finger millet is a primary crop in Tamil Nadu and Gharwal, while

the same is a minor crop in Telangana. Hence, the spatial distribution of millets either

as a primary crop or as allied crops largely depends on the growing habitat and the

amount of rainfall the region receives. Similarly, sorghum is sown as major crop

in the Telangana (Andhra Pradesh), Maharashtra and parts of Central India, while it

is considered as fodder crop in some of the Southern regions. While sorghum

predominates in areas receiving annual rainfall beyond 400 mm, pearl millet

rivals it in areas with annual rainfall of 350 mm. Further, the small millets like

finger millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet, little millet and proso millet are found in

most of the southern and central states in India especially wherever annual rainfall is

below 350 mm, perhaps where no other cereal crop can grow under such moisture

stress. However, in spite of a rich inter/intra-species diversity and wider climatic

adaptability cultivation of diverse millet species/varieties is gradually narrowing in

the recent past. In a way, a lack of institutional support for millet crops in contrast to

the institutional promotion of rice and wheat continue to shrink the millet-growing

region.

Over the last 50 years, the share of „Coarse grains‟, which include pearl

millet, sorghum, maize, finger millet, barley and 5 other millet species known as

„Small Millets‟, in terms of total area has registered 25.3% decline from 38.83 Mha.

(1949-50) to 29.03 Mha. (2004-05). It requires warm weather and matures quickly in

the hot summer months. In India, states namely Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, &

Tamilnadu are the major millet growing state which contributes to about 90% of the

total area under cultivation. Andhra Pradesh is a major part for foxtail millet growing

state contributing about 79% of the total area (Anju et al., 2010). Millets plays an

important role in biodervisity components in agriculture and food security system in

millions of poor farmer area of Sub-Saharan Africa. The production of pearl millet is

largest in India and food to be found across the Sahel. In food industry the plant

nutrients are larger and also the cereals grain constitutes the major sources of dietary

fiber (Izadi et al., 2012).

FAO (2005) found that pearl millet production attained approximately 54% of

the global production in 2004. In emerging trends, the production and exploration of

plant foods is the basic need for the world to feed its growing population, in these

cases millets are plant foods that are grown locally and it is also consumed by low

income household‟s places like India and in the Sahel Zones (Obilana, 2003).

According to FAOSTAT 2005, the global consumption of millet for an

average of five years was found to be highest in India (9,041,765), followed by

Nigeria (4,299,211), Niger (1,733,793), China (1,116,505), Burkina Faso (856,337),

Mali (701,701), Sudan (560,548) and Uganda (408,137). India and China rank as the

1st and 4

th consumer of millet but due to their population size they rank 11

th and 38

th in

per capita consumption. The consumption of millets as rice or flour in the daily

routine food has several advantages; since the millet grains may not be available

in all places, due to its increased price and decreased marketing strategy. The

traditional way of consumption of millets has been restricted to remote and

rural population, especially during certain festivals. The health promoting factors of

millets need awareness among mass and made available as ready to eat or semi

processed millet products for health benefits. Millets based food beverage is a known

food product worldwide and still is a part of major diet in most of African countries.

Generally, the finger millet are consumed in the form of kozhu and congee

(Amadou et al., 2011). Lei and Michalsen (2006) investigated an intervention study

in Northern Ghana traditionally used fermented millet product as a natural probiotic

for the treatment of diarrheoa in young children. Lei and Jacobsen (2004)

characterized that millet koko is an African products which is frequently used as a

fermented millet porridge and drink. In Africa there are two different varieties of

beers produced traditionally such as Burukulu and pito which differ from western

beer types in several ways (Anukam and Reid, 2009; Amadou et al., 2011a).

Regular consumption of finger millet is one of the basic ingredients upto

15-20% (w/w) along with other essential ingredients such as black or green gram, rice

and spices which has become a tradition in millet growing areas of south India.

According to Begum et al., (2007) the addition of finger millet up to 60% is possible

and it practiced in some part of Karnataka. Inspite of this, several communities in the

dry/rain fed regions have known to possess food-qualities of millets over generations

continue to include a range of millets in the traditional cropping patterns, which

recognize millets as an essential part of the local diet.

2.2. Therapeutic Significance of millet grains

Food provides not only essential nutrients for life but also it gives other

bioactive compounds for health promotion in prevention of diseases. Regular

consumption of plant foods helps to reduce the risk of chronic degenerative diseases

and biological ageing. A recent research indicates that the nutritional guidance of

grains and grain products based on food guide pyramid emphasizes the importance of

the consumption of grains and grain products as part of a normal diet for optimal

health (USDA 2000, 2005; Singh and Sharma, 2009). The epidemiological evidence

from recent research showed that the plant foods protect against several degenerative

diseases, metabolic syndrome and Parkinson‟s disease (Gupta et al., 2012). Millets

are traditionally accepted as functional and nutraceutical foods for more than four

decades since they provide dietary fiber, protein, energy, minerals, vitamins and

necessary benefits for human health. It gives several potential health benefits such as

preventing cancer, cardiovascular diseases, reducing incidence of tumor, lowering

blood pressure, delaying gastric emptying etc. The consumption of whole millets have

health promoting effects which is equal to or even in higher amount when compared

to fruits and vegetables and it has the potential to protect against insulin resistance,

heart diseases, diabetes, ischemic stroke, obesity, breast cancer, childhood asthma and

premature death (Cade et al., 2007). Among the millets, the minor millets possess

several health benefits which could be attributed to their presence of low carbohydrate

content, low digestibility and water soluble gum content as it improves the glucose

metabolism there by release sugar slowly to the blood and also diminish the

absorption of glucose. The dietary fiber and resistant starch present in minor millets

have been endorsed to exhibit hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects and it also

contains the anti-oxidant properties phytochemicals like phenolics, tannins, phytates,

micro minerals etc., which help to prevent against hyperglycemia and oxidative stress

(Anderson et al., 1991; Ranhotra et al., 1991; Srivastava et al., 1998).

Millets are good sources of minerals especially magnesium and phosphorus.

Intake of magnesium helps to reduce the effects of migraine also lowers high blood

pressure. The phosphorus present in millets also is essential component of Adenosine

TriPhosphate (ATP) that acts as a precursor to energy in the body. Niacin helps to

reduce the high cholesterol levels in the body (Guigliano et al.,2011;

Badau et al., 2005; Liang et al., 2010; Devi et al., 2011; Shashi et al., 2007).

Viswanath et al., 2009 and Xu et al., 2011 reported that the extract from millet

seed coat had shown high antibacterial and antifungal activity when compared to

extract from wheat flour due to high polyphenols content in seed coat and also rich in

phytochemical including phytic acid, thereby helps to lower cholesterol and phytate

levels which is associated with reduced cancer risk (Coulibaly et al., 2011;

Izadi et al., 2012). An interesting information in the study revealed that the different

millet like kodo millet, finger millet, little millet, foxtail millet, barnyard millet have

higher free radical quenching potential (Devi et al., 2011; Quesada et al., 2011;

Kamara et al., 2012). Millet is found to be gluten-free which helps in treatment of

people suffering from cealic diseases and also wheat intolerance (Gelinas et al., 2008;

Krishnakumari et al., 1997).

In recent scenario, the changes in utilization pattern of processed products and

awareness of the consumers about the health benefits which is associated with regular

intake of millet foods, the important application which the finger millet possesses are

antibiotics, anti-inflammatory agents and its functional components such as slowly

digestible starch and resistant starch. It has high proportion of complex carbohydrates

in the form of non-starchy polysaccharides and dietary fiber in grains which helps in

reducing cholesterol and regulates the glucose to the blood stream during digestion. It

was found to be good source of micronutrients, which helps to lessen the wide, spread

micronutrient malnutrition among the vulnerable segments in the developing country

(Wadikar et al., 2007; Shobana, and Malleshi 2007; Subba Rao and

Muralikrishna, 2002; Samantray, 1989). The presence of tannin and phytic acid are

responsible for the highest free - radical quenching activity in non-processed brown

finger millet than the processed finger millet (Devi et al., 2011; Quesada et al., 2011;

Kamara et al., 2012; Chandrasekhar and Shahidi 2010; Wisker et al., 1985;

Gopalan et al., 1981; Kang et al., 2008). It reduced the level of total serum

cholesterol, LDL by 9%, triglycerides by 15% and increased HDL level. The soluble

dietary fiber in finger millet is the important fractions in foods because they trap fatty

substances in the gastro-intestinal tract and therefore reduced cholesterol levels in the

blood and lower the risk of heart disease (Kurup et al., 1993).

The pearl millet provides a low-cost solution to combating malnutrition due to

micronutrient deficiency. Pearl millet provides an additional health-related advantage

because of their higher level of insoluble dietary fiber and more balanced amino acid

profile. The kodo millet have therapeutic effect on lowering post prandial blood

glucose response is possibly due to lowering of viscous soluble fiber. Among the

millets kodo millet contains natural antioxidant and high soluble dietary fiber for

maintaining the low blood glucose and inhibits LDL cholesterol oxidations which

play a vital role in the prevention of atherosclerosis and related heart diseases.

Soluble fiber present in kodo millet has gelling properties that could delay the

intestinal absorption (Sharma 2003 and Jenkkins et al., 1986).

The protein present in the proso millet could show a therapeutic effect in Type

2 diabetes. The presence of polyphenols and dietary fiber in proso millet is considered

to be gluten free and it can be used for development of products to the celiac patients.

The starch present in millet is the resistant starch which escapes from digestion in

small intestine and helps in lowering caloric density and low glycemic response

(Choi et al., 2005; Park et al., 2008; Hegde et al., 2005)

The foxtail millet has good nutritional profile when compared to cereals such

as rice and wheat in terms of protein, fiber, minerals and vitamins which has a

potential role as lower gastrointestinal food. It is found to be highly nutritious, easy to

digest, non-glutinous and is not an acid forming food. Millet is considered to be one

of the least allergenic and most digestible grains and it helps to give heat to the body

in cold or rainy seasons hence it is called as a worming grains. Antioxidants and

polyphenols in foxtail millet appear to be beneficial for preventing CVD, cancer and

obesity – related disorder. Pawar et al., (2006) found that foxtail millet contain higher

amount of bioactive compound which possess many health benefits mainly in the

treatment of improving cholesterol metabolism (Zhou et al., 2009; Anu et al., 2010).

Anju et al., (2006) formulated biscuits prepared from foxtail millet powder showed a

significant decrease in serum glucose, serum lipids, glycosylated hemoglobin in

type 2 diabetes. The proteins present in the foxtail millet have a potential role to fight

against type 2 diabetes among women & cardiovascular disease

(Krishnakumari et al., 1997; Sivakumar et al., 2006; Abdel et al., 2006).

2.3. Nutritional and functional properties of millet grains

Nutritional properties of food play a vital constituent in maintaining the

overall physical well-being of human health, because the nutritional properties act as

a sustainable force for health and development which helps to maximizes the human

genetic potential of the body, thereby for solving the problem such as food insecurity,

malnutrition and dietary quality. Cereal grains occupies a significant place in human

nutrition particularly in the dietary pattern of low income people of developing

countries and are considered to be a best way for delivering good nutrients. Among

the cereals, millets is referred to as poor man‟s cereals and is considered to be a minor

grains and also found to be higher in their nutritional properties when compared to

other major cereal crops such as wheat and rice (Singh and Raghuvanshi, 2012;

Parameswaran and Sadasivan, 1994). The millet grains such as finger millet, pearl

millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet and little millet are unique among the minor cereal

grains since it is superior in nutritional qualities and possess several health benefits

with nutraceutical potential for human health (Malleshi and Hadimani et al., 1993).

Millets have good source of carbohydrates (67.0g/100g), protein (7.7g -12g/100g),

and fat (4.5-7.6g/100g) and also contains higher proportion of vitamins and minerals.

The seed coat fractions enclosed comparatively higher level of fat, protein, calcium,

phosphorus and iron. The dietary fiber was the highest in seed coat followed by whole

powder (Malleshi and Hadimani et al., 1993; Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000).

Among vitamins, the B group vitamins were found to be important sources of

millets and it possess higher amount of ash, iron, phosphorus, dietary fiber and amino

acids was higher than the rice or wheat (FAO 1995; Ganapati et al., 2008;

Rao,1986). The presence of natural antioxidant like vitamin C, tocopherol,

carotenoids and polyphenol helps to prevent the free radical damage in the body

(Vithal et al., 2006; Abdel-Aal et al., 2006; Malleshi et al., 1993;

Sri Devi et al., 2008). Among the whole grain foods the millets shows higher

antioxidants activity due to presence of minerals (Ca, Mg, K. P, Na and Fe) and

phytochemicals (phytates and phenolic compounds) which play major role in body

immune system. The moisture content of finger millet range from 7.7 to 9.7%. In

addition, one cup of cooked millets provides 26.4% daily value for magnesium and

24% daily value for phosphorus (Chandrasekara and Shahidi, 2010;

Lakshmi et al., 2002). The total lipid content in the foxtail, proso and finger millet

range from 5.2 to 11.0% whereas in the little, kodo and barnyard millets it ranges

from 5.1 to 8.3%. Hence the overall qualities of all millets possess good protein and

carbohydrate and with immense nutritional properties helps to promote the human

health. Recommendation of combined millets in the form of ready to eat, ready to

cook, health mix and other supplementary products would be highly beneficiary.

The combinations of different millets are being introduced for the

development of products by different processing method to retain and enrich the

nutritional properties of products. Whereas during processing like malting and

hydrothermally treated, the seed coat of native millet contain 9.5-12% protein, 2.6-3.7

fat and 40-48% dietary fiber and in addition it also contains 3-5% polyphenols and

700-860mg/100g of calcium. Malting usually hydrolysis some protein of the starch

and increases the activity of amylases in finger millet. During processing the changes

in protein is observed usually by physical, chemical and biological such as

fermentation or enzymatic treatment and also changes in structure and consequently

in physicochemical and functional properties (Amadou et al., 2011b and

Saldivar, 2003).

The finger millet is a wealthy source of macro and micro nutrients. The

nutritional properties of finger millet revealed that it contains higher amount of

carbohydrate (81.5%), protein (9.8%), crude fiber (4.37%) and minerals (2.7%) which

is comparable to other cereals and millet. The seed coat of finger millet fraction

contain 13.1% protein, 3.3% fat, 5.6% ash and 43.8% dietary fiber and these values

were significantly higher than those for the whole meal millet. In addition, it contains

1.25% calcium where 50% of the calcium content of the whole grain is concentrated

in the seed coat (Kurien et al., 1959). The crude fiber and minerals content was

obviously found to be higher than wheat (1.2% fibers, 1.5% minerals). The finger

millet has a high content of dietary fiber-19.1g, calcium-334g, phytate-209mg.

tannins-360g, iron- 2.4-6.4mg, beta-caroteine-42µg and total minerals-2.7%. Protein

is comparatively better in finger millet; it contains more lysine, threonine and valine

than other millet and also it is a good source of methionine, an essential amino acid. It

also contains many micro nutrients like calcium, iron, and phosphorus, sodium, zinc

and potassium. The calcium content is superior to all cereals and iodine content is said

to be maximum among all the food grains (Upadhya et al., 2006; Duke 1979;

Gopalan et al., 2000; Gopalan et al., 2004).

The nutritional compositions of pearl millet indicate that it is a good source of

energy and protein. On a dry weight basis, it contains 7.4% protein, 6.3% fat,

2.8% fiber and 2.2% ash. Linoleic acid (44.8%), oleic acid (23.2%) and palmitic acid

(22.3%) are the prevailing fatty acids in millet oil followed by stearic acid (4.0%) and

linolenic acid (2.9%). The results are associated with the Kamara et al., (2009) that

pearl millet contains 12.3% crude protein, 3.3% minerals and 72% carbohydrates

which include the main components such as starch, protein, lipid, vitamins &

minerals. It is considered to be the cheapest source of energy, protein, iron and zinc

when compared to other cereals and pulses. Essential amino acid profile of pearl

millet contains about 40% of lysine and methionine and it contains 30% of threonine

when compared to protein present in corn (Burton et al., 1972; FAO/WHO, 1995;

Gopalan et al., 2000; Klopfenstein and Hosney et al., 1995).

The foxtail millet holds nearly 15% protein, 70-80% of carbohydrates and fair

amount of fiber, methionine, lecithin, vitamin E and B- complex vitamin which

includes niacin, thiamin and riboflavin. It also contains good amount of chromium

with an account of 0.03mg per 100g (Bahadursingh et al., 2011). In foxtail millet 79%

of edible portion which indicates the presence of high amount of fiber and it typically

contains higher quantities of essential amino acids (methionine and cysteine) and it is

superior in fat content than maize, rice, sorghum (Gopalan et al., 1987;

Kamara et al., 2009).

When compared to other major cereals, the nutritional composition of little

millet and kodo millet possess 65–72 % carbohydrate, 8–9 % protein, 1–2 % fat,

2–3 % minerals and 9 % fiber. The little millet contains 4.79g/100g of fat

(Nirmala kumari et al., 2010; Ramanathan et al., 1957). Starch content account of

79 % that favours extrusion process in developing the expanded snack

(Geervani et al., 1989).

The physical properties of cereals and millets are essential for the formulation

of the products which plays a vital role in the final output of the product. The physical

properties of millet grains and other cereals along with millets were carried to analyze

the functionality of the millets and its products. Studying the functional properties like

bulk density, swelling power, water absorption capacity, foam capacity and foam

stability and oil absorption capacity of millets would have helped to enhance the

quality as well as shelf life of the food products prepared from millet grains.

The increased swelling power reflects the susceptibility for hydration and

better gelatinization. The behavior of starch in flour reacts on water and its

concentration and temperature. Generally, the starch absorbs very little water at room

temperature; hence, it leads to low swelling capacity. The swelling power of finger

millet flour was higher than composite flours. This difference could be explained by

the high content of starch, low contents of protein and fat into the millet flour in

contrary to composite flour. Wang and Seib (1996) have reported that the amount of

protein and fat could inhibit swelling of the starch granules. These findings were

recently confirmed by those of Hathaichanock and Masubon (2007) who have shown

that the presence of protein in the flour could reduce or inhibit swelling of the starch

granules. Similarly swelling power of the flour is also affected by the processing

methods. Swelling capacity decreased with increasing the fermentation period.

Values of swelling capacity for non-fermented sorghum, pearl millet and maize flour

was 0.29, 0.14 and 0.21 % respectively which reduced up to 0.18, 0.10 and 0.10 %

respectively after 36 hours of fermentation. Adebowale and Maliki (2004) reported

that fermentation was found to reduce the swelling capacity of pigeon pea flour.

Increase in the swelling power on chemical modification might be due to the

weakening of the intragranular binding forces within the starch granule, which offered

less restriction to swelling of the modified starches. Solubility increased as the

temperature increased because of increase in mobility of the starch granules, which

facilitated dispersion of starch molecules in water.

The bulk density is a reflection of the load that the flour samples can carry, if

allowed to rest directly on one another. The density of processed products dictate

the characteristics of its container or package product. Density influences the

amount and strength of packaging material, texture or mouth feel. The bulk density

was found to be higher in sorghum (0.75g/mL) followed by maize (0.72g/mL) and

pearl millet (0.71g/mL) respectively. Bulk density depends on interrelated factors

including intensity of attractive inter particle forces, particle size and number of

contact points. Bulk density values decreased gradually with increase in fermentation

periods. Fermentation of sorghum flour for 24 h decreased the bulk density of the

sorghum flour by about 10%. The decrease in bulk density of fermented flour would

be an advantage in the preparation of infant foods. Fermentation has been reported as

a useful and traditional method for the preparation of low bulk weaning foods. A

higher BD is desirable, since it helps to reduce the paste thickness which is an

important factor in convalescent and child feeding (Peleg et al., 1983). The bulk

densities of blends are lower compared to durum wheat blends (0.80-0.82 g/ml)

(Amajeet et al., 1993) thereby making the blend suitable for the formulation of

nutrient dense weaning food (Desikachar, 1980).

Water absorption capacity gives an indication of the amount of water

available for gelatinization. Lower absorption capacity is desirable for making

thinner gruels. The water absorption capacity (WAC) of pearl millet was improved to

143 ml H2O/100 g, 163 ml H2O/100g and 180 ml H2O/100 g with increasing the level

of soybean supplementation to 5%, 10% and 15% respectively.

Narayana and Narasinga Rao (1992) reported that soya flour had WAC of 310 g/100 g

flour, while Kinsella (1976), reported a value of 275g/100 g flour. The results

obtained indicated that soybean flour had high WAC which contributed to the

improvement of WAC of pearl millet. WAC is considered a critical function of

protein in viscous foods, like soups, gravies, dough and baked products

(Sosulski, 1976).

Foaming properties are dependent on the proteins, as well as on other

components, such as carbohydrates present in the flour. Brou et al., (2013) reported

increasing foaming stability with increasing protein content while characterizing

complementary food made from maize, millet, beans and soybeans. They further

reported higher protein stability for native proteins. The increase in foaming stability

observed for sample that germinated for 48 h might have been as a result of

bioavailability of inherent proteins which were probably bound by antinutritional

factors such as phytin in the sample. Singh and Raghuvanshi (2012) reported that

antinutritional factors in cereals bind to both exogenous and endogenous proteins

including enzymes of the digestive tract affecting utilization of proteins. The

reduction in stability observed for sample that germinated for 72 h could have been

due to denaturation of protein (Brou et al., 2013).

The low foam capacity may be attributed to the low protein content of

the flour since foamability is related to the amount of solubilized protein

(Narayana and Narasinga Rao, 1982) and the amount of polar and non-polar

lipids in a sample (Nwokolo, 1985). Cowpea flour showed markedly higher foam

stability after 30 min than did chickpea and horse gram flours. Foaming capacity was

increased significantly at p<0.05 while increasing the pH of the sample which

was likely due to increased net charge on the protein. These results indicate that the

proteins and other components of cowpea flour have greater ability to form a strong

and cohesive film around air bubbles and greater resistance of air diffusion from the

bubbles. In general, all three legume flours depicted high foam stability and may find

application in baked and confectionery products (Kanu et al., 2007).

2.4. Effect of different processing methods on millet grains

The cereals and millet possess higher levels of anti-nutritional factors. In order

to include the cereal and millet in diet it is necessary to process before incorporating

in the food products to increase the acceptable of products among the consumers

(Hajos and Osagie, 2004). FAO (1990) and Singh et al., (2000) stated that millets are

minor cereals and form the staple food for a large segment of the population in India.

Utilization of millet as food is still mostly confined to the traditional consumers and

population in lower economic strata, partly because of non–availability of

ready–to–eat forms. Several researches evidenced that traditional method of food

processing namely threshing, cleaning, washing, dehulling, soaking, germination,

hydrothermal treatment, decortications, dehulling, depigmentation and fermentation

increases the bioavailability of the millets.

In processing methods the sprouting improves the nutritional quality of millet

seeds by increasing the availability of essential nutrients which helps to decrease the

levels of anti-nutrients (Chavan and Kadam 1989; Nkama and Ikwelle et al., 1998;

Kadam et al., 1989). In many developing countries there are three main operations

namely soaking, germination and drying for the process of traditional malting. For

each operation, the duration and conditions are different which resulted in highly

variable malt and good quality product (Mbithi-Mwikya et al., 2000;

Badau et al., 2005). Taur et al., (1984) reported that in malting process the finger

millet improves the calcium, phosphorus and vitamin C content. Whereas in case of

protein and fat content there was not much difference. In finger millet, the malting

process increases the bio availability and digestibility of nutrients, nutritional quality

and it helps to improve the sensory characteristics of product.

Marero et al., (1989a) stated that to improve the nutritive composition of

cereals and millet, germination was one of the processing methods adopted. The

germination helps to decrease the level of anti-nutrient present in cereals and millets

which increases the availability of nutrients. According to WHO (1998) during

germination there was an increase in protein which could be attributed due to net

synthesis of enzyme protein. During germination of pearl millet, the protein content

increase and the reason behind the enhancement in protein content of the germinated

grains may be the decreased levels of anti-nutritional factors such as polyphenols and

phytic acid. Germination for 48hours at 30ºC reduced phytic acid and also enhances

the level of invitro protein digestibility (IVPD) and HCL- extractability of P, Ca, Fe

and Zn (Hassen et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 1993).

One of the traditional methods of food processing which is used extensively in

Asia and Africa for the process of cereals and millets is fermentation. Generally

fermentation does not affect the total protein contents but will enhance nutritional

properties of millets. The increased protein availability resulted from increased

extractability of protein in the form of albumin and globulin fraction. The

fermentation process resulted in breakdown of tannins and phytases and increased

microbial protease action. Chung et al., (1981) investigated that during fermentation it

has been found to increase pepsin digestibility of millet protein, and it helps to

decreases the concentration of phytic acid and polyphenols thereby improving the

availability of minerals. WHO (1998) stated that there was some physical

characteristics modification during fermentation which will increases the level of

nutrients, digestibility and bioavailability of food grains and also reduces the level of

anti-nutrients and imparts some anti-microbial property. Fermentation process has

inhibitory effects on the microorganism that can be cause spoilage and eventually

improving the shelf life of product (Odumadu et al., 2006). Whereas in the

fermentation process, the millet flour was observed to contain high carbohydrate

content which may be associated with increased water absorption capacity (260%)

because the millet flour undergoes gelatinization and swelling when heated

(Shulka et al., 1986, Bishoni et al.,1994 and Shinde et al., 1991).

One of the modern technologies in the fermentation is that the pearl millet was

fermented with lactobacilli or yeasts with natural microflora with combination of

different processing pre-treatments such as soaking, grinding, debranning, dry heat

treatment, autoclaving and germination resulted in lower anti-nutritional properties. In

order to reduce the anti-nutritional factors, the whole pearl millet grains were soaked

for 24hours at room temperature until the millet seeds reached 30±2% moisture and it

was steamed at 1.05Kg/CM2

for 15 minutes in order to reduce the anti-nutritional

properties and it helps to improve the acceptability of product among consumers and

it helps to increase utilization of pearl millet (Kapoor et al., 1996, Shobhana and

Malleshi et al., 2007). Fermentation and germination enhance the nutritional quality

of millets, protein availability, and in vitro protein digestibility of millets by causing

significant changes in chemical properties thereby decreases the level of anti-

nutritional factors (Usha et al., 1995; Sugel et al., 1978; Sripriya, Usha Antony and

Chandra, 1997).

Roasting is the ancient method of processing of the cereals and legume based

grains. The advantage of roasting process is that it shows the reduction in microbial

content leading to loss of nutrient, while heating at high temperature and it decrease

the level of anti-nutritional factors. The total phenols and tannins are reduced during

roasting could be attributed due to heating at high temperature. During roasting

process the antioxidant activity was found to increase (Marwin et al., 2011).

The studies related to cereals based food grains investigated that thermal

treatment which helps to decrease or increase the phenolic content and their

antioxidant activity depends on the severity of heat treatments, time exposure and

type of cereals used for research (Hedge and Chandra et al., 2005). According to

Ramanath et al., (1957) reported that the pulversing effect of seed coat matter was

minimized by tempering or moistening of the millets which can be evident as dark

color, high yield of powder when compared to refined powder. In addition the nutrient

composition of the whole powder was found to be higher than the refined powder

except the starch.

Dehulling and decortications is a traditional method of processing that

decreases the levels of phytic acid content of millet. On the other hand, dehulling

increases starch content and in vitro protein digestibility of pearl and finger millet

(Almeida-Domingueze et al.,1993; Monawar,1983). Dehulling process decreases the

polyphenols content to the extent of 41.49% to 50.92%. The leaching out of

polyphenols in concentrated form was found in soaking medium and destruction

during cooking process and also by removal of pericarp (Maxson et al.,1972).

Decortication is one of process that has been found to decrease the level of total

polyphenols, phytic acid of anti-nutrients of pearl millet, and increases the starch

content and in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) (Almeida et al., 1993).

One of the effective processing techniques used in preparation of pasta using

pearl millet is depigmentation. This process resulted in acceptable in vitro protein and

starch digestibility. Depigmentation of pearl millet was carried out to use in

preparation of pasta (Rathi et al., 2004). Their results indicated that depigmentation

was an effective processing technique to develop acceptable in vitro protein and

starch digestibility. Millet samples having higher malt fraction had a higher WSI as

compared to those having lesser malt. Increase in WSI due to malting in pearl millet

was also reported by Pelembe et al., (2003).

In order to improve the acceptability of the grains for consumption among

consumers the grains were subjected to some processing method such as milling, heat

extraction cooking and parboiling. Most of the commercial products in cereals grains

are available in the form of extruded, puffed, flaked without altering their desirable

quality and also extrusion does not remove the biological important components of

wholegrain (Slavin et al., 2001a). The analysis result of processed bread and cereal

products indicates that they are rich sources of antioxidant (Miller et al., 2002).

Dehydration plays a vital role in processing of food products to increase the

quality and extend the shelf life of the products. Dehydration techniques inactivate all

kinds of anti-nutritional enzymes and improves flavor and overall acceptability of the

food. Dehydration is one of the heat processing methods to remove the moisture from

the slurry to make powder. During dehydration process, the reduction of moisture

content makes the product shelf life stable for an extended period of time. It also

contains other benefits like weight reduction and reduction in volume of product

which minimizes the packaging cost for storage and also reduce the transportation

cost (Domanz, 2004, 2007). Dehydration of foods helps to control the effects and

preserve the structure and create a new one that serves for functional purposes. In

addition, these foods present the following advantages: maximum microbiology

security soft and homogenous texture, prolonged preservation time, lesser production

of food by products, easy use and storage food (Aguilera et al., 2003).

In traditional processing the food products were dried using open sun drying

method. Since, this drying is common for non-commercial purposes. It is necessary to

improve the dehydrated foods to make products of high commercial value which

resulted in modification of various dryers for food applications. The other drying

techniques such as solar cabinet dryers, tray dryers, fluid bed dryers, vaccum freeze

dryers had resulted in better product quality than that of open sun drying

(Mujumdar et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2008; Jangam et al., 2010). Bozyma and

Kutovoy (2005) reported that preservation of cereal, millet grains, fruits and

vegetables by drying were practiced many centuries back and it is based on sun and

solar drying techniques. Due to improper drying, poor quality and product

contamination led to the development of different drying technologies. In common,

the drying of fruits, vegetables, cereals and millets includes freeze drying, forced

convection tray drying, vaccum, osmotic, cabinet or tray, sprouted bed, ohmic, heat

pump and microwave drying and their combinations.

In recent research the open sun drying is used for many non-commercial

applications but it resulted in very poor properties of most dried products. For drying,

food products mainly depends on the type of the feed, the amount of moisture and

type of moisture drying kinetics, heat sensitivity, physical structure of the material to

be dried and quality required for dried food products.

