using learning self-assessment tools during initial ... · approach learning (dembo, 2001). to...

Allison J. Kelaher-Young & Cynthia L. Carver

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Teacher Education Quarterly, Fall 2013

Shifting Attention:Using Learning Self-Assessment Tools

during Initial Coursework to FocusTeacher Candidates on Student Learning

By Allison J. Kelaher-Young & Cynthia L. Carver

Allison J. Kelaher-Young is a professor in the Department of Teaching, Learning, and Educational Studies of the College of Education and Human Development at Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan. Cynthia L. Carver is an assistant professor in the Department of Educational Leadership of the School of Education and Human Services at Oakland University, Rochester, Michigan.

Introduction Therelentlesspressforsteadilyimprovedstudentlearningoutcomesrequiresthatprospectiveteachersenter theclassroomknowinghowtofine-tunetheirteaching to meet the learning needs of individualstudents. Frequently, teacher candidates have dif-ficulty conceptualizing their students as learners,lookingmoreimmediatelytotheirownperformanceas teachers (Fuller, l969; Kagan, l992; Oosterheert&Vermunt,2001).AsRossandBruce(2007)argue,self-assessmentcanbeaneffectivetechniqueforinflu-encingimprovementsinself-efficacy,goalsetting,andeffortregulationamongteachers.Appliedtoteacherpreparation,weexaminedtheuseoftwolearningself-assessmenttoolsinearlyteachereducationcourseworktoexaminethebenefitsofencouragingcandidatestoreflectontheirownlearninginordertosupportthelearningoftheirfuturestudents. Previousresearchinteachereducationarguesthat

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self-assessmentplaysacriticalroleinacompetencies-basedcurriculumbecauseitrequirescandidatestoanalyzetheirownperformances(Airsian&Gullickson,1994;Ross&Bruce,2007;Sluijsmans,Dochy,&Moerkerke,1999).ConceptuallyderivedfromworkbySchön(1983,1987)onthereflectivepractitioner,byElliot(1978)onteacherself-monitoring,andbyRogers(1983)onpromotingpersonalresponsibilityforlearning,self-assessmentmaybeacriticalfeatureindevelopingteacherswhopracticeandpromoteself-regulatedlearning.Itiscrucial,then,forteachercandidatestoexploreideasaboutthemselvesaslearnerstohelpunderstandideasaboutcognition,motivation,andotherconceptsrelatedtoself-regulatedlearn-ing(Dembo,2001;Gordon,Dembo,&Hocevar,2007;Zimmerman,Bonner&Kovach,1996).Toinfluenceconceptualchangeincandidates,wemusthelpthemtoarticulatetheirideasaboutlearnersandlearning(Dole&Sinatra,l998).

Self-Assessment and Self-Regulated Learning

in Teacher Education Teacher preparation programs have the shared goal of helping candidatesthinkandactflexiblyacrossanexpansiveknowledgeandskillbasethatincludesstudentlearningandmotivation,educationalgoalsandpurposes,subjectmatterunderstanding,curriculumandassessment,generalandsubject-specificpedagogy,childdevelopment,culturalproficiency,andorganizationalculture.Acentraltaskofteacherpreparationistoexposecandidatestothewiderangeofunderstandingsandskillstheywillneedtoteachwell.Thistransferofknowledgetopracticeisnotautomatic,however,ascandidatesbringwiththemasetoftacitandoftenstubbornbeliefsaboutteaching,learningandschooling(Lortie,l975).Thus,asecondtaskofteacherpreparationistohelpcandidatesanalyzetheirbeliefssothattheycanlaythefoundationforateachingpracticethatalignswiththeirgoals.AsFeiman-Nemser(2001)notes,

…[P]rospectiveteachersneedopportunitiestocriticallyexaminetheirtaken-for-granted,oftendeeplyentrenchedbeliefssothatthesebeliefscanbedevelopedoramended.Teachercandidatesmustalsoformvisionsofwhatispossibleanddesirableinteachingtoinspireandguidetheirprofessionallearningandpractice.Suchvisionsconnectimportantvaluesandgoalstoconcreteclassroompractices.(p.l017)

Examiningteachercandidates’beliefsaboutstudentlearningandtheirimplica-tionsforteachingprovidesacriticalfoundationforongoingpreparationandlearning.OosterheertandVermunt(2001)arguethatashiftinteacherconcerntypicallymovesfromconcernsaboutself,toconcernsaboutteaching,andfinallytoconcernsaboutstudentlearning(seealsoFuller,l969;Kagan,l992).Asweargueinthispaper,self-assessmentcanhelptoshiftcandidateconcernsfromselftostudents. Atalllevels,teachersareresponsibleforhelpingtheirstudentstolearnbothcontentandhowto learn thecontent.Toexplicitlymodel the learningprocess,


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teachersmustfirstunderstandthemselvesaslearnerswhoareproactive,self-aware,andstrategicinselectingtheprocessesandresourcesthatenablethemtoreachtheirlearninggoals.Aslearners,teacherssetprofessionalgoals,monitortheirdevelopingunderstandingsabouttheteachingandlearningprocess,engageinself-assessment,andadapttodifferentinstructionaldemandsbecausetheyhaveanarrayoflearningstrategiesfromwhichtooperate.Inshort,teacherswhoengageintheseprocessesareactingasself-regulated(Cleary&Zimmerman,2002;Zimmerman2002)andmeaning-directed(Vermunt&Vermetten,2004)learners. Ourperceptionasinstructors,however,isthatasignificantnumberofcandi-datesenterteacherpreparationwiththemindsetofstudentsandnotlearners.Thesecandidatesengageinwhatwerefertoas“studenting”behavior,whichissimilartoacombinationofVermuntandVermetten’s(2004)reproduction-directedandundirectedlearningpatterns.Incontrastwithself-regulatedormeaning-directedlearners,studentsfocuson“jumpingthehoops”necessarywhileusingtheleastamountofeffort.These individualsareoftenminimallyengaged indevelopingnewunderstandings,lookingonlytofulfillbasicinstructionaldemandsbycram-mingforexamsorwritingpapersthenightbeforetheyaredue.Studentsareoftenlessadaptiveinthattheyreportapplyingthesamelearningstrategiesindifferentcontexts,whetherornottheyareeffective.1

Teachereducation,then,musthelpcandidates“…developandchangetheirexisting frame of reference in accordance with current understanding of whatconstitutesgoodteachingandlearning”(Oosterheert&Vermunt,2001,p.134).Ifitistruethatteachersteachthewaytheyweretaught,thenitisimportantforcandidatestoexplorehowtheyhavebeentaughtandmorespecifically,howtheyapproachlearning(Dembo,2001).Todate,fewpedagogicaltoolsexistforhelpingteachersassessthemselvesaslearnersandtheirinstructionalpracticeswithrespecttostudentlearning(Weinberger&McCombs,2003). Bystudying theroleofself-assessmentasadeliberate interventionduringteacher preparation coursework, we address McLaughlin’s (2002) concern that“researchonteachers’learningtypicallyismoreconcernedaboutthecontentofteachers’learningthanwiththeprocessesthatstimulate,supportandsustainit”(pp.95-96).Ultimately,byhelpingprospectiveteacherstorecognizeandexploretheirmotivationalbeliefsandstrategiesaroundlearning,webelievetheywillbebetterpreparedtonotonlysupporttheirstudents’learning,buttoalsosupporttheirownlearningtoteach(Beijaard,Verloop,&Vermunt,1999;Feiman-Nemser,2001).

