`uxn-i-im-kv{x-߃...140 `uxn-i-im-kv{x-߃ is≠Øn ]´ni (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm n kb≥kv ub-dn-bn¬...
TRANSCRIPT
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
Ãm≥tU¿Uv
IX
`mKw ˛ 2
tIc-f-k¿°m¿
hnZym- ym-k-h-Ip∏v
Xbm-dm-°n-bXv
kwÿm\ hnZym- ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw
2010
tZio-b-Km\w
P\-K-W-a-\- -A-[n-\m-bI Pbtl
`mc-X -`m-Ky-hn-[mXm,
]©m-_-kn‘p KpP-dmØ admTm
ZmhnU DXv°-e- _w-Km,
hn‘y-ln-am-N-e -b-ap\mKwKm,
D—e Pe-[nX-cwKm,
Xh-ip-`-\mta PmtK,
Xh-ip` Bin-j -am-tK,
Kmtl Xh- P-b- KmYm
P\-K-W-aw-K-e-Zm-bI Pbtl
`mc-X- `m-Ky-hn-[mXm.
Pb-tl, Pb-tl, Pb-tl,
Pb Pb Pb Pbtl!
]Xn⁄
C¥y Fs‚ cmPy-am-Wv. F√m C¥y-°mcpw Fs‚ ktlm-Z-co-
ktlmZc-∑m-cm-Wv.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPysØ kvt\ln -°p∂p; kºq¿Whpw
sshhn -[y -]q¿W-hp -amb AXns‚ ]mc-º-cy -Øn¬ Rm≥
A`n-am\w sIm≈p∂p.
Rm≥ Fs‚ amXm-]n-Xm-°-sfbpw Kpcp-°-∑m-scbpw apXn¿∂-
hscbpw _lp-am-\n-°pw.
Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPy-Øn-s‚bpw Fs‚ \m´p-Im-cp-sSbpw t£a-Øn\pw
sFiz-cy-Øn-\pw- th≠n ]bXv\n°pw.
Prepared by :State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, KeralaWebsite : www.scertkerala.gov.ine-mail : [email protected] : 0471 - 2341883, Fax: 0471 - 2341869First Edition: 2010Typesetting : Computer Lab., SCERT© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
]nb hnZym¿Yn-I-tf,
Np‰p]mSpw kw`-hn-°p∂ am‰--߃ kq£va-ambn
\nco-£n-®pw hni-I-e\w sNbvXpw imkvX-]-T\w B\-
µ-I-c-amb A\p- -h-am°n am‰p-∂-sX-ß-s\-sb∂v Xncn-
®-dn-™-h-cmWp \Ωƒ. imkvXw Hcp XpS¿®-bm-Wv.
AXp-sIm-≠p-Xs∂ imkvX-]-T\w Hcp XpS¿-
]Inbbpw.
kzbw Nn¥n®pw hnh-c-߃ tiJ-cn®pw Iq´p-Im-tcm-
sSm∏w tN¿∂v A\p- -h-߃ ]¶n´pw \n߃ \n¿an-
°p∂ Adn-hmWv ]T-\sØ apt∂m´p \bn°p-∂Xv.
Adn-hns‚ \n¿am-W-L-´-Øn¬ Ht´sd tNmZy-߃
\nß-fn¬ cq]wsIm≈pw. F√m-‰n\pw DØcw In -W-
sa-∂n-√. IqSp-X¬ At\z-j-W-ß-fn¬ G¿s∏-tS-≠Xpw
DØ-cw- I-s≠-Øm-\p≈ am¿Kw cq]-s∏-Sp-tØ-≠Xpw
\n߃ Xs∂-. AXn\p klm-bn-°m≥ ]mT-]p-kvX-I-
hpw A[ym]Icpw \n߃°v H∏-ap-≠m-hpw.
Adnhv B\-µ-am-Ip-∂Xv ]T-\-]-h¿Ø-\-߃ Bbm-
k-cln-X-am-Ip-tºm-gm-Wv. AØ-c-Øn-ep≈ \nc-h[n
]h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS km[y-X-Iƒ Cu ]mT-]p-kvX-I-Øn-
ep-≠v. imkvX-Øns‚ hgn-I-fn-eqsS Iq´p-Im-tcm-
sSm∏w IS-∂p-t]mbn ]T\w BtLm-j-am°n am‰m≥
\n߃°v Ign-b-s´.
kvt\lm-iw-k-I-tfmsS,
s]m^. Fw.-F. -Jm-Z¿
Ub-d-IvS¿
Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn.
kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT)hnZym-`h≥, ]qP-∏p-c, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw 695 012
]mT-]p-kvXI kanXn`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ IX
AssUz-k¿
s]m^. F-®v.-kn. ][m≥, sk‚¿ Ub-d-IvS¿, tlman `m`m sk‚¿ t^m¿ kb≥kv FUyq-t°-j≥,
Sm‰m C≥Ãn-‰yq´v Hm^v ^≠-sa‚¬ dnk¿®v (TIFR), apwss_
sNb¿am≥
tUm. ap-l-ΩZv jm^n, s]m^-k¿, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v sIan-kvSn, Imen-°‰v bqWn-th-gvkn‰n, tImgn-t°mSv
AwK-߃
tUm. Aem-hp-±o≥. Fw, ]n≥kn∏¬ (dn´.) Kh. tImtfPv, Ftf-cn-X-´v, Imk¿tKmUv
A\n¬Ipam¿.]n.sI, F®v.-F-kv.-F., kn.F®v.Fw.F®v.Fkv., Xn√t¶cn, Xe-t»cn, IÆq¿
_m_p- ]øØv, F®v.-F-kv.-F., Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv., ta∏øq¿, hSIc, tImgnt°mSv.
]n.Un.-t__n, F®v.-F-kv.-F., sk‚v B‚Wokv F®v.Fkv.Fkv., ]q™m¿, tIm´bw
Pn._me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, slUv (dn .), Un∏m¿ vsa‚v Hm v nkn-Ivkv, F≥.Fkv.Fkv. tImtfPv, ]¥fw, ]Ø-\w-Xn
F≥.-sI.-tKm-]m-e≥, F®v.Fkv.F (dn´.), sI.sI.-Fw.Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Hm¿°mt´cn, hSIc
tUm.Fkv. taml-\≥, ^nknIvkv doU¿ & slUv (dn´.), bqWn-th-gvkn‰n tImtfPv, Xncph\¥]pcw
]Zo]vIpam¿.sI.hn, F®v.-F-kv.-F., aqtØSØv F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Xfn∏dºv, IÆq¿
ctajvIpam¿.Fw.sI, F®v.-F-kv.-F., ]m∏n\nt»cn ]©mbØv F®v.-F-kv.-F-kv., IÆq¿.
sI.Pn.kPn-Ip-am¿, F®v.-F-kv.-F., Pn.hn & F®v.Fkv.Fkv. t^m¿ tKƒkv, aW°mSv, Xncph\¥]pcw.
sk-_m-Ãy≥ eqt°mkv. Sn.sP, ske-. tKUv eIvNd¿ (dn´.), bqWnthgvkn‰n tImtfPv, Xncph\¥]pcw.
tUm.tkXp-am-[-h≥, slUv, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v ^nkn-Ivkv, Fkv.F≥.Pn. tImtfPv, tImgnt°mSv
sI.kptcjvIpam¿, F®v.-F-kv.-F., F.Fw. F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Xncp-a-e, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
hn.inh≥, F®v.Fkv.F, (dn´.), ]n.sI.F®v.Fkv., a∂-], ]me°mSv
Sn.sF.-D-Æn-Ir-jvW≥, slUvamÿ (dn´.), F.sI.sI.B¿.F®v.-F-kv t^m¿ t_mbvkv, tNf-∂q¿, tImgnt°mSv
A°m-Z-anIv tImUnt\‰¿
tUm. B≥kn h¿Kokv, dnk¿®v Hm^o-k¿ (^nkn-Ivkv), Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn., Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
NnX-Imc-∑m¿
A`n-emjv Xncp-thmØv, F≥.-hn.‰n. (sIan-kvSn), Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv. AtØmfn, tImgn-t°mSv
_na¬Ipam¿.Fkv, tUmbnMv So®¿, Pn.Fw.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv. t^m¿ t_mbvkv, sIm√w
taml≥Zmkv ]n.Fw, tUmbnMv So®¿, aqtØ-SØv F®v.-F-kv.-F-kv., Xfn-∏-d-ºv, IÆq¿
hnZKv[kanXn
taml≥Ip-am¿. kn, sU]yq´n Ub-d-IvS¿ (dn´.), tImtf-Pn-tb‰v FUyq-t°-j≥, sIm√w
sI. ]m∏q´n, Ub-d-IvS¿, tÉv C≥Ãn‰yq´v Hm^v F≥sskt¢m]oUnIv ]ªn-t°-j≥kv, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
tUm. sI. kp_mjv_m_p, sU]yq´n Ub-d-IvS¿, tImtf-Pn-tb‰v FUyq-t°-j≥. Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
sI. kp-tcjv_m_p, slUv, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v ^nkn-Ivkv, Kh. tImtfPv, aS-∏≈n
tUm. hn. DÆn-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, s]m^-k¿ (dn´.), Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v Hm]vt‰m- C-e-IvtSm-Wn-Ivkv,
bqWn-th-gvkn‰n Hm^v tIc-f, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw
8. ]Im-iØns‚ A]-h¿Ø\w ....................................... 95
9. sshZypXn ..................................................................... 114
10. sshZyp-XIm-¥n-IX ...................................................... 123
11. ]Ir-Xn-bnse Nne Atem-l-߃ ............................. 129
12. Im¿_-Wns‚ temIw ................................................... 139
13. BknUpIfpw B¬°-en-Ifpw .................................. 152
`mc-X-Øns‚ `c-W-L-S\`mKw IV I
auenI I¿Ø-hy-߃
51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-߃ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm
]uc-s‚bpw I¿Øhyw Bbn-cn-°p-∂-XmWv ˛
(I) `c-W-L-S-\sb A\p-k-cn-°p-Ibpw AXns‚ BZ¿i-ß-sfbpw ÿm]-\-ß-
sfbpw tZiob]Xm-I-sbbpw tZiobKm\-sØbpw BZ-cn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(J) kzmX-¥y-Øn-\p-th-≠n-bp≈ \ΩpsS tZiobka-c-Øn\v ]tNm-Z\w \¬Inb
al-\o-bm-Z¿i-ßsf ]cn-t]m-jn-∏n-°p-Ibpw ]n≥Xp-S-cp-Ibpw sNøpI;
(K) `mc-X-Øns‚ ]c-am-[n-Im-chpw sFIyhpw AJ-fi-Xbpw \ne-\n¿Øp-Ibpw
kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(L) cmPysØ ImØp-kq-£n-°p-Ibpw tZiob tkh\w A\p-jvTn-°p-hm≥ Bhiy-
s∏-Sp-tºmƒ A\p-jvTn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(M) aX-]-chpw `mjm-]-chpw ]mtZ-in-Ihpw hn`m-Ko-b-hp-amb sshhn-[y-߃°Xo-
X-ambn `mc-X-Ønse F√m P\-߃°p-an-S-bn¬, kulm¿Zhpw s]mXp-hmb
kmtlm-Z-cy-a-t\m-`m-hhpw ]pe¿Øp-I. kvXoI-fpsS A¥- n\v Ipdhp hcp-
Øp∂ BNm-c-߃ ]cn-Xy-Pn-°pI;
(N) \ΩpsS kΩnikwkvIm-c-Øns‚ kº-∂-amb ]mc-º-cysØ hne-a-Xn-°p-
Ibpw \ne-\n-dp-Øp-Ibpw sNøpI;
(O) h\-ßfpw XSm-I-ßfpw \Zn-Ifpw h\yPo-hn-Ifpw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ ]IrXym D≈
]cn-ÿnXn kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw Pohn-I-tfmSv ImcpWyw
ImWn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;
(P) imkvXo -b -amb Img vN -∏mSpw am\-hn -I -Xbpw, At\z -j-W-Øn\pw
]cnjvIcWØn\pw D≈ at\m-`m-hhpw hnI-kn-∏n-°pI;
(Q) s]mXp-kzØv ]cn-c-£n-°p-Ibpw i]Yw sNbvXv AIaw Dt]-£n-°p-Ibpw
sNøpI;
(R) cmjvSw bXv\-Øn-s‚bpw e£y-]m-]vXn-bp-sSbpw D∂-X-X-e-ß-fn-te°v
\nc¥cw Db-c-Ø-°-hÆw hy‡n-]-chpw Iq´m-b-Xp-amb ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚
F√m afi-e-ß-fnepw D¬Ir-jvS-X-bv°p-th≠n A[zm-\n-°p-I.
(S) Bdn\pw ]Xn-\m-en\pw CSbv°v ]mb-ap≈ Xs‚ Ip´nt°m c£y-_m-e-I-t\m,
AXXp kwKXn t]mse, amXm-]n-Xm-°tfm c£-I¿Ømthm hnZym-`ym-k-Øn-
\p≈ Ah-k-c-߃ G¿s∏-Sp-Øp-I.
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 139
`£-W-]-Zm¿Y߃ ]mNIw sNøp-tºmƒ
NqSp-Iq-Sn-bm¬ Ah Icn-™p-t]m-Ip∂
kµ¿ -߃ D≠m-Im-dp-≠t√m. as‰-s¥√mw
hkvXp-°-fmWv NqSm-°p-tºmƒ Icn-bp-∂Xv?
Hcp Ão¬kv]qWn¬ Ipd®p ]©-km-c-sb-
SpØv NqSm°n am‰-߃ \nco-£n-°q. Ah-
km\w e`n-°p∂ ]Zm¿Y-sa-¥mWv?
ac-°-cn, Nnc-´-°cn F∂nh \n¿an-°p-
∂-sX-ß-s\-bmWv?
`£-W-]-Zm¿Y-߃, XSn, t]∏¿, Iºn-fn,
]´v, NWw apX-embh NqSm-°p-tºmƒ Icn-
bp-∂-sX-¥p-sIm-≠m-bn-cn°mw? Ch-bn-
sems° Im¿_¨ AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp
sIm≠m-hnt√? Cu hkvXp-°s-f√mw
ssPh (organic) hkvXp-°-fm-Wv. Ch-bn-e-
S-ßn-bn-´p≈ kwbp-‡-߃ ssPhkwbp-
‡-ßsf∂mWv Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv.
ap´-tØm-Sv, I° apX-em-b-h-bnse ][m\
LSIw Im¬kyw Im¿_-tW‰v (CaCO3)BWv. NpÆm-ºpI-√v, am¿_nƒ XpS-ßnb
[mXp-°fpw Im¬kyw Im¿_-tW‰mWv. Ch-
bnepw Im¿_¨ AS-ßn-bn-´p-≠v.
CaCO3 NqSm -°n -bm¬ F¥p kw`-
hn°pw? Icn-bp-≠m-Iptam?
Im¿_-Wns‚ temIw12
tamt´m¿ hml-\-ß-fn¬ ]pI-]-cn-tim-
[\ \S-Øp-∂Xv ][m-\-ambpw GXp
hmX-I-Øns‚ Afhv a\- n-em-°m-
\mWv?
Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ, CO, CO2, apX-em-bh
Im¿_¨ AS-ßnb AssPh (inorganic)kwbp‡ßfmbmWv IW-°m°s∏-Sp-∂-Xv.
Im¿_¨ AS-ßnb at‰sX√mw ]Zm¿Y-
߃ \n߃°-dn-bmw. FgpXnt\m°q.
$ sagpIv $ am¿_nƒ
$ asÆÆ $ ......................................
$ aosYbv≥ $ ......................................
\n߃ enÃv sNbvX-h-bn¬ ssPh
kwbp-‡-߃ GsX-√m-amWv?
AssPh kwbp-‡-ßtfm?
\ap°v Np‰p-ap≈ ]Zm¿Y-߃ ]cn-tim-[n-
®m¬ Ah-bn¬ Im¿_-WnI kwbp-‡-ß-
fmWv FÆ-Øn¬ hfsc IqSp-X-se∂v a\-
n-em-Ipw. Poh-Pm-e-߃, Huj-[-߃,
FÆ-Iƒ, πmÃn-°p-Iƒ, d∫¿, eX-dp-Iƒ
XpS-ßn-b-h-bn-se√mw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-
߃ AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂p.
]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ Im¿_-Wns‚
ÿm\w Is≠-Øq. Xmsg-∏-d -bp -∂h
140 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
Is≠Øn ]´nI (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm°n
kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
amkv \º¿
At‰m-anI \º¿
Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw
]ncn-bUv
Kq∏v
kwtbm-P-IX
temltam Atem-ltam
Dƒs∏-Sp∂ aqeIIpSpw_w
Kq∏nse teml-߃
Kq∏nse D]tem-l-߃
]´nI 12.1
Im¿_-Wns‚ sFtkm-tSm-∏p-Iƒ
Im¿_¨˛12, Im¿_¨˛13, Im¿_¨
˛14 F∂n -h -bmWv Im¿_-Wns‚
sFtkm-tSm-∏p-Iƒ. ]Ir-Xn-bnse Im¿_-
Wnse 99% hpw Im¿_¨˛12 BWv.