In different drying methods, freeze drying offers good color retention and also

increases the functionality of foods (Soong and Barlow, 2004). In recent research the

juices developed by freeze dehydration have indicated its feasibility of technology in

developing high quality shelf-stable products (Ammu et al., 1977;

Jayathilakan et al., 2003; Mujumdar et al., 2008).

Advances in drying techniques and growth of novel drying techniques have in

current years facilitated the research of a wide range of dehydrated products and

convenient processed foods. Combination of millet based products was found to be a

best option for improving the consumption of millet among non-millet consumer.

Hence formulation of products in combination of millets would give overall essential

amino acid balance and complex carbohydrate which in turn pave way to ruin the

world from protein calorie malnutrition problem and helps to reduce the level of

glucose. (Livingstone et al., 1993) Breakfast products and other snack products with

the combination of millets fits today‟s life style because of their convenience,

economical and nutritious attributes.

2.5. Utilization of millet grains in the preparation of value added

products

In the forthcoming review of the present section, some of the value added

products and possibilities of utilizing different variety of millet as one of the basic

ingredients are discussed below. Millet can be used in a variety of ways and is a great

substitute for other grains such as rice and other starchy grains. Since the seed coat of

millets were normally dark color, cherry texture and nasty odors the food products

prepared from that millet had an effect on their acceptability. Hence to increase the

consumption of millets, it was further processed to remove the seed coat which

improves the acceptability of the products.

These products are either in practice or have been demonstrated as avenue for

enhanced consumption of millets among the consumers since millets are considered to

be nutritionally superior when compared to rice or wheat. The presence of required

nutrients in millets are suitable in the production of food products like snacks foods,

baby foods and dietary foods (Bahadur et al., 2011). In the traditional preparation, the

millets were consumed in the form of thick porridge (mudde or dumpling), thin

fermented porridge (ambali) fried or baked pancake (roti,dosa), and beverage. Finger

millet are fermented naturally for the preparation of a product using traditional

method of called „Ambali‟. Millet are brewed and consumed as „chang‟

(Malleshi and Hadimani, 1991). The pulverized millet powder and whole meal is used

to prepare traditional foods such as unleaded pancakes, stiff porridge or dumpling and

thin porridge.

Generally the millets were used for preparation of pudding, porridge and roti.

In emerging trends the millets are used as a raw material in industrial purposes for the

production of biscuits and confectionery, beverages, weaning foods and beers

(Laminu et al., 2011; Anukam and Reid, 2009). A weaning diet was processed from

pearl millet, conophor nut flour was found to promote growth in children. Hence the

malted and fermented millet powder are usually used in preparation of weaning food,

instant mixes and beverages in pharmaceutical products. (Gomez et al., 1993;

Rao et al., 2001). The most popular weaning foods blends prepared from fermented

pearl millet/ cowpea in 70:30 and 60:40 ratios were found to have resulted in lowering

the levels of phytic acids and also increased in vitro protein digestibility of the

weaning food blends.(Laminu et al., 2011). In order to improve the utilization of

millets among the consumers the modern methods of preparation was developed for

incorporation of millet powder in wheat flour with different ratio for development of

bread, biscuit and other snacks helps to improve the nutritive value of the foods

(Mridula et al., 2007; Akeredolu et al., 2005). Soft biscuits and cookies are developed

using sorghum, maize and wheat composites. (Akeredolu et al., 2005,

Hama et al., 2011, Laminu et al., 2011).

In recent days, extrusion technology has become popular among food

industries and consumers. Because this method satisfies not only the consumer

demand but also helps to meet the necessary requirement for people suffering from

wheat in tolerances such as celiac disease (Sabanins and Tzia 2009;

Faller et al., 1999). Due to the economic and nutritional consideration it is desirable to

replace wheat flour with other locally available non-gluten flours to develop a

product. Some of the alternative cereals like barley, sorghum, millet, amaranth and

also the grains like flaxseed, quinoa are used for extrusion processes

(Plahar et al., 2003; Arya 1990). Ready to eat extruded breakfast cereal products were

prepared by using millet, amaranth and buckwheat as replacement for wheat and

maize flour. The result shows that there was an alteration in physical and nutritional

quality of extruded breakfast cereal. The pasta is well known ancient and versatile

dish for both nutritive and gastronomic point. It was found to be consumed in large by

people all over the world. This had a significant quality of complex carbohydrates,

protein, B-Vitamin and iron and is low in sodium, amino acids and total fats.

(Antognelli 1980 and Breman et al., 2012.). Pasta prepared from millets had a rich

sources of carbohydrates (74.77%) and had low glycemic index. (Monge et al., 1990).

The inclusion of pseudo cereals showed a significant reduction in readily digestible

carbohydrates and slowly digestible carbohydrates when compared to the control

products.

The composite flour containing finger millet and wheat flour in the ratio of

60:40 and 70:30 (w/w) were used in the formulation of biscuits and the quality

characteristic were evaluated for dough and biscuits. The results indicated that the

biscuit prepared from composite flour in the ratio of 60:40 was found to be the best.

The effect of replacement of wheat flour with different percent from 0% - 100% was

studied in which 100% finger millet flour was replaced for development of muffins.

The muffin prepared from the combination of 60% finger millet flour was found to be

significantly increased in volume and in quality characteristic. (Rajiv et al., 2011,

Saha et al., 2011). In addition, as a new technology, the incorporation of finger millet

powder with refined wheat flour in the different proportion (30%-50%) was used for

the preparation of noodles for diabetic patients. The results of sensory evaluation

showed that 30% of finger millet incorporated noodles was found to be acceptable

and it was evaluated for glycemic response. The results revealed that 30% finger

millet incorporated noodles had significantly lower glycemic index when compared to

control noodles (Shukla and Srivastava, 2011).

The blanched and malted pearl millet flour were used to develop a biscuit in

combination with soybean flour with equal proportion of milk powder, fat, sugar and

other minor additives. The products developed from combination of pearl millet had

higher mineral content and improves the digestibility. Pearl millet flour was used for

formulation of cookies which do not spread during baking, and had poor top grain

character and it looks dense and compact. The fermented foods like rabadi used pearl

millet had shelf life for 7 days. Another combination of pearl millet, finger and

decorticated soybean blends were used for extrudates for which was carried out by a

linear programming (LP) model since it was used to minimize the total cost of the

finished product. Ready to eat dessert like kheer was formulated using pearl millet

flour and it was reported to be acceptable among the consumers

(Abdel Rahaman et al., 2005; Balasubramanian et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2000;

Badi et al., 1976; Modha and Pal et al., 2011; Jha et al. 2011). Popped pearl millet

rich in fiber, carbohydrates and energy are used for developing weaning foods or food

supplements (Bhaskaran et al., 1990). Pearl millet was used to prepare the flakes

which are rich in fiber and an ideal snack for the obese and for calorie consumers

(Hadimani and Malleshi, 1993).

The foxtail millet and barnyard millet was used to prepare biscuit from where

sensory analysis was carried out and it was found to be acceptable among the diabetic

subjects. Bread was prepared using millet based composite flours using barnyard

millet and wheat composite flours with proportion of 61.8g/100g of barnyard millet,

31.4g/100g of wheat and 6.8g/100g of gluten. The results of the sensory analysis were

found to be acceptable among the consumers (Anju et al., 2010; Singh et al., 2012).

The weaning foods and thinner gruel by low viscosity was prepared using millet flour

such as kodo millet and barnyard millet and also other flour namely wheat flour and

soy flour were used for preparation of products and it was found to increase in the

level of syneresis that may improve the resistant starch content on storage

(Vijayakumar and Mohanakumar, 2009).

One of the traditional and highly popular cereal based product is pasta. It was

highly acceptable among the consumers because of its convenience, nutritional

quality and palatability of the products and it became one of the popular foods with a

high acceptability scores among the population groups. In order to increase the

acceptability of products it can be readily incorporated with new ingredients in large

scale utilization of the industry for production of pasta (Cubadda et al., 2007;

Goni and Valentine-Gamazo, 2003).

In food industry, the extrusion technology has been commercially stable for a

long time. The convectional ingredients used for extrusion processing are starch based

food materials like corn, rice and semolina. Extrusion process involves high

temperature short time process and simultaneous thermal and pressure treatment and

also mechanical shearing takes place. As a result, the extrudates had several changes

such as gelatinization of starch, denaturation of protein and even complete cooking

takes place for the final product. For popular breakfast cereals in commercialized

industry, the extrudates was developed using corn and oatmeal

(Sefa-Dedeh et al., 2003; Rossen and Miller, 1973). The commonly used ingredients

for the development of extrudate products are corn flour which is rich in carbohydrate

and fibers but they are relatively low in protein content. In the large scale industry, the

extrudate products usually contain high quality protein mix which is formulated using

local ingredients. In present scenario, the food processing industry has a challenge of

developing convenience foods such as breakfast cereals and snacks with high

nutritional value. Popular extrudate products which are consumed worldwide are

spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli and noodles. The main ingredient for preparation of

pasta is durum wheat (Frame 1994, Muhungu et al., 1999, Warren et al., 1983).

Extrusion plays a vital role in modern technology. Extrusion cooking had

significant effect in the development of the products. Extruded products not only

enhance the acceptability of the products but also help to improve its appearances,

taste and texture. The effect of extrusion on their nutritive value had limited studies

(Castello et al., 1998 and Noguchi et al., 1982). The extruded product are developed

from the rice flour or starch, was found to be low in protein and have low biological

value as they have a lower content of amino acids. So in order to improve the

nutritional contents of the extruded products, the fortification was carried out with

cereals and high protein foods and lysine foods to improve the amino acids content

(Baskaran and Bhattacharya, 2004). The products prepared using millet and legume

flours blends are being carried out in India to form nutritionally balanced foods that

can be used as supplementary food products for malnourished children. Soy fortified

millet based products was prepared from sorghum blended with soy, millet and rice.

(Seth et al., 2012; NRC, 1996). Malleshi et al., (1996) reported that the millet grits

and flour are used to prepare the ready to eat products. Soya or protein rich

ingredients namely legumes or groundnuts cakes blended with pearl millet are for

extrusion. Extrusion cooking have the potential to inactivate the anti-nutritional

factors such as lysine inhibitors and urease activity and it reduce the growth of the

fungal pathogen fusarium and increases the shelf life of the product as well. The

extruded products were prepared in order to improve the nutritive value of developed

supplementary foods with the addition of soy to corn extruded products which serves

as a tool to produce healthy foods.

3. METHODOLOGY

The methodology pertaining to the study entitled, “Value addition of convenience

food using processed millet powder” is discussed under the following heads.

3.1. Selection and pre-processing of raw materials

3.2. Steps involved in the preparation of processed millet powder

3.3. Optimization of composite millet powder

3.4. Finalized parameters for further analysis and product development

3.5. Process involved in the development of convenience food

3.6. Quality analysis of developed convenience food and the powder

3.7. Statistical interpretation of the data

3.1. Selection and pre-processing of raw materials

The millet grains are unique among the minor cereal grains due to its superior

nutritional qualities and possess several health benefits as well. The five dehulled

millets such as finger millet (Eleusine coracana), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum),

kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), little millet (Panicum miliare) and foxtail

millet (Setaria italica) were procured from supermarket of Puducherry. The selected

millets were cleaned to remove dust, other foreign materials and stored in plastic

container for further processing. The raw materials selected for processing and

product development are shown in Plate 1.

Plate 1. Raw materials selected for processing and product development

Pearl millet

Foxtail millet

Little millet

Kodo millet

Finger millet

3.2. Steps involved in the preparation of processed millet powder

Millet and other coarse grains were dehulled and subjected to different

treatments before consumption to improve their sensory and edible quality

(Liu et al., 2012). There are some traditional processing technologies namely thermal

processing, mechanical processing, soaking, fermentation, germination and malting

which helps to improve the nutritional characteristics, sensory properties of the

developed food products and also enhances the bioavailability of micronutrients in

plant-based diets (Hotz and Gibson, 2007). Dehydration techniques facilitate the

reduction of moisture content making the product shelf life stable for extended period

of time (Doymaz, 2004, 2007). In the present study, the processing methods namely

soaking, preparation of slurry and dehydration were carried out for the development

of millet powder. The steps involved in the preparation of processed millet powder are

shown in Figure 1.

3.2.1. Soaking

Soaking of grains is a popular technique in food preparation for reducing the

anti nutritional compounds namely phytic acid and helps to improve bioavailability of

minerals. The deprivation and leaching of phytates, phytase activity increases the iron

and zinc concentrations after soaking of whole seeds, dehulled seeds and flours of

millet (Lestienne et al., 2007).

Soaking is a simple prolongation of the obligatory washing of the seeds and

also has other advantages, such as facilitating dehulling or swelling of seeds. After

preprocessing, the selected millets were soaked in water. Based on their

morphological characteristics, the finger millet and pearl millet were soaked for

8 hours whereas kodo millet, little millet and foxtail millet were soaked for 6 hours in

ambient temperature. Process of soaking involved in preparation of millet powder is

shown in Plate 2.

Plate 2. Process of soaking involved in preparation of millet powder

3.2.2. Preparation of slurry from processed millets

After soaking process, the water was drained from millets and then it was

ground to fine slurry by using wet grinding techniques. After grinding, the slurry was

filtered using muslin cloth and the filtrate was dehydrated by three different drying

techniques to obtain fine powder. Process involved in preparation of slurry from

processed millets is shown in Plate 3.

Plate 3. Process involved in preparation of slurry from processed millets

3.2.3. Dehydration of slurry

Dehydration is one of the processes of food preservation that completely

remove the water from foods and it is used to increase the shelf life of the products.

The processed foods were dehydrated to remove the moisture content. Further in

present study, the obtained millet slurry was subjected to three types of drying

methods namely sun drying (T0-18 hours), forced convection tray drying

(T1- 60ºC-70°C for 15-16 hours) and freeze drying (T2- –50°C to 30°C for

14-16 hours).

3.2.3.1. Sun Drying

The oldest and traditional methods carried for food preservation is sun drying.

Adequate care is required against contamination and also damage from insects and

birds. The ground millet slurry was subjected to sun drying by covering the slurry

using net so that the sunlight can pass through. However, improper removal of

moisture was observed in sundried powder which limits the shelf life of product.

Millet slurry exposed to sun drying is shown in Plate 4.

Plate 4. Millet slurry exposed to sun drying

3.2.3.2. Forced convection tray drying

In forced convection tray drying, the required moisture content can be attained

by removal of moisture from the slurry up to 2-3%. The temperature was standardized

to 70oC for 12 hours which is highly dependent on the nature of the product. Millet

slurry exposed to forced convection tray drying is shown in Plate 5.

Plate 5. Millet slurry exposed to forced convection tray drying

3.2.3.3. Freeze drying

The process of freeze drying produce excellent structural retention suitable for

high-value products (Flink, 1975). In spite of its high instrumentation cost, it finds

wider application in improving the mass transfer kinetics of foods such as higher

uptake of solutes in shorter period of time, better retention on color, taste and texture

of the products. The physico-chemical, nutritional and sensory traits of the food

products affect with respect to the type of packaging materials used during storage

(Marques et al., 2007).

Plate 6. Millet slurry exposed to freeze drying

The millet slurry were dehydrated using freeze dryer (Model:Del Vac) by

spreading the samples uniformly in the trays and kept inside the chamber where all

the valves are closed and checked under vaccum condition. The low temperature

–50°C to +30oC was applied for a period of 16-18 hours, which facilitates to preserve

the color and texture of the samples through thermostat adjustment. The instrument

work under an automatic mode with respect to vaccum and temperature. As soon as

the drying process is completed, the instrument is switched off and a slow release of

vacuum was ensured. Finally the samples were collected. Millet slurry exposed to

freeze drying is shown in Plate 6.

The dehydrated millet powder obtained from the three drying methods were

packed in aluminium foil laminated LDPE pouches and stored at refrigerator

temperature (4oC) for further analysis and product development. The processed millet

powder packed in the aluminium foil laminated LDPE pouches is shown in Plate 7.

Plate 7. Processed millet powder in LDPE pouch

3.3. Optimization of composite millet powder

After several permutation and combination, equal proportions of millet

powder obtained from the selected millets were optimized to produce the composite

millet powder. The optimization of composite millet powder is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Optimization of composite millet powder (%)

Samples (%)

Sample A - Finger millet (Eleusine coracana ) powder 20

Sample B- Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) powder 20

Sample C- Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) powder 20

Sample D- Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) powder 20

Sample E- Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) powder 20

Total 100

The obtained composite millet powder was used for the development of

convenience food.

Selection of raw materials

Finger millet, Pearl millet, Kodo millet, Little millet, Foxtail millet

Washed with water

Kodo millet

Little millet 6 hours

Foxtail millet 8 hrs

Finger millet

Pearl millet 8 hours Soaked

Drained excess water

Ground to fine slurry

Filtered using muslin cloth

Filtrate was dehydrated

1. Sun drying 2. Forced convection tray drying 3. Freeze drying

Figure 1. Process involved in the preparation of millet powder

Millet powder (212 microns)

3.4. Finalized parameters for further analysis and product

development

Millet contains a high amount of protein and a great source of dietary fiber. It

is also a good source of essential amino acids except lysine and threonine but it is

relatively high in methionine, phytochemicals and micronutrients. The sundried

processed millet powder produced off flavor which is considered to be an undesirable

property for development of products. Hence, in-depth analysis was carried out for

composite millet powder obtained from drying methods namely forced convection

tray drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2).

The composite millet powder subjected to FCTD (CM-T1) and FD (CM-T2)

were further utilized for the development of convenience foods namely ready to cook

product (pasta) and ready to eat product (extrudates).

3.5. Process involved in the development of convenience food

Extrusion cooking is a vital processing technique in food production as it is

considered as a proficient manufacturing process (White, 1994). The Food extruders

afford thermo-mechanical and mechanical energy (shear) which is necessary to cause

physicochemical changes of raw materials with an extreme mixing for spreading and

homogenization of ingredients which includes conveying, incorporation, shearing,

heating or cooling, shaping, flavor generation, encapsulation, and sterilization

(Linko et al., 1981,Wiedman and Strobel,1987). The advantage of extruder process is

that it can operate at relatively low temperatures and produce pasta (Harper, 1981). In

the present study, the composite millet powder was used for developing convenience

foods namely ready to cook (pasta) and ready to eat (extrudates) products.

3.5.1. Process involved in formulation of pasta

Pasta is one of the popular products in modern lifestyle because they are

healthy, tasty and convenient for preparation and transportation

(Cubadda, 1994). The pastas in general are developed using refined wheat flour. To

provide nutritious pasta, millets have received the interest for preparation of

diversified and value added food products which are considered to be indigenous and

low cost as well.

The pasta was developed using cold extrusion with single screw extruder

(La Monferrinsrl Model dolly) at a pressure of 400 rpm. Extrusion is a process used to

create objects of a fix cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a

die of the desired cross-section. The process steps involved in formulation of pasta is

shown in Figure 2 and Plate 8.

In the present study, the replacement method was carried out to develop pasta

with the refined wheat flour and composite millet powder as the major raw materials.

After several permutations and combinations with a trial ratio from 10% to 100% of

raw materials, the 70% of composite millet powder and 30% of refined wheat flour

were found to be the acceptable combination for the extrusion of pasta (70:30). Since

millet is gluten free, it is required to incorporate an ingredient which has the binding

property to obtain the desirable color and firm texture during cooking that is

associated with good quality pasta. Therefore, the egg white powder was chosen as an

additional ingredient for making pasta in order to enhance the functional, nutritional

as well sensorial properties. So the pasta was developed by replacing the 15% of egg

white powder in 30% of refined wheat flour (70:15:15). Hence 100% refined wheat

flour serves as the control. The ratio of composite millet powder, refined wheat flour

and egg white powder is given in Table 2.

Table 2. Composition of raw material for formulation of pasta

Raw Material (%) Control CM-T1/CM-T2 CM-T1E/CM-T2E

Processed composite millet powder - 70 70

Refined wheat flour 100 30 15

Egg white powder - - 15

CM-Composite millet powder; T1-Forced convection tray drying; T2-Freeze drying; E- Egg white powder.

Figure 2. Process involved in the formulation of pasta

1. Raw pasta 2. Cooked pasta CM-T1-Pasta prepared using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2- Pasta prepared

using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying. CM-T1-E-Pasta prepared with incorporation of egg white powder,

CM-T2-E- Pasta prepared with incorporation of egg white powder.

Plate 8. Pastas obtained from composite millet powder

3.5.2. Process involved in formulation of extrudates

The extrudates are developed using the extrusion cooking process. In the

modern days, millets have received attention among the people. This is mainly because

of their high nutritional properties and health benefits. Efforts are taken under way to

1 2 1 2

1 2 1 2

1 2

Control CM-T1

CM-T2 CM-T1E

CM-T2E

provide it to consumers in convenient forms. The process involved in preparation of

extrudates is shown in Figure 3.

In the present work, the development of extrudates was performed in a

laboratory using high shear twin screw food extruder (syslg30-iv). The temperature of

the barrel of extruder was set at 140°C. Screw speed was set up at 130 r min -1

and

equipped with 3 mm restriction die or nozzle. Constant feeding rate was kept

throughout the experiments. 100% of composite millet powder was taken for the

development of extrudates. Three replicate samples were extruded and dried to about

6% -7% moisture levels. In order to improve the acceptability of the extrudate two

different variations namely spice mix and milk with and without addition of choco mix

were studied. The extrudates obtained from composite millet powder are shown in

Plate 9.

Figure 3. Steps involved in the formulation of extrudates

Plate 9. Extrudates obtained from composite millet powder

Step 3: Extrusion of

the final product

Step 2: Addition of flour (1 Kg)

Step 1: Setting of temperature

and screw speed

Screw speed: 2040 rpm

Temperature: 120-140oC

3.6. Quality analysis of developed convenience food and the powder

After the finalization of processing techniques and the development of

convenience food from composite millet powder, various quality characteristics have

been analyzed in terms of nutritional, physico-chemical, functional and shelf-life as

per standard reference methods as represented in the Table 3.

Table 3. Analysis of quality characteristics of developed composite millet powder

and convenience food

pppp Physical properties References and methods

Buvc Bulk density Okka Akpapunam, M.A. and Markakis, P. (1981)

Fdkfd Swelling power Leach Leach et al,(1959)

Water Water holding capacity (1977 Beuchat (1977)

Foam stability and Foam capacity Naray Narayana and Narasinga rao (1982)

Color Colou Hunter Laboratory Instrument Model CIE, Olajide, (2010)

Cooking time AACC (2005)

Cooking Loss AACC (1976)

Expansion Ratio Chakraborty et al., (2004)

Water absorption and solubility index Hanwu et al., (2005); Kurt et al., (2009)

Morphological structure Scanning electron micrograph

X–ray diffraction pattern X–ray diffractometer

Texture Texture Analyzer, Anton, A.A., and Liciano, F.B. (2007)

Nutritional properties

Energy Bomb Calorimetric method

Carbohydrates Anthrone method and AOAC (1995)

Protein Kjeldhal method and Raghuramalu et al., (2005)

Fat Soxhlet method and Ranganna (2000)

Moisture Hot air oven method and AOAC (1990)

Ash AACC method and AOAC (1999)

Minerals X–ray fluorescence

Functional properties

Protein solubility Araba, M. and N. Dale (1990)

Protein fraction Landry J, Moureaux T (1970)

Protein Digestibility Elkhalil et al.,(2001)

Fatty acids GC–MS, Pharmacopeial forum (2007)

Amino acids HPLC, Pharmacopeial forum (2007)

Vitamins HPLC, Pharmacopeial forum (2007)

Phytochemicals HPLC, Pharmacopeial forum (2007)

Shelf life study

Microbial count Total plate count, Banwart, G. J. (1989)

Sensory analysis 9 point hedonic scale, Meilgaard et al., (2006) References: AOAC. (1995&1999)

3.7. Statistical interpretation of the data

The analyses of physical, chemical, functional, phytochemical and shelf-life

characteristics were done using triplicate samples. The data on the experimental

results were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and differences between

means were assessed by DMRT (Duncan‟s Multiple Range Test) and sensory analysis

was carried out by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test with help of

statistical package SPSS (20 version) in order to compare the means and determine

the most acceptable treatment where the means was compared (p≤0.05).

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of the study entitled “Value addition of convenience food using

processed millet powder” are presented and discussed under the following heads.

4.1. Effect of drying methods on the quality characteristics of processed millet powder

4.2. Effect of drying methods on the physic-chemical properties of the composite

millet powder (CM)

4.3. Evaluation of quality characteristics of convenience food developed using

composite millet powder

4.4. Functional characterization of protein in the convenience food developed using

composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying

4.1. Effect of drying methods on the quality characteristics of

processed millet powder

The quality characteristics namely proximate principles, mineral content,

physical properties and microbial analysis were studied for the processed millet powder

and results of the same are discussed below.

4.1.1. Proximate principles of processed millet powder

The proximate principles of the processed millet powder in terms of

carbohydrates (g/100g), protein (g/100g), fat (g/100g), energy (Kcal/100g), ash

(g/100g) and moisture (g/100g) are discussed in the Table 4 and Figure 4.

The proximate principles of the processed millet powder did not show any

effect on the drying methods adopted namely sun drying (T0), forced convection tray

drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2). However, the varying change in the nutritional

profile could be attributed to the natural existence of the nutrients present in the

individual millets as supported by Joshi et al., (2011).

Moisture content of powder is very important for determining the shelf life.

Lesser moisture content will lead to better storage stability. The moisture content of all

the samples subjected to sun drying (T0-10.20% to 12.02%) and freeze drying

(T2-9.17% to 10.30%) was found to be slightly higher (p≤0.05) when compared to

forced convection tray drying (T1-8.13% to 10.30%). The mean increments in the

moisture content of the sundried millet powder could be due to improper removal of

water during drying process and hydroscopic nature of the flour. Similarly the reduction

in moisture content of the T1 samples is due to the temperature (70ºC) maintained

uniformly during the drying process. The findings of the present study goes in par with

the results of King and Parwastin (1987) who stated that higher temperature resulted in

vaporization of water in the flour thereby reducing the moisture content. However on

comparing the moisture content between the millet powders there was not much

significant difference (p>0.05).

The amount of ash present in food indicates a rough estimation of the mineral

content of the product (Fasai Olufunmilayo Sade, 2009). The existence of ash in the

finger millet powder (T0A-2.27, T1A-2.20, T2A-2.20), kodo millet powder (T0C-2.43,

T1C-2.30, T2C-2.63) and foxtail millet powder (T0E-2.37, T1E-2.23, T2E-2.40) was

greater (p≤0.05) thereby their inorganic minerals would also be higher. Whereas the ash

content in pearl millet powder (T0B-1.70, T1B-1.60,T2B-1.80) and little millet powder

(T0D-0.53, T1D-0.83, T2D-0.63) were comparatively lesser due to leaching out of solid

matter during pre-germination and soaking process which could be the reason for

significant reduction (p≤0.05) of mineral content. Further decrease of ash could be due

to dehulling, grinding process and removal of hull. In the present study, the leaching of

ash content in the millet powder was observed during processing namely soaking,

extraction of slurry and dehydration. However, the ash content of processed millet

powder was found to be slightly higher when compared to refined wheat flour and rice

flour hence considered as mineral dense and can be utilized in development of the

products.

Cereals and millets are the richest sources of carbohydrate and serve as

a main source of energy for human being (FAO, 2006). The variation in

carbohydrate content may be attributed due to alteration that had occurred as a result of

soaking and germination. The concentration of carbohydrate in the processed millet

powder exposed to different drying methods were almost found to be similar, however

there exhibited a significant difference (p≤0.05). The carbohydrate content was

significantly higher (p≤0.05) in finger millet powder (T0A-72.60 g/100g,

T1A-72.17 g/100g, T2A-72.67 g/100g), little millet powder (T0D-72.17 g/100g,

T1D-74.30 g/100g, T2D-75.13 g/100g) and foxtail millet powder (T0E-72.10 g/100g,

T1E-74.30 g/100g, T2E-75.33 g/100g). The increase in carbohydrate content is due to

presence of starch and free sugars, cellulose and pentosans in the selected millet

powder. Least concentration of carbohydrate content was observed in the kodo millet

powder (T0C-56.0 g/100g, T1C-58.03 g/100g, T2C-58.27 g/100g) and pearl millet

powder (T0B-65.03 g/100g, T1B-64.03 g/100g, T2B-71.20 g/100g). According to Ross

Brand (1987), the composition of carbohydrates was found to be 69% in millet and

maize comprising of complex carbohydrates. Moreover, high GI value was found in

white rice (87) and extruded wheat flour products (80) whereas the glycemic index

reponses was lesser in the millet flour due to the presence of complex carbohydrates

(Foster-Powell et al., 2002).

Table 4. Proximate principles of processed millet powder

Proximate

principles

Treatments Sample

p -

value A B C D E

Moisture

(g/100)

T0 12.02 ± 0.03 11.02± 0.02 10.30 ± 0.20 10.20 ± 0.20 11.10 ± 0.10

p≤0.05*

T1 10.30 ± 0.20 9.43 ± 0.25 8.37 ± 0.31 8.13 ± 0.15 9.40 ± 0.30

T2 10.37 ± 0.25 9.17 ± 0.21 9.17 ± 0.21 9.23 ± 0.15 10.17 ± 0.21

p-value p≤0.05* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

*

Ash (g/100)

T0 2.27 ± 0.15 1.70 ± 0.20 2.43 ± 0.25 0.53 ± 0.31 2.37 ± 0.25

p≤0.05*

T1 2.20 ± 0.20 1.60 ± 0.20 2.30 ± 0.20 0.83 ± 0.02 2.23 ± 0.25

T2 2.20 ± 0.20 1.80 ± 0.20 2.63 ± 0.25 0.63 ± 0.25 2.40 ± 0.20

p-value p≤0.05* p>0.05

NS p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

*

Carbohydrates

(g/100)

T0 72.60 ± 0.20 65.03±0.03 56.00±0.20 72.17±0.21 72.10±0.10

p≤0.05*

T1 72.17 ± 0.21 64.03 ± 0.03 58.03 ± 0.15 74.30±0.20 74.30±0.20

T2 72.67±0.55 71.20 ± 0.02 58.27±0.25 75.13±0.25 75.33±0.31

p-value p≤0.05* p>0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p>0.05

*

Protein (g/100)

T0 10.28 ± 0.45 10.11 ± 0.09 9.85 ± 0.03 9.47 ± 0.21 10.28 ± 0.23

p≤0.05*

T1 9.81 ± 0.02 10.05 ± 0.03 9.67 ± 0.06 9.50 ± 0.20 10.10 ± 0.10

T2 10.14 ± 0.02 10.21 ± 0.03 9.76 ± 0.02 9.57 ± 0.15 10.60 ± 0.02

p-value p≤0.05* p>0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

*

Fat (g/100)

T0 1.92 ± 0.02 6.67 ± 0.25 3.94 ± 0.12 2.77 ± 0.66 3.03 ± 0.72

p≤0.05*

T1 1.47 ± 0.15 5.20 ± 0.20 3.70 ± 0.20 3.10 ± 0.20 3.13 ± 0.15

T2 1.40 ± 0.20 5.20 ± 0.20 4.20 ± 0.20 3.07 ± 0.21 3.02 ± 0.03

p-value

p≤0.05* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p>0.05

* p>0.05

*

Energy(K/cal)

T0 352 ± 2.00 353 ± 3.06 322± 2.08 293 ± 2.52 323± 2.52

p≤0.05*

T1 352 ± 2.08 334± 3.61 321 ± 3.22 287± 2.00 314± 2.00

T2 355 ± 2.52 355 ± 1.53 323 ± 2.52 295± 2.52 323± 2.52

p-value p≤0.05* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

* p≤0.05

*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D); SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder, Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder,

Sample E-Foxtail millet powder.* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA, NS- Not Significant.