Connecting Theory to Practice through Self-Assessment Self-assessmentcanalsohelpteachercandidatesconnecttheorytopractice.Specifically,BoudandFalchikov(1989)arguethatconceptualself-assessmental-lowsteachercandidatestodevelopcompetenciesinreflection,self-monitoring,andself-regulatedlearning.Oneofthefirstcoursesinateacherpreparationprogram

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isoftenindevelopmentaloreducationalpsychologywhereteachercandidatesareintroducedtotheformalstudyoflearnersandlearningtheory.Yetthisintroductorycourseisrarelylinkedtosustainedfieldexperiencesthatwouldhelpcandidatestocontextualizethematerial.Oneapproachtoreducingthegapbetweentheoryandpracticeisforteachercandidatestoreflectontheirownlearningastheybegintoexploretheoriesofdevelopmentandlearningandtheirrelationshiptoteaching(Pierce&Kalkman,2003).Byprovidingcandidateswithanopportunitytoexaminetheirownlearning,programshelpcandidatestoarticulatepriorknowledgeaboutcognitiveandmetacognitivestrategies,andmotivationalbeliefsmoregenerally,sothattheymightlaterdrawupontheseunderstandingsandbeliefswhendiscussinglearningtheoryanditsapplicationtoteaching. Reflectingonone’sbeliefsalsohelpsteachercandidatestostartforminghabitsthatwillservethemeffectivelyforlaterprofessionallearninganddevelopment(McCombs,2003).Thisisparticularlyimportantduringearlycoursework,whenthefocusforcandidatesmustbeonthepersonalchangesthatwillinfluenceandguidetheiremergentviewsofprofessionalissuesovertime.AsOosterheertandVermunt(2001)note,tochangeteacherbeliefsoneneedstofocusonthementalmodelsandhabitsassociatedwithlearning.Theintentwiththiscoursewastoinfluencecandidates’habitsaroundself-regulatedlearningthroughtheuseofadeliberateself-assessmentstrategyinvolvingtwopreviouslyvalidatedinstruments.

The MSLQ: Assessing Self as Learner TheMotivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire(MSLQ)isaninterna-tionallyrecognizedsurveyinstrumentthatmeasuresmotivationalbeliefs,cognitiveand metacognitive strategies, and self-regulated learning strategies (Duncan &McKeachie,2005).The15subscales(seeAppendixA),includinggoalorientation,value,self-efficacy,andrehearsal,elaboration,andorganizationstrategies,aswellas critical thinking, effort regulation, help-seeking, resource management, andpeerlearning,havebeenshowntohavebothinternalconsistencyandstatisticalreliability(Pintrich,Smith,Garcia&McKeachie,1991;1993). VanderStoepandPintrich(2003)designedatextaroundtheMSLQforuseincollege-levellearning-to-learncourses.Similarly,weincorporatedtheMSLQasatoolforhelpingcandidatestoidentifytheirbeliefsaboutmotivationandcognitionasrelatedtolearning.ThescalesoftheMSLQ,coupledwithexplicitdiscussioninclass,allowcandidatestoexploreaspectsoftheirlearningandrelatethesefindingstotheoryandresearch.Forexample,whendiscussingtheoriesofmotivation,weareabletomakeconnectionstothefivemotivationalconstructsontheMSLQandusecandidates’experiencestounderstandthesetheoreticalframeworks.AsDoleandSinatra(1998)argue,explicitconnectionsbetweencandidatesexperienceandtheneweducationalideasallowsforatransformationofboththinkingandbehavioraroundlearning.


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The LCB: Assessing Self as Teacher TheLearner-Centered Battery(LCB)wasdesignedasasetofself-assessmenttoolsforK-20teacherstodevelopawarenessoftheirbeliefsaboutlearners,learningandteaching(McCombs&Lauer,1997;McCombs&Whisler,1997).MuchofthescholarshipontheLCBinventoryhasfocusedonitsuseasaprofessionaldevelopmenttoolwithelementary,middleandhighschoolteachers(McCombs&Lauer,1997;McCombs&Whisler,1997;Pierce&Kalkman,2003,Weinberger&McCombs,2003).ThisworkhasshowntheLCBtobeeffectiveintransforminginstructionalpractice.Thethirty-fiveitemsdesignedtoassessteacherbeliefsfromtheLCBhavedemonstratedvalidityandreliability(McCombs&Whisler,1997). TheLCBsurveycontainsthreescales:learner-centeredbeliefsaboutteachingandlearning,non-learner-centeredbeliefsaboutlearners,andnon-learner-centeredbeliefsaboutteaching(seeAppendixA).Thesescalesareparticularlyappropriateforearlyteachereducationbecausetheyarebroadenoughtopickupongeneralorienta-tionstoteaching.Whilesurveysmaynotprovidecandidateswitharich,sophisticatedunderstandingoftheirlearning,theydoallowcandidatestheopportunitytocharttheirbeliefsovertime.Ascandidatesgainclassroomexperienceandtesttheirpedagogicalidealswithstudents,wewouldexpectbeliefsaboutteachingtochange. WhiletheMSLQandtheLCBwerenotdevelopedcollaboratively,thesurveysmakecomplimentaryself-assessmentmeasures(c.f.,Duncan&McKeachie,2005;McCombs&Whisler,1997).McCombs(1997)arguesthatself-assessmentaffectsprofessionallearningbecauseteachersaremorelikelytotakepersonalresponsibil-ityfortheiractions.Insum,teachersareabletochooseaspectsoftheirbeliefsthattheywishtochallenge,ratherthanhavingtheseaspectschallengedbyothers.

Research Method Whileothershaveadvocatedtheimportanceofhelpingpre-serviceteachersseethemselvesaslearners(seeDembo,2001;Randi,2004),thisqualitativestudysetout toexamine theeffectivenessofsuchpractices in thecontextof teachereducationcoursework.Twoquestionsguidedthisresearch:(1)Whatdoteachercandidates report learning about themselves, as learners, after completing theMSLQandLCBself-assessmenttasks?(2)Howdoteachercandidates’beliefsaslearnersinformadevelopingunderstandingofthemselvesasteachers? Toaddressourquestionsandexaminetheroleofself-assessmentindevelop-inggreaterawarenessinteachercandidates’ learning,wecollectedasampleofcandidates’ assigned written work across one term of study in an introductoryeducational psychology course. In sum, twenty-three sets of student data werecollected,representingthefullcompositeofcandidatespossiblewithrespecttogender,ageandfinalcoursegrade.Eachsetconsistedoffourwrittenartifacts,althoughtwostoodoutasparticularlyrichexamplesofcandidates’thinkingaboutlearning:anearlyanalysisofcandidate’sMSLQandLCBself-assessmentscores

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andafinalreflectionoverthecourse.Ourintentbycollectingandanalyzingtheseartifactswastounderstandhowcandidates’interpreted,experiencedanddrewupontheseself-assessmentexercisestoconstructtheirroleasprospectiveteachers. TheintroductorycourseexaminedhereisthefirstintherequiredsequenceofalargesecondarypreparationprogramintheMidwest.Thefirstauthordesignedandtaughtthecoursestudied,whereasthesecondauthoredservedinaresearch-onlyrole.Asaregionaluniversity,themajorityofstudentscomefromsurroundingcommunitiesandfitthestandarddemographicofateacherpreparationprogram:mostlymiddle-classandwhitewithclosetoequalnumbersoffemaleandmalestudentsseekingsecondaryeducationcertification.