Im¿_¨˛12 B‰Øns‚ amkmWv
At‰m-anI amkv Af-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ ]am-
W-ambn kzoI-cn-®n- p-≈-Xv. Im¿_Wns‚
tdUntbm BIvSohv sFtkm-tSm∏mWv
Im¿_¨˛14. Ncn-Xm-XoXImesØ
hkvXp-°-fp-sSbpw t^mkn-ep-I-fp-sSbpw
]g°w \n¿W-bn-°m≥ Cu sFtkm-tSm-
∏ns‚ km∂n[yw imkvX-⁄¿ D]-tbm-
Kn-°p-∂p.
Im¿_¨ ]Ir-Xn-bn¬
]Ir-Xn-bn¬ kzX¥mhÿ-bn¬ ImW-s∏-
Sp∂ aqe-I-ß-fn¬ H∂mWv Im¿_¨.
Im¿_Wns‚ GsX√mw cq] -߃
\n߃°v ]cn-N-b-ap-≠v. Fgp-Xn-t\m-°q.
$ ac-°cn $ ...........................
$ I¬°cn $ ...........................
$ ........................... $ ...........................
B`-cWßfn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-®p-h-cp∂ hPw
(diamond) Im¿_Wns‚ Hcp cq]m-¥-c-am-
sW∂-dn-bmtam? D∂X Xm]-\n-ebnepw
a¿Z-Ønepw `qan-°-Sn-bn-ep≈ Im¿_¨
(Kmss^‰v) cq]m-¥cw ]m]n-®mWv hPw
D≠m-bn-´p-≈-Xv. Adn-b-s∏-´n-´p-≈-Xn¬ h®v
G-‰hpw ImTn-\y-ap≈ hkvXphpw hP-am-Wv.
B`-c-W-ßfn¬ hPw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-
Xn -\p≈ Imc-W-߃ Fs¥m-s°-
bmhmw? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.
•mkv apdn-°p-∂-Xn\v hP-kqNn D]-tbm-
Kn-°p-sa∂v tI´n- n-t√. hP-Øns‚ GXp
KpW-amWv Cu Bh-iy-Øn\v ]tbm-P-
\-s∏-Sp-∂Xv?
ssUsk-√n¬ D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ Im¿_¨
Zfiv, s]≥kn¬seUv F∂nh Im¿_-
Wns‚ as‰mcp cq]m-¥-c-amb Kmss^-‰m-
Wv.
s]≥kn¬ \n¿an-°m≥ Kmss^-‰p-]-
tbm-Kn-°m≥ Fs¥m-s°-bmhmw Imc-
W-߃? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.
$ Nmc-\n-d-ap≠v
$
$
Im¿_¨ Zfip-]-tbm-Kn®v Pe-Øns‚
sshZyp-X-hn-t«-jWw sNbvXXv Hm¿a-bn-
t√.
s]≥kn¬ seUns\ NnX-Øn¬ (NnXw
12.1) ImWp-∂-Xp-t]mse Hcp sk¿°o´n¬
_‘n®p \nco-£n-°q.
Kmss -‰ns‚ F¥p khn-ti-j-X-bmWv a\-
n-em-bXv? Ce-IvtSm-Up-Iƒ \n¿an-°m≥
Km-ss^‰v D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ ImcWw
CX-t√?
Kmss^‰v an\p-k-ap≈ Jc-]-Zm¿Y-am-Wv.
Kmss^-‰n\v _mjv]oI-cW-io-e-an -√.
NnXw 12.1
_m‰dn _ƒ_v
s]≥kn¬
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 141
Db¿∂ Zh-Wm-¶-hp-ap-≠v. AXn-\m¬ -AXy-
[nIw NqSmb b¥-`m-K-ß-fn¬ L¿jWw
Ipd -bv°p -∂-Xn -\p≈ kvt\l-I-ambn
(lubricant) Kmss^‰v D]tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
60 Im¿_¨ B‰-߃ tN¿∂p-≠m-bn- p≈
Im¿_-Wns‚ as‰mcp cq]m-¥-c-Øns‚
LS\ NnXo-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q
(NnXw 12.2).
Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-Sp-°p-I. AXn¬ Aev]w
t\¿∏n® HCl tN¿°p-I. sSÃvSyq-_n-s‚
D≈n-te°v IØp∂ Xos°m≈n ImWn®p
\nco-£n-°q. Pzmebv°v F¥p kw`-hn®p?
Imc-W-sa¥v? GXp hmX-I-amhmw cmk
]h¿Ø\^e-am-bp-≠m-bXv?
cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hm-Iy-sa-gpXn
Is≠-Øq.
CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + ..........
a‰v Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn®v ]co-
£Ww \S-Øn-bmepw CXp-X-s∂-bm-Iptam
^ew? tkmUnbw Im¿_-tW-‰ v ,
s]m´mkyw Im¿_-tW‰v apX-em-bh D]--
tbm-Kn®v sNbvXp-t\m-°q.
Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ Bkn-Up-I-fp-ambn ]Xn
]h¿Øn-°p-tºmƒ CO2 hmXIw D≠m-Ip-
∂p. NnX-Øn¬ (NnXw 12.3) ImWp-∂-Xp-
t]mse D]-I -c -W-߃ Iao -I -cn® v
Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv hmXIw \n¿an-
°mw.
_°van≥ÿ ^p≈¿ cq]-Iev]\ sNbvX
sI´n-S-Øn-t\mSv cq]-km-Zr-iy-ap-≈-Xn-\m¬
Chsb p≈-do≥ F∂p-hn-fn-°p-∂p. p≈-
do-\p-Iƒ _°n t_mƒkv (bucky balls)F∂pw Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. hyXykvX FÆw
Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fp≈ p≈-do≥ X∑m-X-
Iƒ CXn-\Iw Is≠-Øn-bn-´p-≠v.
kwbp-‡m-h-ÿ-bnepw Im¿_¨ ]Ir-Xn-
bn¬ I≠p-h-cp-∂p.
Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv (CO2)
A¥-co-£hm-bp-hnse ][m\ Im¿_¨
kwbp-‡-ta-XmWv?
Im¿_tWm Im¿_-WnI hkvXp-°tfm
hmbp-hn¬ IØp-tºmƒ D≠m-Ip∂ ][m\
kwbp-‡-tam?
I° NqSm-°p∂ ]h¿Ø\w CXn-\Iw a\-
n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Hcp IjWw I°
NnXw 12.2
CO2 hmXIw Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-SpØ
sXfn™ NpÆmºp sh≈-Øn-eq-sSbpw
as‰mcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-SpØ Pe-Øn-eq-
sSbpw IS-Øn-hn-Sp-I. NpÆm-ºp-sh≈w
Xnkn¬^W¬
Ãm‚v
tIm¿°v
Im¿_¨UtbmIvsskUvv
t_mbn-enMvSyq_v
sSÃvSyq_v
t\¿∏n®HCl NpÆm-ºp-sh≈w
Im¬kywIm¿_-tW‰v
sUen-hdnSyq_v
NnXw 12.3
142 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
Im¬kyw ssltUm-IvsskUv [Ca(OH)2 ]emb-\n-bmWv.
NpÆmºp sh≈-Øn\v F¥p kw -hn®p?
Cu am‰-Øn-\p≈ Imc-W-sa-¥m-bn-
cn°mw? cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hm-
Iyw ]cn-tim-[n®v Is≠-Øm≥ ian-°q.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
emb\n°v ]m¬\ndw \¬Inb ]Zm¿Y-
ta-sX∂v a\- n-em-bnt√? Cu ]Zm¿Y-
Øns‚ cmk-\m-a-sa-gp-Xq.
CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ km∂n[yw Xncn-®-dn-bm≥
Cu am¿Kw D]-tbm-Kn-°m-a-t√m.
Hcp ]Zm¿Yw Im¿_-tW-‰m-tWm-sb∂v
\n߃ Fßs\ ]co-£n-®-dnbpw? hnhn[
Im¿_-tW-‰p-I-fn¬ t\¿∏n® HCl tN¿Ø-
Xn-\p-tijw ]pd-Øp-h-cp∂ hmX-I-Øn¬
sXfn™ NpÆm-ºp-sh-≈-Øn¬ ap°nb
•mkvtdmUv ImWn-®p-t\m-°q. \nco-£Ww
kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.
C\n, Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv IS-Øn-
hn´ Pew en‰vakv D]-tbm-Kn®v ]co-£n-®p-
t\m-°q.
]co-£-W- ew
Fs‚ \nK-a\w
Im¿_¨ Utbm-Ivssk-Uns‚ Peob
emb\n Im¿t_m-WnIv BknUv F∂-dn-b-
s∏-Sp-∂p. CXv Hcp hocyw Ipd™ Bkn-
Um-Wv. CO2PeØn¬ ebn-∏n-®mWv tkmUm-
hm-´¿ D≠m-°p-∂-Xv.
Im¿t_m-WnIv Bkn-Uns‚ cmk-kqXw
I≠p-]n-Sn-°m-a-t√m.
H2O + CO2 → .........
km[m-cW a¿Z-Øn¬ hfsc°pd®v CO2amXta Pe-Øn¬ ebn-°p-∂p-≈q. D∂X
a¿Zw ]tbm-Kn®v CO2 PeØn¬ ebn-∏n-
®mWv tkmUm-hm- dpw a‰v Im¿_-tW-‰Uv
tkm^v‰v Un¶p-Ifpw \n¿an-°p-∂Xv.
as‰mcp ]h¿Ø\w sNømw. NnX-Øn¬
(NnXw 12.4) ImWn-®n-cn-°p-∂-Xp-t]mse Hcp
S^n¬ hyXykvX Db-c-ap≈ sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-
Iƒ IØn-®p-h-bv°p-I. Hcp sUen-hdn Syq_v
D]-tbm -Kn®v CO2 hmXIw S^ns‚
D≈nte°p IS-Øn-hn-Sp-I.
F¥mWv kw`-hn-®Xv?
sagp-Ip-XncnPzme AW-bm≥ Imc-W-sa-
¥mWv?
BZyw AW™ sagp-Ip-Xncn GXmWv?
Dbcw IqSnb sagp-Ip-Xncn Ah-km\w
AW-bp-∂-Xn-\p≈ ImcWw Is≠-
Ømtam?
CO2 hmXIØns‚ kmµ-Xsb°pdn®v
F¥v Duln°mw? hmbp-hn-s\-°mƒ
IqSp-Xtem Ipdthm?
\nß-fpsS \nco-£-W-ßfpw \nK-a-\-ßfpw
kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
NnXw 12.4
CO2→
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 143
hn\m-Kncn
tkmUnbw ss_Im¿_-tW‰v emb\n
Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUvAS-ßn-b -]X
\q¬
hmjvt_m- n¬
sSÃvSyq_v
NnXw 12.5
CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ a‰p Nne D]-tbm-K-߃
Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p.
$ hmjnMv tkmU, t_°nMv tkmU
F∂n-h-bpsS \n¿am-W-Øn-\p-]-tbm-Kn-
°p-∂p.
$ bqdnb t]mep≈ cmk-h-f-߃ \n¿an-
°p-∂-Xn\v D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
$ CO2 s‚ Jc-cq-]-amb "ssU sFkv'
ioXo-Im-cn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
$ "ssU sFkv' tÃPv tjmIƒ°v taL-
ß-fpsS kvs]jy¬ C^IvSv \¬Im≥
D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
$ 95% HmIvkn-P\pw 5% CO2 Dw tN¿∂
"Im¿t_m-sP≥' IrXna izmtkm-—zmkw
\¬Im≥ Bip-]-Xn-I-fn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-
°p-∂p.
$ Im¿_-tW-‰Uv ]m\o-b-߃ Xbm-dm-
°m≥ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
Im¿_¨ tamtWm-IvsskUv (CO)
Im¿_¨ HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn tNcp-tºmƒ
CO2 amXamtWm D≠m-Im≥ km[y-X-bp-
≈Xv?
Im¿_¨ hmbp-hn¬ IØn CO2 hmXIw
D≠m-Ip∂ ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hmIyw
\¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q.
C + O2 → CO2
F∂m¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ Afhv Ipd-bp-Itbm
Im¿_-Wns‚ Afhv IqSp-Itbm sNbvXm¬
A·n-i-a\n \n¿an°mw
Hcp hmjvt_m-´n -en¬ 20ml t_°nMv
tkmU (tkmUnbw ss_Im¿_-tW-‰v)
emb\n FSp-°p-I. Hcp sNdnb sSÃvSyq-
_n¬ hn\m-Kn -cn -sb-SpØv NnX-Øn¬
(NnXw 12.5) ImWp-∂-Xp-t]mse hmjvt_m-
´n-en-\-IØv Xq°n-bn-Sp-I. hmjvt_m-´n-¬
AS-bv°p-I. hmjvt_m-´n¬ Ncn®p ]nSn-®p-
t\m-°q. F¥mWp \nco-£n-®Xv?
Syq_neqsS ]pd -Øp -h -cp∂ hmXIw
IØp∂ sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-bn-te°v ImWn®v
t\m°q. F¥p kw`-hn®p?
Aß-s\-sb-¶n¬ CO2
hmXIw Xo sI-Sp-
Øm≥ D]-tbm-Kn -
°m-at√m. sIm≠p-
\-S-°m-hp∂ A·n-
i - a - \ n - I - f p s S
]h¿Ø-\-XØzw
CXm -Wv . Ch-bn¬ CO2
hmXIw AS-ßnb ]X-bmWv
Xo sISp-Øp-∂-Xv.
CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ Fs¥√mw khn-ti-
j-X-I-fmWv AXns\ A·n-i-a\nbmbn
D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ D]-bp-‡-am-°p-∂-Xv.
Btem-Nn®pt\m°q.
$ Pze\klm-bn-b√
$ .........................................
$ .........................................
144 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
Pze\w \S-°p∂Xv Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-
°p∂ coXn-bn-em-bn-cn-°pw.
2C + O2 → 2CO
Cu ]h¿Ø\^e-am-bp-≠m-Ip∂ COhnjhmX-I-am-Wv. Cu hmXIw izkn-°p-
∂Xv acWImc-W-am-bn-Øo-cpw.
CO.c‡-Ønse lotam-t•m-_n-\p-ambn
Ffp-∏-Øn¬ ]h¿Øn®v "Im¿t_mIvkn
lotam-t•m-_n≥' F∂ kwbp‡w D≠m-
Ip-∂p. AXn-\m¬ c‡-Øn\v HmIvkn-P≥
hln-®p-sIm≠p t]mIm-\p≈ Ignhv C√m-
sX-bm-Ip-∂p. ^e-sa-¥m-bn-cn°pw?
Xmsg sImSp-Øn- p≈ kml-N-cy-ß-fn¬ CO
D≠mIm-\p≈ km[y-X-Iƒ Nn¥n®p
t\m°q.
$ ho´n¬ $ .............................
$ hml-\-ß-fn¬ $ .............................
$ ^mIvS-dn-I-fn¬ $ .............................
AS-®n´ Kmtc-Pp-Iƒ°p-≈n¬ h®v hml-
\-߃ Ãm¿´v sNøp-∂Xv A]-I-S-I-c-
am-Wv. ImcWw Is≠Øn kb≥kv
Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.
A¥-co£aen-\o-I-c-W-Øn\p Imc-W-am-
Ip∂ hmX-Ißfn -sem∂mWv CO.
A¥co£aen-\o-I-cWw XS-bp-∂-Xn\v
Fs¥√mw am¿K-߃ \n߃°p \n¿tZ-
in-°m≥ Ign-bpw. Kq∏p-I-fn¬ N¿®sNbvXv
Ah-X-cn-∏n-°q.
hnhn[ Bh-iy-߃°v CO D]tbm-Kn-®p-h-
cp-∂p. Ah-bn¬ NneXv \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp
t\m°q.
$ hmXI C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
$ hymh-km-bnI C‘-\-ß-fmb hm´¿
Kymkv (CO + H2) s]mUyq-k¿ Kymkv
(CO + N2) F∂nhbnse Hcp ][m\
LS-I-am-Wv.
$ teml-\n¿amW]In-b-I-fn¬ \ntcm-
Ivko-Im-cn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ (Carbon cycle)
Im¿_-WnI kwbp-‡-ß-fpsS sshhn-[yw
`qan-bn¬ Pohs‚ \ne-\n¬∏n\v AXy-¥m-
t]-£n-X-am-Wv. AssPhkwbp-‡-ß-fnse
Im¿_¨ ssPhkwbp-‡-ambn amdp∂
]h¿Ø\w CXn¬ hf-sc -b -[nIw
]m[m\yw A¿ln-°p∂p. qan-bn¬ Im¿_-
NnXw 12.6
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 145
Wns‚ hn\n-abw hyXykvX coXn-I-fn¬ \S-
°p-∂Xv NnXo-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q
(NnXw 12.6). CXns\ Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ
F∂p ]d-bmw.
Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ hni-I-e\w sNøq.
Im¿_¨hn\n-a-b-Øn¬ ][m\ ]¶p-
h-ln-°p∂ kwbp-‡-ta-XmWv?
Im¿_¨hn\n-abw ][m-\-ambpw \S-
°p-∂Xv GsX√mw ]h¿Ø-\-߃ hgn-
bmWv?
A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hnse Im¿_¨ Utbm-
Ivssk-Uns‚ Afhv 0.03% BsW∂v a\-
n-em-°n-bn- p-≠t√m. Iptd-°qSn IrXy-ambn
]d-™m¬ 280ppm apX¬ 360ppm hsc.
ppm (parts per million)
hfsc°pd™ Af-hn-ep≈ Hcp ]Zm¿Y-
Øns‚ km∂n[yw ]kvXm -hn -
°p∂Xn\v iX-am-\-Øn\p ]Icw ppm(parts per million), ppb (parts perbillion) F∂nh D]-tbm-Kn-°m-dp-≠v. Hcp
ppm F∂m¬ Zi-e-£-Øn¬ Hcwiw
F∂m-W¿Yw. Hcp ppb F∂m¬
Bbncw Zi-e-£-Øn¬ (iX-tIm-Sn-
bn¬) Hcp `mK-am-Wv. aen-\o-I-c-W-
Øns‚ tXmXv ]kvXm-hn-°m≥ km[m-
c-W-bmbn Cu bqWn-‰p-I-fmWv D]-tbm-
Kn-°p-∂-Xv.
A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hnse CO2 D]-tbmKn-
°s∏Sp-Øp∂ ]h¿Ø-\-ta-XmWv?
A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬ CO2 s‚ Afhv
h¿[n-°m≥ Imc-W-am-Ip∂ ]h¿Ø-\-
߃ Fs¥-√m-am-Wv?
CO2 s‚ Afhv A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬
Iam-Xo-X-ambn h¿[n-°p-∂Xv \√-
XmtWm?
kqcy-]-Im-i-tØm-sSm∏w AƒSm-h-b-e‰v
civan-Ifpw C≥^m-sdUv civan-Ifpw qan-bn-
se-Øp-∂p-sh∂v ]Tn-®n-´p-≠-t√m. C≥^m-
sdUv civan-Iƒ Xm]ob hnIn-c-W-ß-fm-Wv.
`qan-bn¬ \n∂p ]Xn-^-en-°p-Ibpw hnIn-
cWw sNø-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNøp∂ C≥^m-
sdUv civ-an-I-fn¬ Hcp `mKw `uam-¥-co-£-
Ønse CO2 XS™p\n¿Øp-∂p. CXmWv qan-
bpsSbpw A¥-co-£-Øn-s‚bpw \ne-hn-
ep≈ Xm]-\n-ebv°p Imc-Ww. CO2 s‚ Afhv
h¿[n®mtem? hfsc°qSpX¬ C≥^msdUv
hnIncW-߃ XS-™p-\n¿Ø-s∏-Sp-∂p.
CXns‚ ^e-sa-¥m-bn-cn°pw?
A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬ Im¿_¨ Utbm-
Ivssk-Uns‚ Afhv h¿[n-°p-∂-Xp-aqew
A¥-co£ Xm]-\ne Db-cp-∂-Xns\ lcn-
Xm-eb]`mhw (green house effect) F∂v
]d-bp-∂p.
lcn-Xm-eb]`mhw aqew `qan-bp-sSbpw
A¥-co-£-Øn-s‚bpw icm-icn Xm]-\ne
Db-cp-∂p. CXns\ BtKm-f-Xm-]\w
(global warming) F∂p ]d-bp-∂p.
Nne ]X-hm¿Ø-I-fpsS sImfmjv \¬In-
bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q. BtKm-f-Xm-]\w
FX-amXw ]m[m-\y-ap≈ hnj-b-amWv
F∂t√ Cu hm¿Ø-Iƒ kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv.
BtKm-f-Xm-]\w Fs¥√mw ]Xym-Lm-
X-ßfp≠m-°m≥ km[y-X-bp≠v?
146 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
H
H C H
H
CH4
aosYbv≥
H H
H C C H
H H
C2H6
CusYbv≥
$ a™p-]m-fn-I-fn¬
$ kap-Z-\n-c-∏n¬
$ Xmgv∂ ]tZ-i-ß-fn¬
$ kapZ Zzo]p-I-fn¬
$ Im¿jn-I-cw-KØv
$ Imem-h-ÿ-bn¬
Kq∏-Sn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ N¿®sNbvXv skan-\m¿
Ah-X-cn-∏n-°q.
BtKm-f-Xm-]\w ^e-]-Z-ambn sNdp-°p-
∂Xn\p≈ am¿K-߃ \n¿tZ-in-°m-tam.
Hm¿Km-\nIv sIankvSn
(Organic chemistry)
Im¿_-WnIkwbp -‡-ß-fpsS FÆw
hfsc IqSp-X-em-sW∂v a\ n-em-°n-bn-´p-
≠-t√m. a‰p≈ aqe-I-ß-fpsS F√m kwbp-
‡-ßfpw tN¿∂mepw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-
ßfpsS ]Øn-semt∂ hcq F∂p IW-°m-
°-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂p. Poh-Pm-e-ß-fp-sS-sb√mw
icocw AkwJyw Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-
߃ tN¿∂mWv \n¿an-°-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂-Xv.
`qan-bn¬ \n∂p e`n-°p∂ s]tSm-fn-b-
Øn¬ At\Iw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-߃
AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂p. \mw Ign-°p∂ Hmd©v
Pqkn¬ amXw 200 ¬∏cw Im¿_-WnI
kwbp-‡-߃ AS-ßn-bn-´p-≠tX! Im¿_-
WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS sshhn-[yhpw FÆ-
Ønep≈ _mlp-eyhpw ImcWw CO, CO2
Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ F∂o AssPhkwbp-‡-
߃ Hgn-®p≈ Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ßsf
Hm¿Km -\nIv kwbp -‡-߃ (organiccompounds) F∂ t]cn-emWv hnfn-®p-h-cp-
∂-Xv. Hm¿Km-\nIv kwbp-‡-ß-sf-°p-dn®v
]Tn-°p∂ ck-X-¥-im-J-bmWv Hm¿Km-\nIv
sIankvSn.
ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ
Hm¿Km-\nIv kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ ][m-\-s∏´
Hcp hn`m-K-amWv ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ.
hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ C‘-\-ß-
fmb asÆ-Æ, s]tSmƒ, Uok¬, F¬.-
]n.Pn, sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-bnse sagpIv, ]m‰-Kp-fnI
XpSßnbh-sb√mw ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-
fm-Wv.
X∑m-X-I-fnse cmk-_-‘-\-sØ-°p-dn®v
ap≥ A[ym-b-ß-fn¬ ]Tn®pIgn-™-t√m.
Nne ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-fpsS X∑mXm
LS\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw
12.7).
Cu kwbp-‡-ßsf ssltUmIm¿_-
Wp-Iƒ F∂p hnfn-°m≥ Imc-W-sa-¥m-
bn-cn°pw?
C
H
H
H H
C
H
H
H C
H
H
H
NnXw 12.7
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 147
X∂n-cn-°p∂ kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ Hcp
Im¿_¨ B‰w a‰v FX B‰-ß-fp-ambn
kwtbm-Pn-®n-cn-°p-∂p? Ch-bn¬ Im¿_-
Wns‚ kwtbm-PIXsbX-bmWv?
Cu kwbp -‡-ß-fn¬ ImWp∂
_‘\w Atbm-Wn-I-am-tWm? kl-kw-
tbmP-I-amtWm?
]´n-I-s∏-Sp -Ønb kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬
Im¿_-¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn-ep≈ kl-
kw-tbm-PI _‘-\-Øns‚ kz`m-h-sa-
¥mWv? icn-bmbh sNøpI.
(GI_‘\w/Zzn_-‘\w/Xn_-‘-\w)
Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn¬ GI-_-‘\w
amX-ap≈ ssltUm-Im¿_-Wp-Iƒ°v
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
H
H C H
H
H H
H C C H
H H
Im¿_¨B¬s°-bv\p-I-fpsS
B‰-Øns‚LS\
X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv
FÆw
1 CH4 aosYbv≥
2 C2H6 CusYbv≥
3 C3H8 s]ms∏bv≥
4 _yqs´bv≥
5 s]s‚bv≥
6 slIvskbv≥
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
]´nI 12.2
Applied Chemistry) B¬s°-bv\p -Iƒ
(alkanes) F∂v t]cp \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂p.
kwbp-‡-ß-fn-e-S-ßn-bn-cn-°p∂ Im¿_¨
B‰-ß-fpsS FÆ-a -\p -k-cn®v Hmtcm
B¬s°-bv\n\pw ]tXyI t]cp-Iƒ \¬In-
bn-cn-°p-∂p. Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw
A\p-k-cn®v Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂ ]Z-
aqew (word root) CXn-\p-]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
DZm : C1 - saYv (meth)
C2 - FYv (eth)
C3 - s]m]vv (prop)
C4 - _yq´v (but)
C5 - s]‚ v (pent)
C6 - slIvkv (hex)
C\n NphsS sImSp-Øn- p≈ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-
bm-°q (]´nI 12.2).
148 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
B¬s°-bv\p-I-fn¬ Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-
fpsS FÆw IqSp -∂-X -\p -k-cn® v
sslU-P≥ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw
Fßs\ hyXym-k-s∏-Sp∂p?
B¬s°-bv\p-Isf Hcp s]mXp hmIyap]-
tbm -Kn®v kqNn -∏n -°m≥ Ign -bptam?
sImSpØn´p≈ ]´nI (]´nI 12.3) ]q¿Øn-
bm°n ian®pt\m°q.
Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw 'n'BsW-¶n¬ B¬s°-bv\p -I -fpsS
s]mXp-hmIyw F¥m-bn-cn°pw?
B¬s°-bv\ns‚ cmk-kqXw Im¿_¨ sslU-P≥
t]cv B‰-ß-fpsS B‰-ß-fpsS
FÆw FÆw
aosYbv≥ CH4 1 2 x 1 + 2 = 4
CusYbv≥ C2H6 2 2 x 2 + 2 = 6
s]ms∏bv≥ C3H8 3 --------------
_yqs´bv≥ ---- 4 --------------]´nI 12.3
C3H6
s]m∏o≥C
H
H
C CH
H
H
HH
H
NnXw 12.8
C\n a‰p Nne ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-fpsS
LS\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw
12.8).
Cu kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ Im¿_¨ ˛
Im¿_¨ _‘\w B¬s°-bv\p-I-fn-
teXp t]mse-bmtWm?
Im¿_¨ B‰-ßfpsSbpw sslU-P≥
B‰-ßfpsSbpw FÆ-Øns‚ A\p-]m-
X-sa-¥mWv?
CH
CH
H
H
C2H4
CuYo≥
H
H
H
H
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 149
Im¿_¨B¬°o-\p-I-fpsS
B‰-Øns‚LS\
X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv
FÆw
2 C2H4 CuYo≥
3 C3H6 s]m∏o≥
4 _yq´o≥
5 s]‚o≥
6 slIvko≥
GsX-¶nepw c≠v Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn¬ Zzn_-‘\w ImW-s∏-
Sp∂ ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ B¬°o-\p-Iƒ (alkenes) F∂dn-b-s∏-
Sp-∂p.
C\n NphsS sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
H C≡C H C2H2
CussY≥
H
H
H
H
H
H
CH C H
H
H C≡C C H
H
C3H4
s]mss∏≥C C C
H
H
H
H
NnXw 12.9
]´nI 12.4
B¬°o-\p-I-fpsS s]mXp-hmIyw cq]o-I-cn-°q.
GsX-¶nepw c≠p Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn¬ Xn_-‘\w ImW-s∏-Sp∂
ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ B¬ss°-\p-Iƒ (alkynes) F∂dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. Nne
B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS X∑m-Xm-L-S\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw 12.9).
150 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
NphsS sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.
Im¿_¨B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS
B‰-Øns‚LS\
X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv
FÆw
2 C2H2 CussY≥
3 C3H4 s]mss∏≥
4 _yqss´≥
5 s]ss‚≥
6 slIvssk≥
H C≡C H
H
H C≡C C H
H
B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS s]mXp-hmIyw Is≠-Øq.................................................................
Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn-ep≈ _‘-\-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ ssltUmIm¿_-
Wp-Isf FX-bmbn Xcw-Xn-cn-°mw?
ssltUmIm¿_¨
]´nI 12.5
ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-IfpsS t]cpw Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn-ep≈ cmk-_-‘-\hpw XΩn¬
Fs¥-¶nepw _‘-ap-≈-Xmbn tXm∂p∂pt≠m? Is≠-Øm≥ ian-®p-t\m-°q.
Nß-ebpw he-bhpw
Xmsg sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-IfpsS LS\ t\m°q.
H H H
H C C C H
H H H
H H H H
H C C C C H
H H H H
H H
H C C H
H C C H
H H
C CH
H
CH H
H
H
C3H8
s]ms∏bv≥
C4H10
_yqs´bv≥
C3H6
sskt¢ms]ms∏bv≥
C4H8
sskt¢m_yqs´bv≥
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 151
CS-Xp-h-iØpw he-Xp-h-i-Øp-ap≈
kwbp-‡-߃ LS-\-bn¬ Fßs\
hyXym-k-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂p? sslU-P≥
B‰-߃ Hgn-hm°n Im¿_¨ B‰-
߃ amXw FgpXn t\m°q.
F¥p hyXym-k-amWp ImWp-∂-Xv. LS-
\-bpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Ønepw ssltUm
Im¿_-Wp-Iƒ h¿Ko-I-cn-®p-IqtS? Fß-
s\-bmhmw?
H H H H H H
H C C C C C C H
H H H H H H
Im¿_¨ F∂ am¥n-I≥
\nc-h[n Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS
LS\ ]cn-N-b-s∏- n-t√. Ch-bpsS ASn-ÿm-
\-Øn¬ Xmsg sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]kvXm-h-
\-Iƒ hne-bn-cp-Øq.
$ Cu kwbp-‡-ß-fn -se√mw Im¿_-
Wns‚ kwtbm-P-IX \mev BWv.
$ Hcp Im¿_¨ B‰-Øn\v a‰p \mev B‰-
ß-fp-ambn _‘-\-Øn-te¿s∏-Sm≥ Ign-
bpw.
$ Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°p ]c-kv]cw
kwtbm-Pn®v sNbn≥ cq]-Øn-ep≈
kwbp-‡-߃ D≠m-°m≥ Ign-bpw.
$ Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°v ]c-kv]cw
kwtbm-Pn®v heb (dnMv) cq]-Øn-ep≈
kwbp-‡-߃ D≠m-°m≥ Ign-bpw.
$ a‰v B‰-ßsftbm B‰w Kq∏p-I-sftbm
Cu sNbn-\ntem dnMntem _‘n-°m≥
Ign-bpw.
$ Im¿_¨ B‰-߃°n-S-bn¬ GI-_-
‘\w, Zz n_-‘\w, Xn_-‘\w
F∂nh km[y-am-Wv.
Im‰n-t\-j≥ (Catenation)
Htc aqe-I-Øns‚ B‰-߃°v ]c-kv]cw
kwtbm-Pn®v sNbn≥ cq]-Øn¬ \ne-
\n¬°m-\p≈ Ign-hmWv Im‰n-t\-j≥. a‰p
aqe-I-ßsf At]-£n®v Im¿_-Wn\v
Im‰n-t\-j-\p≈ Ignhv hfsc IqSp-X-
emWv.
Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS FÆ-°q-Sp-X-
en\v, apI-fn¬ sImSp-Øn-´p≈ khn-ti-j-
X-Iƒ Imc-W-am-Ip-tam-sb∂v ]cn-tim-[n®p
t\m°q.
Adn-b-s∏- n- p≈ Hcp tImSn-bn-tesd Im¿_-
WnIkwbp-‡-ßfp≠v. Hmtcm Znh-khpw
]pXnb Im¿_-WnI kwbp -‡-߃
Is≠ØpItbm \n¿an -°-s∏-Sp -Itbm
sNøp∂p.
IqSp -X¬ Im¿_¨ kwbp -‡-ßsf
°pdn®pw Ah-bpsS khn-ti-j-X-Isf
°pdn®pw Db¿∂ ¢mkp-I-fn¬ a\- n-em-
°mw.
C6H14
slIvskbv≥C6H12
sskt¢mslIvskbv≥
Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-߃
Hm∏¨ sNbn≥kwbp-‡-߃
heb (ssk¢nIvAYhm dnMv)
kwbp-‡-߃
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 129
]Ir-Xn-bnse Nne Atem-l-߃11
ac-߃ GsXms° coXn-bn-emWv a\p-jy-
Po-hs\ klm-bn-°p-∂Xv?