The protein is considered to be the second major component in the millets.

The protein content was observed to be maximum in pearl millet powder

(T0B-10.11 g/100g, T1B,-10.05 g/100g, T2B-10.21 g/100g) and foxtail millet powder

(T0E-10.28 g/100g, T1E-10.10 g/100g, T2E-10.60 g/100g) and minimum in little

millet powder (T0D-9.47 g/100g, T1D-9.50 g/100g, T2D-9.57 g/100g). The protein

content of processed millet powder obtained from different drying techniques was

found to be increased significantly when compared to refined flour (10g/100g). The

quality of protein was found to be higher in the minor millets when compared to the

major millet (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). The protein loss may be ascribed due to

the removal of hull and elimination of some of the protein rich aleurone cells during

processing (Abdalla et al., 1998). However on comparing the dehydration methods,

the protein content was found to slightly decline in the millet slurry subjected to

forced convection tray drying than sun drying and freeze drying. Perera(2005)

reported that during drying process, the protein present in food undergoes oxidation

reactions which cause protein loss and changes in color, texture, taste and flavor of

foods.

Crude fat provides the essential fatty acids (EFA) that cannot be synthesized in

the body. The cereal grains are generally considered to be negligible in fat content.

However pearl millet powder posses slightly higher amount

(T0B-6.67 g/100g, T1B-5.20 g/100g, T2B-5.20 g/100g) of fat when compared with the

other millet powders such as finger millet powder (T0A-1.92 g/100g, T1A-1.47

g/100g, T2A-1.40 g/100g), kodo millet powder (T0C-3.94, T1C-3.70, T2C-4.20), little

millet powder (T0D-2.77 g/100g, T1D-3.10 g/100g, T2D-3.07 g/100g) and foxtail

millet powder (T0E-3.03 g/100g, T1E-3.13 g/100g, T2E-3.02 g/100g). Among the

millets, the pearl millet posses higher fat content due to presence of unsaturated fatty

acids in germ layer thereby increasing the concentration of fat to about

1.5%-6.8% (Abdelrahman, Hoseney and varriano-Marston, 2005; Taylor, 2004).

The energy content is the reflection of the presence of carbohydrate, protein

and fat. In the present study, the energy values were found to be more or less similar

in all the processed millet powder ranging from 293 kcal to 355 kcal and it is greater

than recommendation of WHO (2003) for an infant complementary food in

developing countries which range from 200 to 300 kcal/day. The results revealed

that the drying methods adopted did not show any significant difference (p≥0.05)

among the selected millet powders.

Sun drying (T0)

Forced convection tray drying (T1)

Freeze drying (T2)

Figure 4. Proximate principles of processed millet powder

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

A B C D E

(g

/ 1

00

g)

Samples

Moisture (g/100g)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

A B C D E

(g

/10

0g

)

Samples

Ash (g/100g)

0

20

40

60

80

100

A B C D E

(g/1

00

g)

Samples

Carbohydrate (g/100g)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

A B C D E

(g/1

00

g)

Samples

Protein (g/100g)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

A B C D E

(g/1

00

g)

Samples

Fat (g/100g)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

A B C D E

(K

/ca

l)/1

00

g

Samples

Energy (K/cal)

4.1.2. Mineral content of the processed millet powder

The total mineral (ash) content of all millets is often higher

(Klopfenstein et al., 1995). Mardia et al., (2002) reported that dehulling of the seeds

significantly reduced the dry matter and especially ash content of the seeds of millet

cultivars. The concentrations of minerals in sample increased upon soaking and

germination (Sushma et al., 2008). It was also observed that minor millets

quantitatively provide more total minerals than the common cereals like maize,

sorghum, rice and wheat with a range of 0.6 to 2.5 per cent (Narasing Rao, 1992).

The minerals namely calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium and zinc were

studied for the processed millet powder and results of the same are discussed below in

Table 5 and Figure 5.

The calcium content of all the millet powder subjected to freeze drying

was in the range of 8.60mg/100g-212.93mg/100g which was higher (p≤0.05) when

compared with other drying methods adopted (T0-8.43-211.83mg/100g and

T18.10-211.00 mg/100g). Among different samples, calcium content of finger millet

powder (Sample A-211.00-212.93 mg/100g) was found to be the highest when

compared to other samples. The presence of calcium in finger millet powder

(Sample A) shows the abundant nature of mineral present. The results were in

accordance with the findings of Bhatt, Singh, Shrotria and Baskheti (2003) who

stated that among the cereals, the finger millet has the highest calcium content

(344 mg/100g). The minimal losses in calcium content of other minor millets may

be due to leaching of mineral during soaking (Singh et al., 2006).

The phosphorus content of all the samples subjected to different drying

methods was in the range of 121.67-179.77 mg/100g in sample subjected to sun

drying, 120.0-182.00 mg/100g in sample subjected to forced convection tray drying

and 125.20 - 183.33 mg/100g in sample subjected to freeze drying. However slight

increase in phosphorus content was noted in all samples subjected to freeze drying

(T2) which was significant at p≤0.05 when compared to other two drying methods.

The slight reduction in phosphorus content was observed in the samples exposed to

forced convection tray drying. The reduction in the mineral content could be

attributed due to heating of millets at high temperature. There existed a significance

difference (p≤0.05) between the samples and drying method adopted.

The iron content of the sample subjected to different drying methods namely

sun drying (T0), forced convection tray drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2) was in the

range of 0.13-9.27 mg/100g, 0.13-9.30 mg/100g and 0.57-9.43 mg/100g

respectively. Among the processed samples, the little millet powder (sample D)

possess high iron content (p≤0.05) when compared to other samples due to natural

existence of iron present and thereby soaking and germination which significantly

improves and enhanced the bioavailability of iron and zinc (Afify et al., 2011a).

The magnesium content of the samples were in the range of

78.13-101.33 mg/100g in T0 samples, 76.40 - 99.80 mg/100g in T1 samples and

78.93-101.70 mg/100g in T2 samples respectively which showed a significant

difference at p≤0.05 to all the samples exposed to different drying methods.

Magnesium has been revealed to be capable of reducing the severity of asthma and

the frequency of migraine attack as well as lowering the high blood pressure

(Ensminger et al., 1986).

In the present study, a significant increment of zinc content was noted in

freeze dried samples (T2) than forced convection tray dried (T1) and sun dried (T0)

samples which is highly dependent on the heat maintained during processing of

powder. The analysis of variance of processing on zinc content of the selected millet

powder revealed significant effects (p≤0.05) during drying.

The potassium content of all the selected samples subjected to different

drying methods namely sun drying (T0), forced convection tray drying (T1) and

freeze drying (T2) was in the range of 97.17-242.67 mg/100g, 97.67-243.33

mg/100g and 98.00 - 246.33 mg/100g respectively. The potassium content of all

the samples subjected to sun drying (T0), forced convection tray drying (T1) and

freeze drying (T2) were observed to be slightly varied which showed a significant

difference at p≤0.05. However higher potassium content was noted in finger millet

(Sample A) exposed to freeze drying (246.33 mg/100g) which showed significant

difference at p≤0.05 when compared to other samples. It has been observed that

finger millet is the richest sources of potassium, magnesium, phosphorus and

calcium (Obilana and Manyasa, 2002).

Table 5. Mineral (mg/100g) content of processed millet powder

Mineral content Treatments Samples

p -value A B C D E

Calcium

(mg/100g)

T0 211.83 ± 1.27 31.07 ± 0.91 20.90 ± 0.27 8.43 ± 0.25 25.23 ± 0.21

p≤0.05* T1 211.00 ± 1.00 29.87 ± 0.21 19.77 ± 0.21 8.10 ± 0.10 24.83 ± 0.15

T2 212.93 ± 0.32 31.50 ± 0.27 22.23 ± 0.59 8.60 ± 0.44 25.60 ± 0.44

p-value p≤0.05*

Phosphorus

(mg/100g)

T0 179.77 ± 0.21 133.00 ± 1.00 121.67 ± 2.08 162.00 ± 2.00 170.47 ± 0.42

p≤0.05* T1 182.00 ± 2.00 130.13 ± 0.15 120.13 ± 0.15 162.93 ± 0.15 169.07 ± 0.15

T2 183.33 ± 1.53 134.70 ± 0.62 125.20 ± 0.53 165.20 ± 0.20 170.87 ± 0.76

p-value p≤0.05*

Iron

(mg/100g)

T0 2.67 ± 0.15 6.13 ± 0.15 0.13 ± 0.06 9.27 ± 0.06 1.63 ± 0.15

p≤0.05* T1 2.63 ± 0.06 6.13 ± 0.15 0.13 ± 0.06 9.30 ± 0.10 1.30 ± 0.10

T2 2.57 ± 0.15 6.50 ± 0.36 0.57 ± 0.25 9.43 ± 0.15 1.80 ± 0.10

p-value p≤0.05*

Magnesium

(mg/100g)

T0 97.13 ± 0.15 99.00 ± 0.70 93.13 ± 0.15 101.33 ± 0.21 78.13 ± 0.15

p≤0.05* T1 96.43 ± 0.25 96.43 ± 0.25 92.93 ± 0.12 99.80 ± 1.13 76.40 ± 0.20

T2 97.63 ± 0.57 99.40 ± 0.20 93.60 ± 0.20 101.70 ± 0.10 78.93 ± 0.15

p-value p≤0.05*

Zinc

(mg/100g)

T0 0.90 ± 0.10 1.30 ± 0.52 0.90 ± 0.10 0.90 ± 0.10 0.20 ± 0.10

p≤0.05* T1 1.13 ± 0.15 0.13 ± 0.06 1.40 ± 0.20 1.40 ± 0.20 0.57 ± 0.15

T2 1.40± 0.10 1.73 ± 0.15 1.83 ± 0.06 0.43± 0.15 0.90 ± 0.10

p-value p≤0.05*

Potassium

(mg/100g)

T0 242.67 ± 1.53 209.33 ± 0.57 97.17 ± 0.15 98.10 ± 0.10 121.07 ± 0.25

p≤0.05* T1 243.33 ± 1.53 211.67 ± 1.53 97.67 ± 0.58 98.00 ± 1.00 122.67 ± 2.52

T2 246.33 ± 1.53 215.00 ± 1.00 98.00 ± 1.00 99.57 ± 0.25 123.00 ± 2.00

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D); SD-Sun Drying (T0), FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet

powder, Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet powder. * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Sun drying (T0)

Forced convection tray drying (T1)

Freeze drying (T2)

Figure 5. Mineral content of processed millet powder

0

50

100

150

200

250

A B C D E

(mg

/10

0g

)

Samples

Calcium (mg/100g)

0

50

100

150

200

250

A B C D E

(m

g/1

10

0g

)

Samples

Phosphorus (mg/100g)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

A B C D E

(mg

/10

0g

)

Samples

Iron (mg/100g)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

A B C D E

(m

g/1

00

g)

Samples

Zinc (mg/100g)

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

A B C D E

(m

g/1

00

g)

Samples

Pottasium (mg/100g)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

A B C D E

(mg

/10

0g

)

Samples

Magnesium (mg/100g)

4.1.3. Physical properties of the processed millet powder

4.1.3.1. Bulk density (g/cm3) of the processed millet powder

Table 6 and Figure 6 depicts the bulk density of the processed millet powder.

Table 6. Bulk density (g/cm3) of the processed millet powder

Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) F D(T2) p-value

A 0.55 ± 0.01 0.66 ± 0.01 0.61 ± 0.02

p≤0.05*

B 0.70 ± 0.01 0.62 ± 0.01 0.72 ± 0.01

C 1.01 ± 0.01 1.03 ± 0.01 0.94 ± 0.01

D 0.98 ± 0.01 0.95 ± 0.01 0.92 ± 0.01

E 0.97 ± 0.01 0.94 ± 0.01 0.84 ± 0.01

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder,

Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet

powder, * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Bulk density is a measure of heaviness and porosity of a flour sample. This

influences package design and could be used in determining the type of packaging

material required and application in wet processing in the food industry

(Iwe and Onalope, 2001).

The bulk density of kodo millet powder (Sample T0C-1.01 g/cm3,

T1C-1.03 g/cm3, T2C-0.94 g/cm

3), little millet powder (T0D-0.98 g/cm

3, T1D-0.95

g/cm3, T2D-0.92 g/cm

3) and foxtail millet powder (T0E-0.97 g/cm

3, T1E-0.94 g/cm

3,

T2E-0.84 g/cm3) exposed to different drying methods were found to be slightly higher

when compared to finger millet powder (T0A-0.55 g/cm3, T1A-0.66 g/cm

3,

T2A-0.61 g/cm3) and pearl millet powder (T0B-0.70 g/cm

3, T1B-0.62 g/cm

3,

T2B-0.72 g/cm3). This may be due to high amount of small sized particle found in

millet flour and greater starch content. The bulk density (g/cm3)of all the samples

subjected to sun drying (T0), forced convection tray drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2)

range between 0.55 to 1.01 g/cm3, 0.62 to 1.03 g/cm

3 and 0.61 to 0.94 g/cm

3

respectively. There was a slight decrease (p≤0.05) in the bulk density of the sun dried

samples when compared to the other two drying methods. The decrease in bulk

density may be associated with the extent of starch gelatinization and the destruction

of crystalline structure. High Bulk density is a desirable characteristic for powdered

food materials of high nutrient content packed in a limited space (Hassan et al., 2013).

Hence, the processed millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying and

freeze drying possess slightly higher bulk density which would be beneficial for

development of convenience foods.

4.1.3.2. Swelling power (%) of the processed millet powder

The Table 7 and Figure 6 depict the swelling index of the processed millet powder.

Table 7. Swelling power (%) of the processed millet powder

Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) FD (T2) p-value

A 8.31 ± 0.01 6.28 ± 0.01 7.03 ± 0.01

p≤0.05*

B 9.03 ± 0.01 7.11 ± 0.01 9.31 ± 0.01

C 7.06 ± 0.01 9.37 ± 0.01 9.54 ± 0.01

D 7.16 ± 0.01 8.83 ± 0.01 9.27 ± 0.01

E 7.47 ± 0.01 9.53 ± 0.01 9.34 ± 0.01

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder,

Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet

powder, * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Swelling pattern of the flour suggests the level of crystalline packing of the

starch granules present in the flour (Billiadaris, 1982). In flour granules the swelling

power is the indication of the extent of associative forces within the granules

(Moorthy et al., 1986).

The swelling power (%) of processed millet powder was almost similar and

there was not much significant difference between the processed millet powder. The

swelling power of millet powder subjected to sun drying (T0), forced convection tray

drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2) range from 7.06 to 9 .03%, 6.28 to 9.53% and 7.03

to 9.54 % respectively. Among the drying method adopted, there was a slight decrease

in the level of swelling power in the sun dried samples. The alteration in the swelling

power is observed due to the starch content (amylose and amylopecin chains) in the

processed millet powder. The difference in the swelling power indicates the degree of

exposure of the internal structure of the starch present in the flour to the action of

water (Ruales, 1993). Moreover, the swelling capacity of flours depends on size of

particles, variety of flour and type of processing methods adopted. As per literature,

the flour of parboiled rice and millet has more swelling capacity which contributes to

the quality of product in terms of uniform texture and expansion of better disperability

and solubility.

4.1.3.3. Foam capacity (ml/g) and foam stability (ml/g) of the processed millet

powder

The Table 8 (a, b) and Figure 6 depicts the foam capacity (ml) and foam

stability of the processed millet powder.

Table 8a. Foam capacity (ml/g) of the processed millet powder

Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) FD (T2) p-value

A 38.27 ± 0.06 37.33 ± 0.01 40.46 ± 0.01

p≤0.05*

B 39.03 ± 0.06 36.96 ± 0.01 39.47 ± 0.01

C 34.47 ± 0.12 32.07 ± 0.01 35.30 ± 0.10

D 35.02 ± 0.01 35.10 ± 0.06 36.13 ± 0.01

E 40.13 ± 0.06 38.36 ± 0.01 41.18 ± 0.01

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder,

Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet

powder, * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Table 8b. Foam stability (ml/g) of the processed millet powder

Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) FD (T2) p-value

A 27.33 ± 0.06 26.23 ± 0.06 29.67 ± 0.15

p≤0.05*

B 32.13 ± 0.01 33.33 ± 0.01 38.22 ± 0.01

C 35.13 ± 0.01 36.23 ± 0.06 39.21 ± 0.01

D 29.13 ± 0.01 28.14 ± 0.01 33.57 ± 0.06

E 32.26 ± 0.02 31.17 ± 0.06 30.60 ± 0.10

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0), FCTD-

Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder, Sample B-Pearl millet

powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet powder. * Significantly

different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The development of protein based foam involves the diffusion of soluble

protein towards the air water interface and the rapid conformational change and

rearrangement at the interface. For the stable foam formation it requires thick,

cohesive and viscoelastic film around each gas bubble (Kinsella, 1979). Among the

processed millet powder, finger millet powder (Sample A), pearl millet powder

(Sample B) and foxtail millet powder (Sample E) had the highest foam capacity

ranging from 38.27 to 40.13 ml/g, 36.96 to 38.36 ml/g, 39.47 to 41.18 ml/g

respectively when compared to kodo millet powder (Sample C: 32.07 to 35.30 ml/g)

and little millet powder (Sample D: 35.02 to 36.13 ml/g). The reason being denser

concentration of protein. However, on comparing the drying methods, freeze dried

samples had slightly increased foam capacity when compared to other two drying

methods. Akubor and Badifu et al, (2012) observed that the thermal processing

decreased the foam capacity of the flour. Application of heat treatment reduced

solubility of nitrogen proteins by denaturation and reduced their foaming capacity

(Akubor and Eze, 2012; Sathe et al., 1982).

Foam formation and foam stability are determinants of the type of protein, pH,

processing methods, viscosity and surface tension. Foam stability is affected by

protein denaturation, with native protein giving higher foam stability than denatured

proteins (Sosulski et al., 1976; Sathe et al., 1982). Foams are used to improve texture,

consistency and appearance of foods. All the treated flours may find applications in

bakery and confectionery products. The results of foam stability was found to be more

or less similar in all the selected millet powder as there was greatest stability due to

increased thickness of interfacial films. The foam capacity and stability was found to

be higher in the millet powder when compared to rice flour which is mainly due to its

natural existence of protein present in the millets.

4.1.3.4. Water absorption capacity (ml/g) of the processed millet powder

The Table 9 and Figure 6 depicts the water absorption capacity (ml/g) of the

processed millet powder.

Table 9. Water absorption capacity (ml/g) of the processed millet powder

Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) FD (T2) p-value

A 0.86 ± 0.01 0.75 ± 0.01 0.91 ± 0.01

p≤0.05*

B 0.82 ± 0.01 0.84 ± 0.01 0.81 ± 0.01

C 1.24 ± 0.01 1.21 ± 0.01 1.26 ± 0.01

D 0.63 ± 0.01 0.57 ± 0.01 0.75 ± 0.01

E 1.23 ± 0.01 1.21 ± 0.01 1.24 ± 0.01

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD-Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD-Freeze Drying(T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder,

Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet

powder. *Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The water absorption is dependent mainly on the nature of hydrophilic

constituents and protein to some extent on the pH

(Onimawo and Akubor, 2012). The highest water absorption capacity was found in

freeze dried millet powder (T2) when compared to sun dried (T0) and forced

convection tray dried powders (T1). The analysis of variance showed significant effect

(p≤0.05) on the water absorption capacity during drying process. Among the samples,

the kodo millet powder (Sample C: 1.21-1.26 ml/g) and foxtail millet powder

(Sample E :1.21 - 1.24 ml/g) showed significantly higher water absorption capacity

(p≤0.05) when compared to other millet powder namely finger millet powder

(Sample A- 0.75 to 0.91 ml/g), pearl millet powder (Sample B-0.81 to 0.84 ml/g) and

little millet powder (Sample D-0.57 to 0.75 ml/g) which may be due to nature of

starch and possible contribution of water absorption by the cell wall materials which

was not completely removed. The highest WAC could be attributed due to the

presence of greater amount of carbohydrates (starch) and fiber present in the

powder. During heating, gelatinization of carbohydrates and swelling of crude fiber

may have enhanced the water absorption. Water absorption capacity describes the

water association of the flour with the limited amount of water present. The rice flour

and processed millet powder does not contain fiber, hence similar water absorption

was observed however both posses good amount of starch which would also helps in

enhancing the water absorption (Adeyeye and Aye, 2005). Millets starch show

higher water binding capacity and gelatinization temperatures than the wheat

starch (Leach et al., 1959).

Sun drying (T0)

Forced convection tray drying (T1)

Freeze drying (T2)

Figure 6. Physical properties of processed millet powder

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

A B C D E

(g/m

l)

Samples

Bulk density (g/ml)

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

A B C D E

(%)

Samples

Swelling power (%/g)

05

101520253035404550

A B C D E

(ml/

g)

Samples

Foam capacity (ml/g)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

A B C D E

(ml/

g)

Samples

Foam stability (ml/g)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

A B C D E

(ml/

g)

Samples

Water absorption capacity (ml/g)

4.1.3.5. Color values of the processed millet powder

The Table 10 and Figure 7 reveal the color values of the processed millet

powder.

Color is an important quality parameter in foods. The units within the L*, a*

and b* system gives equal perception of the color difference to a human observer. The

L* measures the brightness (lightness) from black (0) to white (100). The a* is the

measure of function of difference in the red-green where positive a* indicates redness

and negative a* indicates greenness. The b* is the function of the green blue

difference, where positive values indicates the yellowness and negative values

represent the blueness. During processing, the color of the seed coat in grains were

changed while grinding which eventually resulted in alteration of the L*, a* and b*

values.

The L*(lightness) was observed to be higher in kodo millet powder

(T0C-88.26, T1C-91.32, T2C-87.75), little millet powder (T0D-87.55, T1D-92.16,

T2D-89.85) and foxtail millet powder (T0E-91.14, T1E-88.52, T2E- 86.85). When

compared with the other millet powders namely finger millet powder (Sample A) and

pearl millet powder (Sample B). This could be due to natural color present in the

processed millets.

The a* (greenish-red) was found to be higher (p≤0.05) in finger millet powder

(T0A-3.42, T1A-2.52, T2A-2.51) and pearl millet powder (T0B-1.76, T1B-1.41,

T2B-0.11). This was due to the presence of seed coat that was found to be more

towards the red and green shades. In the case of b* (blue-yellowish) values, pearl

millet powder subjected to sun drying (T0) was observed to be 12.45 followed by the

sample subjected to forced convection tray drying (T1) was 11.83 and freeze drying

(T2) was 12.13. The b* value of foxtail millet powder (T0E-8.92, T1E-10.34 and

T2E-9.76) powder were observed to be higher (p≤0.05) which might be due to the

presence of yellow color in the millet. During the process of heat, the overall color

change takes places due to maillard reaction (Ibanoglu, 2002).

Table 10. Color values of the processed millet powder

Color

Values Samples SD (T0) FCTD (T1) FD (T2) p-value

L*

A 82.43 ± 0.03 85.17 ± 0.02 82.43 ± 0.03

p≤0.05*

B 78.41 ± 0.02 81.53 ± 0.02 81.02 ± 0.02

C 88.26 ± 0.02 91.32 ± 0.02 87.75 ± 0.03

D 87.55 ± 0.03 92.16 ± 0.02 89.85 ± 0.05

E 91.14 ± 0.02 88.53 ± 0.02 86.85 ± 0.02

p-value p≤0.05*

a*

A 3.42 ± 0.03 2.52 ± 0.02 2.51 ± 0.02

p≤0.05*

B 1.76 ± 0.02 1.41 ± 0.01 0.11 ± 0.01

C 1.18 ± 0.02 0.12 ± 0.01 0.21 ± 0.02

D 0.55 ± 0.03 0.07 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02

E 0.10 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.02 0.21 ± 0.02

p-value p≤0.05*

b*

A 11.04 ± 0.04 9.21 ± 0.02 8.33 ± 0.02

p≤0.05*

B 12.45 ± 0.03 11.83 ± 0.02 12.13 ± 0.02

C 7.463 ± 0.03 6.84 ± 0.02 6.62 ± 0.02

D 8.43 ± 0.02 5.43 ± 0.02 7.94 ± 0.02

E 8.92 ± 0.02 10.34 ± 0.02 9.76 ± 0.02

p-value p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), SD-Sun Drying (T0),

FCTD- Forced Convection Tray Drying (T1), FD -Freeze Drying (T2). Sample A-Finger millet powder,

Sample B-Pearl millet powder, Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet

powder. * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

\

Sun drying (T0)

Forced convection tray drying (T1)

Freeze drying (T2)

Figure 7. Color values of processed millet powder

0

100

200

A B C D E

L*

Samples

L* values of processed millet

powder

0

2

4

A B C D E

a*

Samples

a*values of processed millet

powder

0

5

10

15

A B C D E

b*

Samples

b* values of processed millet powder

4.1.3.6. Total microbial count (cfu/g) of the processed millet powder

Table 11 explains the total microbial count of the processed millet powder.

Table 11. Total microbial count (cfu/g) of processed millet powder

Samples T0 T1 T2

A 1.7x102 1.2x10

2 1.4x10

2

B 1.6x102 1.4x10

2 1.6x10

2

C 1.7x102 1.2x10

2 1.4x10

2

D 1.5x102 1.1x10

2 1.3x10

2

E 1.3x102 1.0x10

2 1.1x10

2

T0-Millet powder exposed to Sun Drying, T1- millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying,

T2-Millet powder exposed to freeze drying. Sample A-Finger millet powder, Sample B-Pearl millet powder,

Sample C-Kodo millet powder, Sample D-Little millet powder, Sample E-Foxtail millet powder.

Microbial load of the processed millet powder obtained from different drying

methods were done using aerobic plate count. The aerobic plate count of the

processed millet powder subjected to sun drying showed maximum colony forming

unit (cfu/g) than freeze drying and forced convection tray drying methods. The results

showed that the products which were exposed to natural environments (sun drying)

were easily contaminated but under the oven drying chamber, the products were

covered and therefore were protected to some extent from contamination.

Draft Kenya standard (2009) reported that the maximum permissible level of TVC is

105 per gram and Y& M count is 10

4 per gram. In the present study the total microbial

count of processed millet powder was well within the permissible level

(102 per gram). Compaore et al., (2011) observed nil growth of coliform in pearl

millet and maize based composite flour subjected to forced convection tray drying.

4.2. Effect of drying methods on the physicochemical properties of

the composite millet powder (CM)

After several permutation and combination 20% of the different processed

millet powders were optimized and finalized to produce the composite millet powder.

The ratio of optimized composite millet powder is given in table 1. As far as the

drying methods are concerned, sun drying was removed as it produced off flavor

which is considered to be an undesirable property for development of products.

Hence, in-depth analysis was carried out for composite millet powder (CM) obtained

from forced convection tray drying (T1) and freeze drying (T2).

4.2.1. Physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder

The physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder were carried out

in terms of nutritional properties, physical properties and microbial analysis.

Table 12. Physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder

Physico-chemical properties CM-T1 CM-T2 p-values

Nutritional properties

Moisture (g) 8.53±0.41 10.50±0.30 p≤0.05*

Ash (g) 3.27±0.25 3.47±0.25 p≤0.05*

Carbohydrate (g) 76.03±0.02 76.21±0.02 p≤0.05*

Protein (g) 11.90±0.01 11.82±0.02 p>0.05NS

Fat (g) 3.30±0.20 3.43±0.25 p>0.05NS

Energy (Kcal) 362±2.52 363±2.00 p>0.05NS

Mineral content

Calcium (mg) 74.93±0.25 79.27±0.76

p≤0.05*

Phosphorus (mg) 163.13±0.15 168.13±0.83

Iron (mg) 1.20±0.20 2.03±0.15

Magnesium (mg) 99.70±0.58 111.83±0.47

Zinc (mg) 1.37±0.15 1.27±0.06

Pottasium (mg) 150.43±0.59 151.27±0.15

Physical properties

Bulk Density (g/ml) 0.62±0.01 0.62±0.01

p≤0.05* Swelling Index (%) 9.62±0.01 9.33±0.01

Foam capacity (ml) 41.17±0.06 45.53±0.01 p>0.05*

Foam Stability (ml) 36.3±0.06 39.23±0.01 p≤0.05*

Water absorption capacity (ml) 1.7±0.01 1.7±0.01 p≤0.05*

Microbial count 1.1X102 1.6X10

2

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D); CM-T1- Composite millet powder

exposed to Forced convection tray drying, CM- T2 –Composite millet powder exposed to Freeze drying.

* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA, NS-Not significant.

As far as the moisture content is concerned, the composite millet powder

subjected to forced convection tray drying (CM-T1) was found to be slightly lower

when compared to freeze drying (CM-T2). Sanni et al., (2006) reported that lower

the moisture content of a product better the shelf stability of such products. Since

moisture content of ingredients affects gelatinization process, lower moisture

content indicates better gelatinization process (Miller, 1985 and Santosa et al., 2005)

which further results in better swelling of the extrudate (Foubion et al., 1982). In the

present study, the moisture content of composite millet powder subjected to both

drying methods showed significant difference. Whereas the moisture content of

composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying showed slightly

lesser when compared to sun drying and freeze drying methods.

The ash content was observed to be more or less similar in the composite

millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying (CM-T1)-3.27 g/100g and

freeze drying (CM-T1)- 3.47 g/100g which is the reflection of the ash content

present in the selected minor millets namely finger millet, pearl millet, kodo millet,

little millet and foxtail millet. Among the different millets, kodo millet had the

highest proportion of total minerals (4.9%) and lowest was recorded in foxtail millet

(1.4%) Kulkarni et al., 1992; Hadimani and Malleshi, 1993 and Veena et al., 2012).