Data Collection:Embedding Self-Assessment in Coursework

Duringthefirstweekofthecoursefromwhichthisdataisdrawn,candidatesindividuallycompletedtheMSLQandLCBmeasures.Aftercompletingthesurveys,butpriortoreturningscores,theclassreflectedonwhatitmeanttobea“student”ora“learner.”Thisdiscussionprovidedthecontextforcandidatestoconsidertheirscoresindepththefollowingweek.Itwasalsoadeliberateattempttoengageideasthatcandidatesheldaboutteachingandlearning,aswellasatoolforhelpingthemtodiscernimportantandgenerativedistinctionsbetweenthetwo. Duringthesecondweekofthecourse,candidatesreceivedtheirMSLQandLCBscorereports.Theirtaskwastousethebriefnarrativedescriptionsofeachscale,alongwiththepublishedscalemeans(McCombs&Whisler,1997;VanderStoep&Pintrich,2003)tocompareandcontrasttheirscores.Drawingonadditionalprintsources,theywerethenaskedtowriteareflectiononwhatthescoresmeanttothem,e.g.,Didtheyagreewiththeassessment?Wereanyscoressurprising?Wasthereanythingtheywouldliketochange? This initial reflectionprovidedcandidateswithanearlyopportunity toex-plorecourseconceptsaboutmotivation,cognitiveandmetacognitivestrategies,andteacherbeliefs.Sincecandidateshadnotyetbeenintroducedto termslike“learner-centered”or“non-learnercentered,”thisexercisealertedcandidatestothevocabularysurroundingtheseconceptsandservedasapromptforlaterdiscussionoftheseteachingorientations.Inthefinalwrittentaskoftheterm,candidateswereaskedtoprovidespecificevidenceoftheirprofessionalgrowthacrosstheterm.Ideasmentionedinthisopen-endedreflectionwereunderstoodtobesalienttothecandidateacrossthecourse.

Data Analysis: An Iterative Process of Uncovering Patterns and Relationships

Dataanalysisforthisstudyfollowedaniterativeprocesscommontoqualita-tiveinquiry.Ourfirst taskwastoreadthedata,makegeneralobservationsandidentifypatternsandthemeswithinandacrosscases(Hammersley&Atkinson,


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2004).Wepaidparticularattentiontothecourseideasandconceptsthatsurfacedmostfrequentlyinstudents’writing,e.g.self-regulatedlearning;goalorientationtheory.Usingourresearchquestionsasaguide,wethencodedthedataforspecificreferencestoself-as-learner,self-as-teacher,andstudents-as-learners.Toensureconsistencyincoding,weconferredeveryfivecases(Miles&Huberman,l994). Ourinitialanalysisusingthesethreedescriptorswasusefulinhelpingtonarrowouranalyticallens.Theinitialself-assessmenttaskaskedcandidatestoreflectonandexplaintheirMSLQandLCBscores,andalsotoidentifypersonalgoalsrelativetothosescores.Thisessayrevealedanalmostexclusivefocusonself-as-learner,withmuchlessattentionpaidtoself-as-teacherandespeciallystudents-as-learners.Additionally,therewaslittleself-critiqueandgoal-setting.Incontrast,finalcoursereflectionsdemonstrateddeeper andmore expansive thinking, e.g., candidates’reported increasedattention to their developing identities as teachers and theirobligation to studentsas learners.Still, thesedocumentscontinued to showanemphasisonthereportingofstrengthsoverareasofweakness,andcandidateswerenotuniformlyexplicitabouthowthosestrengthswouldservethemasteachers. Asweconsideredtheseglobalobservationsandthoughtaboutstudents’relative“newness”intheteacherpreparationprogram,webecameparticularlyinterestedinafinergrainedcomparisonofcandidates’initialMSLQandLCBselfassessmentandtheirfinalcoursereflections.Towhatextentcouldwefindevidenceofshiftsinthinkingoractionforindividualcandidatesandcouldweseediscernablepatternsacrossstudents,e.g.weakclaimsbecomingstrongerovertime?Wefurthercodedtheself-assessmentdataforshiftsinthinkingand/orindicationsoffuturegrowthinunderstandingsofself-as-learner,self-as-teacher,orstudents-as-learners.Weassumed that unqualified score explanations in the self-assessmentwouldbe apoorpredictorofchangedbehavior,whereassummarystatementsthatsuggestedareasforfuturegrowthwouldbeamarkerofpossiblechange.Wethenlookedforevidenceoftheseshiftsinthefinalreflection. Additionally,wecodedstatementsasdirectorindirect,andstrongorweakusingachainofconceptstypology(LeCompte,Preissle,&Tesch,l993).Directclaimswerecharacterizedbyfirstpersonstatementsandstrongclaimswerechar-acterizedbyclearandconcreteillustrations.Thus,foreachbeliefstatement,wenotedwhetherthestatementswerewritteninactiveorpassivevoice.Wealsonotedwhetherthestatementrepresentedclearintent(e.g.,WhenIamateacher,IwilluseXinmyteaching)orwhetherthestatementrepresentedatentative,conditional,orrhetoricalclaim(e.g.,IshoulduseXwhenIamateacher). Finally,wecomparedandcontrastedpatternswithinourcodetypology(e.g.teacher-strong-directversusteacher-weak-indirect)toidentifythreecategoriesofshiftinthinking,fromsignificantandmoderatetonoshift.Inthiscase,wewereinterestedinwhatwemightlearnaboutthosewhoseemedtomakedemonstrableleapsintheirthinkingandthosewhodidnot.Weretherecommoncharacteristicsamongthesestudentsthatwouldhelpusteachthembetter?Inthisround,wecoded

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dataindependently,agreeingonthesignificant/moderate/noshiftcategorizationin16ofthe23casesinoursample.Foreachofthesevenremainingcases,wediscussedandagreeduponthecategoriesbeforemovingon.Inaddition,wejointlyexaminedthelowtonoshiftcasesforidentifiablepatterns,findingthreethemesinthecaseswherewesawlittlemovement,whichwediscussbelow.

Findings

Learning about Learning, Self, and Students Ourfirstresearchquestionaskedwhatsecondarycandidatesdiscoveredaboutthemselves as learners after completing theMSLQandLCB self-assessments.Almostwithoutexception,candidate’sinitialself-reflectionswerefocusedonselfwithfewreferencestoteachingandstudents.Thiswasexpected,consideringthattheprimaryintentionoftheassignmentwastheassessmentoflearning.Further,thisassignmentwasplacedearlyinthecoursewhenstudents’ideasaboutteachingwerestillnascent.Nearlyalllearnercodesweredirectandstrong,ashighlightedinthefollowingdataexcerpts.