$
$
NnXw 11.1
]mW-hm-bphpw Blm-chpw \¬Ip-∂-Xn¬
kky-ß-fpsS ]s¶-¥mWv? F¥mWv
CXn\p ]n∂nse cmk-]-h¿Ø\w?
A∂-P-Ønse aqe-I-߃ Im¿_¨,
sslU-P≥, HmIvkn-P≥ F∂n-h-bm-sW∂v
a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Blm-c-Ønse
a‰p ][m\ LS-I-ß-fn-setbm?
Blm-c-Ønseaqe-I-߃
LS-I-߃
Im¿t_m-ssl-tU‰v C, H, O
t]m´o≥ C, H, O, N
sImgp∏v C, H, O
Mg, Ca, Fe,temleh-W-߃ Na, K, Cl, P,
O, S apX-em-bh
Pew H, O
]´nI 11.1
130 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
HmIvkn-P≥
]Ir-Xn-bn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ kzX¥cq]-
Ønepw kwbp-‡-cq-]-Ønepw ImW-s∏-Sp-
∂p-≠v.
kzX-¥m-h-ÿ-bn-ep≈ HmIvkn-Ps\
Fß-s\-bmWp kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv? cmk-
kqXw Fgp-Xq.
HmIvkn-P≥ X∑mX Xmsg-s°m-Sp-Øn-
cn-°p-∂-h-bn¬ GXp hn`m-K-Øn¬s∏-
Sp-∂p?
(GIm-t‰m-an-Iw, Zzbm-t‰m-an-Iw, _lp-
Bt‰m-an-Iw)
hmbp-a-fi-e-Øn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ Xbm-t‰m-
anI cq]-Ønepw ImW-s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v. AXmWv
Hmtkm¨.
Hmtkm-Wns‚ cmk-kqXw F¥m-bn-
cn°pw?
Hmtkm-Wns‚ ]tXy-I-X-sb-∏‰n \n߃°v
Adn-bm-hp∂ Imcy-߃ Fgp-Xq.
]IrXn-bn¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ km∂n[yw
kw_-‘n® hnh-c-߃ i≤n-°q. (]´nI
11.3)
`qh¬°w
(kwbp-‡-cq-]-Øn¬) 50%Pe-Øn¬ 89%[mXp-°ƒ 45 - 50%A¥-co£w 21%Poh-Pm-e-߃:˛
kky-߃ 60 - 70%P¥p-°ƒ 60 - 70%
]´nI 11.3
A¥-co£hmbp-hnse HmIvkn-P-\mWv \mw
izk-\-Øn-\mbn D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xv.
\sΩ-t∏mse Ht´sd P¥p-°fpw kky-
ßfpw izk-\-Øn-\mbn HmIvkn-P≥ D]-
tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
ss\S-P≥
HmIvkn-P≥
a‰p≈h
Ch-bn¬ teml-aq-e-I-ßfpw Atem-l-aq-e-
I-ßfpw D≠t√m. Hmtcm hn`m-K-Ønepw
s]´h GsXms°?
Poh≥ \ne-\n¿Øp-∂-Xn¬ apJy-]¶p hln-
°p-∂Xv Pehpw hmbphpamWv. Ch-bnse
LS-I-ßtfm?
Pe-Ønse LS-I-߃ sslU-P≥,
HmIvkn-P≥ F∂n-h-bm-Wv. A¥-co-£-hm-
bp-hnse LS-I-߃ t\m°q.
LSIw iX-am\w
ss\S-P≥ 78
HmIvkn-P≥ 21
B¿K¨ 0.934
Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv 0.033
a‰p hm-XI߃, Pe-_m-jv]w
XpS-ßn-bh 0.000256
]´nI 11.2
NnXw 11.2
Ch-bn¬ kwbp‡cq]-Øn-ep-≈-h- Gh?
Ah-bnse LS-I-߃ Ipdn-°q.
hmbp-hn-sebpw Pe-Øn-sebpw LS-I-߃
Atem-l-aq -e -I -ß-fm -Wt√m. `£W
]Zm¿Y-ß-fnse apJyLS-I-ßfpw Atem-
l-߃ Xs∂.
hmbp-hnse GXp LS-I-amWv ]mW-
hmbp F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂Xv?
HmIvkn-Ps‚ GsXms° kwbp-‡-
߃ \n߃°-dn-bmw?
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 131
tImSn-°-W-°n\v P¥pkky-Pm-e-߃
Hmtcm \nan-jhpw HmIvkn-P≥ D]-tbm-
K-s∏-Sp-Øns°m≠ncp-∂m¬ A¥-co-£-
Ønse HmIvkn-P≥ Xo¿∂p-t]m-Int√?
HmIvkn-Ps‚ Afhv kwXp-en-X-am-°p-∂-
Xn¬ lcnXkky-ß-fpsS ]s¶-¥mWv?
Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm-°q.
¢mkvapdn-bn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ \n¿an°m≥ am¿K-
apt≠m?
Hcp sSÃvSyq_n¬ s]mSn® s]m´mkyw
s]¿amwKt\‰v FSpØv NqSm-°p-∂-Xns‚
ka-hmIyw i≤n-°q.
2 KMnO4+Xm]w →K2MnO4+MnO2+O2
sSÃvSyq_n-te°v Fcn-bp∂ Nµ-\Øncn
ImWn-®m¬ F¥p kw`-hn°pw?
sNbvXpt\m°q.
F¥mWp \nco-£n-®Xv?
F¥mWp ImcWw?
tai-∏p-dØv IØn-®ph® Hcp sagpIpXncn-
°p-ap-I-fn¬ Hcp •mkvSwª¿ IagvØn
hbv°q.
F¥p-sIm-≠mWv Xo- sI-´p-t]m-bXv?
hkvXp-°ƒ Pzen-°p∂ ]h¿Ø-\-
Øn¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ ]¶n-s\-∏‰n F¥p
\nK-a-\-Øn-se-Ømw?
Pze\w F∂Xv Hcp ]Zm¿Yw HmIvkn-P-\p-
ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p∂ ]h¿Ø-\-am-Wv.
a·ojyw IØp∂ ]h¿Ø\w \n߃
sNbvXp-t\m-°n-bn-´p-≠v. F¥m-bn-cp∂p
Dev]∂w? ka-hmIyw ]q¿Øn-bm°n kao-
I-cn-°q.
------ + O2 → MgOIm¿_¨ IØn Im¿_¨ UtbmIv-
sskUv D≠m-°p-∂-Xns‚ ka-hmIyw
FgpXq.
Nne Atem-l-߃ HmIvkn-P-\p -ambn
]h¿Øn-°p∂Xns‚ ka-hmIyw Xmsg
sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p. kao-I-cn-°m-Øh kao-
I-cn-°q. ]h¿Ø\w \S-°p∂ kml-Ncyw
_m°-‰n¬ kqNn-∏n-®n-cn-°p-∂p.
S + O2 → SO2 (S hmbp-hn¬ IØp-∂p)
H2 + O2 → H2O (H2 hmbp-hn¬ IØp-∂p)
N2 + O2 → NO (N2 Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -e -
bn¬ O2hpambn kwtbm-
Pn-°p∂p)
Atem -l-ß-sf -t∏mse teml-ßfpw
HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn ]h¿Øn®v Ah-bpsS
HmIvssk-Up-I-fmbn amdp-∂p-≠v.
4 Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (A¥-co-£-Xm-]-\ne
4 Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 bn¬ kmh-[m-\hpw
Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -e -
bn¬ thK-Øn-epw).
Cu kµ¿`-ß-fn-se√mw teml-Øns‚
]pdØv HmIvssk-Um-h-cWw D≠mbn
AXns‚ teml-ZypXn aßp-∂p.
teml-ZypXn \jvS-s∏-SmØ teml-ß-
fpt≠m? F¥m-bn-cn°mw ImcWw?
At\z-jn-®-dn-bq.
GsXms° Bh-iy-߃°mWv HmIvkn-
P≥ th≠nhcp-∂Xv?
$ C‘\-ß-fpsS Pze\Øn\v
$ tdm°‰v C‘-ß-fn¬ Pze\klm-bn-
bmbn
$ saUn-°¬ BhiyØn\v
$ Po¿W\Øn\v
$
hymh-km-bn-I-ambn HmIvkn-P≥ \n¿an-°p-
∂Xv A¥--co£hmbp-hns\ Zho-I-cn∏n®
tijw AwinItkzZ\w \S-Øn-bm-Wv.
ss\SP≥
A¥-co-£-hmbp-hn¬ G‰hpw IqSp-X-ep≈
aqeIw GXmWv?
132 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
ss\S-Ps‚ GsXms° KpW-߃
\n߃°-dn-bmw?
]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ ss\S-Ps‚
ÿm\w Is≠Øn NphsS sImSp-Øn-
cn-°p∂ ]´nI ]qcn-∏n-°p-I.
]XoIw
At‰m-anI \º¿
At‰m-anI amkv
Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw
kwtbm-P-IX
`uXn-Im-hÿ
\ndw
Poh-Pm-e-ß-fpsS hf¿®-bv°pw \ne-
\nev]n\pw ss\S-P≥ A\n-hm-cy-L-S-I-am-
sW∂v \n߃ a\- n-em-°n-bn -´p -≠v.
t]m´o-\p-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-L-S-I-ß-fn-sem-
∂mWv ss\S-P≥.
P¥p-°ƒ°v Blm-c-Øn-eqsS ss\S-P≥
e`n-°p-∂p-≠v. kky-߃t°m?
CSn-an-∂-en-eqsS ss\S-P≥ eh-W-߃
A¥-co£hmX-I-ß-fn¬ Gsd-°ptd
\njvIn -b -amb H∂mWv ss\S -P≥.
F¶nepw Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -ebn¬ CXv
HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p-∂p. CSn-an-
∂-ep-≠m-Ip-tºmƒ A¥-co-£-Ønse
ss\S-P≥ ss\SnIv HmIvsskUv (NO)Bbn amdp-∂p-≠v.
F¥mhmw ImcWw?
ka-hmIyw FgpXn kao-I-cn-°q.
... + ... → NO
Cu ss\SnIv HmIvsskUv IqSp -X¬
HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p-∂-Xns‚
ka-hmIyw i≤n-°q.
2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2
NO2 Pe-Øn¬ \∂mbn ebn-°p∂ Hcp
hmX-I-am-Wv. ag-sh-≈-Øn¬ ebn®p
tN¿∂v CXv ss\SnIv Bkn-Umbn aÆn-
se-Øp-∂p. aÆnse [mXp -°-fp -ambn
]h¿Øn-®p-≠m-Ip∂ ss\tS‰v eh-W-߃
sNSn-I-fpsS thcp-Iƒ hen-s®--Sp-°p-∂p. CSn-
an-∂¬ ]e-t∏mgpw kky-߃°v A\pK-
l-am-Ip∂p F∂p ]d-bp-∂-Xns‚ ImcWw
a\- n-em-bt√m.
ss\S-P≥ ÿnco-I-cWw_mIvSo-cn-b-bn-eqsS
]b¿h¿K-Øn¬s∏´ sNSn-I-fpsS thcp-
I-fn¬ Pohn-°p∂ ssdtkm-_nbw C\-
Øn¬s∏Sp∂ _mIvSo-cn-b-Iƒ°v A¥-
co -£-ss\-S -P≥ t\cn´v BKn-cWw
sNøm≥ Ign-bpw. Cßs\ ehWcq]-Øn-
em-°nb ss\S-P≥ thcp-I-fnse apg-I-
fn¬ kw`-cn®v hbv°∏Sp-∂p-≠v. Ch
kky-h-f¿®bv°v klm-b-I-amWv.
CSn-an-∂-en-eq-sSbpw kq£vaPohn-I-fpsS
]h¿Ø-\-Øn-eq-sSbpw hfsc°pd™
Afhv ss\S-P≥ amX-amWv sNSn-Iƒ°p
e`n-°p-∂-Xv. F∂m¬ kky˛P¥p-°-fpsS
Ah-in-jvS-߃ No™-gp-Ip-∂-Xn-eq-sS
ss\S-P≥ IqSnb Af-hn¬ kky-߃°p
e`n-°p-∂p.
Fs¥ms° ssPh Ah-in-jvS-ß-fmWv
km[m-c-W-bmbn sNSn-Iƒ°p tN¿°m-
dp-≈Xv?
$
$
$
Irjn-bn¬ ssPh-h-f-]-tbm-K-Øns‚
]m[m\yw F¥mWv?
ssPh-h-f-Øns‚ ]cn-an-Xn-Iƒ Fs¥m-
s°-bmWv?
$
$
$
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 133
CXv Fßs\ ]cn-l-cn°mw?
ss\S-P≥, t^mkv^-d-kv, s]m´m-kyw,
kƒ^¿, ... XpS-ßnb aqe-I-ß-fmWv cmk-
h-f-]-tbm-K-Øn-eqsS ][m-\-ambpw sNSn-
Iƒ°p e`n-t°-≠-Xv. CXn¬Øs∂ hfsc
][m-\-s∏-´Xv ss\S-P-\m-Wv.
Atam-WnbhmX-I-amWv cmk-h-f-ß-fpsS
\n¿am-W-Ønse ][m\ Akw-kvIrX
hkvXp. ¢mkv-ap-dn-bn¬ Atam-Wnb \n¿an-
°p∂ eLp]h¿Ø\w sNbvXpt\m°q.
Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n¬ Ipd®v Atam-Wnbw
t¢mssdUv FSpØv NpÆm-ºp -ambn
[Ca(OH)2] Iq´nt®¿Øv NqSm-°q. \nco-
£Ww tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
Atam-Wnb
cmk-kqXw : NH3
kmµX : hmbp-hn-s\-°mƒ Ipdhv
aWw :
\ndw :
]´nI 11.3
hyh-km-b-im-e-I-fn¬ ]tXyI kml-N-cy-
ß-fn¬ A¥-co£ ss\S-P≥ sslU-P-
\p-ambn ]h¿Øn-∏n-®mWv NH3 D≠m-°p-
∂-Xv. CXns‚ cmk-k-a-hmIyw \¬In-bn-
cn-°p-∂p. kao-I-cn-°q.
N2 + H2 → NH3
]Ir-Xn-bn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp∂ ss\tS-‰pIƒ
BWv kky-߃°v ss\S-P≥ e`y-am-
°p∂ a‰p tkmX- p-Iƒ. Ch-bn¬ ][m-
\-s∏-´h t\m°q.
t]cv cmk-kqXw
shSn-bp∏v KNO3
Nnen shSn-bp∏v NaNO3
]´nI 11.4
ss\S-P≥ ssk°nƒ(Nitrogen cycle)
A¥-co£ ss\S-P-s‚bpw ss\tS-‰p-I-fp-
sSbpw Pohafi-e-Ønse kwXp-e\w
Xmsg -s°m-Sp -Øn -cn -°p∂ ss\S -P≥
ssk°nƒ t\m°n hni-I-e\w sNøq.
ss\S-P≥
Atam-Wnb
cmk-h-f-߃ss\S-P≥
^nIvtk-j≥
_mIvSo-cnb
CSn-an-∂¬
NO, NO2D≠m-Ip∂p
ag-sh-≈-Øn¬ ebn®v ss\S-
Ps‚ Bkn-Umbn amdp∂p.
aÆn¬ ss\SP≥
eh-W-߃ D≠m-Ip-∂p. ss\Sn-ss^-bnMv_mIvSocnb hgnss\tS-‰p-Iƒ
kky-ß-fn-te°v
kky ˛ P¥p arXm-h-in-jvS-߃ _mIvSo-cnb]h¿Ø\w hgn ss\S-P≥ kwbp-‡-ß-fmbnamdp-∂p. CXn¬ Ipd®v kky-ß-fpsS D]-tbm-K-Øn-\mbn aÆn¬ \n¬°p-∂p. Ipd®v, ss\S-P≥
cq]-Øn¬ kzX-¥-am-°-s∏-Sp-∂p.NnXo-I-cWw 11.1 ˛ ss\S-P≥ ssk°nƒ
134 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
ss\S-Ps\ kky-߃ F¥n-s\m-s°-
bmWv D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂Xv?
A¥-co-£-Øn¬ ss\S-P≥ ho≠pw
D≠m-Ip-∂-sX-ßs\?
A¥-co£ss\S-P≥ kky-߃°v
e`y-am-Ip-∂-sX-ß-s\-sbms°?
sslU-P≥
Hcp hmjvt_m-´n-en¬ t\¿∏n® ssltUm-
t¢m-dnIv BknUv FSpØv AXn¬ kn¶v
Xcn-Iƒ C´p t\m°q. t_m´n¬ AS®v Ipg-
ens‚ kzX¥ A‰w thsdmcp _o°-dnse
tkm∏p-em-b-\n-bn¬ ap°n-h-bv°p-I. D≠m-
Ip∂ Ipan-f-I-fn¬ IØn® Xos∏´ns°m≈n
ImWn-°q. F¥p ck-I-c-amb ImgvN-bmWv
I≠Xv?