The carbohydrate content of composite millet powder subjected to different

drying methods namely forced convection tray drying (T1) and freeze drying (T0) was

found to be more or less similar (p≤0.05). The values were observed to be

76.03 g/100g in the composed millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying

(CM-T1) and 76.21 g/100g in freeze drying (CM-T2). Sahu (1987) reported that

little millet possess highest carbohydrate content (73.40 g/100g) when compared

to kodo millet, foxtail millet and other millets. Hence in the present investigation,

the increase in carbohydrate content of the composite millet powder is attributed

mainly due to the presence of carbohydrate in the little millet. Similar results were

seen in little millet based composite mix which range from 69.09 to 71.44 g/100g.

The protein content of composite millet powder exposed to forced convection

tray drying (CM-T1) and freeze drying (CM-T2) was found to be 11.90 and

11.82 g/100g respectively. The slight variation was found in the sample subjected to

forced convection tray drying which might be due to higher temperature used during

dehydration (p≤0.05). The protein content increased significantly (p≤0.05) in the

composite millet powder. Similar results was noted by Singh et al., (2005),

Premavalli et al., (2005) who stated that by increasing the levels of foxtail millet in

formulation of composite millet powder led to increase in the concentration of

protein. The protein content of composite millet powder is almost similar to the

average protein content in little millet, kodo millet and foxtail millet which

contain 9.5, 8.8 and 11.07% of protein respectively with varietal differences

within species as reported by several investigators

(Malleshi and Desikachar, 1985; Monteiro et al.,2000;

Hadimani and Malleshi, 1993 and Veena et al., 2005).

The fat content of composite millet powder was found to be almost similar in

the samples subjected to freeze drying (CM-T2-3.43 g/100g and forced convection

tray drying (CM-T1-3.30 g/100g). The fat content in cereals is generally

insignificant. However the fat content observed in the composite millet powder is

due to the natural existence of fat in the selected minor millets. Hence there existed

no significant difference (p>0.05). Several researcher reported that foxtail millet

recorded a fat content ranging from 2.3 to 5.9 %, followed by proso millet

(2.1 to 5.2%), little millet (3.10 to 3.7%) and kodo millet (1.1 to 3.3%)

(Malleshi and Desikachar, 1985; Sahu, 1987).

The energy level was more or less similar in composite millet powder obtained

from both dehydration techniques which was found to be CM-T1-362 k/cal and

CM-T2-363 k/cal respectively, since the application of heat does not alter any change

in the energy values. There was no significant difference among drying method

(p>0.05). As per PAG recommendation, a composite mix should provide more

than 360 Kcal of energy (Anonymous, 1975) and 300 - 400 Kcal according to

BIS specifications (Anon,2008). In the present study, the composite millet powder

subjected to different drying methods observed to provide 362 - 363 Kcal, which

agrees with the recommendations of PAG and BIS.

The composite millet powder subjected to freeze drying possess to contain

more or less similar amount of calcium (79.27 mg/100g), phosphorus

(168 mg/100g), iron (2.03 mg/100g), magnesium (111.83 mg/100g), potassium

(151.27 mg/100g) and zinc (1.27 mg/100g) when compared to composite millet

powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. The increase is mainly due to the

drying techniques adopted for processing of millet. Similar report was observed in

the study conducted by National Institute of Nutrition on mineral and trace elements

where relatively higher concentration of zinc, copper and chromium was observed in

little millet, while concentration of calcium, phosphorous, manganese and

magnesium was greater in barnyard millet (Anon.,2008). A significant variation in

calcium content of five minor millets (proso millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, little

millet and barnyard millet) was recorded with values ranging from

12.36 to 29.17 mg/100 g (Kulkarni et al., 1992). The ionisable iron content was

1.47, 1.50, 0.55, 10.76 and 1.38 mg in proso millet, kodo millet, foxtail millet, little

millet and barnyard millet respectively (Veena et al., 2012). Hence, composite

millet powder is a nut shell of minerals holding therapeutic significance.

The physical properties of composite millet powder were studied in terms of

bulk density (g/ml), swelling index (%), foam capacity (ml), foam stability (ml) and

water absorption capacity (ml).

Irrespective of drying methods adopted, the bulk density of composite millet

powder did not show much difference between drying methods. The values of bulk

density are relatively high for the composite millet powder when compared to refined

flour or 100% wheat flour and thereby facilitates quick reconstitution to give fine

constituent dough during mixing followed by extrusion. (Adebowale et al., 2008).

The swelling capacity of composite millet powder was noted to be 9.62% in

CM-T1 and 9.33% in CM-T2, which is almost similar. Swelling behavior of cereal

starches was mainly correlated to the amylopectin content where amylose acts as an

inhibitor of swelling. The distribution of amylose in starch granule was not uniform

(Seguchi et al., 2003) which also affect the swelling power of starch.

The foamability of the flour depends on the presence of the flexible protein

molecules which may decrease the surface tension of water (Sathe et al., 1982). It was

observed from table that the foam capacity and foam stability of the composite millet

powder obtained from two drying techniques were found to be 41.17 ml and 36.3 ml

for CM-T1 and 45.53 ml and 39.23 ml for CM-T2 respectively. The results revealed

that maximum foaming capacity and foaming stability was observed in composite

millet powder subjected to freeze drying. The low foamability of flour indicates the

presence of highly ordered globular protein molecules which increase the surface

tension. Graham and Phillips (1976) linked good foamability with flexible protein

molecules which reduces surface tension of water thereby favoring better expansion

of the product.

Water absorption capacity is useful in structure interaction in food especially

in flavor retention, improvement of palatability and extension of shelf life

(Adebowale, 2004). The water absorption of composite millet powder was found to be

more or less similar in both the drying techniques.

The total microbial counts (cfu/g) of composite millet powder subjected to

both drying methods were studied. The composite millet powder subjected to freeze

drying showed a slight increase in microbial growth due to improper removal of

moisture during drying and handling as well.

The composite millet powder possess an average of the nutrients present in the

processed millet powder obtained from selected minor millet namely finger millet,

pearl millet, kodo millet, little millet and foxtail millet. In order to bridge the existing

gap of the deficit in nutrients and physical qualities by the use of single millet, there is

a need to combine millet to produce composite mix for the development of value

added products which will help in alleviating the problems of malnutrition in general

and evolution of specific novel products.

Figure 8. Physico-chemical properties of composite millet powder

300

350

400

CM-T1 CM-T2

Energy (Kcal)

0

5

10

15

Protein (g) Fat (g) Ash (g) Moisture (g)

0

50

100

150

200

Calcium

(mg)

Phosphorus

(mg)

Iron (mg) Magnesium

(mg)

Zinc (mg) Pottasium

(mg)

0

20

40

60

Bulk Density (g/ml) Swelling Index(%) Foam capacity (ml) Foam Stability(ml) Waterabsorption

capacity (ml)

CM- T1 CM- T2

CM-T1

CM-T2

4.2.2. Color values of composite millet powder

The color values of composite millet powder are shown in Table 13 and

Figure 9.

Table 13. Color values of composite millet powder

Color values CM-T1 CM-T2 p - value

L* 84.84±0.03 83.96±0.02 p≤0.05

*

a* 2.70±0.01 1.94±0.02

b* 8.80±0.015 10.38±0.02 All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D); CM-T1-composed millet power exposed to

forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- composed millet power exposed to freeze drying,

* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The color of the composite millet powder is the reflections of natural color

present in the millet and represented as L*, a* and b*. The L* (Lightness) value was

found to be more or less similar in composite millet powder subjected to both the

drying methods. The L* values of composite millet powder was towards the dark

shades due to addition of millets for the formulation of composite millet powder. The

a* value indicates the redness of sample which was also found to higher in composite

millet powder exposed to both drying methods. The b* value indicates the yellowish

shades of sample which was found to be lower for the composite millet powder

subjected to both the drying methods.

Figure 9. Color values of composite millet powder

4.2.3. Pasting properties of the composite millet powder

The pasting characteristics of the composite millet powder are shown in

Table 14 and Figure 10.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

L* a* b*

Color values CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1

CM-T2

Table 14. Pasting properties of the composite millet powder

Pasting properties Raw flour CM-T1 CM-T2 P-

value

Pasting Temp. (°C) 77.67a ± 1.53 88.50

d ± .20 81.27

b ± 0.06

p≤0.05*

Peak time (mins) 3.15a ± 0.03 4.13

d ± 0.03 3.33

b ± 0.01

Peak viscosity(cP) 2629.00c ± 1.00 1865.67

a ± 3.05 2742.00

d ± 1.00

Hold viscosity(cP) 2507.00b ± 9.50 1762.00

a ± 2.00 2302.33

b ± 2.52

Final viscosity (cP) 3191.67c ± 1.53 2021.33

a ± 1.53 3534.33

d ± 1.53

Breakdown(cP) 253.67c ± 1.53 107.67

b ± 1.53 436.67

d ± 2.08

Setback (cP) 816.33c ± 1.53 261.33

a ± 1.53 1230.33

d ± 1.53

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), CM-T1- Composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying , CM-T2- Composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying , The same

superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each other are

significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The pasting properties varied significantly with different processing conditions

of the composite millet powder. There was a significant difference (P≤0.05) in pasting

temperature between the raw and composite millet powder. The pasting temperature

of composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying was 88.50°C

and freeze drying was 81.27°C. The pasting temperature reflects the cooking time of

the food samples, which is a measure of the minimum temperature required to

cook a given food sample (Sandhu et al., 2008). The peak time of the composite

millet powder range from 3.33 to 4.13 min for the processed composite millet powder

and 3.15 min for the raw millet powder.

Peak viscosity indicates the water-holding capacity of the starch or flour

samples and is often correlated with final product quality. Peak viscosity of processed

composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying and freeze drying

range between 1865.67 and 2742.00 cP respectively and for the raw powder the

pasting property was 2629.00 cP. The peak viscosity was highest (p≤0.05) for the

raw sample (2629.00 cP) and composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying was

2742.00 cP and decreased peak viscosity was observed in composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying (1865.67 cP). A decrease in peak viscosity

was due to its loss of water-binding capacity as a result of partial gelatinization taken

place during the drying process. A rise in peak viscosity is an indication of increased

swelling index of the powder samples due to higher solubility as a result of starch

degradation of the flour (Shittu et al., 2001). The interaction of other components like

protein, fiber and the degree of starch damage during processing could affect the peak

viscosity of flours. The holding viscosity (2507 cP) and final viscosity (3191 cP) were

observed to be highest in raw composite powder followed by freeze dried composite

millet powder. The lowest value for holding viscosity (1762 cP) and final viscosity

(2021 cP) were seen in forced convection tray dried sample. The highest breakdown

viscosity is greater in freeze dried sample (436 cP). The setback values were noted to

be higher in composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying (1230 cP) and in raw

samples (816 cP), whereas composite millet powder subjected to forced convection

tray drying exhibited lower set back values (261 cP) which indicates lower tendency

of retro gradation of starch during cooling of hot paste.

In general, the changes in the pasting properties observed in the composite

millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying (CM-T1) and freeze drying

(CM-T2) could be suitable for the extrusion process.

Figure 10. Pasting properties of the composite millet powder

4.2.4. Morphological structure of composite millet powder

The Figure 11 shows the morphological structure of composite millet powder.

The morphology of starch granules depends on the biochemistry of the

chloroplast or amyloplast as well as physiology of the plant (Badenhuizen, 1969). A

heterogeneous combination of composite millet powder can be observed in the

micrographs (Figures 11) with irregular structures having indefinite shapes, rich in

spongy-aspect material with cavities and structural gaps of varied sizes. The starch

granules are either oval or round in shape with smooth surfaces with little variation

and some bulges, probably resulting due to great strength of starch–protein

interactions. The microstructure of composite millet powder shows a disturbed

structure and protein matrix applies pressure on some starch granules leading to small

structural deformations. Starch granules seem to be surrounded by other materials like

fibers and proteins giving a „„raising dust” appearance that may contribute to those

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

00:00:00 00:07:12 00:14:24

Tem

per

atu

re

Time(mins)

RAW

T0

T1

T2

TEMP

T

0

T

characteristics. The drying method showed a structural change in the composite millet

powder by affecting their starch, protein and fat bodies. The structural damage was

more in the sample exposed to forced convection tray drying (CM-T1) when

compared to freeze drying (CM-T2).

CM-T1 CM-T2

PM-Protein matrix, PB-Protein bodies, SG-Starch granules

Figure 11. Morphological structure of composite millet powder

4.2.5. Functional properties of composite millet powder

4.2.5.1. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of composite millet powder

The Table 15 and Figure 12 show the essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile

of composite millet powder.

Table 15. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of composite millet powder

Essential

amino acids

(mg/100g) CM-T1 CM-T2

FAO/WHO/UNU 2007

g/kg/d p-value

Histidine 0.487±0.006 0.583±0.006 0.14

p≤0.05 *

Valine 0.207±0.006 0.227±0.006 0.19

Methionine 0.310±0.006 0.319±0.006 0.42

Iso-leucine 0.230±0.006 0.219±0.006 0.38

Phenylalanine 0.790±0.006 0.797±0.006 0.15

Leucine 0.294±0.006 0.294±0.006 0.25

Lysine 0.415±0.006 0.399±0.006 0.02

Proline 0.028±0.006 0.136±0.058 0.05

Tryptophan 0.345±0.006 0.347±0.006 0.24 All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), CM-T1 – Composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2 - Composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Results in Tables 15 show the effect of processing on the total amino acid

profile of composite millet powder. The results shows significant changes (P≤0.05) in

the two drying techniques; forced convection tray drying and freeze drying of

PB

P

M SG

P

M

PB

SG

composite millet powder. As far as the essential amino acids are concerned, slight

changes (P≤0.05) were recorded for all amino acids in both the drying methods. The

total amount of essential amino acid composition was in the range of

0.028-0.790g/100g in CM-T1 and 0.136-0.797g/100 g in CM-T2. The highest

concentration of conditionally essential amino acids for the composite millet powder

was phenylalanine while the least was proline (CM-T1-0.028 and CM-T2-0.136) in the

both drying techniques. Among the cereals, millet is considered to be the rich source

of leucine, which is found to contain twice the amount of other cereals except

sorghum and corn. Tryptophan is usually considered as the second most deficient

amino acid in cereals but it is found to be higher in finger millet (Lupien, 1990).

Among the millets, finger millet is relatively better balanced in essential amino acids

because it contains more lysine, thereonine and valine (FAO/WHO/UNU, 2007). The

albumin and globulin fractions contain a good compliment of essential amino acids.

The prolamin fraction contains higher proportion of glutamic acid, theronine,

isoleucine, leucine and phenylalanine but low in valine and glycine (Cardoso, 2014).

The isoleucine content of finger millet is also high. The mean values of the amino

acid profile from this study revealed that most of the essential amino acids are present

in adequate amount when compared with the recommended values of

FAO/WHO/UNU (2007).

Figure 12. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of composite millet powder

4.2.5.2. Vitamin content of composite millet powder

The mean value of vitamin content of composite millet powder is presented in

Table 16 and Figure 13.

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Histidine Valine Methionine Iso-leucine Phenylalanine Leucine Lysine Proline Tryptophan

mg

/10

0g

Essential amino acids (mg/100g) CM-T1

CM-T2CM- T1

CM- T2

Table 16. Vitamin content of the composite millet powder

Vitamins CM-T1 CM-T2 P- value

Vitamin A(IU) 94.48±0.06 95.01±0.06

p≤0.05*

Vitamin D (mg) 3.45±0.01 3.47±0.01

Vitamin E (mg) 1.36±0.01 1.39±0.01

Vitamin B6 (mg) 3.48±0.01 3.48±0.01

Vitamin B12 (mg) 0.40±0.001 0.40±0.01 All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), CM-T1 – Composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2 – Composite millet powder freeze drying ,

* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

Vitamin content of the composite millet powder subjected to both drying

methods was found to have almost similar values with slight significant difference

(p≤0.05).Vitamin A was found to be slightly higher in composite millet powder

subjected to freeze drying when compared to forced convection tray drying. Vitamin

A plays a major role in specialized function such as in vision and ascorbate in distinct

hydroxylation reactions. The vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and

vitamin C content of the sample CM-T1 and sample CM-T2 were found to be

significantly more or less similar.

Figure 13. Vitamin content of the composite millet powder

4.2.5.3. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of composite millet powder

The mean value of essential fatty acid composition of the composite millet

powder is presented in Table 17 and Figure 14.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Vitamin

A(IU)

Vitamin D

(mg)

Vitamin E

(mg)

Vitamin B6

(mg)

Vitamin

B12 (mg)

Vitamin/100g CM-T1

CM-T2CM- T1

CM- T2

Table 17. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of composite millet powder

Essential fatty acids

(mg/100g) CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Palmitic acid 0.99±0.000 0.99±0.000

(p≤0.05)*

Stearic acid 0.034±0.000 0.34±0.000

Oleic acid 0.80±0.006 0.80±0.000

Linoleic acid 1.35±0.006 1.38±0.006

Alpha linolenic acid 0.79±0.000 0.79±0.000 All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D). CM-T1 – Composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2 – Composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

* Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The essential fatty acid composition of composite millet powder shows the

presence of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The essential fatty acids namely

palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, alpha linolenic acid were found to

be highly proportionate in the composite millet powder obtained from both

dehydration techniques and found to be significant at p≤0.05. The overall dominant

fatty acids in the composite millet powder are linoleic acid (1.35 to 1.38 mg/100g)

and palmitic acid (0.99mg/100g). The dominant polyunsaturated fatty acid is linoleic

acid which was slightly higher in composite millet powder.

Figure 14. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of composite millet

powder

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

Palmitic

acids

Stearic acis Oleic acids Linoleic Alpha

linolenic

acid

(mg

/10

0g

)

Essential fatty acids (mg/100g) CM-T1

CM-T2

CM- T1

CM- T2

4.2.5.4. Phytochemical profile of composite millet powder

The Table 18 and Figure 15 discusses on the phytochemical profile of

composite millet powder.

Table 18. Phytochemical profile of composite millet powder

Phytochemicals profile CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Phenols 0.95±0.01 0.96±0.01 0.492NS

Alkaloids 1.33±0.01 1.34±0.02 0.275NS

Terpenoids 0.44±0.00 0.44±0.00 0.374NS

Tannins 0.11±0.00 0.12±0.00 0.016 NS

Anthraquinines 3.48±0.01 3.51±0.02 0.034 NS

Glycosides 12.31±0.01 12.33±0.01 0.189NS

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), CM-T1- Composite millet powder exposed to

forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying.

*Significantly difference (p≤0.05) by ANOVA, NS-No significantly difference.

Nutrition and health care research substantiates the potential of

phytochemicals such as polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, anthraquinines,

glycosides and dietary fiber on the health beneficial properties (Devi et al., 2011). The

degradation of phenols (mg) is observed at temperature beyond 50-60ºC of heat

treatments in foods. The phenol content of composite millet powder subjected to

freeze drying (CM-T2-0.96) showed an increment when compared with forced

convection tray drying (CM-T1-0.95) samples which was statistically significant at

p≤0.05. Similar result was observed by Zhu et al., (2011) who reported that total

phenolic contents were found significantly higher in freeze dried food samples than

forced convection tray dried samples.

Alkaloids have different structures and a range of pharmacological actions

including antimicrobial activity (Herraiz and Galisteo, 2003). On comparing between

the drying techniques, the processed composite millet powder obtained from freeze

drying (CM-T2-1.34) shows slightly higher concentration than the samples subjected

to forced convection tray drying (CM-T1-1.33). There was not much significant

difference observed at p>0.05 among the samples subjected to forced convection tray

drying and freeze drying.

Terpenoids are used as protective substances in storing agriculture products as

they are known to have insecticidal properties. Theis et al., (2003); Shah et al., (2009)

observed antimicrobial, antifungal, antiparasitic, antiviral, anti-allergenic, anti-

spasmodic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory

properties in terpenoids. It was observed that there was no reduction in terpenoids

when the composite millet slurry was subjected to forced convection tray drying and

freeze drying.

The tannin content of composite millet powder obtained from freeze drying

(CM-T2-0.12) showed high values when compared to forced convection tray dried

(CM-T1-0.11) samples which was statistically significant at p≤0.05.

Ferreira et al., (2004) examined higher amounts of condensed tannins in freeze dried

samples than oven-dried samples from Sericacea lespedeza. Nevertheless, these

outcomes are in accordance with those obtained by Palmer et al., (2000) who

observed a reduction in condensed contents of oven-dried samples when compared

with freeze-dried ones.

The anthraquinine and glycoside content of composite millet powder obtained

from freeze drying (CM-T2-3.51, 12.33) had greater content when compared to the

composite millet powder dehydrated using forced convection tray drying

(CM-T1 -3.48, 12.31), which was found to be statistically significant at p<0.05.

Figure 15. Phytochemical profile of composite millet powder

4.2.6. Antioxidant activity of composite millet powder

4.2.6.1. DPPH Radical-scavenging activity of composite millet powder

DPPH is a stable free radical widely used in evaluating the antioxidant

activities in a relatively short time as compared with other methods. The color of

DPPH in methanol changes from violet to yellow upon reduction, which is

demonstrated by the decrease in absorbance at 517nm. Pradeep et al., (2006) reported

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Phenols Alkaloids Terpenoids Tannins Anthraquinines Glycosides

(µg

/10

0g

)

Phytochemical (µg/100g) CM-T1

CM-T2CM- T1

CM- T2

that in the DPPH method, the color stability of DPPH radical is reduced in the

presence of an antioxidant which donates hydrogen to non-radical DPH-H.

The DPPH scavenging activity of composite millet powder was observed

by the extracts of composite millet powder exposed to both drying methods is

illustrated in the Figure 16 and Table 19.

Table 19. DPPH scavenging activity of

composite millet powder

Figure 16. DPPH scavenging activity of

composite millet powder

DPPH free radical scavenging activity was studied at different

concentrations from 20µg to 150µg. Radical scavenging activities slightly varied with

the processing methods and concentration used. The greatest activity was obtained at

a higher concentration when it falls above 100µg in the processed composite millet

powder extracts. The antioxidant activity of standard ascorbic acid increases as the

concentration increases. The percentage of inhibition was found to be 18.14µg/ml and

21.05µg/ml during initial concentration and 75.16µg/ml and 73.73µg/ml in the final

concentration. Similar findings were reported by Pradeep et al., (2011) for roasted

little millet which showed enhanced radical scavenging activity (95.5%) than

germinated (91.7%) and steamed (93.4%) millets.

Figure 16 shows IC50 values of the extracts of processed composite millet

powder prepared by subjecting to different drying methods. It was found that the IC50

values of composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying and

freeze drying was found to be 36.31mg/ml and was 45.57 mg/ml extract respectively.

4.2.6.2. Reducing power of composite millet powder

Reducing power measures the reductive ability of antioxidant, and it is

evaluated by the transformation or reduction of Fe3+

ferricyanide complex to Fe2+

by

CMT1- y = 0.666x + 9.115

R² = 0.991

IC50-36.31

CMT2- y = 0.723x + 3.2

R² = 0.993

IC50-45.57 0

50

100

0 50 100 150P

erce

nta

ge

of

Inh

ibit

ion

Concentration (µg/ml)

DPPH radical scavenging activity

Ascorbic acid

CM-T1

CM-T2

Concentration

(µg/ml)

Percentage of Inhibition

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2

20 31.14 18.14 21.05

40 50.19 32.69 37.23

60 69.89 43.7 48.34

80 74.86 63.33 65.16

100 95.21 75.16 73.73

CM-T1- Composite millet powder exposed to forced

convention tray drying; CM-T2 Composite millet

powder exposed to -freeze drying

CM-T1

CM-T2

using the sample extracts (Gülçin et al., 2003). The methanolic extracts of composite

millet powder and its products were analysed at 20 to 50 mg/ml of concentrations.

The Fe 2+ was then monitored by measuring the formation of Perl‟s Prussian blue at

700nm (Oyaizu, 1986).

The Table 20 and Figure 17 show the reducing power of processed composite

millet powder.

Table 20. Reducing power of composite

millet powder

Figure 17. Reducing power of composite

millet powder

The reducing power of composite millet powder was studied at the

concentration of 20-100mg/ml and its results vary from 0.12-0.68mg/ml in CM-T1

and CM-T2 samples. The reducing powder of composite millet powder subjected to

forced convection tray drying range from 0.12 to 0.68mg /ml and for freeze drying

about 0.12 to 0.68mg/ml. There was a significant (p≤0.05) variation in reducing

power activity of the extracts of composite millet powder subjected to both the drying

methods.

4.3.Evaluation of quality characteristics of convenience food

developed using composite millet powder

4.3.1. Quality characteristics of pasta

The quality characteristics of the convenience foods namely ready to cook

(pasta) product were studied in terms of nutritional, physical, functional, instrumental

and sensory properties including shelf life studies and are discussed below.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

0 0.05 0.1 0.15A

bso

rban

ce 7

00

nm

Concentration (mg/ml)

Ascorbic acid

CM-T1

CM-T2

Concentration

(mg/ml)

Absorbance of 700nm

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2

0.02 0.39 0.12 0.12

0.04 0.66 0.26 0.26

0.06 1.05 0.39 0.38

0.08 1.34 0.47 0.49

.1 1.45 0.66 0.68

CM-T1-Composite millet powder exposed to

forced convention tray drying;

CM-T2- Composite millet powder exposed to

freeze drying

CM-T1

CM-T2

4.3.1.1. Nutritional properties of pasta

The Table 21 and Figure 18 represent the nutritional properties of pasta.

The nutritional properties of pasta are noted in terms moisture, ash,

carbohydrates, protein, fat and energy.

Table 21. Nutritional properties of pasta

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05)

by ANOVA. The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates

different to each other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet

powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

freeze drying, CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with

addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with

addition of egg white powder.

The moisture content of all the pasta developed from composite millet powder

subjected to forced convection tray drying and freeze drying range between 2.28 %

and 2.78% respectively either with or without addition of egg white powder. The

pasta developed from 100% of maida (control) had significantly (p≤0.05) lesser

moisture content (2.25%). Whereas desirable moisture was obtained for all the pastas

developed in order to maintain the shelf life of the product.

From the Table 21, it was observed that the ash content of the pasta ranged

from 1.37g to 2.25 g and found to be significant at p≤0.05. The highest ash content

was observed in the pasta formulated using composite millet powder subjected to

forced convection tray drying and freeze drying with addition of egg white power

(CM-T1E-2.01 g/100g and CM-T2E-2.25g/100g) followed by CM-T1-1.67g/100g and

CM-T2-1.87 g/100g and the least was observed in the control (1.37g/100g). A similar

study conducted by Prasad et al., (2007) on millet-sorghum soy based extruded

snacks, reported about 2.9 % of the ash content. This could be attributed to the fact

that multimillets and egg white powder contains high amount of minerals. The results

showed significant difference in ash content of the pasta incorporated with egg white

powder (p≤0.05).

Nutritional

properties Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 E CM- T2 E p-value

Moisture (g) 2.25a ± 0.01 2.75

b ± 0.01 2.74

b ± 0.01 2.78

c ± 0.01 2.77

c ± 0.01

p≤0.05*

Ash (g) 1.37a ± 0.06 1.67

b ± 0.06 1.87

c ± 0.06 2.01

d ± 0.01 2.25

e ± 0.01

Carbohydrate(g) 82.00a ± 0.01 74.47

b ± 0.06 75.00

c ± 0.01 75.87

d ± 0.06 76.13

e ± 0.06

Protein (g) 11.21a ± 0.01 11.95

b ± 0.01 12.56

c ± 0.01 21.23

d ± 0.06 21.87

e ± 0.06

Fat (g) 0.30a ± 0.01 0.77

b ± 0.06 0.82

c ± 0.03 0.98

d ± 0.01 0.98

d ± 0.01

Energy (Kcal) 404.00a ± 0.58 387.00

b ± 0.58 398.00

c ± 0.58 407.00

d ± 0.58 409.00

e ± 0.58

The extruded pasta obtained from 100% refined wheat flour (control)

possesses higher carbohydrate content (82 g). The carbohydrate content of the pasta

incorporated with 15% egg white powder subjected to forced convection tray drying

and freeze drying was 75.87g and 76.13g respectively. The carbohydrate content was

found to be lower in pasta developed from composite millet powder either with or

without addition of egg white powder when compared to control pasta which

exhibited significant difference (p≤0.05) among the pasta. This is due to the fact that

refined wheat flour possess abundant amount of starch and carbohydrate.

Irrespective of drying methods adopted, the total protein content of the pasta

formulated from composite millet powder with addition of 15% egg white powder was

found to be highest (p≤0.05) due to natural existence of protein in the egg.

(CM-T1E-21.23 and CM-T2E-21.87) than the pasta formulated from composite millet

powder without addition of egg white powder (CM-T1-11.95, CM-T2-12.56). According

to Priyanka et al., (2012), the incorporation of concentrated sources of proteins like egg

albumin powder and cheese powder resulted in the increased protein content in the

noodles. The control pasta showed a decrease in the protein content (11.21g).

The fat content of the control pasta, CM-T1, CM-T2, CM-T1E and CM-T2E

was found to be 0.30g, 0.77g, 0.82g, 0.98g and 0.98g respectively. The pasta

formulated using composite millet powder in both drying techniques was found to be

slightly higher than the control. Among the selected millets, the fat present in pearl

millet tends to increase the fat content of pasta prepared from composite millet powder.

The energy level of the pasta formulated from composite millet powder

obtained from forced convection tray drying and freeze drying with incorporation of

15% egg white powder was found to be 407kcal and 409kcal respectively. However the

energy level of the control pasta was almost similar to the pasta prepared with addition

of egg white powder. The pasta formulated without addition of egg white powder was

found to be CM-T1-387kcal, CM-T2-398kcal respectively which was comparatively

lesser than the control pasta (404kcal).

Figure 18. Nutritional properties of pasta

4.3.1.2. Physical properties of pasta

Table 22 and Figure 19 depicts the cooking quality of pasta. The quality of

pasta is influenced by cooking characteristics which includes cooking time, cooking

weight and cooking loss (Tudorica et al.,2002).