ResourcemanagementmaybeanareawhereIneedtogivemoreeffort.Iamnotthetypetocallothersfromclassoraskforhelp.(Jason)

Mymainproblemasacriticalthinkerismyunwillingnesstohearnewideasthatcountermyowndeeplyheldbeliefs.(Marin)

IliketogetthingsdoneassoonasIknowaboutthem…ImakealistofwhensomethingsuchasanexamisoccurringandthenImakemyselfastudyschedule.(Lauren)

Intheseexcerpts,candidatesusedconcreteandpersonalexamplestoreflectontheirself-assessmentscores.Throughthistask,studentswereabletoidentifytheirstrengthsaslearners,butalsotheareaswheretheycouldcontinuetoimprove.Asmanyofourstudentsshared,thiswaslikelytobethefirsttimetheyhadtalkedpubliclyabouttheirlearning.Severalcandidatesalsousedthistaskasanopportunitytobeginexploringissues theywill likelyfaceas teachers,ashighlightedbelowwhereonecandidate,Lauren,beginstoquestiontheteacher’sroleinalearner-centeredclassroom.

Accordingtothesurveyresults,Iputmoreemphasisonlearner-centeredclass-rooms.ThistroublesmeslightlybecausewhileIdobelievethatactivelearningisimportant,thereneedstobeteachercontrolintheclassroom.(Lauren)

Inthisexample,weseetheclashbetweenLauren’sbeliefsandheremergingconcernsasateacher.Responseslikethisdemonstratetheaddedpotentialofself-assessmentforbringingconcernstothesurfaceandpromptingquestionsthatcanbeaddressedinclassorinprivateconversationasthesemesterunfolds.Wenowlookmorecloselyattherelationshipbetweencandidates’developinginsightsaboutteachingandself-regulatedlearningandtheirexperiencewiththeMSLQandLCBself-assessmenttools.


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Connecting Self-Assessment to Teaching. In contrast with the first writtenreflection’snarrowfocusonself,candidates’finalreflectionswerenearlyequallydevotedtoissuesofself,learning,andteaching.Importantly,halfofthecandidatesspontaneouslydrewupontheideasandterminologyintroducedintheself-assess-mentswhenconsideringtheirfutureasclassroomteachers.Asillustratedbythefollowingexcerpts,severalspokedirectlyoftheself-assessmenttask,whileothersreferencedthefollow-updiscussionaboutstudentsandlearnersthattookplaceinclassaftertheself-assessmentswerecomplete.

Reflections on the self-assessment task:

ThereflectionIlearnedthemostfromwasmyself-assessmentreflection…ThisassessmentallowedmetoseetheareasthatIneedtoworkontobecomeamoresuccessfulpersonandteacher.(Candace)

Theself-assessmenttoldmewhatkindoflearnerIwas.IfoundthatIamintrinsi-callymotivated…ThathelpedmewithwhyIwanttobeateacherandactedasanaccuratedescriptorofwhoIamasalearner.(Andrew)

Reflections on the students vs. learners discussion:

WetalkedalotatthebeginningofthesemesteraboutthedistinctionbetweenastudentandalearnerandthroughthisdiscussionIhavefurtherdevelopedmyconcept of a learner… If used correctly (self-assessments), they can help meaccess students’ prior knowledge, experiences, and perceptions of their ownlearning.(Katharine)

ThefirstthingIlearnedistonotteacheachstudentasastudent,buttomakethemintoalearner.IrealizedthatIwasalearnerandIhavetoguidethechildrenthatIwillbeteachingtostartthinkingandactinglikeIdo.(Sheila)

Aswefurtherstudiedthedifferencesinsubstanceanddepthamongthefinalessays,wenotedthatwhencandidateswereabletoprovideexamplesfrompersonalexperience,ourunderstandingoftheirlearningwasenhanced.Similarly,self-assess-menthelpedstudentsmakelinkages—atfirstconcreteandthenabstract—betweencoursecontentandpersonalexperience.Self-assessmentalsopromptedconcepttransferbyencouragingstudents’ toowntheirownlearning.Weseethis inthefollowingcomment,whereJasonusedthefinalreflectiontoarticulatethevaluehesawinself-versusteacher-drivenassessments.

Someself-assessmentssuchastheMSLQorTeacherBeliefsSurveytendtohavemoreofanintrinsicrealizationaboutwhoweare,ratherthanalabelbeingputonanyone.Thiswayeachindividualcanseefactorsthatmayneedtobeaddressedandfocusonthemratherthanbeingprejudged.(Jason)

Anothercandidatenotedthattheself-assessmentsurveywasonlythebeginningoftheprocess,stating:“IlearnedalotabouthowIlearnandnotjustfromtakingthesurvey.IlearnedabouthowIlearnandcomprehendinformationbyactually

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learningsomething”(Robert).Thiscandidatewasabletoseehowself-assessmentwasatoolfordeliberatereflection,allowinghimtomakeconnectionswithcoursecontent.

Connecting Self-Assessment to Understandings of Self-Regulated Learning.Anotherexampleofwherewesawconcepttransferwaswithregardtoself-regu-latedlearning,wherenearlyallofourteachercandidatesmentionedself-regulatedlearning,eitherexplicitlyorbyexample, in theirfinalreflections.AsCaitlin,anon-traditionalteachercandidateshared:

Self-regulatedlearningisnotaconceptIwasfamiliarwithbeforethisclass.TwentyyearsagowhenIattendedhighschool,thiswasn’tthefocusofsecondaryeducation.Iremembermyinstitutionallearningexperienceasformulaicandpredictable,asidefromonegiftedclass.…This[educationcourse]hasenlightenedmetothefactthatbeingabletobreezealongdidn’treallyhelpmelearn.Itmakesmealittlebitsad,wonderingwhatImighthaveaccomplishedintherightenvironment.Iplantochallengemystudentsandhelpthemgrowaslearners.(Caitlin)

Caitlinhaspersonalizedherunderstandingofself-regulatedlearningbyfirstconsideringherownexperienceasahighschoolstudent,andthenreflectingontheexperienceshewantsforherfuturestudents.Oneofherclassmates,amoretraditionalcandidate,echoedthissentiment,highlightingthepotentialofself-as-sessmentstolinkabstracttheorieswithpersonalexperienceascandidatesbegintoconstructanunderstandingoftheirroleasprospectiveteachers.

Iwastaughtthroughouthighschoolandcollegetothinkandperforminmundane,repetitiveways.Thiscoursehelpedmetonotonlyaccess[a]criticalwayofthink-ingatalltimes,notjustwhenneeded,buthowtoactuallyhelpmystudentslearntothinkinthiswayaswell.Self-regulatedlearningisoneofthebesttoolsthatIcouldhavelearnedinthisclass.(Sheila)

Yetathirdcandidate,Ella,spokeofthevalueshenowholdsfortheideaofself-regulatedlearning:

Myrecognitionofthevalueandimportanceofself-regulatedlearninghasbecomeacrucialpartof thisclass…Ihavebeguntoforcemyself tostayintrinsicallymotivated,reviewmyworkandresubmititafterfixingmymistakes,andeventoteachmyselfinformationthatcouldbepertinenttotheclass.(Ella)

Astheseexcerptsillustrate,theself-assessmenttaskhelpedtoprimecandidates’experiencebyalertingthemtovocabularyandconceptstheywouldencounterlaterinthecourse.Further,sinceself-evaluationisapartofself-regulatedlearning,thesecandidateswereabletopersonallyexperiencethispartoftheprocess.Inreadingstudents’final reflections, itbecameclear that theyhadbegun touse languageofferedinthecoursetointerpretandevaluatetheirownexperience,whichwassuggestiveofapreferencefor“self-regulatedlearning.”