ChnsS Ipan-f-Iƒ D≠m-bXv Fß-s\-
bmWv?
$ ]co-£Ww \S-Øm≥ Bh-iy-amb
kma-Kn-Iƒ
$ kma-Kn-I-fpsS Iao-I-cWw
ho¿Øp-h∂ _eq-¨ \qep-sIm≠v sI´n-b-
Xn\p tijw ssIbn¬ \n∂p hn´p-t\m-°q.
s]m´¬i_vZ-tØmsS IØp∂ hmXIw
GXmWv?
ChnsS \S∂ ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hmIyw
t\m°q.
Zn + 2 HCI → ZnCl2 + H2
Cu ]h¿Ø\w hgn D≠mb hmX-Iw Hcp
_eq-Wn¬ tiJ-cn®v t\m°n-bmtem.
Fs¥√mw aps∂m-cp-°-߃ sNø-Ww?
NnXw 11.4
NnXw 11.5
F¥mWp kw -hn-°p-∂Xv? _eq¨ apI-
fn-te-°p-bcp∂p. CXn¬ \n∂v sslU-
Ps‚ kmµ-X-sb-°p-dn®v F¥p \nK-a-
\-Øn-seØmw?
sslU-Ps‚ km∂n[yw
]]-©-Øn¬ 99% hpw sslU-P\mWv.
kqcy-\n-sebpw \£-X-ß-fn-sebpw apJy
LS-Ihpw Ah-bnse Du¿tPm¬]m-Z-\-
Øns‚ Imc-Whpw sslU-P≥ Xs∂.
sslU-P≥ kzX-¥m-h-ÿ-bnepw kwbp-
‡m-h -ÿ-bnepw ImW-s∏-Sp -∂p -≠v .
\n߃°-dn-bm-hp∂ sslU-Ps‚ kwbp-
‡-߃ enkv‰vv sNøq.
$ NH3
$ HCl
$
$
H2
t\¿ØHCI
Zn
H2
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 135
]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ sslUPs‚
ÿm\w Is≠-Øq.
sslU-Ps‚ At‰m-anI \º¿ FX-
bmWv?
amkv \ºtdm?
a‰v B‰-ß-fn¬ \n∂p hyXy-kvX-ambn
sslU-P\v Fs¥√mw ]tXy-I-X-I-fm-
Wp-≈Xv?
$ hen∏w :
$ `mcw :
$ B‰wLS\ :
sslU-Ps‚ cmk-kqXw Fgp-Xq.
sslU-Ps‚ sFtkm-tSm-∏p-I-fn¬
\yqtSm¨ C√mØhbpw \yqtSm¨
D≈hbpw D≠t√m? ChbpsS t]cpw
]Xo-Ihpw Fgp-Xq.
sslU-Ps‚ ][m\ kwbp-‡-amWv Pew
(H2O). sslU-P≥ HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn
]h¿Øn®v Pew D≠m-hp-∂Xpt]mse
Uyq´o-cnbw HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn ]h¿Øn-®p-
≠mIp∂ HmIvssk-UmWv L\-P-ew
(D2O). BW-h-\n-e-b-ß-fn-emWv CXp
][m-\-ambpw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xv.
sslU-P≥ IØp∂ hmX-I-am-W-t√m.
sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥
km[n-°ptam?
Hmtcm Kmw hoXw hyXykvX C‘\ß-
fpsS Pze\w aqew D≠m-Ip∂ Xmt]m¿P-
Øns‚ Afhp ImWn-°p∂ Km^mWv
NnXw 11.6 ¬ sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂-Xv.
sslU-P≥ IØp-∂-Xns‚ ^e-ambn
A¥-co£ aen-\o-I-cWw D≠m-Im-\n-S-
bpt≠m?
sslU-P≥ hmbp-hn¬ Pzen-°p-∂-
Xns‚ ka-hmIyw FgpXn Is≠-Øq.
...... +...... → ......
sslU-P≥ C‘-\-am-°n-bm¬ D≠m-
Ip∂ ta∑-Iƒ Fs¥m-s°-bm-sW∂v
N¿®sNbvXv Is≠Øn Ipdn-°q.
$ sslU-Ps‚ e`yX
$ e`n-°p∂ Du¿Pw
$ aen-\o-I-cW km[yX
Cu ta∑-Iƒ D≠m-bn´pw sslU-P≥
F¥p-sIm-≠mWv Hcp km[m-cW C‘-
\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ Ign-bm-ØXv?
Cu C‘\w ssIImcyw sNøp-∂-Xn-
\p≈ kmt¶-XnI _p≤n-ap´v F¥mWv?
Pze\kz`m-h-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn
Nn¥n®v DØcw Is≠-Øq.
Cu ]cn-anXn adnIS-°m≥ Ign-™mtem?
^yph¬ sk¬
sslU-P≥ hmX-Ihpw HmIvkn-P≥ hmX-
Ihpw D]-tbm-Kn-®p-sIm≠v ]tXyI
kwhn-[m-\-Øn-eqsS sshZypXn D¬∏m-
Zn-∏n-°p∂ sk√p-I-fmWv sslU-P≥ ˛
HmIvkn-P≥ yph¬ sk√p-Iƒ. Ch-bn¬
]h¿Ø-\-^-e-ambn sshZyp-Xn-tbm-
sSm∏w Pe-amWv Hcp D¬∏-∂-ambn e`n-
NnXw 11.6
143
5648
33 3023
1610
Pz-e
\w aq
e-ap
-≠m-I
p∂ D
u¿P
w (k
J/g)
ssl
U-P
≥ H
2ao
sY
bv≥
CH
4
s]
tSm
ƒ (
Oct
ane)
C8H
18
I¬
°cn (
Car
bon)
C
FY
-t\mƒ
C2H
5OH
saY
-t\mƒ
CH
3OH
Im¿
t_m ssl
tU
-‰p-I
ƒDZm
: •
qt°
mkv C
6H12
O6
Im¿
_¨
tam
tWm-I
vssk
Uv C
O
136 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
$ CaCl2
$
]Ir -Xn -bn¬ kwbp‡cq]-Øn¬
amXw ImW-s∏-Sp -∂-Xn¬ \n∂v
t¢mdns‚ cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-ti-jn-sb-∏‰n
F¥v Dul-Øn-seØmw?
]ncn -tbm -UnIv tS_nƒ D]-tbm -Kn®v
t¢mdn-\p-ambn _‘-s∏´ ASn-ÿm\hnh-
c-߃ tiJ-cn®v ]´nI ]qcn-∏n-°q. (]´nI
11.5)
At‰m-anI \º¿
At‰m-anI amkv
Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw
kwtbm-P-IX
]´nI 11.5
t¢mdn\v cmk]h¿Ø-\-tijn (Inbm-io-
ew) IqSp-X-em-hm-\p≈ Imc-W-sa-¥mWv?
Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ym-kw, kwtbm-P-IX
F∂n-h-bp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn \nK-a\w
cq]o-I-cn-°q.
t¢mdn≥ \n¿an°mw
et_m-d-´-dn-bn¬ t¢mdn≥ hmXIw \n¿an-
°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ k÷o-I-c-W-amWv NnX-
Øn¬. NnXw hni-I-e\w sNøq (NnXw
11.7).
KMnO4+
HClKmV H2SO4
t¢mdn≥ hmXIw
16 HCl + 2 KMnO4 → 2 KCl+2 MnCl2 + 8 H2O + 5 Cl2
NnXw 11.7
°p-∂-Xv. AXn-\m¬ aen -\o -I-cWw
C√mØ sk√mbn Ch ]cn-K-Wn-°-s∏-
Sp∂p. sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-
Kn® v hml-\ -߃ HmSn -°p -∂-Xn\v
CØcw sk√p-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-≠v.
_ln-cm-ImibmX-I-fnepw sslU-P≥
˛ HmIvkn-P≥ ^yph¬ sk√pIƒ D]-
tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
t^mkn¬ C‘-\-ßfmb s]tSmƒ,
Uok¬, asÆÆ F∂n-h-bpsS Afhv
Ipd™phcp∂ kml-N-cy-Øn¬ `mhn-
bnse C‘-\-ambn sslU-Ps\ Icp-
Xmtam? IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-߃ tiJ-cn®v
sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-
°m≥ Ign-bp∂Xns‚ km[y-X-Isf
°pdn®v Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm-°q.
t¢mdn≥
IpSn-sh-≈-Øns‚ ][m\ tkmX- p-Iƒ
GsXm-s°-bmWv?
$ InW¿
$
$
ss]∏vsh≈-Øn\v Hcp ]tXyI K‘w
A\p- -h-s∏- n- nt√? IpSn-sh≈ ip≤o-I-c-W-
Øns‚ `mK-ambn t¢mdn≥ tN¿°p-∂Xp
sIm≠m-WnXv. t¢mdns‚ HmIvko-I-cW
kz`m-h-amWv PesØ AWp-hn-ap-‡-am-°p-
∂Xv.
t¢mdn≥ ]Ir-Xn-bn¬ km[m-c-W- kzX-¥m-
h-ÿ-bn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp-∂n-√; t¢mssdUv cq]-
Øn-emWv ImW-s∏Sp∂Xv. t¢mdn≥ kwbp-
‡-ß-fpsS enÃn¬ \n߃°v G‰hpw ]cn-
N-b-am-bh IqSn Iq´nt®¿°q.
$ KCl$ AlCl3
$ MgCl2
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 137
t¢mdns‚ ªo®nMv ]h¿Ø\w
t¢mdn≥ D]-tbm-Kn®v Hcp ]co-£Ww
sNømw. \nd-ap≈ ]qhn-X-fp-Iƒ, ]®n-e, \nd-
ap≈ XpWn-°-jW-߃ XpS-ßn-bh \\-
®-tijw Hcp KymkvPmdn¬ FSp-°q.
t¢mdn≥ \n¿an®v CXn -te°v ISØn
hnSq.
F¥mWp \nco-£Ww?
\nd-ap≈ hkvXp-°sf ªo®v sNbvXv \nd-
an-√m-Xm°m\p≈ Ignhv t¢mdn≥hmX-I-Øn-
\p-≠v. hkvX\n¿amW hyh-km-b-Øn¬
XpWn- ªo®p sNøp-∂-Xn\v t¢mdn≥ D]-
tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.
t¢mdns‚ Nne ][m\ D]-tbm-K-߃ IqSn
t\m°q.
$ hnhn[ cwK-ß-fn¬ ªo®nMn\v
$ IoS-\m-in-\n-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-Øn-\v
$ d^n-P-td-‰dpI-fnepw Fb¿I-≠o-j-
\dpI-fnepw D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ t¢mtdm-
^vfqtdm Im¿_-Wp-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-
Øn\v
$ Id If-bm-\p≈ Nne hkvXp-°ƒ \n¿an-
°m≥.
$ IpSn-sh≈ip≤o-I-c-W-Øn\v
IpSn-sh≈ip≤o-I-c-W-Øn\v InW-dp-I-
fnepw Ipf-ß-fnepw a‰pw tN¿°p∂
]Zm¿Yw GXmWv?
Aev]w ªo®nMv ]uU¿ FSpØv
aWØp t\m°q.
ªo®nMv ]uU-dns‚ K‘-Øn¬ \n∂v
AXn-ep≈ ][m\ LS-Iw Xncn-®-dn-
bm≥ Ign-bp-∂pt≠m? GXmWv B
LSIw?
DW-°nb IpΩm-b-s∏m-Sn-bn-eqsS t¢mdn≥
hmXIw ISØnhn´mWv ªo®nMv ]uU¿
kƒ^yq-dnIv BknUv (H2SO4)
et_m-d-´-dn-bnepw hyh-km-b-ß-fnepw
G‰hpw ]m[m-\y-ap≈ kƒ^yq-dnIv
BknUv, cmk-h-kvXp°-fpsS cmPmhv
F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. ssltUm-t¢m-dnIv
Bkn-Uv, ss\SnIv BknUv XpS-ßnb
_mjv]oI-cW-ioeap≈ Bkn-Up-Isf
Ah-bpsS eh-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Dev]mZn-
∏n-°m≥ Cu Bkn-Un-\m-hpw. KmV
k¿^yq-dnIv Bkn-Un\v an° ]Zm¿Y-ß-
sfbpw £bn-∏n-°m≥ Ign-bpw (highlycorrosive). Pemw-i-ap≈ ]Zm¿Y-ß-fn¬
\n∂v Pemwiw BKn-cWw sNøp∂
timjo-I-cW kz`m-hhpw Pe-aq-e-I-ß-
fmb sslU-Ps\bpw HmIvkn-P-s\bpw
Pemw-iam°n BKn-cWw sNøp∂ \n¿P-
eo-I-cW kz`m-hhpw ]I-Sn-∏n-°p∂
H∂mWv kƒ^yqdnIv Bkn-Uv.-
$ GsX√mw A`n-Im-c-I-ß-fmWv D]-tbm-
Kn-®Xv?
$ D¬]-∂-߃ GsXm-s°-bmWv?
$ •mkv Pmdnse hmbp-hns\ apI-fn-te°v
BtZiw sNbvXm-Wt√m t¢mdn≥ tiJ-
cn-°-p-∂Xv. CXn¬ \n∂v t¢mdns‚
kmµ-Xsb°p-dn®v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-
seØmw?
$ t¢mdn≥ hmX-IsØ KmV H2SO4
eqsS IS-Øn-hn-Sp-∂Xv F¥n-\mhmw?
D¬]-∂-߃ hni-I-e\w sNbvXp
Is≠-Øq.
$ cmk-hmIyw kao-I-cn-®-XmtWm F∂p
]cn-tim-[n-°q.
NnX-Øn¬ ImWp-∂Xpt]mse D]-I-c-W-
߃ Iao-I-cn®v So®-dpsS klm-b-tØmsS
]co-£Ww \S-Øn-t\m-°q. \nco-£Ww
kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
$ D≠mb hmX-I-Øns‚ \ndw
$ aWw (t\cn´v izkn-°-cp-Xv)
m'ldo'l oo; cm oi. crDc<rlc o6m croot uoJ
eonudeo;gg cgcolod cgmrcolegccol pd g"tccorcdlesr;cm;.
eglq16ri "-Llcud c"-Lr?oo eeLo,il'lo8cgccnoop mtccrn'lcr-rSo;c6rec
"OcmJ otolgcjl co)coA n ol ero€J; or o"l egam o roq oil.da<01 go"-Lco)or3cmcao].
o ccmcorrE o: cgllol go egr collm3o
cgccrl m2 o rororo-fl oop ffDo coJdo.,)6-6BgJo n c5oo
o-L c ro'l mm'l o-rl o 1crl crd co ecn <rE od a c o em o c ot;
cml dng. Gro crot o"l esj orot o el n c c cru c enO "-L
c gil
aDlos G@cotuemacerd pollererccrd.
rino oo o"l a,si ororl o s mi 1s c c g c mi ".o1
co; ci o8
or9en5 accm'lcord (Or) ags;torercool ocem
og s; cmoY. oroaor o"lo,sjoro-,1o4 accm:cond
oJoroHsJcmono€ ffDoolcaJo ccDc6oJ.
oa<;61sc orcor er oodol20..
cn c,r0 gsc or oor eL$ o cd o'1 aod targ uil o em o orl grl
cmo1lerSosoo;cerd O, ojl"prs'leoccocolUoJocao)
pncdeo eLre'lao;cmo5. p6cBocnoo;;drrecol;ffi)
ocdmrlsoE taqg6aBUa O, olcncioraor;occojl
crDo c cocel gcerd. o, perrecot] cmcfr .
)------ - - 'c,auaPcocolelfr
..' au6zi,a,u6 t ---.
/\u\
l\
'\oz 03ta/a/\/\/
\7\u
--+-rcncrElscocore.rf
ac:i,fla,gil
plc nccm)cand o.rou0Lscolao erd ocdo'l ag;eisrorgaflroemo orpl ojl"ets'lj cllene;o O, arOcot
ocolcml6nd.
6rBc aq m) (ruo@4 aa) 668 gc6tlt e* ccoc
"igscoc &c66tu6m)&cfi annoLc m:1."g1
"i.mfla,u6. adrzo ToLeac(D|2j "g)gJH@tol(o8 goL"la,alaacaqrD got atLc"dotT
a, @l eq coucud ag (o6tv) gg 6rB c&) (m).
ana ofl ot c rod o 6n7 a e o g oS a, ud, og aM a, a're"l
ae4 6rn oJ & uA, "g a; d a,S g oS a, ud a41 ottl oL ailoscoaa ou|. "g1"d.ou7a,ud otlcoLa,acalg^t eac cn7 aaS cmS. onLdnnSSo micyoLa,gl eL] o g ot gare a)cufl aoS cmS a'rd.
toro aD o"l esj olo'l1 o eL oror; oD c * c c o c "-d'
g; c o c
6cd6rx6rDj6od oil"ets1ql6rec6J(m cscctoaaccm)c 6rDi acool 1"_Lo.16orofl oo; cml. pCI;occmtc ernloop ong oL1o8 e;o o3 enecool
eicdmr'lgo0 - nccm)c6nd olcio1a1.Ltotcor)ocdro cT omtcot;ej1orocdoJcDl.