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 E CM- T2 E

(g/1

00

g)

Moisture (g/100g)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 ECM- T2 E

(g

/10

0g)

Ash (g/100g)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 ECM- T2 E

(g/1

00

g)

Carbohydrate (g/100g)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 E CM- T2 E

(g/1

00

g)

Protein (g/100g)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 E CM- T2 E

(g/1

00

g)

Fat (g/100g)

360

370

380

390

400

410

420

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1 ECM- T2 E

(Kca

l/1

00g)

Energy (Kcal/100g)

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E

CM-T1 CM-T CM-T2 E CM-T2E

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E

Table 22. Physical properties of pasta

Samples Cooking time (min) Cooking weight (g) Cooking loss (g)

Control 6.33a± 0.58 21.13

c±0.61 3.00

b±0.20

CM-T1 7.67a,b

± 0.58 20.25b±0.64 7.07

c±0.21

CM-T1E 7.67a,b

± 0.58 22.41d± 0.35 0.00

a±0.00

CM-T2 7.00a,b

±1.00 19.43a±0.08 6.97

c±0.21

CM-T2E 8.00c ±1.00 22.98

e±0.04 0.00

a±0.00

p-value 0.139NS

p≤0.05* p≤0.05*

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05)

by ANOVA. The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates

different to each other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. NS-Not Significant. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using

composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet

powder exposed to freeze drying, CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced

convection tray drying with addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder

exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg white powder.

In the present study, it was observed that cooking loss was higher in pasta

developed from composite millet powder and lowest for control pasta. The cooking

loss was found to be zero percent in the pasta developed from composite millet

powder with addition of egg white powder. The increase in cooking loss may be due

to weakening of gluten network as millets are free of gluten. In addition, the protein

present in egg helps to bind the structure of the pasta hence it decreases the cooking

loss. Similar finding was observed in gluten-free pasta, where solid loss during

cooking is mostly due to solubilization of loosely bound gelatinized starch at surface

of the product. This phenomenon depends mainly on the degree of starch

gelatinization and the strength of the retrograded starch network surrounding the

gelatinized starch (Marti et al., 2010). The lack of gluten in the millets might have led

to the increased solid loss. Similar trend of increased solid loss was observed in

proso millet incorporated noodles (Lorenz and Dilsaver,1980b).

Milatovic and Mondelli (1990) found that egg albumin contribute to the

formation of a protein network and improves the retention of the starch, which avoids

the leaching of starch in the cooking water. The highest cooking time was observed

for pasta developed from composite millet powder and egg white powder. This could

be attributed to the hydration level which is more for millet based pasta than pasta

made from refined wheat flour. Pasta prepared from composite millet powder with

addition of egg white powder showed higher cooking weight (CM-T1E-22.40,

CM-T2E-22.97) when compared to pasta prepared from composite millet powder and

control pasta. This might be due to addition of egg white powder which helps to bind

the structure of pasta. Matsuo and Irvine (1970) reported that addition of egg albumin

and wheat protein improved the cooking quality of pasta. The decrease in the cooked

weight was apparently due to increase in cooking loss or gruel loss in the pasta

without addition of egg white powder.

Figure 19. Physical properties of pasta

4.3.1.3. Functional properties of pasta

In the present study, the functional properties such as amino acids profile,

fatty acids, vitamins, phytochemical and antioxidant activity were carried out for the

developed products and their heat stability was assessed for the processed composite

millet powder after the application of dehydration techniques namely forced

convection tray drying and freeze drying.

4.3.1.3.1. Essential Amino acid (mg/100g) profile of pasta

Table 23 and Figure 20 shows the essential amino acids profile of pasta.

0

2

4

6

8

10

Control CM-T1 CM-T1E CM-T2 CM-T2E

(min

s)

Cooking time (mins)

0

2

4

6

8

Control CM-T1 CM-T1E CM-T2 CM-T2E

(%)

Cooking loss (%)

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Control CM-T1 CM-T1E CM-T2 CM-T2E

(g)

Cooking weight (g)

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2E

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T2 E CM-T2 E

Table 23. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of pasta

Essential

amino acids

(mg/100g) Control CM-T1 CM-T2 Egg White Powder p-value

Histidine 0.25a±0.01 0.48

b±0.01 0.47

b±0.01 1.77

c±0.06

p≤0.05*

Valine 0.58b±0.01 0.20

a±0.01 0.21

a±0.01 6.13

c±0.06

Methionine 0.31a±0.01 0.31

a±0.01 0.32

a±0.01 3.17

b±0.06

Iso-leucine 0.47b±0.01 0.23

a±0.01 0.22

a±0.01 4.97

c±0.06

Phenylalanine 0.68a±0.01 0.78

b±0.01 0.80

b±0.01 5.07

c±0.06

Leucine 1.54b±0.01 0.29

a±0.01 0.29

a±0.01 7.07

c±0.06

Lysine 0.14a±0.01 0.41

b±0.01 0.40

b±0.01 4.97

c±0.06

Proline 0.91c±0.01 0.02

a±0.01 0.13

b±0.06 3.33

d±0.06

Tryptophan 0.17a±0.01 0.34

b±0.01 0.34

b±0.01 1.27

c±0.06

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by

ANOVA. The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates

different to each other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet

powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

freeze drying, CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with

addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with

addition of egg white powder.

The essential amino acid composition of processed composite millet powder

of exposed to both the drying was carried out. The major cereal foods of the world

and their mutant types have basically similar amino acid profiles except for lysine,

tyrosine, leucine, isoleucine, and tryptophan. The total essential amino acid profile of

pasta prepared from composite millet powder range from 0.023mg/100g to

0.797mg/100g. The protein present in control pasta which is produced from refined

flour was considered to be incomplete because it lacks in one or more essential amino

acids. A protein that presents a chemical score higher than 1.0 for all amino acids is

considered to have high nutritional value, while amino acids with chemical score

lower than 1.0 are considered as limiting amino acids (Pires et al., 2006). The total

amount of essential amino acid composition was found to be similar in the pasta

prepared from the composite millet powder subjected to both drying methods. The

highest concentration of conditionally essential amino acids for the composite millet

powder was histidine, methionine, phenylalanine, lysine and tryptophan while the

least was proline and valine when compared with their references values. The

essential amino acid content of egg white powder was significantly higher (p≤0.05)

(Shivendra et al., 2007). During drying process of pasta, the reducing sugar generally

decreases due to the browning reaction (Maillard reaction), which tends to increase

the total essential amino acids. The mean values of essential amino acid profile

observed in the study revealed that most of the essential amino acids are present in

adequate amount when compared with the recommended values of FAO/WHO/UNO

(2007).

Figure 20. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of pasta

4.3.1.3.2. Vitamin content of pasta

The vitamin content of pasta is discussed in the Tables 24 and Figure 21.

Table 24. Vitamin content of pasta

Vitamins Control CM-T1 CM-T2 Egg white powder p- value

Vitamin A 2.03a±0.06 94.43

b±0.06 94.83

c±0.06 -ND-

p>0.05*

Vitamin D -ND-a±0.00 3.44

b±0.01 3.46

c±0.01 -ND-

Vitamin E 0.23a±0.06 1.34

b±0.01 1.38

c±0.01 -ND-

Vitamin B6 -ND-a±0.00 3.45

b±0.01 3.47

c±0.02 -ND-

Vitamin B12 -ND-a±0.00 0.35

b±0.01 0.35

c±0.01 0.40

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA,

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

CM-T1 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg

white powder. CM-T2- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg

white powder. ND-Not Detected.

The vitamins are sensitive to physical and chemical treatments. Vitamin

stability depends on the chemical structure and can be decreased due to exposure to

heat, light, oxygen, moisture and minerals (Singh et al., 2007). The percent gain of

vitamin A was found to be higher (CM-T1-94.43, CM-T2-94.83) in pasta formulated

using composite millet powder exposed to both drying methods when compared to

control pasta. As in the case of vitamin D, vitamin B6 and vitamin B12, the control

pasta made up of 100% refined flour was found to be lacking when compared to the

pasta formulated using the composite millet powder. In control pasta and pasta with

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Histidine Valine Methionine Iso-leucine Phenylalanine Leucine Lysine Proline Tryptophan

(mg

.10

0g

)

Essential amino acids (mg/100g) Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

Egg White Powder

T1

T2

addition of egg white powder pasta were found to be deficit in most of the vitamins.

On comparing between the drying methods, the vitamin content does not show any

significant difference (p>0.05).

Figure 21. Vitamin content of pasta

4.3.1.3.3. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of pasta

Table 25 and Figure 22 presents the essential fatty acid composition of pasta

developed from composite millet powder either with or without addition of egg white

powder and the control pasta formulated using refined wheat flour were analyzed and

presented below.

Table 25. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of pasta

Essential fatty acids

(mg/100g) Control CM-T1 CM-T2

Egg white

powder p-value

Palmitic acids 0.147a±0.012 0.993

b±0.000 0.993

b±0.000 -ND-

p≤0.05*

Stearic acids 0.072b±0.001 0.034

a±0.000 0.336

c±0.000 -ND-

Oleic acids 0.083a±0.006 0.785

b±0.006 0.789

b±0.000 -ND-

Linoleic 0.057a±0.006 1.343

b±0.006 1.377

c±0.006 -ND-

Alpha linolenic acid 0.000a±0.000 0.783

b±0.000 0.784

c ±0.000 -ND-

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

CM- T1E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg

white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg

white powder.

The pasta developed using composite millet powder with addition of egg

white powder did not show any increment in the fatty acid composition. On

comparing between the drying techniques the pasta developed from composite millet

powder subjected to both the drying techniques did not show much significant

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Vitamin A

(IU)

Vitamin D

(mg)

Vitamin E

(mg)

Vitamin B6

(mg)

Vitamin B12

(mg)

Vit

am

in/1

00

g

Vitamins/100g Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

Egg white powder

CM-T1

CM-T2

difference (p>0.05). The mean increment was observed in pasta formulated using

composite millet powder when compared to the control pasta. The pasta prepared

from composite millet powder showed slightly higher values in stearic acids, oleic

acids, palmitic acids, linoleic acids and alpha linoleic acids. Yoshida et al., (1988)

reported that the level of moisture present in raw food material provides protection

against losses of unsaturated fatty acids during thermal heating.

Figure 22. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of pasta

4.3.1.4. Antioxidant activity of pasta

4.3.1.4.1. DPPH scavenging activity of pasta

Table 26 and Figure 23 illustrates the DPPH scavenging activity of pasta

developed from composite millet powder either with or without addition of egg white

powder obtained from both dehydration techniques was observed in the concentration

of 20-100mg/ml.

Table 26. DPPH scavenging activity of pasta

Concentration

(µg/ml)

Percentage of Inhibition (%)

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T2E

20 31.14 15.89 11.01 15.14 12.19

40 50.19 29.91 17.18 28.69 20.71

60 69.89 37.17 30.13 39.13 31.98

80 82.86 49.21 43.21 48.41 44.21

100 99.21 60.01 53.22 59.42 56.13 CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta

formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying, CM- T1E- Pasta formulated using composite millet

powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using

composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg white powder.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Palmitic acid Stearic acid Oleic acid Linoleic acid Alpha linoleic

acid

mg

/10

0g

Essential fatty acids(mg/100g) Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

Egg whitepowder

CM-T1

CM-T2

Figure 23. DPPH scavenging activity of pasta

The results indicated that the scavenging activity was lesser in pasta

without incorporation of egg white powder which range between 15.89% (20mg/ml)

and 60.01% (100mg/ml), whereas in case of pasta with addition egg white powder it

was found to be 12.19% (20mg/ml) and 56.12% (100mg/ml) respectively. IC50

values of the extracts of pasta prepared from composite millet powder subjected to

both the drying methods either with or without incorporation of egg white powder

exhibited significant (p≤0.05) increase.

4.3.1.4.2. Reducing power of pasta

Table 27 and Figure 24 shows the reducing power of pasta developed from

composite millet powder either with or without addition of egg white powder.

Table 27. Reducing power of pasta

Concentration

(mg/ml)

Absorbance of 700nm

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2 CM- T1E CM-T2 E

0.02 0.39 0.07 0.13 0.11 0.17

0.04 0.66 0.16 0.27 0.22 0.32

0.06 1.05 0.29 0.40 0.39 0.41

0.08 1.34 0.41 0.47 0.43 0.59

0.1 1.45 0.59 0.72 0.67 0.76 CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta

formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying, CM- T1E- Pasta formulated using composite millet

powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using

composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg white powder.

Figure 24. Reducing power of pasta

CM T2-y = 0.552x - 2.185

R² = 0.988

IC50=46.041

CM T1-y = 0.541x + 5.674

R² = 0.995

IC50=39.512

CMT1E-y = 0.541x + 5.674

R² = 0.995

IC50=39.512

CM T2E-y = 0.556x - 0.37

R² = 0.995

IC50=89.262

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Per

cen

tag

e (%

) in

hib

itio

n

Concentration (µg/ml)

DPPH radical scavenging activity

Ascorbic acid

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

0

2

0 0.1 0.2

Ab

sorb

an

ce

70

0n

m

Concentration (µg/ml)

Reducing powder

Ascorbic acids

CM-T1

CM- T1Egg

CM-T2

CM-T2 Egg

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

The reducing power of the extracts of pasta increased with increase in

concentration. The absorbance was studied in five different concentrations ranging

from 0.05 to 1.00mg/ml for the pasta formulated using composite millet powder

obtained from both drying techniques either with or without addition of egg white

powder. The absorbance of CM-T1 was found to be 0.07-0.59 mg/ml and CM-T2 was

0.13-0.72 mg/ml. However, the reducing power of all the pasta were lesser than that

of ascorbic acid at the same concentration. The drying methods adopted did not have

any effect on antioxidant property.

4.3.1.4. Instrumental analysis of pasta developed from composite millet powder

4.3.1.4.1. Color values of pasta

The most accepted criteria to estimate the quality of cooked pasta are based

mainly on color and texture assessment (Brennan Tudorica, 2007). In fact, color,

firmness and lack of stickiness are the most desired characteristics to define the

overall quality of pasta products. The color value of pasta is given Table 28 and

Figure 25.

Table 28. Color values of pasta

Color values Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T1E p- values

L*- Raw 56.46 ±.01 40.25±.02 40.28±.01 40.31±.02 40.34±.01

p≤0.05*

L* - Cooked 55.73±.03 44.04±0.03 44.06±.01 35.45±.03 35.67±.29

a* - Raw 2.52±.02 5.06±0.02 5.08±.01 2.93±.02 2.89±.02

a* - Cooked 0.10±0.01 5.67±0.02 5.68±.01 6.17±.02 6.11±.01

b* - Raw 20.93±.02 13.31±0.02 13.34±.01 15.05±.03 15.02±.01

b* - Cooked 14.01±0.02 14.62±0.02 14.62±.02 14.62±.02 14.59±.01

Delta E 18.53±0.03 22.53±.02 20.30±.02 22.58±.02

13.42±0.02 23.11±.01 13.43±.01 24.71±.01 All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg

white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg

white powder.

The color is the important quality attribute of pasta

(Rayas-Duarte et al., 1996). The Luminosity (L*) values of the raw pasta prepared

from composite millet powder prior to cooking varied from 40.25 to 40.34 and for

the control pasta it was found to be 56.46. The slight decrement in the luminosity

(p≤0.05) of pasta formulated using composite millet powder was due to the darker

color of the millet seed coat (more brown) when compared to refined flour (maida).

Similar results were observed by Gallegos-Infante et al., (2010) and

Howard et al., (2011) in the formulation of pasta using bean flour or peanut flour.

The decrease in the L* values resulted in increased a* and b* values of pasta

formulated from composite millet powder when compared to control pasta. During

cooking process, the changes occurred in the structure and color of the pasta is mainly

due to flour composition and addition of egg white powder. Hence, it resulted in

declined brightness in pasta and increase in redness which may be associated to the

progression of maillard reaction. Irrespective of the drying methods adopted, the

cooked pasta resulted in less bright (L*), more red (a*) and more yellow (b*) than the

control pasta (p≤0.05).

Figure 25. Color values of pasta

0

20

40

60

80

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T1E

L*

L* values of ready to cook pasta Raw

Cooked

0

2

4

6

8

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T1E

a*

a* values of ready to cook pasta

Raw

Cooked

0

5

10

15

20

25

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T1E

b*

b* values of ready cook pasta Raw Cooked

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T2E

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T2E

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T2E

4.3.1.4.2. Textural profile of pasta

Table 29 and Figure 26 show the textural profile of pasta.

Table 29.Textural profile of pasta

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying,

CM- T1E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying with addition of egg

white powder, CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying with addition of egg

white powder.

The textural characteristics of pasta play a vital role in determining the final

acceptance and also show the preference for pasta by the consumer, which retains the

texture characteristics not only with normal cooking time but also with overcooking.

Results revealed that the textural characteristics of the pasta like pasta firmness,

elasticity, adhesiveness, and stickiness are presented in Table 29.

The hardness values of composite millet pasta were higher than the control

pasta. However, it did not make so much difference between the pasta either with or

without incorporation of egg white powder. The firmness was found to be higher in

pasta incorporated with egg white powder than the control pasta and the pasta without

incorporation of egg white powder. Differences in firmness values mainly arise due to

protein present in egg white powder. Increasing the amount of gluten in spaghetti

decreased the amount of residue in the cooking water and increases the force required

to produce a given extension in cooked spaghetti a report by Matsuo and Irvine, 1970

supports the present study. The parameters like adhesiveness or stickiness is related

with the amount of starch and starch gelatinization taking place during processing.

Textural

profile Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1E CM-T2E p -value

Hardness 1033.4a ± 105.30 1050.5

a ± 108.258 1026.3

a ± 62.508 1298.4

b ± 32.113 1165.4

a,b ± 120.405 0.019*

Adhesiveness -0.732b ± 9.51 -14.04

a ± 1.892 -15.997

a ± 0.802 0.004

b ± 1.060 0.007

b ± 1.076 p≤0.05*

Springiness 0.90b,c

± 0.10 0.79a ± 0.031 0.823

a,b ± 0.031 0.903

b,c ± 0.045 0.960

c ± 0.010 0.017*

Cohesiveness 0.79b,c

± 0.06 0.53a ± 0.044 0.523

a ± 0.025 0.720

b ± 0.035 0.823

c ± 0.059 p≤0.05*

Resilience 0.51a ± 0.08 0.65

b ± 0.072 0.623

b ± 0.021 0.480

a ± 0.030 0.640

b ± 0.036 p≤0.05*

Stringiness 5.92a,b

± 0.48 6.37b,c

± 0.201 6.483c ± 0.146 5.533

a ± 0.115 5.800

a ± 0.100 p≤0.05*

Gumminess 787.83b ± 79.69 591.77

a ± 78.164 559.570

a ± 60.751 1179.957

c ± 30.754 1296.567

c ± 72.857 p≤0.05*

Chewiness 644.25b,c

± 63.59 456.35a ± 107.870 561.3

a,b ± 0.839 924.680

c ± 74.997 720.067

d ± 36.143 p≤0.05*

The adhesiveness values were found to be higher in the early stages of

cooking and it starts to decrease as cooking time proceeds. Water cannot diffuse into

inner layers up to optimum cooking time and protein network does not develop, as a

result starch leaches into cooking water easily. The adhesiveness or stickiness was

found to be higher in pasta without incorporation of egg white powder. This could be

attributed due to nonexistence of gluten in millet which increases the stickiness and

leads to increase in the residue loss of pasta during cooking process.

Cohesiveness is the good indicator to know how the sample holds together

upon cooking. Cohesiveness values of control pasta and pasta either with egg white

powder was higher in their holding properties of structure together since the control

pasta was developed using refined wheat flour which contain high gluten content

whereas in the case of egg white powder incorporated pasta, the protein present in the

egg helps to holds the structure of pasta and prevent the loss of residue.

Chewiness which is associated with the elastic strength of the protein matrix

was highest for control pasta and pasta incorporated with egg white powder. As

cooking time proceeded chewiness of all pasta decreased significantly due to possible

leaching of starch to cooking water (Sozer, 2007). However, the parameters such as

springiness, resilience and stringiness do not show much significant difference

(p>0.05) among the pastas.

Figure 26.Textural profile of pasta

4.3.1.4.3. Morphological structure of pasta

Microscopy internal structure of dry and cooked pasta made from composite

millet powder is shown in Figure 27. Microscopy techniques is used to explore the

information about size, shape, and arrangement of the particles of pastas which can

be further correlated with other characteristics such as texture, cooking

behavior, and digestibility (Fardet et al.,1998). The changes in many physical

uniqueness of food during drying are due to changes in the product microstructure

(Mercier et al., 2011). Microstructure studies revealed significant difference in the

structure of the raw flour, uncooked pasta and cooked pasta of control and composite

millet powder either with or without addition of egg white powder.

Control CM-T1 CM-

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

CM-

The morphological structure of raw flour, uncooked pasta and cooked pasta of

the SEM specimens were examined both at the surface and within the transverse

section of pasta. The starch granules within the pasta appear to be slightly swollen and

irregular in size and shape which indicates the level of gelatinization during the

extrusion process (Tudorica et al., 2007). In control pasta, the structure exhibits a

good network formation which is due to presence of gluten matrix in the maida. A

heterogeneous combination of composite millet powder can be observed in the

micrographs, featuring irregular structures with indefinite shapes, rich in spongy-

aspect material, with cavities and structural gaps of varied sizes. Pagani et al., (1986)

reported a homogeneous and porous structure where starch granules were deeply

embedded in a protein matrix.

In pasta, numerous starch granules of varying sizes were visible on the

structure of uncooked pasta. The numerous minute holes and cracks would facilitate

rapid water penetration during cooking. In addition, many cracks and minute holes

were evident in the protein matrix at the surface. This was partly due to both

shrinkage during sample preparation and surface tension in spaghetti dough during

drying (Alirezasadeghi et al., 2008). As reported in the previous study, the uncooked

spaghetti appears to be coated with smooth protein film (Evans et al., 1975). Whereas

in cooked pasta, the starch granules possessed disturbed structure and the protein

matrix which applies pressure on some starch granules lead to small structural

deformations which indicates the level of gelatinization during cooking process.

During cooking process, the surface of pasta is smooth and the volume of

pasta expanded by imparting the stress on the enveloping protein films. Addition of

egg white powder in pasta showed changes in the outside and inside structure of pasta

products. The uncooked pasta prepared with incorporation of egg white powder was

observed to be quite smooth and regular surface. The inside structure was also

regular, compact with single air bubble on protein matrix and starch granules

attached. In case of cooked pasta egg white powder incorporated, exhibited

gelatinized starch granules and protein matrix with irregular shapes and size.

Flour Raw pasta Cooked pasta

Pasta incorporated with egg white powder

CM-T1-Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying;

CM-T2-Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying

Figure 27. Morphological structure of pasta

1 2 3

4 5 6

8 9

1

0

1

1

7

Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

4.3.1.4.4. Pasting properties of pasta

The pasting characteristics of the ground pasta samples were studied using a

Rapid Visco Analyzer (Figure 28). The pasting properties of control pasta and the

pasta prepared from composite millet powder is shown in Figure 28. The control pasta

and pasta prepared from composite millet powder subjected to freeze drying was

observed with higher pasting temperature followed by pasta prepared from composite

millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying. The pasta incorporated with

egg white powder indicates lower pasting temperature which is comparable to those

of pasta without egg white powder.

The pasting temperature is related to breakdown of the hydrogen bonds

between the molecules of starch and swelling of starch granules in the presence of

heat and water. Differences in onset pasting temperature are due to the strength of

bonding of the miscellar network of individual starch granules present in refined

maida flour and millet powder. It is known from the previous literature (Kulp, 1973;

Eliasson and Karlsson, 1983) that small wheat starch granules gelatinize at higher

temperatures than the larger granules. On the other hand, the lower pasting

temperature was noted in egg incorporated pasta which was due to lower starch

content present in millet.

The highest peak viscosity was observed in control pasta when compared to

other pasta. It has been investigated that higher content of starch in flours, to some

extent, may contribute to higher pasting viscosity (Ragaee and Abdel-Aal, 2006).

Therefore, lower protein content in the control pasta might have resulted in higher

starch concentration and hence higher peak viscosity. Higher peak viscosity may also

be due to the ability of starch granules to swell more. Whereas, pasta observed lower

pasting temperature which is due to the presence of protein in millet and egg white

powder. Differences in protein composition are also known to affect pasting

viscosities and properties (Batey and Curtin, 2000). Breakdown values for control

pasta was significantly higher than the pasta prepared from composite millet powder.

Breakdown viscosity reflects the fragility of the swollen granules which first swell

and then breakdown under the continuous stirring action of the amylograph.

Therefore, these values indicate that starch from pasta were more fragile and hence

had less ability to withstand heating at high temperature and the shear stress. Sissons

and Batey (2003) pointed out that high values for breakdown are usually correlated

with high peak viscosity. In the present study, significant difference but not much

variation was found for the setback viscosity values among the pasta. Setback

viscosity that relates to the tendency of the starch to retrograde was significantly

higher in pasta prepared from composite millet powder.

Figure 28. Pasting properties of pasta

4.3.1.5. Sensory characteristics of the pasta developed from composite millet

powder

Sensory evaluation is the primary function of sensory testing conducted to

provide data on which sound decision is taken. It is defined as specific discipline used

to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret the characteristics of food materials as they

are perceived by the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing

(Meilgaard et al., 2000). Sensory characteristics like appearance, texture, colour,

taste, flavor, mouthfeel and acceptability were analyzed for the pasta developed from

composite millet powder by formulating score card.

A scorecard is a visual display of the most significant information needed to

accomplish one or more objectives, combined and arranged on a single screen so the

information could be observed at a glance (Stone et al., 2004).

4.3.1.5.2. Evaluation of the product

The two different products namely pasta and extrudates developed from

composite millet powder were subjected to 15 panel members. Based on the

treatments both products were coded commonly as CM-T1 and CM-T2 and was

displayed on a desk. The panel members were asked to examine the products carefully

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

-500

0

500

1000

1500

2000

00:00:00 00:02:53 00:05:46 00:08:38 00:11:31 00:14:24

Vis

cosi

ty(c

p)

Time (mins)

Pasting properties of pasta Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1 E

CM-T2 E

Temp

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

for appearance, flavor, taste, color and overall acceptability using the 9-Point hedonic

scale. Different ratings ranging from “Like extremely" to "dislike extremely" were

given by the judges, specifying the values from 9 (like extremely) to 1 (dislike

extremely) respectively. The average scores were taken for each treatment.

Treatments which gained a mean score of 5 and above are acceptable and the one

which scored below 5 points were rejected. This experiment was conducted under a

controlled environment in cool place. The results of the sensory analysis led way to

select the most acceptable products for further analysis (Meilgaard et al.,2000).

4.3.1.5.3 Sensory properties of pasta

The sensory scores of pasta prepared from composite millet powder either

with or without the incorporation of egg white powder were examined by panelist

using 9 point hedonic scale and the scores were analyzed for significance at p≤0.05.

In the present study, the pasta was developed by composite millet powder which is

obtained from forced convection tray drying and freeze drying and also the control

pasta developed from refined wheat flour were analyzed. The scores given by panel

members were compared with control pasta and presented in Table 30 and Figure 29.

Table 30. Sensory properties of pasta

Sensory

Parameters Control CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1-E CM-T2-E p - value

Appearance 9.00±0.00a 8.33±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 8.67±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 0.171

NS

Texture 8.67±0.58a 8.33±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 8.38±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 0.233

NS

Color 9.00±0.00c 7.33±0.58

a 8.00±0.00

ab 7.33±0.58

a 8.33±0.58

bc 0.005*

Taste 8.67±0.58a 8.00±0.00

a 8.67±0.58

a 8.00±0.00

a 8.67±0.58

a 0.171

NS

Flavour 8.33±0.58a 7.67±0.58

a 8.33±0.58

a 7.33±0.58

a 8.67±0.5

b 0.092

NS

Mouthfeel 8.67±0.58a 8.33±0.58

a 8.67±0.58

a 7.67±0.58

a 8.33±0.58

a 0.274

NS

Overall

Acceptability 8.67±0.58

a 8.33±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 8.33±0.58

a 9.00±0.00

a 0.233

NS

All values are means of triplicate determinations ± standard deviation (S.D), Same capitals superscripts in column

indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly

different (p≤0.05) by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite

millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder

exposed to freeze drying, CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray

drying with addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze

drying with addition of egg white. NS-Not Significant powder.

Figure 29. Sensory properties of Pasta

The best appearance was observed in control pasta and pasta produced from

freeze dried composite millet powder with incorporation of egg white powder.

Whereas the pasta prepared from forced convection tray drying had a dark color

hence showed a decrement in the sensory scores. This indicates that consumers

mostly like yellowish appearance of pasta rather than dark appearance. There was no

significant (p≤0.05) difference between the flavor, mouth feel and overall

acceptability scores of pasta and panelists showed the same preference for texture,

flavor, mouth feel and overall scores of pasta samples. Regarding color, the control

pasta was more acceptable than the other samples and it may be due to the effect of

addition of refined flour which could be significantly (p≤0.05) different from other

pasta developed from composite millet powder. The texture evaluation presented a

good score for all samples, with no significant differences (p>0.05) among the

samples with the exception of the pasta prepared from composite millet powder with

incorporation of egg white powder which had the highest result. The control pasta

had the best result in the color assessment (9.00) with significant differences (p≤0.05)

in relation to the other pasta prepared from composite millet powder.

However, it should be noted that the addition of egg white powder had an

impact on improving scores of color and taste of pasta. In general, the results obtained

for the cooked pasta with egg white powder showed an increase in sensory quality by

increasing the mean scores of overall acceptability.

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Appearance Texture Color Taste Flavour Mouthfeel Overall

Acceptability

Sen

sory

sco

res

Pasta ControlCM-T1CM-T2CM-T1-ECM-T2-E

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

4.3.1.6. Effect of storage on the overall acceptability and total plate count (cfu/g)

of the pasta

4.3.1.6.1. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of pasta

In the processed food, the storage quality is an essential attribute to extend

their utilization and was evaluated by several investigators in terms of sensory

characters and chemical components.

The sensory score on ready to cook pasta either with or without the

incorporation of egg white powder was examined over a storage period of 90 days for

every 15 days interval and the scores were analyzed for significance at p≤0.05. In the

present study, the different dehydrated composite millet powder was used for the

developing the product and their shelf life were studied using the overall acceptability

scores of products among the panelist.

The sensory qualities of ready to cook pasta produced from composite millet

powder were evaluated in terms of overall acceptability (Figure 42). Significant effect

on the overall acceptability of stored pasta was observed up to 90th

day of storage.

Maximum over all acceptability was observed at 0th

day, 15th

day, 30th

day and

45th

day in all the samples beyond which the overall acceptability started to decline

(p≤0.05) significantly. Similar results were reported by Duszkiewicz et al., (1988)

that no significant differences between spaghetti containing concentrates and flour for

mouth feel at zero days and after 6 months of storage and for external appearance and

general acceptability after 3 months.