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Learning about Teaching Oursecondresearchquestionexaminedhowcandidates’beliefsaboutthemselvesaslearnersinformedtheirunderstandingofthemselvesasteachers,includinghowtheseunderstandingsmayhavechangedovertime.Inaddressingthisquestion,ourfirststepwastoplacecandidatesintothreegroups,eachrepresentingsignificant,moderateorminimalchangeinreportedbeliefs.Throughanalysisoftheirwrittenassignments,weidentifiedfourcandidates(17%)whodemonstratedasignificantshiftintheirreflectionsacrosstheterm,11candidates(48%)whodemonstratedamoderateshift,andeightcases(35%)thatfellintothelowornoshiftcategory. Amongthosewhoshowedasignificantormoderateshift,weobservedgreaterattentiontoself-as-learner,aswellasagrowingattentiontoself-as-teacherandstudents-as-learners.Intheseessayswefoundstrongerandmoredirectconnectionsbetweenpersonalexperienceandcoursecontent.Further,candidatesfrequentlyelaboratedontheirthinking,inadditiontodiscussingconcreteapplicationsofcourseconcepts.Overall,therewerestrongertendenciestolinklearningandteachingincomplexandappliedways.Thesequalitiesgrewfromtheself-assessmenttothefinalreflection,withshiftsclearlylinkedtocoursecontentandgoals. Toillustrate,teachercandidateswhosedocumentswerecodedasmoderateshowedanespeciallyclearunderstandingofself-as-learner.Theseteachercandidateshadastronggeneralconceptionoflearningandhowitrelatestobeingateacher.Forexample,inthefollowingself-assessment,Randystated:

Ineedtoworkontheextrinsicmotivation,andshiftittowardsagoalofwantingtolearnfortheknowledge.Thisgoesalongwiththeideaofbeingaself-regulatedlearneraswellasbeingatask-focusedstudent.ThescoresareagoodinsighttowhatIhavetoworkontoimprovemyselfasalearner.(Randy)

Later,inhisfinalreflection,Randywrote:

Andthemostimportantaspectofbecomingateacheristhefactthatteachersarealwayslearning,thereforeeffectiveteachersfindandtrynewmethodstotryandrelayinformationtostudents…Onlybyself-reflection/evaluationwillateacherbeabletogetbetterandgrowasateacherandalearner.(Randy)

Intheexcerptabove,weseeacandidatewhograspstheneedfortheteachertobealearner.Still,thesecommentsdonotprovidespecificrecommendationsforactualteachingpractices.Similarly,anothercandidatedescribedherself-assessmentinthefollowingways:

Mylearner-centeredbeliefs[scores]arehigherthanthemean,becauseIdobe-lievethefocusoftheclassroomandlearningiscenteredaroundthelearner,notsolelyontheteacher…Ibelievetheclassroomshouldbecenteredonmoreactiveparticipationandengagement,ratherthantheteachercontrollingeverythingthathappensintheclassroom.(Susan)

Later,inherfinalreflection,Susanwasabletoarticulatethispointmoreclearly:

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OneofmystrengthsisthatIamabletomakeconnectionstomanythingsandsee thatmanyconceptsfit together.…I read theRidley,McCombs,&Taylorarticleandimmediatelymadeconnectionstothisclass,andalsoothersthatarenotself-regulatedlearning…[inanothercourse]Ihavehadtheopportunitytoteachwithgroupmembersthissemester…IwritereflectionseverytimeIteach,soIamabletoreflectonmyprogress…Ihavecometounderstandwhatgoesintoteaching,howtomakelessonsinterestingwhilestillconveyingapoint,andwhatIgetoutofit.(Susan)

Thiscandidatehasageneralsenseofwhosheisintheself-assessmentthatisexpressedmoreexplicitlyinthefinalreflection.However,shedoesnotpresentspecificapplicationsofhowshewouldapproachcreatingaself-regulatedlearningenvironment.Asteachereducators,ithasbeenhelpfultonoticethistendencyinstudentresponses.Asthefirstrequiredcourseoftheteacherpreparationprogram,wewouldnotexpectcandidatestohaveafully-developedsenseoftheiridentityasfutureteachers,butwedowanttoseetheircommitmenttodevelopingasteacherswhoarecapableofattendingtostudents’learning.Furtherinsightscanbetakenfromthosewhowerecodedinthesignificantandnoshiftcategories.

Making a Commitment to Student Learning.Notably,the17%ofcandidateswhosedocumentswerecodedasdemonstratingasignificantshiftwereabletogobeyondaglobalunderstandingofthemselvesaslearnerstoshowsignsoflearner-as-teacher.Intheseessays,candidatesnotonlydrewupontheconcretenessoftheirownexperience,butwereequallyarticulateabouttheclassroomtheyhopedtoonedaylead,andwhatitmighttaketogetthere.Theseessaysrichlyincorporatedtheconceptsandvocabularyofthecourse.Further,thesecandidatessawtheintentionbehindthewaythecoursewasstructuredanddelivered.Oneteachercandidaterevisedherself-assessmenttowardtheendofthesemester,noting:

Ifeelthatitisimportantforanyteachertohaveaclassroomthatislearner-cen-tered.…[R]elatedtothisarenon-learner[centered]beliefsintermsofteaching.Myscoreonthisreferstohavingstudentcontrolinaclassroomversusteachercontrol.[Professor]isagreatexampleofthis.Sheallowsstudentstocontrolwherethelearninggoesandistheretoguideusandclarifycertainconcepts.ThiswouldbemygoalforhowIwantmyclassroomtobe.(Holly)

Inherfinalreflection,thiscandidategoesontodescribehowherexperienceasalearnerinthecoursehashelpedherimaginethekindofteachingsheaspirestoasafuturesecondaryteacher.

ThemostimportantthingIfeelthatIamtakingawayfromthisclassishowtomakestudentsbecomelearners…Asalearnermyself,Ihavelearnedtomakeimprovementsinmyownworkandshow[myown]progress.Whenputtingmyworkcollectiontogether,Istartedtoseethemethodtowhy[theprofessor]hasbeengivingme‘Rewrites’onmostofmywork.[She]knowsthatifwearemotivatedtosucceedthenwewillkeeprevisingpaperstokeepimproving.(Holly)


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Hollyrepeatsthisideainherconclusion.

IfIcantaketheinformationthathasbeenpresentedtomeinmyeducationclassesandapplyittomyclassroom,thenIthinkthatIcanbeasuccessfulteacher.Ithinkthatmygoalwillbetomakeanimpactonmystudentandhelpthemseethemselvesaslearnersandshowthemthat theyaretheonesthatcontrol theirownlearning.(Holly)

The Importance of Candidate Professional Growth and Learning.Asecondexampleofsignificantshiftappearsinthenextexample,asJasondescribeshisunderstandingofcritical thinking.Thisexcerpt indicateshowhe isworking toapplycoursecontentonapersonallevel,usingtheterm“transformed”tocapturethesignificanceofthisforhislearning.