* o.OFioS tslauALsc crj oor etf ocrdal auamigsccgcm5"n1cocr'lo8 ogj orgar'l oemo
odgogsJcmai aSs;coc aJoeoJcoc?
* o0)oo)ColJo GrOCD(DCoonelo?
orood gsc oL cor et $ o od o1 o crd "-r
tofl ojl et u-r1 o o re; o1
col oer ororl c4 o3 cm<oi s"loL sc er ecnudeo;
GBCoqieOACAJo.
* accmtcend"tcgflaoJos oT adgcolos coDcr;l
cn'loslojl coronilocrp "jomootcen5 ?
* mlor5 s"lot'l o'r oror'l elJ ot caoc col ao;cmo$o(o..)cooo eot6@6lDd6Bgi1o8 cnlcm;o
Q(.lJ Gaoc cD ol miarrl ao gloS crrlcm; ocerd
mn. "g"-d.mn. crocroo"la,sjctrolos ogorilcqoco0 crDcctrJo'.l?
* porco;1o8 s"lollo"ron-jlo8 nnororScoL<;o5ac
ao)cx oJoocoeo oo;cen5 ? cccm;cerd olcglcor;os o'rad4cn'lood 6Jog re;o'lcor;osco;o
oo gcx o 6rr\D eL oto-rl erofl co;J o oD oco &r91 Grn
o]o-no5 mo]ed oo)ooo,co€o acdcneB3sA
Gnorpio6Dfl eocoa o,v1cor]o? 6l5l6co]occo;1 rorgcac"jlg cnldcacroeanud o;"_L"l
ao1oo3a.
30
€fr lco l on"gac0 I elr0eruern3e r0
a,cdenLanlcocoscflo cgcol od a@paanp]o
"n"gSo7od cDB ewap)o (Doe@)c Bl gJ
@iur- qP-!4,
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 123
]T-\-bm-Xm-th-f-bn¬ Ccpºp mIvS-dn-
bn¬ I≠ Hcp Zriyw cmPp-hpw A\okpw
N¿®sNøm-\n-S-bm-bn.
Iqºm-c-ambn C´n-´p≈ ]gb Ccpºp
km[-\-߃ ^¿W-kn-te°v \o°w
sNøp-∂Xv sIbn-\n¬ LSn-∏n® Im¥w
Xs∂-bm-sW∂v cmPp ]d-™-t∏mƒ,
""Fß-s\-bmWv CXbpw henb Af-
hn¬ Im¥-i‡n D≠m-°p-I-bpw C√m-
Xm-°p-Ibpw sNøp-∂Xv''˛ F∂mbn
A\o-kv.
CØcw kµ¿ -ß-fn¬ sshZyp-Xn-bpsS
]¶v F¥v?
Hcp eLp-]-co-£Ww sNbvXpt\m°mw.
sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂ EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap≈ Im¥n-I-a-fiew
kqNn-ap-\-bn¬ h® Hcp Im¥kqNn tai-
∏pdØp hbv-°q. Im¥kqNn°v Aev]w apI-
fn-¬ AXn\v kam-¥-c-ambn EPphmb sNºp-
Iºn hen-®p-]n-Sn-°q. AXn-eqsS _m‰-dn-
bn¬ \n∂v sshZyp-Xn hfsc sNdnb t\c-
tØ°v -I-S-Øn-hn-Sq.
sshZyp-XIm-¥n-IX10
F¥mWv \nß-fpsS \nco-£Ww?
kqNn°v hn`wiw (deflection) kw`-
hnt®m?
sshZypX]hmlw \n¿Øn-t\m-°q,
At∏mtgm?
sshZyp-X-]-hmlw FXn¿Zni-bn-em-°n-
bm¬ kqNn-bpsS hn`wiw F]-Im-c-
am-bn-cn°pw?
Im¥kqNn°v hn`wiw D≠m-hm≥ Imc-
W-sa-¥mWv?
N
NS
S
NnXw 10.1
124 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂ EPpNme-I-Øn\v
Np‰pw Hcp Im¥n-I-a-fiew D≠m-Ip-∂p-
s≠∂p a\- n-em-°n-bt√m.
Cu Im¥nIafiew NnXo-I-cn-°mtam?
Hcp ]h¿Ø\w sNømw.
an\p-k-ap≈ Im¿-Uvt_m¿Un¬ Hcp kpjn-
c-ap-≠m°n AXv c≠p ac-°- Ifn¬ Xmßn
\n¿Øp-I. EPp-hmb sNºp-Iºn Im¿Unse
kpjn-c-ØneqsS ISØnh®v AK-߃
_m‰-dn-bp-ambn _‘n-∏n-°p-I.
Im¿Un¬ t\¿Ø Ccp-ºps]mSn hnX-dp-I.
kmh-[m\w Im¿Uv X´nt\m°q. F¥p
\nco -£n -°p -∂p? Ccpºps]mSn -bpsS
hn\ymkw i≤n-°q.
F√m he-b-ß-fnepw Ccpºps]mSn-
bpsS hnX-cWw Hcpt]mse-bmtWm?
Iºn-bn¬ \n∂v AI-∂pt]mIp-t¥mdpw
F¥p hyXym-k-amWv \nco-£n-®-Xv?
Cu \nco-£-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-
a-\-Øn-emWv \n߃ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?
\n߃ I≠ hn\ymkw kb≥kv Ub-dn-
bn¬ NnXo-I-cn-°q.
\n߃°p e`n® hn\ym-k-Øns‚
BIrXn F¥v? Ch-bpsS tIµw GXv?
C\n dntbm-Ãm‰v Iao-I-cn®v sk¿°o-´nse
Id‚ v h¿[n-∏n®p t\m°q. (]co-£Ww hnP-
bn-°-W-sa-¶n¬ 2A¬ IqSp-X¬ Id‚ v ]h-
ln-∏n-°-W-sa∂v Hm¿°pI). Im¿Un¬ Ccp-
ºp-s]mSn hnXdn -]-co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-°q.
Ccpºp s]mSn-bpsS hn\ym-k-Øn¬
Fs¥-¶nepw am‰w D≠mtbm? F¥p-am-
‰-amWp \nco-£n-®Xv?
CXn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-emWv
\n߃ FØp-∂Xv? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬
Fgp-Xq.
Zni-tb-sX∂p Is≠Ømw
EPp-Nm-e-I-Øn\p Np‰pw cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-
I-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni GXp-hn-[-am-bn-cn-°p-
sa∂p Is≠-Ømtam? Hcp ]h¿Ø\w
sNøq.
t\ctØ sNbvX ]co-£-W-Øn¬ Im¿Uv
t_m¿Unse Ccp-ºp-s]m-Sn -am-‰n Hcp Im¥-
kq-Nn - h-bv°q. C\n Nme-I-Øn-eqsS
sshZypXn IS-Øn-hn-Sq. ]hm-l-Zn-ibpw
Ipdn-°q.
sshZypXn ]hln-®-t∏mƒ Im¥-kq-Nn-
bpsS Zni-bn¬ am‰-ap-≠mtbm?
Im¥kqNn-bpsS DØ-c-[phw \n¬°p∂
_nµp IS-em-kn¬ AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq. AS-
bm-f-s∏-Sp-Ønb `mKØv B Im¥kqNn-
bpsS Z£nW[phw hc-Ø-°-hn[w AXv
am‰n-hbv-°q. At∏m-gp≈ DØ-c-[phw AS-
bm-f-s∏-SpØn ]h¿Ø\w XpScq.
sshZypX]hm-l-Zni
_m‰-dn-bpsS t]mkn-‰o-hv sS¿an-\en¬
\n∂v s\K-‰o-hv sS¿an\en-te-°mWv
sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p-∂Xv.
CXp-t]mse Im¥-kqNn Im¿Un¬ hnhn[
ÿm\-ß-fn¬ h®v ]co-£Ww Bh¿-
Øn°q.
Im¥-kqNn FSp-Øp-am‰n Hmtcm Xh-Wbpw
e`n® _nµp-°ƒ tN¿Øp hc-bv°q.
NnXw 10.2
A_ +
K
P
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 125
e`n® BIrXn F¥v?
Im¥nIafi-e-Øn¬ kzX-¥-amb
DØc[phØns‚ Ne\Zni-bmWv _e-
tc-J-I-fpsS Zni. Im¥nIafi-e-Øns‚
Zni F∂Xv _e-tc-J-I-fpsS Zni-bm-Wv.
Im¥nIafi-e-Ønse _etcJ-I-fpsS
Zni AS-bm-f-s∏-SpØn NnXo-Icn-°m-a-t√m.
Id‚ v hn]-coXZn-i-bn-em°n ]co-£Ww
Bh¿Øn-°q.
Hmtcm Xh-W-bpw Im¥nIafi-e-Øns‚
Znibpw sshZyp-X-]-hm-l-Zn-i-bp-ambn Xmc-
Xayw sNøq.
sshZyp-X-]-hm-l-Zn-ibpw X∑qew e`n®
Im¥nI-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni-bp-ambn Fs¥-
¶nepw _‘apt≠m?
\nß-fpsS Is≠-ج
kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Fgp-Xq.
Cu _‘w heXpssI-
bnse X≈-hn-cepw a‰p hnc-
ep-Ifpw D]-tbm-Kn®v Is≠-
Øm≥ Ign-bpw.
sshZyp-X-]-hmlZni-bn¬
he-Xp-X-≈-hn-c¬ hc-Ø-°-
hn[w Nme-IsØ ]nSn-®v a‰p
hnc-ep-Iƒ kqNn-∏n-°p∂
Zni-bpw Im¥nIafie-
Ønse tImºkv kqNn-bpsS
DØ-c-[phw kqNn-∏n-°p∂
Znibpw XΩn -ep≈ _‘w tcJ-s∏-
SpØq.
heXp ssIbpsS X≈-hn-c¬ sshZypX
]hm-l-Zn-i kqNn-∏n°pw hn[w EPp
Nme-IsØ ]nSn-°p∂p F∂p k¶-ev]n-
°p-I. a‰p-hn-c-ep-I-fpsS A‰w kqNn-∏n-
°p∂ Zni-bm-bn-cn°pw Im¥nIafi-e-
Øns‚ Zni. CXm -Wv he-XpssI
\nb-aw (right hand rule).-EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰pw cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-
I-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-camsW∂p
a\- n-em-°n-b-t√m.
C
F
NnXw 10.3
NnXw 10.4
NnX-Øn¬ ImWp-∂Xp-t]mse sNºp-Iºn
Im¿Uvt_m¿Un-ep≈ c≠p kpjn-c-ß-fn-
eqsS ISØn hrØm-Ir-Xn-bn¬ Iao-I-cn-
°p-I.
CXv _m‰-dn-bpsS sS¿an-\-ep-I-fp-ambn kzn®v
apJm-¥cw LSn-∏n-°p-I.
Im¿Uvt_m¿Un¬ Iºn hf-b-Øns‚ Np‰n-
ep-ambn Ccpºps]mSn- hn-X-dp-I. kzn®v Hm¨
sNbvXv kmh-[m\w Im¿Uv X´n-t\m-°q.
EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap-≠mb Ccpºp
s]mSn-bpsS hnX-c-W-Øn¬ \n∂v F¥p
]tXy-I-X-bmWv ChnsS \nco-£n-°p-
∂Xv?
Ccpºps]mSn- hnX-cWw sNø-s∏-´Xv
F]-Im-c-amWv?
CXn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-emWv
\n߃ FØn-t®-cp-∂Xv?
Iºn®p-‰p-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n-∏n-®mtem?
C
K
A
B
NnXw 10.5
hrØm-Ir-Xn-bn¬ Iao-I-cn-°s∏´ Iºn-bn-
eqsS sshZyp-Xn- I-S-Øn-hn-´m¬ D≠m-Ip-∂
Im¥nIafie-Øn-s‚ Zni F]-Im-c-am-bn-
cn-°pw?
hrØm-Ir -Xn -bn¬ Iao -I-cn -°-s∏´
Nme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap≈ Im¥n-I-a-fiew
126 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
NnX-w 10.5 teXpt]mse Im¿Un¬ Iºn-h-
e-b-Øn\v ]pdØv A, C _nµp-°fpw Iºn
he-b-Øn-\-IØv B bpw t\¿tc-J-bn¬ hc-
Ø-°-hn[w AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq. Ah Hmtcm-
∂nepw Hmtcm sNdp-Im-¥-kq-Nn-h®v kzn®v
Hm¨ sNøq. F¥p \nco-£n-°p-∂p?
A, B, C _nµp-°-fn¬ Im¥kqNn-bpsS
DØc[ph-Øns‚ Zni Hcpt]mse-
bmtWm?
Im¿Uvt_m¿Uns‚ Xe-Øn¬ ABCtcJbv°v ew_-ambn B bn¬IqSn Hcp tcJ
hc-bv°q. Cu tcJ-bnse hnhn[ _nµp-°-
fn¬ Hmtcm Im¥kqNn h®v ]co-£Ww
Bh¿Øn-°q. Im¥-kq-Nn°v ZnimhyXn-
bm\w D≠m-Ip-∂pt≠m? F]-Im-c-am-Wh?
CXn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-emWv
\n߃ FØn-t®-cp-∂Xv? tcJ-s∏-SpØq.
Htc Iºn-sIm≠v ASp-Ø-Sp-Ømbn ]c-
kv]cw kv]¿in-°mØ hn[-Øn¬ c≠p
he-b-߃ D≠m°n ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-
°q.
Hmtcm he-b-Øn\pw ]pdw`mK-Øp-≠m-
Ip∂ Im¥-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-
c-amWv?
he-b-߃°v AItØm?
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un\v Np‰p-ap≈Im¥n-I-a-fi-ew
Hcp Im¿Uvt_m-Un¬ A¿[-kn-en-≠-dm-Ir-
Xn-bn-ep≈ ]n.hn.kn. ss]∏v Xmsgbpw apI-
fn-ep-ambn h®v hi-ß-fn-eqsS kam-¥c
tcJ hc-bv°p-I. Cu tcJ-bn¬ 12 cm CS-
hn´v kpjn-c-ß-fn-SpI.
k¿∏n -fm -Ir -Xn -bn¬ Np‰n -sb-SpØ
sshZypXNme-I-amb Hcp Ih-NnX Iºn-
®p-cp-fns\ tkmfn-t\mbnUv (solenoid)F∂p ]d-bp-∂p.
NnXw 10.6 te-Xp-t]mse kpjn-c-ß-fn-eqsS
Iºn-Np-‰n-sb-SpØv tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Xbm-
dm-°p-I. XpS¿∂v ss]∏ns‚ `mK-߃
\o°w sNøp-I. ]co-£-W-Øn-\m-bp≈
tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Xbm-dm-bn.
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ AK-߃ Hcp dntbm-
Ãm-‰v, kzn®v, _m‰dn F∂nh Dƒs∏-Sp∂
sk¿°o-´p-ambn _‘n-∏n-°q. kzn®v Hm¨
sNøq.
Hcp ams·-‰nIv tImw]kv t_mIvkv tkmfn-
t\m-bn-Un\v AI-Øph®v \o°nbpw ]pdØp
h®v \o°nbpw kqNn-bpsS DØ-c-[phw
kqNn-∏n-°p∂ _nµp-°ƒ AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq.
Cu _nµp-°ƒ tbmPn-∏n®v Im¥n-I-_e
tcJ-Iƒ ZniklnXw hc-bv°q.
tkmfn -t\m-bn -Un -\-IsØ Im¥nI
afi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-c-amWv?
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ kzX¥ AK-ß-
fn¬ D≠m-Ip∂ Im¥nI[phX F]-
Im-c-amWv?
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ GX-KØv Im¥-
kq-Nn -h-®memWv Im¥-kq-Nn -bpsS
DØc[phw BI¿jn-°s∏Sp-∂Xv?
F¶n¬ AhnsS tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚
[phw GXm-bn-cn°pw?
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ at‰ AKØntem?
NnXw 10.6
`uXn-I-im-kvX-߃ 127
_m‰-dn-bpsS GXp sS¿an-\-en¬ \n∂v
GXn-te-°mWv tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-eqsS
sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p-∂Xv?
sshZypXn ]th-in-°p∂ (_m‰-dn-bpsS
t]mkn-‰ohv [ph-tØmSp LSn-∏n®) AK-
Ønse sshZypX]hm-l-Zni t¢m°ns‚
kqNn-bpsS Ne-\-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn ]d-
™p-t\m-°q.