Table 31. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of pasta

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), Same capitals superscripts in column

indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly

different (p≤0.05) by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test. CM-T1 –Pasta formulated using composite

millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying. CM-T2 - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder

exposed to freeze drying, CM- T1E - Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to forced convection tray

drying with addition of egg white powder. CM- T2E- Pasta formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze

drying with addition of egg white powder.

Samples 0 day 15 days 30 days 45day 60 day 75 days 90 days p-

value

Control 8.67±.02aA

8.10±.10aB

7.67±.01aC

7.34±.02aD

6.67±.01aE

6.32±.02aF

5.66 .01aG

p≤0.05*

CM-T1 8.34±.01bA

8.68±.01bB

8.67±.01bB

8.37±.01bA

6.66±.01aC

5.65±.02bD

5.33±.01bE

CM-T2 8.35±.02bA

8.67±.01bB

8.69±.02cB

8.67±.010cB

7.33±.01bC

7.32±.01cC

6.32±.02cD

CM-T1E 8.97±.06cA

8.67±.02bB

8.07±.06dC

8.03±.06dC

7.67±.01cD

7.32±.01cE

6.67±.02dF

CM-T2E 8.97±.06cA

8.93±.06cB

8.87±.16dB

8.10±.10dC

8.10±.10dC

7.67±.01dD

7.34±.01eE

p-value (p≤0.05)*

Figure 30. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of pasta

4.3.1.6.2. Effect of storage on the total plate count (cfu/g) of the pasta

The Table 32 explains the total plate count of the pasta

Table 32. Total plate count (cfu/g) of the pasta during storage

Samples

Storage days (cfu/g)

0 Day 15 Days 30 Days 45 Days 60 Days 75 Days 90 Days

Control 1.1X101 1.3X10

2 1.9X10

2 1.8X10

3 2.1X10

3 1.3X10

4 2.9X10

4

CM-T1 7X101 9X10

1 1.3X10

2 1.2X10

3 1.9X10

3 1.3X10

4 2.3X10

4

CM-T2 3X101 7X10

1 1.5X10

2 1.1X10

3 1.3X10

3 1.0X10

4 2.1X10

4

CM-T1E 6X101 1.1X10

1 1.2X10

2 1.4X10

3 2.1X10

3 1.4X10

4 2.3X10

4

CM-T2E 3X101 9X10

1 1.3X10

2 1.3X10

3 2.0X10

3 9X10

4 1.7X10

4

CM-T1-Pasta developed from composed millet powder exposed to forced convection tray drying ;

CM-T2 - Pasta developed from composed millet powder exposed to freeze drying; E- Egg white powder.

Table 32 shows the results of microbial analysis during the storage period.

Microbial analyses of sample during the storage period were analyzed up to 90 days.

Bacterial count was increased gradually 0-90 days for all the samples, still microbial

load was observed within the limits and the products were stable up to 90 days. The

pasta developed either with or without addition of egg white powder (Control, CM-T1,

CM-T2, CM-T1E, and CM-T2E) was analyzed in 0th

, 15th

, 30th

, 45th

and 60th

days

using nutrient agar. As pasta has relatively low water activity, it is generally regarded

as a microbiologically safe product. The results showed that the aerobic plate count of

pasta formulated using composite millet powder either with or without addition of egg

white powder had lesser count when compared to the control pasta. The less aerobic

plate count was observed in sample followed by the CM-T1 and CM-T1E that might

be due to the effect of heat treatment on the survival of bacteria and the highest level

was observed in control which had no heat treatment during processing. Cereals and

their products are prone to attack by yeast and molds (Onyango Christine

Akoth et al., 2012). Low levels of yeasts and molds were detected in 30 days and

2

4

6

8

10

0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Sen

sory

sco

res

Days

control

CMT1

CMT2

CMT1E

CMT2E

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

increased for the remaining of the storage period. The levels remained within the

acceptable standard till 90 days of storage periods.

4.3.2. Evaluation of quality characteristics of extrudates

The quality characteristics of the convenience foods namely ready to eat

(extrudates) product were studies in terms of nutritional, physical, functional,

instrumental and sensory properties including shelf life studies are discussed below.

4.3.2.1. Nutritional properties of extrudates

Table 33 and Figure 31 show the nutritional properties of extrudates.

Table 33. Nutritional properties of extrudates

Nutritional

properties Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Moisture (g) 8.60c ± 0.03 4.04

b ± 0.02 3.37

a ± 0.15

p≤0.05*

Ash (g) 0.30a± 0.01 2.78

b ± 0.01 2.81

c ± 0.01

Carbohydrates (g) 90.48c ± 0.61 70.85

ba ± 0.02 72.01

a ± 0.02

Protein (g) 6.53a ± 0.03 11.02

b ± 0.01 11.40

c ± 0.01

Fat (g) 2.23c ± 0.03 0.34

b ± 0.03 0.20

a ± 0.02

Energy (Kcal) 404.33b ± .51 303.00

a ± 3.61 308.67

a ± 3.06

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder

exposed to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to

Freeze drying.

Moisture is one of the variables that are most significant in modifying the

physical properties of extruded products (Avin et al., 1992). The highest moisture

content was observed for control extrudates (8.60g/100g) while lowest moisture

content was noted in extrudates formulated from composite millet powder subjected

to forced convection tray drying (4.04g/100g) and freeze drying (3.37g/100g). The

moisture content of extruded products depend on factors such as the initial feed

moisture content, water binding capacity and vaporization of heat (Park et al., 1993).

Marzo et al., (2002) reported that less influence of extrusion cooking on the

ash content. The ash content of extrudates increased with increase in multimillets

thereby showed higher ash content which range between 2.78 g/100g and 2.81g/100g.

The least ash content was observed in control extrudates (0.30g) made from rice flour.

High amount of ash content was seen in composite millet powder and this could be

attributed to the fact that millets contains high amount of minerals and fibre. The

observed increase in ash content could also be due to addition of multimillets for

formulation of extrudates whereas ash content in control was lesser due to absence of

minerals in rice. The extrusion cooking does not significantly affect the mineral

composition of pea and kidney beans except for iron. Iron content of the flour is

increased after processing and it is most likely due to the result of the wear of metallic

pieces and screws of the extruder (Alonso et al., 2000).

The carbohydrate content of the control extrudates (90.48g/100g) was

significantly higher (p≤ 0.05) than that of the extrudates formulated using composite

millet powder obtained from both dehydration techniques (CM-T1-70.85g/100g and

CM-T2-72.01g/100g). This difference in the carbohydrate was due to abundant starch

present in the rice flour. It was already established that carbohydrates present in millet

are slowly digested and assimilated than other cereals. Regular consumption of millet

helps to reduce the risk of diabetes (Chethan et al., 2008b).

Protein content of the extrudates obtained from both the drying methods varied

from 6.53 to 11.40 g. The protein content is highest in extrudates made from processed

composite millet powder obtained from forced convection tray drying (11.02g/100g)

and freeze drying (11.40g/100g). The change in protein content was attributed due to

the combination of multimillets for the formulation of products. Pelembe et al., (2003)

reported that the apparent protein content was not affected by extrusion temperature as

nitrogen is not affected by heat treatment.

The fat contents of the extrudates are shown in Table 33. The effects of fat on

extrudate properties are also important and multifaceted. Among the extrudates

developed, lowest fat content was noted in control extrudate (0.30g/100g) which is

developed from rice flour when compared to extrudate developed from composite

millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying (2.78g/100g) and freeze

drying (2.81g/100g). The increase in the fat content is attributed due to the natural

existance of fat in selected millets. Park et al., (1993) found that the higher fat content

lowers the expansion ratio of the product. The 100% of rice flour extrudate (control)

had the lowest fat content and thereby highest expansion ratio. Extrudates prepared

from blends of multimillets showed significantly increased fat content (p≤0.05).

Regarding energy values, the extrudates formulated using composite millet

powder subjected to forced convection tray drying was found to have 303kcal/100g

and for freeze drying it was observed to be 308kcal/100g. High energy values

(404kcal/100g) were observed in control extrudates made from rice flour. The energy

content increases due to higher concentration in rice flour.

During cooking process, the surface of pasta is smooth and the volume of

pasta expanded by imparting the stress on the enveloping protein films. Addition of

egg white powder in pasta showed changes in the outside and inside structure of pasta

products. The uncooked pasta prepared with incorporation of egg white powder was

observed to be quite smooth and regular surface. The inside structure was also

regular, compact, with single air bubble on protein matrix and starch granules

attached. In case of cooked pasta egg white powder incorporated, exhibited

gelatinized starch granules and protein matrix with irregular shapes and size.

Figure 31. Nutritional properties of extrudates

0

2

4

6

8

10

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

g)

Moisture (g)

0

1

2

3

4

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

g)

Ash (g)

0

20

40

60

80

100

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

g)

Carbohydrates (g)

0

5

10

15

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

g)

Protein (g)

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

g)

Fat (g)

0

100

200

300

400

500

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(Kca

l/1

00

g)

Energy (Kcal)

CM-T1 CM-T2

CM-T1 CM-T2

CM-T1 CM-T2

CM-T1 CM-T2

CM-T1 CM-T2

CM-T1 CM-T2

4.3.2.2. Physical properties of extrudates

Table 34 and Figure 32 represent the physical properties of extrudates.

Table 34. Physical properties of extrudates

Physical properties Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p- value

Expansion Ratio (g/100cc) 3.68a ± 0.03 3.20

b ± 0.02 3.31

a ± 0.202 p≤0.05*

Bulk Density (g/ml) 77.32c ± 0.02 74.18

a ± 0.04 74.32

b ± 0.020

p≤0.05* Water Absorption Index(g/ml) 9.78b ± 0.03 8.09

a ± 0.02 8.09

a ± 0.010

Water Solubility Index (%) 33.02c ± 0.02 31.63

b ± 0.01 31.03

a ± 0.025

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA,

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed

to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to Freeze drying.

In extrusion cooking process, the expansion ratio is the most important quality

parameter connected with product crispiness, water absorption, water solubility, and

crunchiness. In biopolymers extrusion cooking, the viscoelastic material is forced

through the die as a result of the sudden pressure drop that causes part of the water to

vaporize, giving an expanded porous structure (Sawant et al., 2013). The result of

expansion ratio of extrudates indicates that extrudate made from composite millet

powder showed lower expansion ratio when compared to control extrudate. A high

expansion ratio is desirable in production of expanded snacks. The extrudates

prepared from composite millet powder obtained from two drying methods such as

forced convection tray drying (3.20) and freeze drying (3.31) had lower expansion

ratio as compared with control extrudates prepared from rice flour (3.68). It was due

to the increase in protein and fiber content which resulted in a decrease in expansion

ratio of extrudate. Similar findings were observed by an Jones et al., (2000) where

there was a decrease in expansion ratio of extrudates due to increase in protein and

fiber content Balandrán-quintana et al., (1998) reported that, as the temperature of

extrusion cooking increased, the starch present in extrudates gets completely cooked

and thus resulted in the better expansion of products.

The bulk density (g/ml) was calculated by measuring their actual dimensions

of the extrudate products. Asare et al., (2004) reported that bulk density has been

linked with the expansion ratio in describing the degree of puffing in extrudates. The

bulk density was minimum for control extrudate (73.99 gcm3) and maximum for

extrudate (CM-T1- 74.18, CM-T2 - 74.32) prepared from composite millet powder.

The higher bulk density may be due to the presence of protein in the composite millet

powder which reduces the puffing quality of extrudate. The bulk density was

increased as the quantity of cereals starch increases in extrudates. Similar findings

were observed by Quing et al., (2005).

Water solubility index is the indication of degree of gelatinization.

Gelatinization of starch is associated with the disruption of granular structure causing

starch molecules to disperse in water (Wajira and Jackson, 2006). Water solubility

index was observed to be significantly increased (p≤0.05) in control extrudates

(33.023%) when compared with the extrudates prepared from composite millet

powder obtained from forced convection tray drying (31.63 %) and freeze drying

(31.03%). The increase in the water solubility index shows macromolecular

degradation depending upon the intensity of extrusion process (Sirawdink Fikreyesus

Forsido et al., 2011).

Water absorption index reflects the ability of starch to absorb water and is an

indirect measure of the amount of intact and fully gelatinized starch granules. Water

absorption index was observed to have slight increase in control extrudates (9.73%)

whereas the extrudates developed from composite millet powder obtained from forced

convection tray drying (8.09%) and freeze drying (8.09%) was decreased which showed

significant differences (p≤0.05) between the control and composite millet powder

extrudates. Increased water absorption index in extrudate led to increase in starch

gelatinization (Colonna et al., 1989 and Osman et al., 2000).

Figure 32.Physical properties of extrudates

0

1

2

3

4

5

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/1

00

cc)

Expansion Ratio (g/100cc)

0

20

40

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(%)

Water Absorption and Solubility Index (%)

Water Absorption

Index %

Water Solubility

Index (%)

CM-T1 CM-T2 CM-T1 CM-T2

Control CM- T1 CM-T2

70

72

74

76

78

80

Control CM-T1 CM-T2

(g/m

l)

Bulk Density (g/ml)

CM-T1 CM-T2

4.3.2.3. Functional properties of extrudates

Functional food is a natural or processed food that contains known

biologically-active compounds and powerful antioxidant nutrients which provides a

clinically proven and documented health benefit. In the present study, the functional

properties such as Essential amino acid profile, Essential fatty acid, vitamins,

phytochemicals and antioxidant activity were carried out for the developed extrudates

4.3.2.3.1. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of extrudates

Table 35 and Figure 33 show the result of essential amino acid profile of the

extrudate.

Table 35. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of extrudates

Essential amino acids

(g/100g)

Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p- value

Histidine 0.14a±0.01 0.45

b±0.01 0.47

c±0.01 0.000*

Valine 0.33c±0.01 0.18

a±0.01 0.20

b±0.01 0.000*

Methionine 0.14a±0.01 0.29

b±0.01 0.31

c±0.01 0.000*

Isoleucine 0.23c±0.01 0.21

a±0.01 0.22

a,b±0.01 0.064

NS

Phenylalanine 0.31a±0.01 0.77

b±0.01 0.89

c±0.01 0.000*

Leucine 0.48c±0.01 0.27

a±0.01 0.29

b±0.01 0.000*

Lysine 0.19a±0.01 0.39

b±0.01 0.40

b±0.01 0.000*

Proline 0.22b±0.01 0.02

a±0.01 0.01

a±0.01 0.000*

Tryptophan 0.07a±0.01 0.31

b±0.01 0.33

c±0.01 0.000*

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed

to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to Freeze drying.

NS –Not Significant.

The change in amino acid content during the extrusion of extrudates

developed from composite millet powder. Most of the extruded products are made

from durum wheat which contains both protein and gluten. The protein in extruded

product is low to medium depending on the type of powder. The total amount of

essential amino acid composition in both the dried extrudates range between

0.013-0.887g/100 g in composite millet powder and 0.067- 0.477g/100 g in

control (rice flour). The value of valine, metheonine, leucine, tryptophan and

isoleucine, histidine was significantly (p≤0.05) reduced during extrusion cooking.

However, lysine, leucine, threonine and phenylalanine were not significantly (p>0.05)

affected. The highest concentration of conditionally essential amino acids for the

composite millet powder was threonine while the least was valine. Finger millet

contains 44.7% essential amino acids (FAO, 1991) of the total amino acids

which is higher when compared with the reference protein (33.9%) (FAO, 1991).

Tryptophan is usually considered as the second most deficient amino acid in cereals

however it is not deficient in finger millet (Ravindran, 1992). Among the millets,

finger millet is relatively better balanced in essential amino acids because it

contains more lysine, thereonine and valine (Lupien, 1990). The isoleucine content

of finger millet is also high. It is evident that composite flour prepared by blending

multimillets in proportion can provide the required amino acids to the consumer.

Figure 33. Essential amino acid (mg/100g) profile of extrudates

4.3.2.3.2. Vitamin content of extrudates

Table 36 and figure 34 shows the vitamin content of extrudates which are

discussed below.

Table 36. Vitamin content of extrudates

Vitamins Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p –value

Vitamin A 0.00a±0.00 94.17

b±0.06 94.57

c±0.06

p≤0.05*

Vitamin D 0.00a±0.00 3.42

b±0.01 3.44

c±0.01

Vitamin E 0.11a±0.01 1.31

b±0.01 1.36

c±0.01

Vitamin B6 0.44a±0.01 3.44

b±0.01 3.46

c±0.01

Vitamin B12 0.00a±0.01 0.33

b±0.01 0.35

c±0.01

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed

to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to Freeze

drying.

When compared with other nutrients, the daily intake of vitamins is comparably

lesser but is essential for good health because of the role of vitamins as coenzymes in

metabolism. The focus is to study the effect of extrusion on the recovery of vitamins

and minerals that are added prior to extrusion. From the above table the vitamin

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Histidine Valine Methionine Isoleucine Phenylalanine Leucine Lysine Proline Tryptophan

(mg

/10

0g

)

Essential amino acids (mg/100g) Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

T1

T2

content of extrudates shows slight decrement during extrusion process. When

compared with control extrudates developed from rice flour, the extrudate prepared

from composite millet powder shows higher vitamin content. This might be due to

multimillets in the composite blends which are used for extrudate development. The

property of extrusion however showed destructive effects for vitamins from the

B-groups, vitamin A and vitamin E and more over no data on the retention for vitamin

D and vitamin K were presented (Killeit, 1994).

Figure 34.Vitamin content of extrudates

4.3.2.3.3. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of extrudates

The table 37 and figure 35 represents the essential fatty acid composition of

the extrudates.

Table 37. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of extrudates

Essential fatty acids

(mg/100g) Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p –value

Palmitic acid 0.35a ±0.00 0.99

b±0.00 0.99

b±0.00

p≤0.05*

Stearic acid 0.02a ±0.00 0.03

b±0.00 0.04

c±0.00

Oleic acid 0.44a ±0.00 0.78

b±0.01 0.79

b±0.00

Linoleic acid 0.07a ±0.00 1.34

b±0.01 1.38

c±0.01

Alpha Linoleic acid 0.00a ±0.00 0.78

b±0.00 0.78

c±0.00

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1 –Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed

to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2- Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to Freeze

drying.

The palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and α-linolenic acids found in control

extrudates were 0.346%, 0.023%, 0.437%, 0.067%, and 0.00% respectively. The

essential fatty acid composition of extrudates prepared from composite millet powder

from both the drying techniques is depicted in Table 37.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Vitamin A

(IU)

Vitamin D (mg) Vitamin E (mg) Vitamin B6

(mg)

Vitamin B12

(mg)

Vitamin (g/100g) Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

T1

T2

The results revealed that extrusion conditions did not significantly affect the

composition of essential fatty acid content. The concentration of linoleic acid was

observed to be maximum for both the drying methods (CM-T1-1.34%, CM-T2-1.38%)

when compared to other fatty acids. The palmitic acid concentration range from a

minimum value of 0.99% to a maximum value of 0.99% as a result of different type

of dehydration observed in extrusion. The stearic acid was almost similar in both the

drying methods. Camire (2001) reported that during extrusion process the loss of fatty

acid content in the extrudates can be attributed due to the formation of complexes

between lipid and protein. These values are in line with the values of the fatty acids

distribution of lipid fractions extracted from corn meal samples as reported by

Guzman et al., (1992).

Figure 35. Essential fatty acid (mg/100g) composition of extrudates

4.3.2.3.4. Antioxidant activity of extrudates

4.3.2.3.4.1. DPPH scavenging activity of extrudates

Table 38 and Figure 36 shows the DPPH activity of extrudates.

Table 38. DPPH scavenging activity of extrudates

Figure36. DPPH scavenging activity of extrudates

Radical-scavenging activity, employing DPPH, has been extensively used in

the field of food processing for screening the antioxidant capacity of products

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

Palmitic

acids

Stearic acis Oleic acids Linoleic acids Alpha

Linoleic acids

(mg

/10

0g

)

Essential fatty acids (mg/100g) Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

CMT1-y = 0.634x + 9.791

R² = 0.982

IC50-63.421 CMT2-y = 0.676x + 1.141

R² = 0.986C

IC50-72.27 0

50

100

0 100 200

Per

cen

tag

e

inh

ibit

ion

Concentration (µg/ml

DPPH radical scavenging activity

Ascorbic acid

CM-T1

CM-T2

Concentration

(µg/ml

Percentage of Inhibition

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2

20 31.14 19.5 14.41

40 50.19 39.16 29.96

60 69.89 47.23 38.15

80 74.86 61.63 58.13

100 95.21 71.68 67.96

CMT1-Composite millet powder; T1- Forced convention tray

drying; T2-Freeze drying.

T

1

T

1

(Robards et al., 1999; Sanchez-Moreno, 2002). In the current study, DPPH was

expressed as mmol Trolox/g in dry sample. The extracts of dry extrudates developed

from composite millet powder at concentration of 20mg/ml scavenged 19.5% and

14.41% DPPH respectively, while a significant (p≤0.05) enhancement in the

scavenging activity was observed when the concentration was increased to

100mg/ml respectively.

When the concentration of the crude extract of sample was increased to

100mg/ml, the extracts of CM-T1 and CM-T2 registered to increase in double the

fold of scavenging activity. Similarly, the estimated IC50 values of extrudates

CM-T1 and CM-T2 were 63.421 and 72.27mg/ml respectively. This was supported by

Brand-Willams et al., (1995) who stated that the method of scavenging stable DPPH

free radicals can be used to evaluate the antioxidant activity of exact compounds. The

low antioxidant content was observed in the extrudates prepared from forced

convection tray drying when compared to freeze drying is due to the fact that the

molecules acting as antioxidants that were present in the raw samples are generally

destroyed during the high temperature used in processing of powder and also by

extrusion cooking.

4.3.2.3.4.2. Reducing power of extrudates

Table 39 and Figure 37 shows the reducing power of extrudates.

Table 39. Reducing power of extrudates

F Figure 37. Reducing power of extrudate

There was no significant difference in the extrudate developed from composite

millet powder obtained from two different drying methods such as forced convection

tray drying and freeze drying. The reducing power of CM-T1 at 0.05-1.00mg/ml of

concentration varies from 0.058-0.56mg/ml and for CM-T2 the range was about

0.08-0.51mg/ml. When comparing between the standard ascorbic acids the reducing

0

2

0 0.05 0.1 0.15

Ab

sorb

an

ce 7

00

nm

Concentration(µg/ml)

Reducing powder

control

CM-T1

CM-T2

Concentration

(mg/ml)

Absorbance of 700nm

Ascorbic

acid CM-T1 CM-T2

0.02 0.39 0.058 0.08

0.04 0.663 0.136 0.17

0.06 1.053 0.279 0.29

0.08 1.341 0.426 0.37

0.1 1.45 0.56 0.51

CM-T1-Extrudates developed using composite millet

powder exposed to forced convention tray drying.

CM-T2-Extrudates developed using composite millet

powder exposed to freeze drying.

powder was found to be lower in extrudate developed from composite millet powder.

The antioxidant activity increased as a function of the development of the reducing

power (Oyaizu, 1986).

4.3.2.4. Instrumental analysis of extrudates

4.3.2.4.1. Color values of extrudates

Table 40 and Figure 38 show the color of extrudates.

Table 40. Color values of extrudates

Color

values Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p –value

L* 84.40c ± 0.30 46.27

a ± 0.025 47.22

b ± 0.015

p≤0.05* a* 3.10a ± 0.10 9.30

b ± 0.015 9.93

c ± 0.392

b* 12.13a ± 0.15 21.08

b ± 0.020 22.19

c ± 0.020

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed

to forced convection tray drying; CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder exposed to freeze drying.

Color is an important parameter which directly relates to the acceptability of

food products and also gives the information about the extent of browning reactions

such as caramelization, maillard reaction, degree of cooking and pigment degradation

during the extrusion process (Ilo and Berghofer, 1999). Also, color considers being

essential to attract consumers to increase the product marketing (Finely, 1985).

The extrudates prepared from composite millet powder were darker

(lower „L‟ values) than the control extrudates developed from rice flour. The L*

values were found to be lower in extrudates prepared from composite millet powder

(46.27, 47.22) as compared with control extrudates (84.40). The addition of multi

millets resulted in darker shades of the extrudates and also the extrusion process

would have induced chemical changes on increased addition of millet powder.

The changes in a* values of extrudates were from negative to positive

(green to red). The a* value was high in the extrudates obtained from composite

millet powder (9.30, 9.93) when compared to control extrudates prepared from rice

flour (3.10). Darker color in the products is due to the caramelization of sugar by

maillard reaction. With addition of composite millet powder, the extrudate became

more yellow due to increase in positive b* values. Maillard reaction or non-

enzymatic browning would have resulted in a complex set of reactions initiated by

reactions between amines and carbonyl compounds at elevated temperature would

decompose and eventually condense into insoluble brown pigments known as

melanoidins (Damodaran,1996). The higher protein content of millet powder and

presence of sugars may have enhanced maillard browning of extrudates.

Figure 38. Color values of extrudates

4.3.2.4.2. Textural profile of extrudates

Table 41 and Figure 39 represent the texture profile of extrudates.

Table 41.Textural profile of extrudates

Sample Hardness Crispness

Control 1282.9a ± 2.587 2.03

c ± 0.058

CM-T1 1884.3b ± 1.752 1.71

b ± 0.004

CM-T2 2124.17c ± 1.950 1.11

a ± 0.002

p- value p≤0.05* All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), * Significantly different (p≤0.05) by ANOVA.

The same superscripts in row indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in row indicates different to each

other are significant different (p≤0.05) by DMRT. CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder

subjected to forced convection tray drying, CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder subjected to

freeze drying.

In extruded products, the textural profile is considered to be one of the

important parameters which are closely associated with the consumer acceptance. The

quality of processed ready-to eat extruded products should be produced with harder

texture than the commercial snack food, which helps to hydrate more slowly and

retain their desired crispness longer when consumed with milk. In the present study,

the hardness and crispness of ready to eat extrudate was carried out, as they are

closely associated with the expansion and cell structure of the product. The

instrumental method used for the measurement of hardness is the maximum

force required for a probe to penetrate the extrudate. With regard to the hardness

of the extrudates, the composite millet powder extrudates resulted in a significant

increase as shown in Figure 30 when compared with control extrudates developed

from rice flour. Increased fiber and starch content of multi millets resulted in rupture

of gas cells, which reduced overall expansion and increased hardness.

Change in the hardness of extrudates was probably due to cell wall thickness

to make the product less porous. Similar findings were reported by

0

50

100

Control CM-T1 CM-T2C

olo

ur

va

lue

L*,a*,b* value of extrudates L*

a*

b*

CM-T1 CM-T2

Mendonca et al., (2000); Yanniotis et al., (2007) and Ainsworth et al., (2007).

Likewise, increasing the moisture content possibly resulted in a lower degree of starch

gelatinization and lower expansion which showed increasing hardness in extrudates.

Whereas in the case of crispness, the control extrudates (2.03) found to be more crispy

when compared with the extrudates prepared from composite millet powder

formulated using two dryers like forced convection tray drying (1.71) and freeze

drying (1.11). This might be due to reduced starch conversion and compressed bubble

growth eventually resulting in a dense product and reduced crispness (area under the

force-deformation curve) (Ding et al., 2005).

Figure 39. Textural profile of extrudates

4.3.2.4.3. Morphological structure of extrudates

Figure 40 shows the effect of extrusion on extrudates cellular structure. The

scanning electron micrograph (SEM) result shows the inner structure of raw flour

before and after extrusion. Before extrusion, the SEM micrograph indicates the intact

arrangement of starch granules, visible protein matrix and decreased air cell size. The

SEM micrographs indicate that the drastic changes observed in the extrudates after

extrusion process. As a result of high temperature during extrusion, damage of starch

granules and protein matrices has occurred which intern showed large number of

flattened and sheared granules in the extrudates. The partially damage of particles was

highest in the case of extrusion at temperature 120°C. The air cell walls and

honeycomb structure became thinner and collapsed as a result of high temperature.

This may be due to the breaking of hydrogen bonds in starch and their reformation

resulting in grafting of starch. Addition of multimillets decreased the mean air cell

size. Moreover, the number of air cells increased and cell wall thickness decreased

which is associated with protein and starch granules. The collapse of cell walls and

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T2

the appearance of large void spaces within the extrudates were observed as the

expansion volume in the control extrudates increases. Whereas, in the case of

composite millet powder extrudates, the air cell walls are composed mainly of

gelatinized starch matrices and cooked proteins. Large air gaps occurred in the control

extrudates which constitutes the starch matrix. Smaller air gaps and smaller pores

(tiny air cells) were observed to be increased in the extrudates developed from

composite millet powder. The tiny air cells were more evident in the gelatinized

starch matrices at high magnification and also observed in the cooked protein

inclusions (Figure 40). However, these tiny air cells were less abundant than those in

the gelatinized starch matrices in control extrudates.

CM-T1 Raw powder CM-T1 Extrudates

CM-T2 Raw powder CM-T2 Extrudates

CM-T1 Cross section CM-T2 Cross section

Figure 40. Morphological structure of extrudates

B

D

a b

c d

A B

The scanning electron microscopy examination for cross section of composite

millet powder extrudates exhibited the presence of small numbers of air cells of

irregular shapes. In extruded product, the starch is gelatinized allowing it to expand

fully and resulted in numerous air bubbles, which differentiate the cell structure

providing a suitable tool to differentiate the level of gelatinization.

4.3.2.4.4. X-ray Diffraction pattern and relative crystallinity of composite millet

powder

The starch structure can be identified at the light microscope level

(Figure 41 a and b) and through characteristic x-ray diffraction patterns. The X-ray

diffractograms of processed composite millet powder is shown in Figure 41a and b.

Figure 41a. X-ray diffractograms of composite millet powder

CM-T1

CM-T2

Figure 41b. X-ray diffractograms of extrudates

The crystalline structure exhibited distinct x-ray diffraction pattern that can be

classified into three categories namely A, B and C type crystal structure. In raw flour

A, B type x ray diffraction patterns are characterized by clear diffraction peaks

(CM-T1-18.33º, and CM-T2-18.33º) and the A-pattern was generally regarded as

cereal starch crystal form. According to Miyoshil, (2002) the raw sample showed a

type A X-ray pattern, typical of cereal starches, with main peaks at 2θ values of ≈

15.1°A, ≈19.2º A, and ≈22.4º A. But during extrusion, the crystalline patterns of

starch get destroyed due to process of gelatinization and the retrogradation lead to the

formation of altered peaks at CM-T1-22.9º A and CM-T2 -23.11° A showed the

V-type pattern. These effects are mainly due to the effect of thermal processing during

extrusion. The formation of V-type pattern was attributed mostly due to the formation

of the amylose-lipid complex in extruded products. The similar pattern has been

observed by Singh et al. (1998), while studying the different extrudates treated with

cereal flours.