Thechallengewastonolongerlookatthingsandtakethemforwhattheyare,rathertolookatsomethinganddissectwhythecertaineventhappened.Thisiswheremyfocusfromstudenttolearnertransformed.…IguessIhavechangedmyapproachandstartedtothinkhowcanImanipulatethisinformationandinwhatways.(Jason)

Weseethiscandidate’sinterestinlinkingcoursecontenttopracticalexperiencemoreclearlyinthefollowingexample,takenfromlaterinthesamepaper.

IrecentlyhadanexperienceinclasswheremyCalculusteachergaveusthechancetoteachforaday.IdoveheadfirstintotheopportunityknowingthatImaybewrong,buthowdoIcontinuetolearnandprosperifIamneverwrong?Thisiswhenitallhitmethatmakingmistakescanbebeneficialtoteachingandlearningalike.Oncewemakeamistakeandthinkcriticallyaboutthatmistakethereisagreaterchancethatwewillnotproceedthesamewaythenexttimeweapproachthesamesituation.(Jason)

Astheseillustrationsshow,asmallbutsignificantpercentageofcandidatesareabletousetheself-assessmenttasktoreflectontheirownlearningprocesses,andtodrawupontheseunderstandingsastheyenvisioninsurprisinglyconcreteandpracticaltermstheirfutureclassrooms.

The Developmental Nature of Candidate Thinking.Finally,weobservedthatcandidateswhoreportedlittletonoshiftfellintooneofthreecategories:(1)candi-dateswhoappearedtohaveforeclosedontheirideaspriortothestartofthecourse,(2)candidateswhowerejustbeginningtograsptheideaofself-as-learner,and(3)candidateswhoseself-assessmentsweremoreindepththantheirfinalreflection,perhapsasaconsequenceofend-of-semestertimingandweariness. Wereturntoacandidateweintroducedearlierinthepaper;astudentwhosebeliefsremainedsteadythroughoutthecourse.Indiscussingherself-assessmentresults,thiscandidateremarkedabouthowshewastroubledbyherLCBscore.Laurenwrote:“Iputmoreemphasisonalearner-centeredclassroom.Thistroubles

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meslightlybecausewhileIdobelievethatactivelearningisimportant,thereneedstobeteachercontrolintheclassroom.”Sheconcludesherthoughtsbyindicatinganinterestinseeinghowherbeliefsmightchangeovertime:

Atthemoment,thereisnotmuchthatIwouldliketochangeaboutmythinkingonlearningstrategiesandlearningingeneral.However,Iwillstayopen-mindedabouttheseideas…Iaminterestedinfindingouthowmuchmyopinionschangeinonesemester.(Lauren)

Inherfinalreflection,Laurenreturnstothesecomments:

Lookingatmyself-reflectionpaper,whilediscussinghowmytestscoresindicatedthatIputanemphasisonlearner-centeredclassroom,Idiscussedthatthiswasnottheonlywaythatstudentsmayfindbeneficialtolearn.Someneedlessfreedomandmoreguidancefromtheteacher.Whilethisonlygivestwoexamplesofhowpeoplelearn,Idorealizethattherearemanyotherwaysoutthere.(Lauren)

Thisparticularcandidatehadanegativeexperiencewithreformmathematicsinhighschoolandwasfrustratedbywhatsheperceivedasalackofteachersup-port.Thus,whileLaurenwaswillingtoacknowledgeotherapproachestoteach-ing,herwritingshowedastrongpreferencefortheonethatfitherownlearningprocesses.Thisparticularexampleremindsusofjusthowpowerfulstudents’priorexperiencesareinshapingtheirbeliefs.Here,theself-assessmenttaskhelpedustoidentifyLauren’sbeliefssothatwecouldbetteraddresstheirrelationshiptoherunderstandingsofself-as-teacherandstudents-as-learners. Forcandidateswhowerejustbeginningtounderstandwhatitmeanstobealearner,wedidnotobservestrongattemptstoexpanduponthisideainthefinalreflection.Rather,thesecandidatesseemedtoknowwhatwasneededinordertobecomealearner,buthadnotyetinternalizedtheprocess.Onecandidatestateditasfollows:

Thisassessmenthelpedmetolearnafewkeythingsaboutmyself.First,thatIneedtostopbeinglazyanddothework.Next,thatIneedtofindthemotivationtokeepschoolapriority.Andfinally,thatIbelieveallstudents,includingme,havethepotentialtolearn.(Rebecca)

Rebecca’ssuperficialresponsesuggeststousthatcourse-relatedopportunitiestointernalizeandpersonalizetheseconceptsweremissed.Shegoesontosayinherfinalreflection:

Iamdrawnto[teaching]becauseofmyownnature.…Iplanonbeingalife-longlearnerandoneofmyfuturegoalsistoinstillthatsamecuriosityandthirstforknowledgethatIpossess.(Rebecca)

Thiscandidate’sself-assessmentdemonstratesa“student”approach.Whileshemakesasemanticcaseformovingtowardbecomingalearner,sheisnotabletoprovidespecificevidenceofthismovement.Thus,itmaystillbeafuturegoalforthiscandidate,orinaworst-casescenario,notinherfutureatall.


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Thethirdgroupofteachercandidateswhosedocumentsdonotmanifestashiftincludethoseindividualswhoweremorespecificandclearintheirself-assessmentreflectionsthantheywereinthefinalreflections.Onecandidatedescribedhisself-assessmentreflectionthisway,

Asa learner, I’vediscoveredmanyassumptions Ihadaboutmyown learningprocesswereeithermistakenorinneedofrevision.Forinstance,thereislittlemethodandtechniquetomystudying.Recognizingthatgoodorganizationandacoherentmethodwouldstrengthenmycognitivestrengthsandwouldreducemyinefficientlearningpatternsisanimportantstep.(Joshua)

Attheendoftheterm,thissamestudentwrites:

Iwillconstructtime/studymethodsthatwillallowmetosystematicallyexploreassignmentsandprojectstomyownintellectualsatisfaction,andnotonlytotheexpectationsofaninstructorormentor.(Joshua)

Astheexcerptabovehighlights,asmallgroupofstudentsseemtoregressintheirresponses,latchingontoclichéphrasesinordertosatisfyinstructorexpectationsataminimumlevelofengagement. It is reasonable toassumethatacandidatemightrunoutoftimetocompletetheassignment,orloseinterestinthecourseandmerely“student”throughthefinaltaskofthesemester.Itisalsopossiblethatstudentsmaybeself-selectingoutoftheprogram.