]Z -£n -W-Zn -i -bn -emsW¶n¬ B
AKØv cq]-s∏´ [phX GXv?
A]-Z-£nW Zni-bn-emsW¶ntem?
sk¿°o-´nse sshZypX]hmlZni hn]-
co-X-am°n tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-eqsS sshZypXn
IS-Øn-hn´v ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-°q.
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ kzX¥AK-ß-
fn¬ cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-I-[p-hXbv°v
F¥pam‰-amWp \nco-£n-°p-∂-Xv?
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un¬IqSn sshZypXn ]h-ln-
°p-tºmƒ tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ AK-ß-fn-
ep -≠m -Ip∂ Im¥nI[ph-X -sbbpw
]hmlZni-sbbpw _‘-s∏-SpØn F¥p
\nK-a-\-Øn-emWv \n߃ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?
NnXw 10.8 ambn XmcXayw sNøq.
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Unse sshZypX ]hm-l-Zni-b-\p-k-cn®vAK-ß-fnse Im¥nI[phX Adn-bm≥ Hcp Ffp-∏-am¿Kw.
NnXw 10.8
Iºn-®p-cp-fn-\p≈n¬ \n∂p]pd-tØ°v sshZypXn
]h-ln-°p∂p.Iºn®pcp-fn-\p-≈n-te°v
sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂p.
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ CuAK-ØmWv AXns‚
Z£n-W-[phw.
sshZypX]hmlw]-Z£nW Zni-bn¬
NnXw 10.7 (b)
Iºn-®p-cp-fn-te°vsshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂p.
Iºn-®p-cp-fn-\p≈n¬ \n∂p]pd-tØ°v sshZypXn
]h-ln-°p∂p.
tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ CuAK-ØmWv AXns‚
DØ-c-[phw.
sshZypX]hmlwA]-Z£nW Zni-bn¬.
Hcp _m¿am-·-‰n-s‚bpw sshZypXhmln-
bmb tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚bpw Im¥nI
afi-e-Øns‚ -Nn-X-amWv X∂n-´p-≈Xv.
sshZypXnA]Z-£nW
Zni-bn¬
NnXw 10.9
sshZypXn]Z-£nWZni-bn¬
Ch Xmc-Xayw sNøq. F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-
emWv \n߃ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?
sshZypXhmln-bmb tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Hcp
_m¿am-·‰v t]mse h¿Øn-°p∂p F∂p
Is≠-Øn-b-t√m. Cßs\ e`n-°p∂ Im¥-
Øns‚ i‡n h¿[n-∏n-°m-\p≈ am¿K-
߃ Fs¥ms°-bmsW∂p t\m°mw.NnXw 10.7 (a)
128 `uXn-I-im-kvX-߃
Hcp sNdnb ]n.hn.kn. (PVC) ss]∏v Ij-
W-Øn¬ Ih-NnX sNºpIºn-bpsS 25 Np‰p-
Iƒ Xbm-dm-°p-I. Xbm-dm°nb Cu tkmfn-
t\m-bnUns‚ kzX¥ AKØv kqNn-ap-\-
bn¬ Xmßn\n¿Ønb Im¥-kqNn h-bv°q.
tkmfn-t\m-bnUn-eqsS sshZypXn ]h-ln-
∏n®v Im¥-kq-Nn-bpsS hn`wiw \nco£n°q.
\nß-fpsS \nco-£Ww tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
Np‰p-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n-∏n®v ]co-£Ww
Bh¿Øn-°q.
\nco-£W^e-߃ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.
Im¥-kqNn IqSp -X¬ hn`w-in -®Xv
Ft∏m-gmWv?
CtX tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-\p-≈n¬ GXm\pw
sI´p-I-ºn-Iƒ (binding wires)/]®n-cpºp
tIm¿ ]th-in-∏n®v ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-
°p-I.
Im¥kqNn-bpsS hn`w-i-Øn¬ F¥p
am‰-amWp \nco-£n-®Xv?
sI´pIºn-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n -∏n -
®mtem?
\nco-£W^e-߃ Xmc-Xayw sNøq.
tkmfn-t\m-bnUv sk¿°o-´nse Id‚ v
hyXym-k-s∏-SpØn ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn°q.
Im¥kqNn-bpsS hn`w-i-Øn\v F¥p
am‰-amWp≠m-Ip-∂Xv?
Cu ]co-£-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v tkmfn-t\m-
bnUn\v Np‰p-ap-≠m-Ip∂ Im¥nIafi-
esØ kzm[o-\n-°p∂ LS-I-߃ GsX-
√m-sa∂p Is≠-Øn-bt√m.
Cu coXn-bn¬ tkmfn-t\m-bnUv D]-tbm-Kn-
°p-tºmƒ AXv Hcp sshZypXIm¥-ambn
h¿Øn-°p∂p F∂p ]Tn-®n-´p-≠-t√m.
F¶n¬ sshZypXIm¥-Øns‚ i‡n
h¿[n-∏n-°m-\p≈ am¿K-߃ Fs¥m-
s°-bmWv?
$
$ ]®n-cpºp tImdns‚ tOZ-Xe hnkvXo¿
Ww h¿[n-∏n-°p-I.
\nc-h[n S¨ hsc `mc-ap≈ Ccpºpw
Dcp°pw Db¿Øm≥ Ignhp≈ sIbn-\pI-
fn¬ sshZyp-X-Im-¥-߃ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-
s≠∂pw Ah-bpsS i‡n ]e am¿K-ß-
fm¬ h¿[n-∏n-°m-sa∂pw A\o-kn-s\m∏w
\n߃°pw a\- n-em-bn-t√.
sshZyp-X-Im-¥-߃ \n¿an-°p∂ hn[w a\-
n-em-°n-b-t√m. GsX√mw kµ¿`-ß-fn-
emWv sshZypXIm¥-߃ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-
∂Xv?
$ Ce-IvSnIv s_¬
$
$
NnXw \nco-£n®v Hcp Ce-IvSnIv s_√ns‚
LS\ ]cn-tim-[n-°q. kzn®v Hm¨ sNøp-
tºmƒ AXv Fßs\bmWp ]h¿Øn-°p-
∂sX∂pw N¿®sNøq.
Hcp Ce-IvSnIv s_¬ \n¿an®v ]Z¿in-
∏n°q.
]®ncpºptIm¿
Iºn-®p-cpƒ
kvIq
kv]nMvBIvj\p≈
XInSv
Ccp-ºpXInSv
lma¿
InÆw
kzn®v
NnXw 10.10
U ooilBJaol
\-_\i;\>
ei"r c ga6.u5od cu5cnr5cauor 3 o er oqd I o
(Current and potential difference)
moSed' o-r'leL loror6ororcn ear:ua o."rcoior;
Gfi)CdOCo"
* orceoJ mlo4 6rxerl emloop 1610loo
or]ocmco8 "gooi oromJccroc6rnlGrI3c
6J6? oOo?DCaOr'lO1eO]o &C(o5rDo?
U-.2<--<*__
\ . >\'
aO'a
-:-
etaS Qascnto Gra 4!€ ft)cosc.eJo c.,c(?n€^Jcor ra']^:3 gg oynJoa,ror"qg6'l
eraanap rrr.rot@d;o caJc(oqz "Gra1$c aex aJa',@],zrb .rt(d oneEai6tEl a;rlrll. .g1to c ab o o a: egofl -g) al7 a (n ar c owi a c ogcn]ord a3a,
gleetai 6t9lar6fra\?"
m"lgo e;oeoro amiloo;os
"-fls1g3oacend ocg Groloo
cmcdol. o.$ffocrl)eoloHSJ?
o'laei;o 6c@6IDo?
erumloHS 9-rtdqoo.r'leL;os pcDl mo8olqol (o1
6o)cm c-orcoSear:cded golo)oeBBUa eo6rB(6rDl.
* tsero of;oilerscnlcni "6lceanc5ced eiv)
e,loooit
(Dcolo "6oj1os crllcrd
"6ceanc5oerd 1"-tot
"rnqcill
orcao)l "0oj1os crjlcn5 "gcoo.nc5cerd 1"-toL
"rngrdt
gejo n9l63cmo'i1m;o (Dcolo Lo-toL"rr1eo]cm
oilm;o o:caoJLotolcocrtooilco;o "jl er cruc"rr
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8)egco oLcdd nsJai(mlooLe'toE getaiaslai a,oop" aaS arqmilatd rogan\a"taoso.
a@J omscdaal g\e4as 1o-tot aol aoS rmucde1ooP @npoeo (Q) ouaa;otSacafl (t)6Dt(nD og sSoo1 geL aip1ai eoog"rnlcden>at'laaco"
o-t Cd g"6O0D =o ml acD o
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noJ om)ddo15flo8 ogs110 ercruasr$ eracend
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ao; LuordorocDo oddoll ccDcdoco.
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po;crr;amilcolo PC, PD "gcrn'lo cn'lclaco
amJlag;ocerfi. pcrocorgco 30 cm cn"lgo;sq
orceni" PD "6cm amileo;ocg(Do Go@B(DPl
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lcor:l'iq2orcgc.
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pcnl orco)ciloog J "Ocm GnL(no C aotoS mi"-Ltd
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t) 6rEc&) (D as m;acai oaotassa>aLaflo o (ft)
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fl@A 6to>7 cacao aggatJo a,SooiaoLggilaocai.
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aol [email protected] o]Jo6DrmD] 4-l sGo'roc$o
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g9olacffiatcego oel@1pan y-saorcla>1a
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g".rcco;ccn12i o6rBl a351auE m1da1g
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oerre" omdoo"l 51o8 mlcm;o nccocerusa6ni oL"loro glcolacgil oocoE "6toi
orudeol 5i1 sceni codrecooonD eilua6ni
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(Total internal reflection)
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cacfficaoi ereroEmt'loE co'lcni 10cm
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v=?
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r o"l es em orojl cD c oJ ro J a c eo) p ":
a ro am ecn crd,
ocmt ot miorJ douA, .,io'l asjsmo odgl;aDo"l tojl, crjl o"l enz em eBB oa e @ ar o H s] oloc cDl pp
"r Sl e D J
(o) er c eo) or o oo; oer] cll 4 o1 53 o c o3 o c co')
ogcerc"jl! mtqooaad olcorcrl cojloS Goalod
sJorol.
orocnjlcru3e,gllos o.'rcanlaelsecuf o
o16 ar8oreilo glleis o.'J can 3 oet se al I o
o-ro"la,si6rDoro'tcnccojl crjlecBr-d o'iloeleolors;oror
<orqmiao;ogloscoJo erceruco5cllcotloret o$
rorgmfl ol;egloscolo c"-Ld l5ileco,flo8 "6w3
o'r3. clr o1 "jl <o o H colo ojeo)l o s G oJ rol o (oc m) m)l
lo) oll o Grd oJ aOJ o S c eLeu el] a ud .'-t o1 e oocul'l 9j65)6113OlDl.
o
a
"l$e ts.t
<argmrlol;og;os @cm)mt3Lo'roonud uo1
c<loc tr1 eo;. oroo coioE oorcol; orccot
ol@lcrD o€ls6o "64'rcerdl
mr'ldceLc"o orold <argmi ctu; a gl oc eolgg
L"ro-rdoocno ecDcdol. @cm)cruoolcaSeanoa
o-L;6oo'ilco-lceo3.
Zn + 2HC1 -) ZnCl, +
Zn + HrSO, -+ +
Gocrd, o-t391 or;sean'l ooroL <coa3o1 crrlcor
gcloeangilo8 crules4eo;crrr1H. .,Oca)l
oocerrecoololao;ot
,uFBlooA rargmin r5mrecoro e;o cJeocod
oOot; otBcdLo oceni a5"su1 cotl soro'r'lo8
crdeei;ot
p,lD "locdLnoro-noop ffurecoro m)lde
ecBua gorcaoccri j "-rolcc,rocuigcr'l
ccucod
avl cor;cact osJo<orcodo mt;": o oBBUA
poil mccoi g"-rccoccnleoco ?
olo"lesemo o"rcoioj &odlreooeJ;ood "-r5fl
ars.ztoS o3ci1ao3.
cromtad oc(ruffDJLo)o
oooocLaDccgccnai
rorgmtai
HCI
crucd"ngcllei corgmtar)
rancrug'lei Gqmtal5 cH3cooH
o'laJ(6.)l
GmcaolaD
oto"la,gr6rD56I](/a
fi1'coa
a,o6rrconD'lAODCt;c 6rx fiu e o, gf o Grg 08 o5r eil o, g3o
ap mtlat-tSa, g2os oilas at(rute coJD) gp oDoalaaMaBpc6ni
c atL mtS a, u3. g ot'-U oJ (n efl a m;1 o o> a7 erc; c aaS rmS.
c otL ot-t2 a g! oE s eL rorot'l od eL a;'l aa S cm oL a; c ai @rO @8 aopi a, ud. c pt c ao 6sB g ) a s o a ao c Lao c al o o mt at:S a' gil o6
s pL arcfl a6 eL aI aoS rm oL n arot'l c a; c>l at aq o8 ao eil a,
g c ail 6L ot rd roml ao S rmS. c ms c ap'l a o a a
"o c 1al c ai et a mt
at|, anL c g c m;S o o o oo G LeD c al a a m; ai q @ ep @ at g oro
a oro>1 et S gg oL a; c eri. arq ad ao ell a' g! a8
"n't c a c "d a pL\ od
olei cnloo 6La,s7ol7aaSo.
"l$0, ts.z
el mcaoo orgo8ao efl mJlec olol99 oco6TncrDl ol1 o'l 4 cl1 eonn c gc.
crqosaoejlmlccolo)gg "jler "-rocdLo6aBg;os "r5'la (ts.e) uolcoocorlao;. ocm;mr;loreancrE
ojl<roaelcoo o"-Ldctil rc'rgoEeoeflcugJos oolco.lJoalsar:o usflaaolioE "-t3o1gjioet3.
* crom'lor-l"ercao m1a g1o8
oo"olol-raoa cnciloQ (aO$
DC aDCG6lnC rorOcco;cen0
c6roeo)cc6rDc ec6rD od s]e ?
crooSdo er'l e gloeL OHlCn)GolC?
crom1 o.uloei oolco)oAlS6ro
orqo8ao eL1 co,i'l er g oolccDl
.IelS&o
GoJO OcOlDmC0lo ocffDffDlL6)o OolCo)loelSdro
AloACeOo ocoEmr;o oooocgooceioocrunl Ca(oH),
acmr'ld ecrucu)oo ccrucmt'l qo)o eiooo c golcd oomt atj NaOH
acggld o"-rc5c.d Oo-lC$CffUJo OOooGLA-Dc6oOm)Al) KOH
a'lodod ac"-d
Ocm"l"sjt
acrn"l"vSo oo"oclu)cdoom)ai Me(OFI)"
1a a
610 @'l aD) & a p at) o rorg roE ao eLl at a p@) o
a4 o1') @rO BJ o @a a cmi ya"l omilap coo o'ora
oL o> o7 g| g ai aro o1 cnl a; crt rero dis pt om'l 6E pt @)l ao) c oJcud oa,>oLal sod@n c a) c fi TA (H*) g are c a,S rm oL at c ai rsq (Dl ff, :,!'at-tS a, ud
"0 oD) o e pL awfl a6 et a)l ao2 e mLccrd ffi'
o a "o
c gao c ai a et mt ai @n e @) c 6m) ar (tA (OF- ) I aB c & J 6) ol
a; cani arq ad ao eil a, ud "g rmS a c aJl aS cmS aa o1 cnl a mfl a o!
m-f I at; c oo o. "A
rai aO nui aD J o @IO aA ao eil o S o s pL oot'l od pt afl
aaseancuS @nat @ne@)cansa,gca'1 oilea;c*laoS oD] aann) o
HCI -+ H* + Cl-NaOH -+ Na*+ OH-
@1llg,$tlqnjclo"Lnterli
-
cn'ldoilca5o@6rDo (Neuhalisation)
rorq m-r'l oi mrL c cor ol I g eL c co-l cril co; o aro o8 eo ejl
(rulec il oJgg elcco m'lco;o .lo mi.'-too
cltdomcoE oooo.)c6rD] m)oeojl€ole?
oE co c cn J o (o-,1 991 "nl
c cn c od or ejl od c "-L
6 onrr
rorg oE eo ejl o c co; cn'l oojl c eL ed c'ro d "l
s el "i o c qot
Gromtrui crdoroi pgoo'lcmcao;.
o0ooc6rDJ cruoe ofl dd ? eLcao ml aoJos
ffule c olo oc cjl c aoc ? ejl dami o I caorccrjl "i u ol
cclocu-r'loo;.
accrDc oG5rBc to.llggl ccrucmlcolo
oo.'rrclucdoomlari elccocn'l "dgcar5aJlo8
cl<dorl G(onluo ot"lene;o Io1cooccu'leo3.