4.3.2.4.5. Pasting properties of extrudates

The RVA study of the extrudates showing their peak, hold and final viscosities

along with their breakdown and setback values are shown in Figure 42. The control

extrudate has the highest peak viscosity and final viscosity of 2761cP and 5018cP

respectively and found to be significantly (p≤0.05) higher than the other extrudates.

The extrudate prepared from composite millet powder (CM-T2) has the lowest peak

CM-T1

CM-T2

viscosity of 566 cP and also the lowest final viscosity of 418cP. It was observed that

the pasting temperature was not detectable for extrudate prepared from forced

convection tray dried powder which could be owed to the destruction of starch

granules when subjected to extrusion process. This may be attributed to the higher

degree of gelatinized starch in the extrudate that allowed it to absorb large quantities

of water. According to Liu et al., (2006), starch content in the flour, other components

in the starch-water system and processing of flours are very critical to pasting

properties. The interaction of other components and the degree of starch damage

during extrusion could affect the peak viscosity of extruded flours.

Figure 42. Pasting properties of extrudates

4.3.2.5. Sensory properties of extrudates

Ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals and snacks are developed for

formulations of suitable products for consumption without any further cooking

process. These are favored by consumers of all ages because of their

convenience, variety and high nutritional value. Most of the breakfast cereals are

made primarily from corn, wheat, oat or rice, usually with added flavor and coated

with sugar and other sweeteners (Muhammad Asif, 2011). In the present study, the

ready to eat extrudates were developed by using the composite millet powder. In order

to improve the acceptability of extrudate the different variations were formulated in

which plain extrudates with milk, extrudates in milk with choco powder and

extrudates with spice mix were carried out.

4.3.2.4.5.1. Sensory properties of extrudates (plain)

Table 42 and Figure 43a shows the sensory analysis of extrudates.

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

00:00:00 00:02:53 00:05:46 00:08:38 00:11:31 00:14:24

CM-T1

CM-T2

Control

Temp

Table 42. Sensory properties of extrudates (plain)

Sensory parameters Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Appearance 8.33±0.58a 8.83±0.28

a 9.00±0.00

a 0.154

NS

Texture 8.67±0.58a 7.17±0.28

b 8.33±0.28

a 0.009

NS

Color 8.83±0.28a 7.83±0.28

a 8.17±0.28

a 0.014

NS

Taste 8.50±0.50a 7.00±0.50

a 7.50±0.50

b 0.027

NS

Flavour 7.83±0.76a 7.33±0.29

a 8.00±0.50

b 0.369

NS

Mouthfeel 8.50±0.50a 7.17±0.29

a 8.33±0.29

a 0.009

NS

Aftertaste 8.00±0.50a 7.50±0.50

b 8.17±.0.29

a 0.422

NS

Overall acceptability 8.00±0.58a 7.50±0.28

a 7.83±0.29

a 0.079

NS

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using

composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying; CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite

millet powder subjected to freeze drying. NS-Not Significant. Same capitals superscripts in column indicate the same to

each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly different (p≤0.05) by

applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test. NS-Not Significant.

The scores sensory evaluation of the extrudates prepared from composite

millet powder is presented in Table 42. The result shows that the control extrudates

were highly rated except the other two extrudates developed from composite millet

powder whose color was darkened due to addition of composite millet. The

extrudates formulated using composite millet flour were not significantly (p>0.05)

different in terms of appearance, texture, color, taste, flavor, aftertaste, mouth feel

and overall acceptability. Whereas, control extrudates was rated highest and

significantly different (p<0.05) in color, taste and flavor.

4.3.2.4.5.2. Sensory properties of extrudates with choco milk

The sensory scores of ready to eat extrudates products with choco milk are

shown in Table 43 and Figure 43b.

Table 43. Sensory properties of extrudates with choco milk

Sensory parameters Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Appearance 8.50±0.50a,b

8.17±0.29a 9.17±0.29

b 0.042

NS

Texture 8.50±0.50a 7.17±0.29

b 9.17±0.29

a 0.002*

Color 9.17±0.50a 8.17±0.29

b 8.50±0.50

b 0.593

NS

Taste 8.17±0.29a 8.00±0.00

a 9.17±0.29

b 0.002*

Flavour 8.17±0.29a 8.17±0.29

a 9.33±0.29

b 0.004*

Mouthfeel 8.50±0.50a 8.67±0.29

a 9.17±0.29

a 0.154

NS

Aftertaste 8.17±0.58a 9.00±0.00

b 8.17±.0.29

a 0.007

NS

Overall acceptability 8.17±0.58a 8.17±0.28

a 8.83±0.28

a 0.548

NS

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), Same capitals superscripts in column

indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly

different (p≤0.05) by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test. CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using

composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying; CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite

millet powder subjected to freeze drying. NS-Not Significant.

The mean scores of sensory evaluation showed that the extruded products

soaked in choco milk prepared from composite millet powder were within the

acceptable range and had significantly better appearance (9.17), color (7.9),

flavour (9.33), texture (9.17), taste (9.17) and overall acceptability (8.83) when

compared with the control extrudates. There were no significant differences (p>0.05)

in appearance, mouth feel, aftertaste and overall acceptability among extrudates

formulated using composite millet powder from both drying methods. The CM-T2 had

a higher score in attributes namely appearance, texture, taste, mouth feel and overall

acceptability when compared to the other extrudates. This could be due to lower heat

treatments performed on millet flour during processing. Chen et al., (1991) reported

that during extrusion the color changes to brown, this may be due to

decomposition of pigments, product expansion causing fading and chemical

reactions like caramelization of carbohydrates. Among extrudates the coco blends

formulated products, CM-T2 was found to be acceptable among the panelist.

4.3.2.4.5.3. Sensory analysis of extrudates with spice mix

Table 44 and Figure 43c depicts the extrudates with spice mix

Table 44. Sensory properties of extrudates – spice mix

Sensory parameters Control CM-T1 CM-T2 p-value

Appearance 7.83±0.29a 7.33±0.29

a 8.33±0.29

a 0.016

NS

Texture 7.50±0.50a 6.83±0.29

b 7.17±0.29

a 0.171

NS

Color 7.67±0.58a 7.33±0.58

a 7.17±0.29

a 0.014

NS

Crispness 8.17±0.29 a 8.00±0.00

a 8.33±0.58

a 0.579

NS

Taste 8.50±0.50a 7.00±0.50

a 7.50±0.50

b 0.027

NS

Flavour 7.17±0.29a 7.50±0.50

a 7.33±0.29

b 0.369

NS

Mouthfeel 7.90±0.17a 6.50±0.50

a 6.50±0.29

a 0.009

NS

Aftertaste 7.17±0.29a 6.50±0.50

b 7.33±.0.29

a 0.422

NS

Overall acceptability 8.17±0.29a 8.00±0.50

a 8.67±0.76

a 0.079

NS

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), Same capitals superscripts in column

indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly

different (p≤0.05) by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test. CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using

composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying; CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite

millet powder subjected to freeze drying. NS-Not Significant.

Results from the panelist for the acceptance of products and the average mean

scores of the sensory parameters namely appearance, taste, texture, flavor, crispness,

mouthfeel, aftertaste and overall acceptability of the extrudates with the spice mix is

presented in Table 44. Significant difference (p≤0.05) was observed between control

extrudates and extrudate formulated using composite millet powder with the sensory

parameters namely appearance, taste, texture, flavor, crispness and surface of the

product. The mean scores of the overall acceptability of the control extrudate (8.17)

and the extrudate formulated using composite millet powder obtained from both

dehydration techniques (8.00-CM-T1 and 8.67-CM-T2) was found to more or less

similar. The addition of composite millet powder has improved the flavor of the

product at the same time the composite millet powder affected the mouth feel of the

product when compared to the control due to characteristics taste of the millet. These

results agree with the findings of Acosta-Sanchez (2003); Perez-Gonzalez (2005),

who mentioned that crunchy texture and gritty appearance of the whole grain sorghum

extrudates were liked by consumer sensory panel.

Figure 43 a. Sensory properties of extrudates (plain) Figure 43 b. Sensory properties of extrudates (choco mix)

Figure 43 c. Sensory properties of extrudates (Spice mix)

0

2

4

6

8

10

Appearance Texture Color Taste Flavour Mouthfeel Aftertaste Overall

accepability

Sen

sory

sco

res

Plain Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Appearance Texture Color Taste Flavour Mouthfeel Aftertaste Overall

accepability

Sen

sory

Sco

res

choco milk

Control

CM-T1

CM-T2

0

2

4

6

8

10

Appearance Texture Color Crispness Taste Flavour Mouthfeel Aftertaste Overall

accepability

Sen

sory

sco

res

Spice mix Control CM-T1

CM-T2

4.3.2.6. Effect of storage on the overall acceptability of extrudates and total plate

count (cfu/g) of extrudates

4.3.2.6.1. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of extrudates

Table 45 and figure 44 depicts the sensory scores of overall acceptability of

extrudates.

Table 45. Effect of storage on overall acceptability of extrudates

Samples 0 days 15 days 30 days 45 days 60 days 75 days 90 days p -value

Control 8.33±.01Aa

8.10±.10aA

7.67±.01aB

7.34±.02aC

5.68±.01aD

5.33±.01aE

3.89±.39aF

p≤0.05* CM-T1 8.67±.02

bA 8.68±.01

bA 8.67±.01

bA 8.34±.01

bB 7.33±.01

bC 7.3700±.06

bC 6.22±.20

bD

CM-T2 8.78±.17bA

8.67±.07Ab

8.69±.02bA

8.67±.01cA

8.34±.02cB

7.3333±.01bC

7.34±.01cC

p- value (p≤0.05)*

All values are means of triplicate determinations± standard deviation (S.D), Same capitals superscripts in column

indicate the same to each other and different superscripts in column indicates different to each other are significantly

different (p≤0.05) by applying non parametric test using kruskal wallis test.CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using

composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying; CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite

millet powder subjected to freeze drying.

There was a significant decrease in sensory scores of extrudates during the

storage period from 0th

day to 90th

day. The composite millet powder extrudates were

rated high for over all acceptability of 8.78 in 0th

day and 7.34 in 90th

day when

compared to control extrudates with the sure of 8.33 in 0th

day and 3.89 in 90th

day.

As the duration of storage period increased there was a decrease in the scores of

overall acceptability of the products (P≤0.05). Thus, extrudates prepared from

composite millet powder and control extrudates were found to be acceptable even at

the end of storage period of six months. After 6 months the slight decrement in the

scores of all the extrudates were noted.

Figure 44. Effect of storage on the overall acceptability of extrudates

2

4

6

8

10

0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Sen

sory

sco

res

Days

control

CMT1

CMT2

CMT1E

CMT2E

CM-T1

CM-T2

CM-T1E

CM-T2E

4.3.2.6.2. Effect of storage on total plate count of extrudates

Table 46 explains the microbiological analysis of the extrudates. The

microbiological changes are measured by the total plate count in the extrudate

products formulated from composite millet powder prepared from two drying

methods and it was stored at room temperature.

Table 46. Effect of storage on total plate count of extrudates

Samples Storage days (cfu/g)

0 Day 15 Days 30 Days 45 Days 60 Days 75 Days 90 Days

Control 9x101

1.3x102 1.6x10

2 2.8x10

2 1.3x10

3 1.7x10

3 2.5x10

3

CM-T1 6x101 1.0x10

2 1.4x10

2 2.6x10

2 1.0 x10

3 1.5x10

3 2.2x10

3

CM-T2 5x101 1.1x10

2 1.5x10

2 2.6x10

2 1.2x10

3 1.7x10

3 2.3x10

3

CM-T1-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray drying;

CM-T2-Extrudates formulated using composite millet powder subjected to freeze drying.

The microbiological load as measured by the total plate count per gram of

sample was generally low in all the extrudates prepared. This shows that

temperature and drying parameters maintained to have a significant effect on the

growth of micro-organisms. Generally as the storage time increased, the measured

total plate count at room temperature steadily increased for all the extrudates. The

total plate count of the extrudates on 0 day was 5 × 101

to 9×101cfu/g for all the

extrudates. During storage the extrudates were packed in aluminum foil laminated

LDPE pouches (gauge size 0.03 µm) with the application of nitrogen gas under

MAP technology which limited the permeability of air to curtail the growth of

microorganism.

As the storage time further increases to 15 days, there was a continuous

increase in the total plate count particularly at the room temperature. A similar trend

was observed when the extrudates were stored at 30th

and 45th

days. Based on the

above result (Table 46), extrudate had higher microbial load as the day‟s increased

above 45th days to 90th

days. The maximum permissible level of total aerobic colony

of ready-to-eat foods as given by Fylde Borough Council extracted from manual of

PHLSG (2008) was 104to less than 10

6cfu/g for ready-to-eat products. Similar finding

was examined where microbial loads were detected in the white sorghum breakfast

cereal at 10th

week although the levels were low they were well within the

acceptable limits of microbial standards on cereal products (ICMSF, 1996).

4.4. Functional characterization of protein in the convenience food

developed using composite millet powder exposed to freeze

drying

4.4.1. Protein solubility of composite millet powder and products

Protein solubility at different pH will serve as a useful indicator to know how

well the protein concentrate will perform when they are incorporated into food

systems. Protein solubility characteristics are influenced by factors such as origin,

processing conditions, pH, ionic strength and the presence of other ingredients

(Vinay et al., 2008, Elkhalifa et al., 2010). Thus, it is an important characteristic in

the functional behavior of proteins and their potential application to food processing.

The results of the present study showed variation in the flour nitrogen solubility

at different pH levels of processed composite millet powder and products.

Figure 45. Protein solubility of composite millet powder and products

The effects of extruded processing and raw powder on protein solubility were

shown in figure 45. The minimum solubility was found to be at the pH of 4 and pH 5

for processed composite millet powder and its developed products respectively, at pH

4.0 which indicates that the isoelectric point of the flour protein is 4.0. Similar

study was reported by Narayana and Rao, 1991; Carbonaro et al., 1993 that

minimum solubility at pH 4.0 and the increment of it on both sides of this pH. The

incidence of minimum solubility near the isoelectric pH is mainly due to the

lack of electrostatic repulsion, which promotes aggregation and precipitation via

hydrophobic interaction (Fennema, 1996). The solubility of pH was increased up to a

maximum values for all the samples. The high net charge acquired at both acid and

1

3

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Pro

tein

%

PH

Protein solubility Composite millet

powder

Extrudate product

Pasta

Pasta with egg

white powder

Extrudates

alkaline pH's caused a rise in solubility due to unfolding of the flour protein with the

degree of unfolding being greater at alkaline than the acidic pH (Damodaran, 1996).

The protein solubility showed a gradual increase from pH7 to pH12 in which

extrudate had higher solubility rate. Millets containing higher amount of amino acids

and also the extrusion will increases the solubility is due to cooking of flour during

extrusion process. Similar results was observed by Hathaichanock and Masubon

(2007) that during extrusion the higher temperature denature the starch granules

present in the flour which helps to improve the solubility which is closely related to

amylase from starch granules during the swelling. Selected millet powder showed

good solubility in both acidic and alkaline pH regions which can be considered

as an important characteristic for food formulations. Since protein solubility largely

affect other functionalities like emulsification, foaming and gelation

(Kinsella, 1979), the high solubility of the flours indicated that they could have

promising food applications.

4.4.2. Protein Fraction of composite millet powder and products

Table 47. Protein fraction of composite millet powder and products

Protein fraction CM-T2

(powder)

CM-T2

(Ready to Eat)

CM-T2

(Ready to cook)

Globulin(Nacl) 1.1 1.62 3.36

Albumin(H2O) 2.3 3.74 2.49

Prolamin (Ethanol) 3.03 3.12 2.5

Gultelin (NaOH) 2.1 4.60 4.00

Total Protein 12.04 11.4 12.56

CM-T2-Freeze drying powder;

Table 47 presents the effect of extrusion process on protein fractions based on

solubility for each fraction into globulins, albumins, prolamin and glutelins like

protein. It could be noticed that raw millet powder contain 1.1%, 2.3%, 3.03% and

2.1% of globulins, albumins, glutlines like protein and prolamins respectively.

Distribution of protein in fractions extracted with the different solvents suggested that

the raw flour and developed products had variation in amount of total extractable

protein which is due to the differences in total protein. Glutelin, represented a

considerably greater fraction in developed products when compared to raw powder.

Results are close to Ejeta et al., 1987, who stated that fractionated protein in raw

sorghum range from 10.00 to 24.00%, 6 to 16% and 11.00 to 31.00% for albumins

plus globulins, prolamins and cross linked kafirins respectively. The raw powder had

lower protein in glutelin and higher protein in prolamins. Hence the total protein was

found to be higher in extrudates which is followed by composite millet powder.

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Millet is one of the indigenous foods known to human and has been widely

used in India as a staple food for thousands of years. The present study focused on

the use of underexploited millets namely for production of convenience products.

The study emphasis on formulation of convenience processed foods with

application of processing and drying methods using different powder and

combination. The techniques used for processing millets are soaking, extraction of

slurry from millets; dehydration and milling were carried out for development of

millet powder. The selected raw materials were weighed and soaked for a period of

6 hours, after which the excess water was drained. The processed millet grains were

grounded into fine slurry using wet grinding techniques. After which the slurry

were subjected to drying methods namely sun drying (SD for 18 hours), forced

convection tray drying (FCTD (T1): 60ºC-70°C for 15-16 hrs) and freeze drying

(FD (T2): -50°C to 30°C for 14 -16 hrs). All the dried millet powder were milled in

stone miller to obtain fine flour and it is packed in LDPE and stored in air tight

container for the development of convenience processed foods. Convenience foods

namely ready to eat product (extrudates) and ready to cook products (pasta) were

formulated and evaluated for their physical, nutritional, functional and shelf life

characteristics. The findings on the effect of drying methods on the quality

characteristics of processed millet powder and composite millet powder and its

products are discussed below

The nutritional properties of the processed millet powder does not show any

effect on the drying methods adopted namely sun drying (T0), Forced convection

tray drying (T1 ) and Freeze drying (T2). However, the varying change in the

nutritional profile could be attributed to the natural existence of the nutrients

present in the selected millets. The carbohydrate content (g) was significantly

higher in finger millet powder (72.17-72.67), little millet powder (72.17 -75.13)

and foxtail millet powder (72.1 -75.33). It is interesting to note that the starch

content (g) was found to be higher in kodo millet powder (56.0-58.27). The

protein content was observed to be higher in finger millet powder (9.31-10.14),

pearl millet powder (10.05-10.21), and foxtail millet powder (10.28-10.60). The

cereal grains are generally considered to be negligible in fat content. However

pearl millet powder (5.2-6.67) posses slightly higher amount of fat when

compared with the other millet powders. The energy content which is the

reflection of the presence of carbohydrate, protein and fat was found to be more

or less similar in all the processed millet powder ranging from

293 to 355 (p≥0.05).

The existence of ash in the finger millet powder (2.2 -2.26), kodo millet powder

(2.3 – 2.63) and foxtail millet powder (2.2 -2.4) was greater thereby their

inorganic minerals would also be higher. The finger millet powders possess to

contain higher amount of calcium (211-212.93), sodium (8.9-9.5), phosphorus

(179.77-183.33) and zinc (1.1-1.16). The minerals namely sodium (9.2-9.8) and

iron (6.13-6.5) were present abundantly in pearl millet powder which is

significantly higher (p≤0.05). Phosphorus (162-165.2) and iron (9.3-9.44)

content was found to be higher in little millet powder. Zinc content was higher

(1.4) in kodo millet and foxtail millet powder when compared to other minerals.

This increasing tendency illustrates the affluent nature of minerals present in the

plant produce. The moisture (g) content of the samples subjected to sun drying

showed slightly higher values (p≤0.05) when compared with the other two

drying methods. The mean increments in the moisture content of the sundried

millet powder could be due to its improper removal of water during drying

process.

Irrespective of drying methods adopted, there was a slight increase in the level of

bulk density (g/ml) of the samples exposed to sun drying when compared to the

other two drying methods. This was statistically significant at p≤0.05 among the

selected millet powders. As in the case of swelling power (%), there was a slight

decrease in the sun dried samples. The alteration in the swelling power is observed

due to the starch content (amylose and amylopectin chains) in different processed

millets powders. Among the selected millet powders, the finger millet powder,

pearl millet powder and foxtail millet powder had the highest foam capacity when

compared to kodo millet powder and little millet powder which is due to

concentration of protein. The foam stability was found to be more or less similar

in all the selected millet powders as there was greatest stability due to increased

thickness of interfacial films. Irrespective of drying methods adopted, there was

not much significant difference in the water absorption capacity (p>0.05) between

the processed millets powders.

Color is an important quality parameter of the processed millet powder. The units

within the L*, a*, b* system give equal perception of the color difference to a

human observer. The L* values (brightness) were significantly higher (p≤0.05) in

the kodo millet powder, little millet powder and foxtail millet powder when

compared with the other millet powders. This could be due to natural color present

in the selected processed millets. Whereas the a* (greenish-bluesish) was found

to be higher in finger millet and pearl millet powder because the seed coat was

more towards the red and green shades. In the cases of b* (reddish -yellowish)

values, pearl millet powder and foxtail millet powder were observed to be higher

which might be due to the presence of yellow color in the millet.

On comparing the pasting properties of raw millet powder (control) with

processed millet powders obtained by three drying methods, there was a

noticeable change in their peak viscosity and final viscosity. The pasting

properties were higher in the raw millet powder when compared to the processed

powders which is due to break down of starch during application of heat while

processing the millet powders.

The total microbial counts (cfu/grams) of processed millet powders treated with

three different drying methods was studied. The processed millet powders

subjected to sun drying showed a slight increase in microbial growth. This might

be due to improper removal of moisture during drying and handling as well as.

After several permutation and combination, equal proportions of selected millet

powders were optimized to produce the composite millet powder. In-depth

analysis was carried for composite millet powder obtained from both the drying

methods namely forced convection tray drying (CM-T1) and freeze drying

(CM-T2). The sundried processed millet powder produced off flavor which is

considered to be an undesirable property for development of products. Hence it

was removed for further analysis and product development.

The carbohydrate content of composite millet powder in both the treatments

(T1-76.03, T2-76.21) was found to be more or less similar, however it does not

show any significant difference (p>0.05). The pasta prepared from 100% of maida

which is considered to be the control possess higher carbohydrate content when

compared to pasta developed from a mixture of composite millet powder and egg

white powder. The carbohydrate level relatively remained high in the control

extrudate when compared to extrudate prepared from composite millet powder.

This could be probably because rice flour has more amount of carbohydrate

content when compared to composite millet powder.

The energy level was found to be more or less similar in composite millet powder

in both drying methods since the application of heat does not alter any nutrient

content of processed millet powder. The energy values (Kcal) of the pasta

developed from a mixture of composite millet powder and egg white powder was

found to be significantly (p≤0.05) higher when compared to other pasta‟s. The

data revealed that the energy value of the extrudate of rice flour (control) was

found to be significantly higher than the extrudate of composite millet powder.

The drying methods did not affect the protein content of composite millet powder

(p>0.05). The total protein (g) content of pasta made from a mixture of composite

millet powder and egg white powder showed a significant increase (p≤0.05) when

compared to other pasta‟s. The mean increment in the total protein content may be

due to protein present abundantly in the egg. From the result, it shows that the

mean increament of protein in the extrudate prepared from composite millet

powder ranged from 6.53 to 11.4 g which may be attributed due to their inherent

protein content of millets.

There was not much difference in the fat content of composite millet powder

obtained from both drying methods. The slight increase in the fat content was

observed because of the incorporation of egg white powder in the pasta. Fat

content was found to be decreased in extrudate which ranged from 0.2 to 2.23%

indicating the fact that extrusion process plays a role in fat reduction.

As far as the moisture content is concerned, the composite millet powder

subjected to forced convection tray drying was found to be slightly higher when

compared to freeze drying. The moisture content of all the pasta varied from 2.25

to 2.78%, which is the desired level for pasta in order to maintain the cooking

quality of the product. Moisture content of extrudate of control and extrudate

prepared from composite millet powder (4 to 8%) were within the desirable level.

Ash content of extrudate prepared from composite millet powder was higher when

compared to control. High amount of ash content (p≤0.05) was observed in egg

white powder incorporated pasta, and this could be attributed to the fact that

multimillets and egg white powder contains high amount of minerals.

Irrespective of drying methods adopted, there was not much difference in the

physical properties namely bulk density, swelling index, water absorption

capacity, foam capacity and foam stability of the composite millet powder.

It was observed that cooking loss was higher in pasta developed from composite

millet powder and lowest for control pasta. The cooking loss was found to be zero

percent in the pasta developed from composite millet powder with addition of egg

white powder. The increase in cooking loss may be due to weakening of gluten

network, since millet was found be gluten free. Whereas decrease in cooking loss

is due to high protein in egg which helps to bind the structure of the pasta. The

highest cooking time was observed for pasta developed from a mixture composite

millet powder and egg white powder. This could be attributed to the hydration

level, which is more for millet based pasta than refined maida pasta. Pasta

prepared from composite millet powder with addition of egg white powder

showed higher cooking weight (CM-T1-22.78, CM-T2-22.97) when compared to

pasta prepared from composite millet powder and control pasta. The decrease in

the cooked weight was apparently due to increase in cooking losses or gruel

losses. This might be due to addition of egg white powder which helps to bind the

structure of pasta.

A high expansion ratio is desirable in production of expanded snacks. It was

observed that the extrudate made from composite millet powder showed lower

expansion ratio when compared to control extrudate. It was due to the increase in

protein and fiber content which resulted in a decrease in expansion ratio of

extrudate. The bulk density was minimum for control extrudate (73.99 gcm3) and

maximum for extrudate (CM-T1, CM-T2) prepared from composite millet powder.

The higher bulk density may be due to presence of protein in the composite millet

powder which reduces the puffing quality of extrudate. The water solubility was

more for the extrudate made from composite millet powder and it was found to be

lesser for the extrudate prepared from rice flour. The increase in water solubility

index was due to addition of millets in the extrudate. The water absorption index

was found to be more for extrudate made from composite millet powder when

compared to control extrudate.

The pasting properties of composite millet powder concluded that peak viscosity

and final viscosity were found to be increased when compared to individual

processed millet powder. In ready to cook pasta, the pasting characteristics of all

pasta samples were studied. The pasta prepared from purely processed composite

millet powder and with a mixture of egg white powder in composite millet powder

had lower peak viscosity and final viscosity when compared with the control. This

can be correlated to its higher protein content and comparatively lower starch

levels. The extrudates prepared from processed composite millet powder had

lowest pasting viscosity because of their destructurized and gelatinized starch

during extrusion process. Whereas, the extrudate made from rice flour showed

slightly higher viscosity because of the existence of starch in rice.

The crystalline structure exhibited distinct x-ray diffraction pattern that can be

classified in to three categories namely A, B and C type crystal structure. In raw

flour A, B type x ray diffraction patterns are characterized by clear diffraction

peaks (CMT1-18.33, 22.9 and CM-T2-18.33, 23.11) and the A-pattern was

generally regarded as cereal starch crystal form. But during extrusion, the

crystalline patterns of starch get destroyed due to process of gelatinization, so it

showed V-type pattern in extrudate product.

Color of the products is the reflections of natural existence of color in millet and

it is represented by L*, a*, b*. L*(Lightness) value was found to be higher in

control pasta developed from refined maida, when compared with other pastas

prepared from composite millet powder and addition of egg white powder in

composite millet powder. The redness “a” values of pasta prepared from

composite millet powder was indicating green tinge (-a), which was higher than

those of control pasta. The yellowish “b*” value was found to be slightly higher

in pasta prepared from composite millet powder with addition of egg white

powder. The lightness value (p≤0.05) was more for the extrudate made from rice

flour.

Textural parameters, especially hardness and adhesiveness are important for

cooking quality of pasta. The hardness values of pasta prepared from composite

millet powder and addition of egg white powder in composite millet powder were

higher than the control. In case of adhesiveness, the control pasta prepared from

refined flour was found to be higher which might due to lower protein content.

Low protein content tends to absorb more water which leads to high stickiness

and low firmness. There was not so much difference between the cohesiveness

values of control pasta and composite millet powder pasta. The results showed

that the pasta had the capacity to hold the structure together as cooking time

proceeded. However the parameters such as springiness, resilience and

stringiness do not show much significant difference among the pastas. The

hardness was found to be increased in control extrudate. It was due to higher

expansion with the increase in moisture content. There was no significant

difference observed in the crispness of control extrudate and composite millet

powder extrudate.

A heterogeneous combination of composite millet powder can be observed in the

micrographs, featuring irregular structures with indefinite shapes, rich in spongy-

aspect material, with cavities and structural gaps of varied sizes. In ready to cook

pasta, the numerous starch granules of varying sizes were visible on the structure

of uncooked pasta. Whereas in cooked pasta, the starch granules possessed

disturbed structure and the protein matrix which applies pressure on some starch

granules lead to small structural deformations which indicates the level of

gelatinization during cooking process. The pasta incorporated with egg white

powder indicated more protein matrix attached to the starch granules. The

micrographs of the extrudate revealed that the surface of the flour is embedded

with starch granules, protein matrix and also fat particles with regular shapes. But

after extrusion the starch granules were disrupted because of gelatinization

occurring at high temperature during extrusion.

The internal cross sectional structure of the extrudate prepared from processed

composite millet powder subjected to both the drying methods was studied.

Large air cells space was observed in extrudate obtained from freeze drying. In

contrary the extrudate produced from composite millet powder exposed to forced

convection tray drying had smaller air cell spaces.

The total essential amino acid profile of composite millet powder ranged from

0.01 mg/100 g to 0.79 mg/100g. The results showed that the composite millet

powder showed higher amount of essential amino acids namely phenynlalanine

(0.7873mg/g), histidine (0.48mg/100g), and lysine (0.40mg/100g) while proline

was found to be least in composite millet powder. The essential amino acid

profile of the composite millet powder was higher than the reference values of

FAO/WHO/UNO (2007). The highest concentration of conditionally essential

amino acids for the pasta prepared from processed composite millet powder was

histidine, methionine, phenyl alanine, lysine and tryptophan while the least was

proline and valine when compared with their references values. Whereas the

essential amino acids content of egg white powder was significantly higher

(p≤0.05), therefore the pasta formulated using processed composite millet

powder and egg white powder was higher when compared to control pasta.

Extrusion adversely affected the contents of the amino acids namely histidine,

methionine, phenylalanine, lysine, tryptophan (p≤0.05) especially in extrudate.