Discussion and Implications

Focusing Attention on Student Learning Asthisstudyreveals,deliberateself-assessmentinterventionscanbeanef-fectivemethodforhelpingsecondarycandidatesarticulateandinterrogatetheirnotionsaboutlearningstrategies,whichinturncanhelpthemtoconnectwithandapplyabstractconceptsfromtheliteratureonlearningtheorytofutureinstruc-tionalpractices.Asthedataillustrate,manyofourcandidateswereabletousetheirself-assessmentresultsasadvanceorganizersoverthecourseofthesemester,interpretingconceptslikecriticalthinkingandself-regulatedlearningthroughthelensoftheirownprocessesandexperiencesaslearners.Theywerefurtherabletoexaminetheoriesofcognitionandmotivationfromapersonalposition,givingtheseideasnewrelevance.Bythefinalreflections,manycandidates’referencestolearningreflectedamoresophisticatedunderstandingofthelearningprocess. Moreover, through the self-assessmentprocesswebegin to see candidatesapproachtheirroleasmodellearners.Whenaskedtoexploretheirdevelopmentthroughoutthecourse,manywereabletousetheexplicitlanguageofself-regulatedlearninginwaysandcontextsthatseemedtoindicateapreferenceforthisidea.Somementiontakingmoreresponsibilityfortheirownlearning,whileothersmen-tionshiftsintheirmotivation,fromextrinsictointrinsic.Stillothersmentiontheideathattheyneededtolearntostudydifferentlyfromthewaytheyhadpreviously.

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Thesecandidateshavebeguntoshifttowardameaning-directedlearningpattern(Vermunt&Vermetten,2004),wheretheyareattemptingtomakesenseoftheirownlearningprocesses.Importantly,thesesamecandidatesincreasinglytalkedabouthowtheywishedthesamefortheirfuturestudents.Thus,weseeinthedatahowasignificantnumberofcandidatesarebeginningtoconnectanunderstandingoftheirownlearningtotheirdevelopingideasaboutclassroomteachingpractices. Thesedatafurthersuggestthatcandidatesareusingtheiridentityaslearnerstoformulateanemergingidentityasteachers.Aslife-longstudents,theybringexten-siveclassroomexperience,resultinginarangeofbeliefsandpredispositionsthatareimplicit,powerfulandenduring(Knowles&Holt-Reynolds,1991;Pajares,1992).Assuch,thesebeliefsandpredispositionsarelikelytoinfluencepracticeifleftunex-amined(Beijaard,Verloop,&Vermunt,1999;Feiman-Nemser,2001).Forexample,withoutanintentionalanalysisof“theothersideofthedesk,”teachercandidates’immediatefocusduringpreparationisprimarilyonauthority-basedteacherattributessuchasmanagementskillsandknowledgeofcontent,notstudents’learning(Ethel&McMeniman,2002;Gould,2000;Knowles&Holt-Reynolds,1991). Topromptashiftinperspective,webelieveitisimportanttomaketeachercandidates’beliefsexplicitinordertofacilitatethekindofcriticalthinkingneededto develop a more theoretically-grounded approach to teaching and learning,especiallyonethatfocusesmorecentrallyonstudentsaslearners(Dembo,2001;Knowles&Holt-Reynolds,1991).Ourfindingssupport thisclaim.Developinggreaterawarenessofone’sselfasalearnerservestoinformthedevelopmentofone’sidentityasateacherwhopaysattentiontostudentsaslearners.

Self-Assessment as a Pedagogical Tool Thesedatademonstrate that interventions that employdeliberate learning-focusedself-assessmentcanbeausefulexerciseforhelpingcandidatestounpacktheirassumptionsandbeliefsabouttheprofessionandaboutthemselvesaslearn-ers.Althoughpreviousresearchhasdemonstratedtheutilityofautobiographicalreflectioninunderstandingone’sidentityasateacher(Carter&Doyle,1996;Holt-Reynolds,2000),teachersaretypicallynotaskedtolookbackatthemselvesas“modellearners”inordertounderstandlearningandteaching.Teachercandidatesneedtoseebothwheretheyhavebeenandwheretheycurrentlyareaslearnersastheydevelopavisionforwhotheywouldliketobecomeasteachers. Thisisparticularlytruewhenassessmentisdesignedforlearning(seeStiggins,2005).Ourstudentsusedself-assessmenttounderstandtheirownlearningaswellaslearningtheoriesmoregenerally.Forthistohappen,however,candidateshadtofeelsafewhenexploringtheirattitudesandbeliefs.Asteachereducators,itisimportantthattheseassessmentsbeplacedinalow-stakescontext.Itisalsoimportanttorememberthatanyassessmentoflearningshouldavoiddeferencetoparticularpoliticalbeliefs,sociologicalideologies,orpersonalitycharacteristicsthatmaybeperipherallyrelatedtopedagogicalpractice(Damon,2005).Formalanddeliberateself-assessmentslike


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theMSLQandtheLCBmayhavehighvalueforteachereducatorspreciselybecausetheyarenotassessingcandidates’ideologies. Additionally,becausetheseself-assessmentsareembeddedwithinacourse,teachercandidatesmayfeelmoreinclinedtoviewtheresultsasideastoconsiderratherthanasparticularideologies.Whenapproachedthisway,self-assessmentsliketheMSLQandLCBcanbeusedtofurtherexplorecandidate’scommitmenttolearningandteaching,aswellasprovideteachereducatorswiththerareopportunitytoidentifyandassessteachercandidates’preconceivednotionsaboutlearningandteaching.Deliberateself-assessmentmaymakeiteasierforinstructorstoobserveandrespondtotheneedsofthecandidateandtohelpthecandidateinterrogatehisorherbeliefsinaconstructive,growth-producingmanner. Inorderforself-assessmentstohaveanimpactonteachercandidates,however,theyneedtobeemployedconsistentlyandresponsively(Weinberger&McCombs,2003).Forexample,itiscriticalthatfacultyusingself-assessmenttools,liketheMSLQandLCB,haveasolidunderstandingofhowtoadministerandinterpretthesetoolsforconceptualself-assessment,asopposedtopracticalorevaluativeself-assessment(Boud&Falchikov,1989).Thestudyfindingsreportedheredidnothappenaccidentally,butresultedfromadeliberateandsustainedinterventionbyaskilledteachereducator.Itmayalsobeimportanttoexplorestrategiesforbuildinguponandextendingtheemphasisofthesetoolsprogrammatically.Candidatesinoursecondaryeducationprogramarecontinuallyaskedtoframetheirreflectionsaroundlearning:firsttheirown,thentheirstudents.Reflectiveself-assessmentiswellsuitedforcouplingwithprogrammaticapproachesthatpromptfurtherreflec-tiononstudents’learning.

Study Limitations Atthesametime,itisimportanttoacknowledgethelimitationsofthesetypesofself-assessments.Whenstudentscompleteself-reporttasksinthecontextofacourse,particularlywhenthosesametasksareassessedandgraded,wecanpre-dictstudents’tendencytowardreportingsociallydesirableresults.Withoutfullyunderstandingthepurposeofthesurveys,candidatesmayprovideanswerstheyfeeltheinstructorwantstohear,ortheymaynototherwisebefullyhonestforfearoflosingpointsonanassignment. Therearealso limitationsrelated to thesampleofparticipants.Likemanyteacher educationprograms across the country, our candidates are fromapre-dominantlyWhite,middle-classdemographic,andpresumably, fromsocio-cul-turalcontextswhereWhite,middle-classvaluesaresupported.Thepresentstudyexaminesindividualexperienceswithconceptualself-assessmentinthecontextofclassdiscussionaroundfosteringself-regulatedlearning.Theseconstructsandprocessesarecontextualizedwithinthevarioussocialandorganizationalstructuresofschooling.Forexample,discussionsmayuseconceptsintheself-assessmenttoexploreconceptslikegenderdifferencesinmotivation(Wigfield&Eccles,2002)

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orstereotypethreat(Steele,1997).Finally,wecannotpresumethatthepatternsidentifiedinthisgroupofcandidateswillholdsteadyacrossgender,race,classandgeographicdifferences.Norcanweassumethatallgroups(betheycandidates,orthestudentsofthosecandidates)willfindtheunderstandingsaboutlearningadvocatedheretobeculturallycomfortableorrelevant.Sincepreviousresearchonself-assessmenthasnotaddresseddiversepopulations,weencourageotherstosimilarlyimplement,studyandreporttheuseofself-assessmentsinarangeofdiverseteachereducationcontexts.