* o.00oc6lDl crj]o"ld,sj6rDot
oOcrulo-ri
roroelao onlcmc "-d'roeLla8
co.t<dorol oroo8aoejl
d)1oro t:.t* oi"lene;o oene;cor)gg1 cromtruS eltdeo;.
cnlo"lasi6mo a3cl1eo1"
cn1 d or"l o5 er o co cnl o gil o8 cro 6m c H c c cn o'l cor
oro g oL1o8 targcrulo-ri c"-rdororcoEcoJcetl o
olgcru1ru5 m)recoJor;o ccno'lqo oogofloE
rarg o6 eo eL1 e "-.r
d <oror c od carg o8 eo e.t'l mtt re c
olcl]lo LoleSDColJA.
crrl ecnud oud or 1"-LoLdrolo"rcncrtot'.l to8 cT ooS d6)
eilco;o torgmr1m.r;o "-L<o
cniuoo l"lodoto-I14
cgcuE ffDoe ojl gocoooccoi o'laei;o t
orgm:1 n.t.l;o crgoSoo ejlcolo lo-roLdoml'ld .omi "-Loo cn16 or"l o; oc oL;cm g"-r ord oT or cn aceni
(DJJLSOOeTGm)"sjoa c6roLoorc crjl6oj"l<o5ooomo"
,mo8 e;Dcaoo c"rdeo;ccrucu8 po'r;o-r
ocm co;c oLl c g auore oI q[l 5] 6rre ccx;6 ?
6Jaace0)o aJsJto)elceoccelc?
moal os c.rg accro co;oro'il o8 orgmn n ti Gfoo(oo
&Jsl ttrl ercorloD m.lcsdre eanerg gg1 orool
eoccDc? "ooorcerd
GrdGHc 95)(o, o cgrocDleoro ?
o)56BOCDaO)Ceni UO'l"OOlOO]cmCil t
no] LorG(o)Jo crdgo: rarqoSooeilooor crildcdo5
6@6IDo o"-r9)]ccrrLcuE cmdg[]4 orgmiu]oocftre torgm.:1u;o neo rarog ciloSorocm
ao c G 6rD c c or orre'l or o'l a o co) crn) ni o'l e co c ut€OCo.
crq o8 do er'l er c co cnl ol co c o c aer'l ao) G uo oru o
oJerJ c'rdgcrl o.r"loro oene; ou"leoo;agfoE
") sl €ol. oenel eL;o rcro d ol o "nl c mc
"-d cor ejl cri
cordoxlccroosjo a rrtoS cmd gil g rargmfl u;oo c g o-'il o8 o c ors torg mr'l crD I o'cala el or c ej o-l o c oojl
c"-Ldolo'i1geo;.
aq a c uo a; coroll cn a, atoi o o "o
e gts c c g c c>1 aiaq m;1 ao c oi a
"o a orotl cnS ms a c atl aaS rm
roi. ^tca,u, aqosaDlaoi Gtoouoo 6JsJot)
ai oL an o al glt eil rn2 o oLS g7 !) a>1 a, 5 eLt aS o
oL g a a aa S
s'l an aE o "-t
i g'l ai on ud ms c>1 aS o
ar c (o 6tD D c &) o. @to D c uo @ aroll a pt aa m.t'l
au1g7 enetsa,o'laocasgg ao"vrooangcartora @ c m;7 at-t
S a, cfi . era eLS all crfl a; o o a oo c LaD c
ai a a m., ai, ao e,tS a7 al a;o a, c d atL ean ,e m-t c atil an o et mL a, c d atL G fln d. n ctn"l oaS o
a a ao c &D c ai a a mt ai D) @ pt c @ at an erig oL all o eL q oJJ "81 s a, 6g8 uA.
*rlq,l.!qr'!g p@lE
5lGo crgoS€oeiloco.r crlldot"lotrocaocct6
"giroi orgmtcucen5 a;s;rooE o'ogoj.lo8
corene'lorcmcilt
cromtari aco crogo-r'lo8 "6s3oro-rco8
"g oil a c cofl o1 oo3o crll d oL"l o5 o o em orol l cr)
6loq rorOo8oereLl aarr'l cocol;o?
pH e"Lgcoc pH pLcatcrllcan gaJea)c
atq pH Dlpuo &tafiBrnroco. "Lo'leuocatl
e ao fiTe oL a cd Ln o a' pt d am;1 o eL c a; otl ail a8
pH e"L grd aS ao'l oass oroGUl ae4 o pH e"L gc>1a ac g aS gp a,gdoLcd 5S a cail a>ca a a5 o
A,oJQ6rDo.
pH eLcaxnl a;ceri pot ean utl aoS (D oo)e"l o8,
"Lo'l cuo cat caofiTE aLa cd nool aop
o a g! ewro pL c a; rnl os g] sSS aill a eL sS raoi
rsno)lcpte6i 6GCDI @eilTec qggl pHpLca;otl a v7 g c n "sto a, grlolcd gS a call@9@@AJo Ot-tg6rno.
6 C@ av I&, Ot I g &Ud AA AlgbJ G@) I Oo A SOrO)
eatce)o aeg\od otlg afl o aaS couce) o
affiool pH "Ldleuocea as@racoSad.
a,Sasil a;7 s oral a pt ail oLl <p re ctn acn g'l atcr>1crrt aegs m;cmilgSa,uE eaaLa'l2j aaoL
uoa'l a;cat olal atlroE a,etdcao>'la;
e aa osa a c fii pH on't e n c a a orc oras cm coi.
oL'lmc eDl OScollo
"io"la,sj6rDoro'ter;os "6orollcgtdcm crjlcnocno
coo'lcorccomc "Ocml "ro'1 cuocu.l'leo3.
ronmnodgl aene;"jlsleo;cmoiloE m;oaMcDorJo cocmiLo"looorlocao acdcoo pH oler5o
cnldemcolooerceni. o)coe orcrn'1o'lao;cmor
cor;os pH oJerJo pH c.Lgri g"-reaoccrjlgj
eo6rBo'roJ.
":g1e ta.a
pH a;er5orgoccoi enLmr:of,S o.lcoe rorcrnlol
do;clDor o3o1ii1ao;o.
* rorgmnndoop pH oger5o z oE
(a;o ocen5 /a; s; o-r aced )
ca cnjlojl glGD A o s tard gof
cn c o o:al: m"l o3o ojl cn c aJl co1 aol o to.D crDl aii el c ao)
cn1 a g c em c e.l c. er c 6rx c o g cr1 co;'l eL; "-t
e co c rjlN
6olcm oooocl(tl)c cgc o1d' rcrqm)]u]o
orgminriorocm.
or'l mc crr'l o'l corccamc oooo GLRr:c egc o1d'
orqmr'lm.rccemc or'lo5o e;s'lco c'rgmt'lruil
aco cncareto.laoJgg or;er5 rongol (crLSc"jclo)
paD cromtnrieLccocnlogil ceLad acdenilud
a"sj6m56B0a PSJGCDodO].
crflo"le,e6TDo
crflcnacn"
pH afe$o
eL c a; cr>1 all eq gp o o oo LaD a od cara e a; c anS
& gJ a s (ne are @ om sl mtn c cn etg sS onnT a aS
"Lacdnaofloo! r&Ooflat; - aqoEaaeilffDlecato 6Lmia> c ofl aqon a"ta>1 anoipH miaa,afla|. cmtcoodasafi "g)mtoo c mi La eera cn c ai g coi aq oil "d a' a7 q coi.
e ercrofl aop @Jo ept @ml pI gg cn1 doLI oS
ena;cnla,g2as@)o pH aSeLSo 7 aOarrt.
pH aSeLSo 7 ad a,SootSgpoL agmslons
a$)o pH qprJo 7 a6 a,ss'loot G6D1m4
a,92acai.
_pH7 8 9...
<_l_+(6omtnjj crilcdotlo;o rinqaflaoeLl
rorgcrulculoopcoJo pH DlerJo uo'lccoccnl
olncdmoGrOmtad/
crgoEaoerlpH oger5o
,l)6IDCCDI) OOlqqoU 6TI)carOoEeerpil
s'rd er €oJ ec o erc qo cril orgo6ooeL'l
BPlo crrldorlo5o 7
eilmccrilo'l rcrgcrulaii
HCI crgmto-d
Ei6ggfqqrqas",o
corqo8eoefloo;;os pH oJerJo 7 od
(o3 o ocen5 /a3 s3 nrr ercen5 )
crgm:1ol1erap oL1o5o oss;cmLcod pHDlerJo (e1s3o/ aJocorJo)
ao; ercoocolcor;os pHolaJo elsl olo;
cffoco]o Glao)loog oromr'lo.rimlecolo
(o3s3o/ oJocorlo)
Groo'rc qoo; gerl eo sc eo) cDl cot] oeL H*
<oroecocerd cncors<o) o;s;ccrrLcod pHogeL5o
elo aol6 ao)cem] o'-l g; cm <ei.
to) c o e or crril o1 ao; cm oL cot'koE cD1 o6rl ua do; a e5
ocQcDor, Grdolaolos pHoler5o aoeneoro'r'l
c'rg mjl nri, orgo8eei ejl, crJld oL"l o5o (cngcso8 )
"6crrr1 eanom orrooo'11 o'leo;.
O C @ 6g8 A Al gg o, oJ C d6, aJ 6fLl OD C @ eL C @;tnl,
a' g od a' c gfl, c cvc HJ pn@ cn1, a,c>'l atS gS
en e) ol, @n H aa c @ pt c @ o)1.
cn:ldofl o5e @ 6rD orol'lo gd o cru col6crrn o
(chemisky of neuhalisation)
"n'l ccoc"-do'l eil od c"-Ldoror crgo8ao ei1 etccot
crt ootoS Gromto-lj c"-rdoo'rcgcua "6oolcem3cru o re oj1 g cfi ? o0) cro
J 6)6 c enec en5 <org mt'l al] o
orgoSeoejlco)o orocrio-too crildo"loSoceolcoxfi t
* .SJd cqcrulal'lomcor;o "6oY orgoSeoejl
g"-rccoc ar'14;o crr'ldol"lo5 ac aocoE av1
ao)JGoc?
ccnlcol'lco.lo ooooGLct.rlc doomlo.ri elcao)
crjl o cor cn1 d or"l o3 o c oo c o8 a crrjl er cr-r'l ao p cD o
cmqmtl ru-l;ocd g"lccocd14; ccnceo'leo)cgc.
ag; .njla csr4m1ru:;aod ogsl g"-Lcoo;ccrlj
GCDC€OJ.
NaOH cd uaroo KOH g"-rccocdl4l ccDcdoJ.
crflan g3os soenEcororarE e,3cfl o3
* oggc ogmtal)aglo CIoggc crgo8do
ejleogcor;o cnldcrLlolocooccrE &ccodrDo
Gnol otoel ootcco]o€l se5cBgJos m:ccrn'l
. oJDcorJGDc?
osJ CI.) c cD J o <org mr1 or-r3 o g
J o s co] o org o8 eo ejl a
Slosco;Jo "els aeBBUA ogv]cofl oo "lto(uSla rs.s) ocrnloldo;Cml. d5'le "il@ldao;" a3s3oro8 gocooo6ln6aBuE e"-rtdord ojh;eLlaolg ruco;odmi olcorcilao;'loerv3or3.
* oJJLSooerem"srerop ocmrmro"laoemo
")elo)].Nu lbH +ECl-+
tt**ra (Salts)
cDJ JLSOOeTGm) "sjcd O 9'l € erorl o el oL6rrr6BB$lo
g6rBceloDl. o0JO(DOO€O eloj6rD56Bgcerd cnco
crr'l <oU g"l oLl ror aml'l o8 g "-L
c cor c crrl eo 3 cm <oi tdS16 ts"o
"-r1o'1 giloocaE gooo'leo3"
cDmtod o€(,=!Jc
eC]
?G
rcrgodaoefl o€(tde
eo?G
OolCCOlo€lSAr
ecn<rd c'ldcm;orrccorcod
m)coJJ0)acD]9a
ffDoACDIAO)o
Ororuc<ro"s/l
ao)on Gc(')o
crdcni perrec
orcrn'lsoorrqq
ODoQDld0)o
oo1v
5b
E
&at
-f(()
d'
60do
J
EO
sall-i,
-oo.o
d-HCl
H25O4
HNO3
H2CO3
H
H
H
H
CI
SO?
NO;
co3-
NaOH
Mg(oH),
Ca(OH),
KOH
Na*
Mg'*
Ca2n
K+
OH
OH
OH
OH
MgSOn
Ca(NOr),
K2CO3
dslo rs.s
-ewg9g-ss$w
elOl6IDo goIGqOC(.D5ABUA
. Gm)colta0)o G6,coooa.dN
. OoICSC(ru(o G6,COOOOjNGgoit"l"sjd cocdl
6uadd ggilcd raCoo, olQaeedl
oocnLssoa ocm)org
0caQt
a
a
otgl6 13.6
er or 5rD56BO9fl Co GncaoCern'l A CrUo COI6o.) 66T3
gcdrd. goldolecao)c oor9g(o'ro'loE ocolgil
6OJeG0Oc oerg]Goxcua po (crdo..)(o,looa
corcmt gloi <o'nccorc 6yDJ epJo omul gloiGacccDC6rDJAgJDcot aco]o. cotcodBloiGlacao)c6rD]eog ecg GCo)c6IDJeOa n$cmlo
ocncD g"lol GnGaoc6YDl 66)9 GrocDcao)c6rDl eua
"$cmJo oloao]oDJ.
or5il acotlo a er or 6ID5BB gii o8 oro seonl co; ec g
G@C6rDlo GDCnGaO)C6lDlo L(roAD'IdOJ. 6JCGOC
crnloopco]o oOemor;o o-Lo'l coocct-l'loo3.
.lsila 13.7
erotsrD5BBglos occrucrulL(')olo-iloE crjlcrfi <orocl
cn1 d o'l eo o g s c crt s 0o c ao rirg mt'l o-u; o cD oE €o
eiloo;o crilol gcr'l corccd eslcor;eact
* Cl Gros66B'le) com]cLd o$o.rc6n;?
* K* Gro s 5cBl ao) <orq oE eo eL'l "4J
d ?
u5ilare.z oer ercr6rD56Bg;os CI'rgmiu;o
CI'rqo8ao ejlco;o coilo1qcrleronfr .gw;or;"
6lsJ tol@a eror 6rD 56t: glos occru ffDJLolo
aosrBorot G'roorao)Jos crgmtlru:;o C6rooS€6)
Ei'e-qteerys*p@
ejl co] o "93
o ro r cn5 m: cotoE mi or-l co; cr'l eol o8 a3 cr'l
€ol.
0l oI 6ID @B g t 6'l s cd cclu cru$ (fiD o
Gloceoc6rDlaglos dcdg;o etotemorriloop
oc m) m)J Lol or2 oc cojl 6ruo\D oJ c 6rcco ao;cm; "-r
o'1
c(oc0t66)l.
lgle rs.a
onoroj Gyaeaoc6TD)ag;os rcdelom mt;"jl
dl"oi.- toroeoeanu8 ocm)m)llrorooiloE "geJoil coi o1 ao;cmcil
"goL1os aocerd ? ocm; mt;1oro
ooe]o)lccDrccrE ecgcco)cend <crgcemc cDcD
ccorceni GDG6rDc cDBJo "gw]coeneafit .lo')
elaoalgg elolfiD6cBg]Os @cm)CruJLo'lo olol
ccoc<d3] cnlcnacno e;cllao;.
Grdcaoc6TDlard "6oorcd cncileolo'i1 oJcmcod
om or c "-L
d cm] 6rB c e) crD et ot em <orar'l oo$ o c cru
ffDJLCOo O2u"l a O1 oerJ crD (D 6CB OCO OCO-)Cni
GmcdoJ"
. GYaGaoc6rDlag]os i"-Lor"laeoncd "9e3o)le.
rcdd crugJ 91€olcm crDo6uJ auE
uomi"too ocg'l Lolo"laon-noofl oroc€)
occol "gv]ro)]e. (acrn1o8eols;<oo8 orqg
ea'nuA cddcm Grdcao)c6rD;6gllo8 leucdaerg1 s3 cmoi m)orlo eo) 6occ6rDc o4crDl
"jlooAeo;)"orr:cgeonu6 eL"eileto'leoccxJcrnolaoco6rr
e,'lo8 rarao et"et]aologeJ<or]o.
(CaCO, oOCrD ocm)cruJLoro "-tO'lcooc(lt
ml)'
sroeonen0 cro m cot:ord eroremromioafl
GlrrucruSLOolnLOrleo ,L:dd lnltOleo rlt0s'
K+ 1+ CT l- KCI
Ca2* 2+ CI I- CaCl"
Nan l+ SO? 2- NarSOo
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