There was no any alteration in the content of valine, iso-leucine, leucine and

proline of the control extrudate made from rice flour. Among essential amino

acid which is presented, leucine was the most affected, moreover valine also

underwent a high percent loss during extrusion process. The reason for reduction

perhaps extrusion at low moisture and high temperature led to starch degradation.

The essential fatty acid composition of processed composite millet powder shows

the presence of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. The overall dominant fatty

acids in the processed composite millet powder are linoleic acid (1.34 mg/100g)

and palmitic acid (0.99mg/100g). The dominant polyunsaturated fatty acid is

linoleic acid which was slightly higher in composite millet powder. The highest

concentration of palmitic acid, linoleic acid and alpha linolenic acid was

observed in pasta prepared from processed composite millet powder when

compared to control pasta. The essential fatty acids of extrudate prepared from

processed composite millet powder was found to be significantly higher (p≤0.05)

than the control extrudate.

The composite millet powder contains about 94.4IU of Vitamin A, 345 mg of

Vitamin B12, 3.46 mg of vitamin B6 and 20.33 mg of vitamin C. The percent

gain of vitamin A, Vitamin D, vitamin E and vitamin B6 among the pasta and

extrudate prepared from composite millet powder was greater when compared to

control pasta. The decrement in the vitamins levels of the control was mainly due

to the lack vitamins.

The antioxidant activity was determined for composite millet powder in both

drying method was carried by two assays. The DPPH radical scavenging activity

and reducing power of composite millet powder was higher when compared to

standard ascorbic acids. This indicates the presence of scavenging activity in

millet powder which reflects on the product as well as.

The presence of phytochemical in the composite millet powder, pasta and

extrudate prepared from processed composite millet powder were found to be

higher (p<0.05) in phenols, alkaloids, terpenoids, tannin, anthaquanines and

glycosides.

The sensory scores of products developed from processed composite millet

powder among the panel members were found to be acceptable as per 9 point

hedonic scale. The pasta prepared from composite millet powder with addition of

egg white powder revealed the highest overall acceptability scores when

compared with other pasta. In order to improve the acceptability of the extrudate

two different variations namely spice mix and milk with and without addition of

choco powder were carried out. The sensory scores showed a significant increase

in spice mix extrudate made from composite millet powder when compared with

control in terms of texture, taste, crispness, flavor and overall acceptability. The

extrudate prepared with milk and choco mix had significantly better appearance,

colour, flavor, taste, overall acceptability it was revealed from the scores of the

overall acceptability that the millet can be successfully replaced with refined flour

to produce a better acceptable product.

The storage study was carried out for the products. The products were packed in

aluminum foil laminated LDPE pouches with the application of nitrogen gas

under MAP technology to limit the permeability of air to curtail the growth of

microorganism. It was stored for 90 days at room temperature. The shelf life study

was carried for all the pasta developed. The scores of pasta were evaluated for

overall acceptability using 9 point hedonic scale at the regular intervals of 15

days. There was no significant difference in overall acceptability of pasta up to 60

days. The scores of pasta decreased significantly from 60 days till the end of the

storage.

The results revealed that there were no significant difference (p>0.05) in terms of

colour, texture, taste, flavor, and overall acceptability for the extrudates. There

were also no significant difference (p>0.05) between the control and extrudates

prepared from millet powder. The overall acceptability for all extrudate after 60

days storage was similar. The flavor and taste had slightly low rating for all

products after 90 days.

The microbial analysis was carried to study the shelf life of the product. The total

plate count was done at every 15 days interval. There was no significant

difference among the pasta till 60 days. The total microbial count (cfu/grams) of

pasta prepared from composite millet powder subjected to forced convection tray

drying as well as freeze drying were shown with slight progress in microbial

growth but was found safe till three months of storage period with good sensory

acceptability scores as suggested by panelists. After 60 days there was progression

of microbial growth in all the pastas.

Total plate count assay was carried for extrudate in which limited level of

microbial growth was detected up to 90 days. This is due to high processing

temperature (90-120°C) which favored in decreasing the growth of micro

organism present. So the extrudate product was acceptable till 3 months.

The product produced from the freeze drying had better retention of nutrients as

evidenced by few studies. Hence the protein solubility and protein fraction were

studied for developed products from composite millet powder exposed to freeze

drying.

The protein solubility for the processed composite millet powder and convenience

food were studied. The protein solubility showed a gradual increase from pH7 to

Ph12 in which extrudate had higher solubility rate. The lowest solubility was

observed in the processed composite millet powder between pH 4 and 5 for all the

samples.

The protein fractions of processed composite millet powder and convenience food

were studied. The globulin fraction of pasta increased significantly (p<0.05) when

compared to processed millet powder and extrudate. The albumin fraction was

observed to be more in pasta incorporated with egg white powder. The protein

fraction such as prolamin and glutenin were found to be more or less similar in

other samples.

CONCLUSION

Millets are claimed to be the future foods for better health and nutrition security.

Nutritionally, millet is a good source of macronutrients, micronutrients and

nutraceutical components. In present research, steps were taken to increase the

utilization of millet powder and development of convenience products which is

superior to the products formulated using refined flours. In comparison to rice and

wheat, the exploitation of the millet for value addition will helps to widen the scope of

their utilization. The processed millet powder formulated using different drying

methods had desirable nutritional quality, physical properties as well as functional

properties. Among the drying methods adopted, the composite millet powder

subjected to freeze drying and thereby the products developed had better retention of

nutrients, phytochemical, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids, exhibited

better antioxidant activity (p<0.05) when compared to forced convection tray drying.

Feasibilities for production of convenience foods would pave the way for

commercial-scale processing and their utilization even by the non-millet consumers.

Hence, there is a great scope for utilization of the millets in variety of foods and value

added products in the years to come.

Future Recommendations

To study the impact of formulated products on the target groups such as gluten

intolerances and undernourshied population.

To develop entrepreneurship, and appropriate strategies to promote and

popularize multi millets product for commercialization through value-addition

and branding as health foods.

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Details of Publication

International

1. M.Pushpa Devi., Narayanasamy Sangeetha ;(2013);Extraction and

dehydration of millet milk powder for formulation of extruded product ;

Journal Of Environmental Science, Toxicology And Food Technology ,. 7(1),

63-70,e-ISSN: 2319-2402,p- ISSN: 2319-2399,Impact factor : 1.3.

2. Narayanasamy Sangeetha., Pushpa Devi.M, (2012);Effect of Dehydration on

the quality characeteristics of extruded pasta using millet milk powder ;

Journal Of Nutrition and Food Science, 2(10), e-ISSN: 2155-9600, Impact

factor : 0.923.

3. Pushpa Devi.M, Narayanasamy Sangeetha ;(2012); Processing and quality

evaluation of extruded pasta using millet milk powder. Bioactive Natural

Compounds from Plant Food in Nutrition and Health; ISBN: 978-81-923850-

5-1,pp:39-45.(Conference Proceedings)

National

4. Pushpa Devi.M., Narayanasamy Sangeetha ; (2012) ;Process development of

ready to cook health mix by extracting milk from finger millet(Eleusine

coracana), ISBN: 81-87299-57-6, pp: 106-112. (BOOK CHAPTER)

5. Pushpa Devi.M., Narayanasamy Sangeetha;(2011),Processing and quality

evaluation of milk extracted from sprouted finger millet (Eleusine coracana),

ISBN: 978-9331-1737-7, pp: 205-211. (BOOK CHAPTER)

APPENDIX I

Determination of Bulk Density

A 50 g flour sample was put into a 100 ml measuring cylinder. The cylinder was tapped

continuously until a constant volume was obtained. The bulk density (g cm-3) was

calculated as weight of flour (g) divided by flour volume (cm3) (Okaka and Potter, 1979).

Bulk density: weight of flour/flour volume

A 5-cm long cylindrical section of extrudate was weighed and the diameter measured using a

vernier calliper. The bulk density was then calculated as the ratio of the weight of the

extrudate to the volume of extrudate (Barret & Peleg, 1992).

Determination of water absorption capacities

Water absorption capacities of the flour samples were determined by Beuchat (1977)

methods. One gram of the flour was mixed with 10 ml of water or oil in a centrifuge tube and

allowed to stand at room temperature (30 ± 2°C) for 1 h. It was then centrifuged at 200 x g for

30 min. The volume of water on the sediment water measured. Water and oil absorption

capacities were calculated as ml of water absorbed per gram of flour. Water and absortion

capacities: ml of water absorbed /gm of flour

Determination of foaming capacity (FC) and foam stability (FS)

The method of Narayana and Narasinga Rao (1982) was used to determine the foam capacity

and stability of flaxseed flours. Fifty mL water was taken in a cylinder, into which two grams

of flour samples were mixed keeping the temperature at 30± 2 0C. The suspension was

properly shaken to foam, and the volume of the foam after 30 seconds was recorded in mL as

foam capacity while the foam volume (mL) recorded after 1 h of whipping was recorded as

foam stability.

Procedure for In vitro digestibility

In vitro digestibility was carried out according to the method described by Elkhalil et al. with

slight modifications. Twenty mg of protein concentrate samples were digested in triplicate in

10 mL of trypsin (0.2 mg/mL in 100 mM Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.6). The suspension was

incubated at 37 °C for 2 hours. Hydrolysis was stopped by adding 5 mL 50% trichloroacetic

acid (TCA).The mixture was allowed to stand for 30 min at 4 °C and was then centrifuged at

9,500 × g for 30 min using a D-3756 Osterode AM Harz Model 4515 Centrifuge (Sigma,

Germany). The resultant precipitate was dissolved in 5 mL of NaOH and protein concentrate

was measured using the Kjeldahl method.

Determination of protein Solubility

One hundred mg of millet protein concentrates and soy protein concentrate were dispersed in

10 mL of distilled de ionized water. The suspensions were adjusted to pH 2.0 up to pH 12.0

using either 0.1 M HCl or 0.1 M NaOH. These suspensions were shaken (Lab-Line Environ-

Shaker; Lab-Line Instrument, In c., Melrose Park, IL, USA) for 30 min at room temperature

(approximately 25°C) and centrifuged at 4000 × g for 30 min. The protein content of the

supernatant was determined by the Kjeldahl method.

Determination of protein Fractionation

Proteins were extracted from defatted fox tail millet flour based on their solubility at room

temperature (25o

C) in water. 5% NaCl. 0.1M NaOH and 70% ethanol using the procedure of

Osborne (1909) with minor modifications. The defatted flour was extracted with 400mL

distilled water with stirring for 4h and centrifuged at 3000 x g for 30 min to obtain the

albumin fraction (supernatant). The residue from this step was then similarly extracted with

400mL of 5% NaCl to obtain the globulin fraction. The residue after extraction of globulin

was extracted with 0.1 M NaOH (1h) to obtain the glutelin fraction, while the residue after

glutelin extraction was extracted with 70% ethanol to obtain the prolamin fraction. All the

extractions were carried out twice. The albumin, globulin, glutelin and prolamin fractions

were then purified by isoelectric precipitation at pH 4.0, 4.0, 4.1 and 2.5 respectively and

washed with distilled water. All fractions were freeze dried using a Christ-Alphaa 1-4 freeze

dryer (Biotech International Germany). The determination of the various protein fractions and

concentrates (N H 6.25) was done with a Micro- Kjeldahl method.

Procedure for Texture Analysis

Texture analysis of the sample was performed with a 5mm HDP-CFS cylindrical ball

probe by Texture Analyzer (Model No.: 5197, stable Micro Systems HD Plus, Goldalming,

Surrey, GU71YL, UK) (Plate IIIa,b). Each sample was placed on the heavy duty platform and

the test speed was set to 1mm/sec and the probe compressed 50% of the sample to measure

the hardness. Recording of maximum force is calculated as the hardness of the sample.

Maximum breaking force (N) and deformation were measured from the force-deformation

curve.

Procedure for Color measurement

Color of the sample including 5 or 6 pieces from each set were selected to determine

using the Hunter‟s Lab Colorimeter (Model: CX2748, Easy Match QC, Software Version 4.0,

Hunter Lab, USA) with spectral reflectance (Plate IV). The Hunter Labs color space is a 3-

dimensional rectangular color space based on the opponent-colors theory. One by one sample

were kept in the glass dish of 9 cm internal diameter and color difference readings were taken

with a black plate on top of the dish. The samples were rotated over the instrument and 4

readings were measured in one. The instrument was first calibrated with black plate followed

by white plate. The color determinations were reported as L*, a*, b*, whereas (lightness)

axis - 0 is black, 100 is white, a*(redness-greenness) axis -positive values are red; negative

values are green and 0 is neutral, b* (yellowness-blueness) - positive values are yellow;

negative values are blue and 0 is neutral values and ΔE indicates the overall average colour

according to Olajide (2010).

The hue angles were calculated as the arctangent of b*/a* expressed as degrees and

the chroma values were also calculated as the square root of the sum of the squared values of

both CIE a* and CIE b* as suggested by Ronald and Daniel (1998). The chroma and Hue

angle were calculated by the formulas given below.

Determination of Expansion ratio

Expansion ratio was measured as the ratio of crosssectional area of the dried cylindrical

extrudate to that of the die (Chakraborty et al., 2009). The diameter of the extrudate was the

average of ten random measurements. This index describes the degree of puffing undergone

by the sample as it exits the extruder.

Procedure for X-ray diffraction and crystallinity

X-ray diffraction analysis was performed using an X-ray diffractometer (Shimadzu

XRD 7000) with Cu Kα value of 1.54060 radiation at a speed of 2º/min, diffraction angle of

2θ at 4º and 50º at 40 kV and 30 mA. The total area under the curve and the area under each

prominent peak was determined using OriginPro software package and the percentage

crystallinity was estimated by using the following formula:

Procedure for X-ray fluorescence

The analysis of minerals was performed using WD-XRF (Bruker, Germany). Two

grams of sample was crushed and mixed with 0.5 grams boric acid (granulated) with a mortar

and pestle. The prepared sample was then made into a 34 mm diameter pellet with the help of

a 40 ton hydraulic press machine (10 ton pressure, 20 min. pressing time). The pellets were

then introduced in the sample slots of WD-XRF and analyzed for the composition of elements

in the samples.

Determination of cooking Time.

The cooking time for pasta was determined by adding a 25g portion of the sample into a

beaked of 250 ml boiling water. A stopwatch was used and the pieces of pasta were stirred to

separate while maintaining a rolling boil. The cooking water was maintained to at least 90%

of its original volume. A piece of pasta was removed from the cooking water at 30-s interval

and squeezed between two pieces of clear plastic. The time when the white centre of the

sample just disappeared was designated as “cooking time”. Cooking time was carried out in

triplicate and the mean values were reported.

Determination of cooking loss and water Absorption

A 20 ml of gruel was pipetted out into a pre weighed petri dish stirring well to give an even

distribution of the solid content. It was evaporated to dryness on a water bath. The petri dishes

were transferred to a hot air oven maintained at 105±2ºC and dried to constant mass. It was

then cooled to room temperature in a desiccators and the final weight was noted. Water

absorption was calculated according to the increase in weight and expressed as % of the

sample weight before cooking. The average means of triplicates were reported in percentage.

Determination of Carbohydrate content

The amount of carbohydrate present in the sample was determined by Anthrone

method using glucose as standard. Carbohydrates are first hydrolyzed into simple sugars

using dilute Hcl. In hot acidic medium glucose is dehydrated to hydroxymethyl furfural.

This compound forms with anthrone as green colored product with an absorption

maximum at 630 nm (AOAC, 1990). The presence of total sugar in samples was

estimated by determining sugars before and after inversion by copper reduction methods

(AOAC, 1990).

Determination of protein content

Protein was calculated by converting the nitrogen content (% N X 6.25) as

determined by Kjeldhal‟s method (AOAC,1990).The principle used in the estimation of

nitrogen is described, where the given sample is digested with concentrated sulphuric acid in

a Macro kjeldhal flask when nitrogen gets converted to ammonium sulphate. Ammonia is

liberated by the action of strong alkali in a macro kjeldhal steam distillation apparatus. This

nitrogenous substances are converted to ammonium borate by absorbing 2% boric acid and is

titrated against N/70 H2SO4. The volume of acid required to bring the test sample to the

colour of the blank gives the acid equivalent to the ammonia.

Determination of total fat content

The fat content of the osmotic dehydrated, hot air and freeze dried coconut based

snack was extracted using petroleum ether (40-60°C ) and determined using soxhlet

apparatus AOAC (1990).The dry sample (2-5 g) is weighed accurately into a thimble. The

thimble is then placed in a soxhlet apparatus and extracted with petroleum ether for about

2hours. The ether extract is filtered into a weighed beaker. The ether is then removed by

evaporation and the beaker with the residue is dried in an oven at 80 to100º c, cooled in a

desiccator and weighed.

Determination of the moisture content

The moisture content was calculated using oven-dry method to a temperature of 105

°C to 110 °C until reaching constant weight approximately within 16-17 hours (AOAC,

1990). The major purposes of determining moisture content in foods comprised of assessment

of quality, quality assurance, quality control, and detection of adulteration, assessment of

stability and shelf life during storage period.

Determination of ash content

To determine ash content, about 5 g of samples was incinerated in a muffle furnace

(Gelman, Germany) at about 550 °C for 8 h. The total ash content was expressed in dry

weight percentage (method no. 940.26, AOAC 1990).

Determination of the total dietary fibre

Total dietary fibre was determined in dried, low-fat or fat-free sample which was

homogenised and dried overnight in 70°C vacuum oven. The loss of weight due to fat was

recorded (Asp et al., 1989).

Determination of The energy value

The energy value of the samples was estimated using bomb calorimeter. The principle

behind the working of bomb calorimeter is based on the fact that a known weight of the

sample completely burnt in the apparatus permits the heat developed by the combustion to be

absorbed by a definite weight of water. By determining the rise in temperature, it is possible

to calculate within close limits, the number of heat units liberated.

Determination of Calcium

Calcium was estimated using titrimetric method, the principle behind the estimation

involved precipitation of calcium oxalate and titrating the oxalate solution in dilute sulphuric

acid against standard potassium permanganate, Raghuramulu et al., (2005).

Determination of the potassium, zinc, chromium and selenium

Potassium, zinc, selenium and chromium were determined by using atomic

absorption spectrophotometer (Unicam Analytical system, Model 919, Cambridge, UK.) by

dissolving the incinerated ash (3 h at 550 °C) in 2 mL of filtered HCl (Whatman no. 1;

Maidestone, U.K.), and brought up to 100 mL with water (HPLC grade) (Pharmacopeial

Forum, 2007).

Determination of the phosphorus

Phosphorus was determined spectrophotometrically, the principle used in phosphorus

estimation, Where the ash solution is treated with ammonium molybdate, phosphomolybdic

acid is formed. Phosphomolybdic acid is reduced by the addition of 1,2,4 amino

naphtholsulphonic acid reagent to produce a blue colour which is apparently a mixture of

oxides of molybdenum. The intensity of thecolour developed is the measure of phosphorus

present, Raghuramulu et al., (2003).

Determination of the iron

Iron is determined calorimetrically with ferric iron which gives a blood red color with

potassium thiocyanate, Raghuramulu et al., (2003).

Determination of the Vitamin A

Vitamin A was determined by HPLC using standard procedures given in the

Lawrence Evans Pharmacopeial Forum. The determination of vitamin A by the liquid

Chromatographic system is equipped with a 325-nm detector and a 4.6-mm × 15-cm column

that contains 3-µm packing L8. The flow rate is about 1 mL per minute. The mobile phase

used was n-hexane. Procedure: the peak responses were observed in the chromatographic

system with resolution, R, between retinyl acetate and retinyl palmitate is not less than 10;

and the relative standard deviation for replicate injections is not more than 3.0%.

Determination of the Vitamin E

Vitamin E was determined by HPLC using standard procedures given in the

Lawrence Evans Pharmacopeial Forum. HPLC protocol consisted of the mobile phase,

composed of 10 ml of phosphoric acid with the dilution of 1000 ml of distilled water,

termed as solution A. A degassed and filtered mixture of methanol and Solution A (95:5)

was prepared. Standard preparation involves dissolving accurately weighed quantity of USP

Alpha Tocopherol RS, USP Alpha Tocopheryl Acetate RS, or USP Alpha Tocopheryl Acid

Succinate RS in methanol, and dilution made quantitatively with methanol to obtain a

solution having a known concentration of about 2 mg per mL.Chromatographic system. The

liquid chromatography is equipped with a 254-nm detector and an 8-mm × 10-cm column

that contains 5-µm packing L1. The flow rate is about 2 mL per minute.

Determination of the Vitamin C

Ascorbic acid of the sample was determined by the by visual titration with

2,6dichlorophenol solution. Solution of the sample equivalent to 0.2 mg ascorbic acid/ml was

prepared using water containing 3% (w/v) metaphosphoric acid. It was titrated against

standard 2, 6 dichlorophenol indophenol solution of 0.5 mg/ml concentration until the the

development of pink colorimetrically. The process was repeated with a blank (Ranganna,

2000).

Determination of the fatty acids

Fattyacid content was determined by GC-MS protocol.In the GC-MS protocol, the

Column used was fused silica, size ofl = 30 m, Ø = 0.25 mm, and the stationary phase was

macrogol 20 000 R (film thickness 0.25 µm). The Carrier gas hydrogen was used for

chromatography R or helium for chromatography R, where oxygen scrubber was applied and

the Split ratio was1:200. The temperature used for Column was 170-225°C, Injection port -

250°C, Detector - 280°C respectively. Detection was enabled through flame ionisation with

aninjection of1 µl, twice. The fatty acids are tested with system suitabilityidentified from the

chromatogram with the injection of a mixture of equal amounts of methyl palmitate R, methyl

stearate R, methyl arachidate R, and methyl behenate R respectively (Pharmacopeial Forum,

2007).

Determination of the tannins

Colorimetric estimation of tannins is based on the measurement of blue colour

formed by the reduction of phosphotungsto molybdic acid by tannin like compounds in

alkaline solution (Ranganna, 2000). A known amount of extract was mixed with 5.0 ml

of Folin- Denis reagent (FD) and Na2Co3 solution and made up to 100 ml, mixed

well and absorbance was read at 760 nm after 30 min using spectrophotometer. Total tannin

content as expressed as mg tannic acid equivalent /100 g of sample.

Determination of the steroids

About 5g dried samples were extracted with 250 ml of acetone for 24 hr. For sterol

analysis, acetone extracts were used frequently as explaind by Stedman and Rusaniwskyj

(1959). Gas chromatography was used to separate individual sterols by 1.80-m column, 6 mm

id., packed with 5z OV-101 on Anakrom ABS 80- to 90-mesh (Grunwald, 1969). The

temperature of the column was 250°C and the temperature of flash heater was kept 50°C

above that of the column. The temperature of flame ionization detector was 275°C.The

carrier gas was Helium at a flow rate of 100 ml/min (Pharmacopeial forum, 2007).

Determination of the alkaloids

The determination of alkaloids by HPLC consisted of mobile phase by dissolving

9.93 g of monobasic potassium phosphate in 730 mL of distilled water. About 270 mL of

acetonitrile was mixed and filtered. The liquid chromatography was equipped with a 235-nm

detector and a 4.6-mm × 150-mm column that contains packing L1. The flow rate was about

1.8 mL per minute (Pharmacopeial forum, 2007).

Determination of the saponins

Saponins were extracted according to the method of Huhman et al., (2005). The

samples were extracted using extraction solvent methanol prepared with a mixture of water

and centrifuged 2200 rpm for 20 min at 4 °C prior to liquid chromatographic analysis. HPLC

separation was achieved using a 250 4.6 mm i.d., 5 ím, reverse-phase, C18 column. Samples

were eluted with H2O.

Determination of the totalflavonoids

Flavonoids were extracted according to methods of Crozier, Lean, McDonald,and

Black (1997). Extraction solvent was prepared with a mixture of alcohol, water, and

hydrochloric acid (50:20:8) and the mobile phase constituted a mixture of methanol, water,

and phosphoric acid (100:100:1). Standard solution was prepared using Quercetin RS,

kaempferol, myricetin, apigenin, luteolin, hesperidin and isorhamnetin by dissolving it in

methanol. About 10 g of the sample was extracted using the extraction solvent in a hot water

bath for 135 minutes and allowed to cool at ambient temperature. Chromatographic system

was equipped with a 270-nm detector and a 4.6-mm × 25-cm column that contains packing

L1. The flow rate was about 1.5 mL per minute. The flavonoid in the samples was identified

by comparison made between retention times and spectral characteristics of their peaks with

standards.

Determination of the total phenols

The TPP content was determined according to the procedure of Folin–Ciocalteu

method (Sellappan & Akoh, 2002a, 2002b) with slight modifications. Food extracts (0.5 ml)

or standard solutions prepared with gallic acid were mixed with 2.5 ml of Folin–Ciocalteu‟s

Reagent (FCR-1:10 dilution) and allowed to stand for 8 min at ambient temperature to let for

the FCR to react completely with the phenolates. 2.0 ml of Na2CO3 (7.5% solution in water).

The absorbances were measured at 760 nm using a Cintra 5 UV–vis Spectrophotometer after

incubating at ambient temperature for a period of 2 h. Results were expressed as milligrams

of gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per 100 g fresh weights.

Determination of the antioxidant activity (µg FeSO4 equivalents)

The antioxidant power represents the total antioxidant potential of the samples

determined by ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay according to the procedure of

Benzie and Strain (1996). FRAP assay is used to measure the change in absorbance at 593

nm, which results in the formation of a blue colorcompound II -tripyridyltriazine from

colourless oxidized Fe III due to the presence of antioxidants which are electrons donators.

FRAP reagent was composed of a mixture of 10 vol of 300-mmol/L acetate buffer, pH 3.6, 1

vol of 10-mmol/L TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) in 40-mmol/L hydrochloric acid and 1

vol of 20-mmol/L ferric chloride.10 vol of 300-mmol/L acetate buffer, pH 3.6, 1 vol of 10-

mmol/L TPTZ (2,4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine) in 40-mmol/L hydrochloric acid and 1 vol of 20-

mmol/L ferric chloride. To the freshly prepared FRAP reagent (3 ml), extract (100-mL) was

added and thoroughlymixed and reading taken at 593 nm. Standard curve was made using

various concentrations (100–1000 mmol/L) of FeSO4.7H2O.The results were represented in

micromole Trolox equivalents per gram fresh weight.

Sensory analysis

Sensory evaluation is defined as specific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze

and interpret the characteristics of food and materials as they are perceived by the senses of

sight,smell, taste, touch, and hearing. The primary function of sensory testing is conducted

valid andreliable tests to provide data on which sound decision may be made (Meilgaard et

al., 1999).

Selection of the panel member

Fifteen research scholars of the department of Food Science and Technology were requested

to take up threshold sensitivity test using salt, sweet, sour and bitter as suggested by

(Meilgaard et al., 1999). They were mixed in the different composition with the code

numbers and the subjects were asked to identify the sequence of the concentration from low

to high. Essentially the threshold test determines the sensitivity of the panellist to a particular

test.

Formulation of score card for sensory evaluation

A scorecard is a visual exhibit of the most significant information needed to accomplish oneor

more objectives, combined and arranged on a single screen so the information could be

observed at a glance. The score card is prepared suspiciously and it is clearly printed (Stone et

al., 2004).

Determination of the storage and keeping quality

Storage plays an important role in the safety and the quality of the product. Thirty gram of the

sample was packed in Aluminium Foil Laminated LDPE pouches with composition of 100%

nitrogen gas and stored in ambient temperatures. Care was taken to see that the snack was

stored in clean and dry place which was away from sunlight and pests. Sensory evaluation of

the snack was done once in 15days and microbial testing once in 30 days over a period of 90

days to analyse the extent of storage.

Determination of the amino acid

About 1g of the sample should be treated with phosphate buffer at pH 7.0 and centrifuged at

2000rpm for 20min. at 4ºC. The supernatant of the centrifuged sample is precipitated with

equal volumes of 10% sulfosalicyclic acid and centrifuged at 2500rpm for 15 min. The

centrifuged deposits were dissolved in 6ml of 6N HCl and were subjected to hydrolysis in

boiling water bath for a period of 24 hrs. The tubes were cyclomixed for every 1hr. for proper

hydrolysis to take place. After 24 hrs of hydrolysis, the tubes were centrifuged at 3500rpm for

15 minutes. The supernatant was filtered and was neutralized with 1N NaOH. Then the

filtered solution was diluted to 1:100 of 109 the volume (1ml diluted to 100ml) with milli-Q

water and was proceeded for estimation of protein amino acids in HPLC (Grafts field-

Huesgen method, 1998).

Determination of the preparation of sample for microbial analysis

Specific agar medium was prepared and poured in the petri plates and kept aside for

setting. 1g of the sample was weighed in aseptic condition and mixed in 10 ml of saline

solution.Then the mixture is streaked in the agar medium and incubated. After 48 hours the

number ofcolonies was counted.

Determination of the evaluation of the product

Sensory evaluation of hot air oven and freeze dried sample prepared under

different treatments was carried by a panel of fifteen judges. The various products were

displayed on a desk and random numbers were consigned to the judges. The judges were

asked to examine the samples carefully for appearance, flavor, taste and color using the 9-

Point Hedonic scale. Here, different ratings, ranging from "Like extremely" to "dislike

extremely" were given by the judges, specifying the values from 9 (like extremely) to

1(dislike extremely), respectively. Later on, the scores were averaged for each sample.

Treatments which gained a mean score of 5 and above are acceptable and the one's which

score below 5 points were rejected. This experiment was conducted under a controlled

environment in cool place. The results of the sensory analysis led way to select the most

acceptable products prior to further analysis (Meilgaard et al., 1999).

Procedure for scanning electron microscope

The morphology of multi cereal composite mix and maida granules was evaluated by

scanning electron microscope (SEM) (QUANTA FEG 250 ESEM). Samples were mounted

on circular aluminium stubs with double-sided sticky tape. The starch granules were evenly

distributed on the surface of the tape. The samples were then coated with 12 nm gold,

examined and photographed at an accelerating voltage of 5 kv with a magnification of

x1000 and x5000.

APPENDIX II

Acceptability and Sensory Evaluation of tertiary products

Name:

Date:

9 = Extremely acceptable, 8= Very much acceptable, 7= Moderately acceptable,6 = Slightly

acceptable, 5= Neither acceptable nor unacceptable, 4 = Slightly unacceptable, 3 =

Moderately unacceptable, 2=Very much unacceptable1= Extremely unacceptable

Place a number in the appropriate box that best describes your response to the following

attributes

Characteristics A B

Appearance

Texture

Color

Taste

Mouth feel

Flavor

Aftertaste

Overall

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