Preparing Learning-Focused Teachers Itisworthwhile,thenforteacherpreparationprogramstoconsidertheadoptionoflearner-centeredprinciples(APA,1993)throughoutcoursework.Whiletheseprinciplesappear tobepartofwhatmanyofusconsiderbestpractice, teachercandidatesoftenexperienceopaqueexposuretotheseprinciples.Evenwhenweembed learner-centered principles in our own practice as teacher educators, itmaybedifficultforourcandidatestoapplytheseprinciplesintheirinstructionalpractice.Tothisend,self-assessmenttoolscanhelpcandidates“see”thethinkingbehindouractions,aswellastheactionsoftheirstudents.Atthesametime,itisimportantthatwecontinuetotesttheeffectivenessofself-assessmentinshiftingbeliefsandattitudesforadiverserangeofcandidatesenteringevenmorediverseschoolsettings. Thecarefulandskillfuluseofself-assessmentinterventionsaroundlearningcanhelpcandidatesbegintodeveloptheself-regulatorycapacitiestheyneedtobemoreskilledaslearners,thusmoreeffectiveasteachers(Dembo,2001).Teachereducationprogramscanfurtherhelptomakethelearningprocesstransparentbyincorporatingexplicitinstructionincognitivestrategies,metacognitivestrategies,andelementsofself-regulatedlearning.Whencandidatesdevelopthevocabularyandsyntaxaroundlearningandteaching,theycanbegintointernalizetheseideastotheirbeliefsaboutteaching.Asoneofourcandidatesnoted,“InowfeellikeIholdmyownlearninginmyhands.”

Note 1Studentingandlearningareoftencuedbyclassroompracticesandprocedures.Forexample,whenstudentsexperienceteacher-centeredinstructionalpracticesthatfailtoen-gagethemaslearners(e.g.,lecturesandrecitations),wecanpredictstudentingbehaviorsdrivenbyasetofmotivationalbeliefsandlearningstrategiesthatareadoptedtomeettheminimaldemandsofthesepractices(e.g.,surfacestrategiesorcheatingbehaviors).Sincethe instruction thatmanyhigh school andmost early college students experience tendstowardteacher-centered,itisunderstandablewhencandidatesengageinstudentingratherthanlearningbehaviorswhentheyentertheteacherpreparationprogram.


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Appendix ASample Items for Scales from the MSLQ and the LCB

MSLQ Motivation Scales

Intrinsic Goal Orientation “Inaclasslikethis,IprefercoursematerialthatreallychallengesmesothatIcanlearnnewthings.” “Themostsatisfyingthingformeinthiscourseistryingtounderstandthecontentasthoroughlyaspossible.”

Extrinsic Goal Orientation “Gettingagoodgradeinthisclassisthemostsatisfyingthingformerightnow.” “IfIcan,Iwanttogetbettergradesinthisclassthanmostoftheotherstudents.”

Control of Learning “ItismyownfaultifIdon’tlearnthematerialinthiscourse.” “IfIdon’tunderstandthecoursematerial,itisbecauseIdon’ttryhardenough.”

Task Value “IthinkIwillbeabletousewhatIlearninthiscourseinothercourses.” “Understandingthesubjectmatterofthiscourseisveryimportanttome.”

Self-efficacy “I’mcertainthatIcanunderstandthemostdifficultmaterialpresentedinthereadingsforthiscourse.” “Consideringthedifficultyofthiscourse,theteacher,andmyskills,IthinkIwilldowellinthisclass.”

Cognitive and Metacognitive Scales

Rehearsal Strategies “Whenstudyingforthiscourse,Ireadmyclassnotesandthecoursereadingsoverandoveragain.”

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“Imakelistsofimportantitemsforcourseslikethisandmemorizethelists.”

Elaboration Strategies “Itrytorelateideasinthissubjecttothoseinothercourseswhereverpossible.” “Itrytoapplyideasfromcoursereadingsinotherclassactivitiessuchaslectureanddiscussion.”

Organization Strategies “Imakesimplecharts,diagrams,ortablestohelpmeorganizecoursematerial.” “When I study the readings inacourse like this, Ioutline thematerial tohelpmeorganizemythoughts.”

Metacognitive Strategies “Whenreadingforacourselikethis,Imakeupquestionstohelpfocusmyreading.” “ItrytochangethewayIstudyinordertofitthecourserequirementsandtheinstructor’steachingstrategies.”

Critical Thinking Strategies “Whenatheory,interpretation,orconclusionispresentedinclassorinthereadings,Itrytodecideifthereisgoodsupportingevidence.” “WheneverIreadorhearanassertionorconclusioninthisclass,Ialsotrytothinkofpossiblealternatives.”

Self-Regulated Learning/Effort Regulation “Iworkhardtodowellinclasseslikethis,evenifIdon’tlikewhatwe’redoing.” “Evenwhencoursematerialsaredullanduninteresting,ImanagetokeepworkinguntilIfinish.”

Self-Regulated Learning/Time Management and Study Environment “ImakesurethatIkeepupwiththeweeklyreadingsandassignmentsincourseslikethis.” ”Ihavearegularplacesetasideforstudying.”

Collaborative Learning Orientation “Whenstudyingforacourselikethis,Ioftentrytoexplainthematerialtoaclassmateorafriend.” “Itrytoworkwithotherstudentsfromclasstocompletecourseassignments.”

Help-Seeking Orientation “WhenIcan’tunderstandthematerialincourseslikethis,Iaskanotherstudentintheclassforhelp.” “ItrytoidentifystudentsinclasseslikethiswhomIcanaskforhelpifnecessary.”

LCB Scales

Learner-Centered Beliefs “Icanhelpstudentswhoareuninterestedinlearninggetintouchwiththeirnaturalmotivationtolearn.” “Accepting students where they are—no matter what their behavior and academicperformance—makesthemmorereceptivetolearning.”


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Non-Learner-Centered Beliefs About Learners “Evenwithfeedback,somestudentsjustcan’tfigureouttheirmistakes.” “Innateabilityisfixedandsomechildrenjustcan’tlearnaswellasothers.”

Non-Learner-Centered Beliefs About Teaching “IfIdon’tpromptandprovidedirectionforstudentquestions,studentswon’tgettherightanswer.” “Iknowbestwhatmystudentsneedtoknowandwhat’simportant;studentsshouldtakemywordthatsomethingwillberelevanttothem.”

using learning self-assessment tools during initial ... · approach learning (dembo, 2001). to...

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