use of terrestrial digital photogrammetry in the

USE OF TERRESTRIAL DIGITAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY IN THE

CLASSIFICATION OF FRACTURED ROCK MASS

Saulo Nunes Sant’Anna1; Pedro Manuel

Alameda-Hernández2; Luís de Almeida Prado

Bacellar3

1Master in geotechnics, NUGEO/Escola de Minas, UFOP, Ouro

Preto/MG, Brazil.

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6134-2501

Email: [email protected]

2Dr, Urban Engineering Department/School of Mines/Federal

University of Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto/MG, Brazil.



3Ph.D, NUGEO/Escola de Minas/UFOP, Ouro Preto/MG, Brazil.



Abstract

The present work aims to discuss rock mass data acquisition

methods. The study area is a deactivated gravel quarry, located

in Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais state, Brazil) where migmatized

gneisses outcrop, with frequent rockfalls. The acquisition

methods employed were the traditional slope mapping and

remote method with digital terrestrial photogrammetry. The

Slope Mass Rating (SMR) classification was applied. The results

showed differences in the structures detection ranges, where the

photogrammetry was more complete with more discontinuity

data than traditional mapping, but with the exception of oblique

structures. This deficiency is explained by the fact that the study

slope is subvertical, without hollows and protrusions, which

often allow the detection of discontinuity traces rather than

planes. However, even in these cases, photogrammetry proved to

be important as it allows the characterization of the entire slope,

which is impossible by the traditional method. Low SMR values

for planar a wedge failures coincides with the rockfall

observation, in spite of overall stability.

Keywords: Photogrammetry; Rock Mass Classification; SMR.

USO DA FOTOGRAMETRIA DIGITAL TERRESTRE NA

CLASSIFICAÇÃO DE MACIÇOS ROCHOSOS

FRATURADOS

Resumo

O presente trabalho visa discutir o uso de métodos de aquisição

de dados geotécnicos de maciços rochosos. A área de estudo é

uma pedreira de brita desativada, localizada na cidade de Belo

Horizonte (Minas Gerais, Brasil), onde afloram gnaisses

migmatizados, com constante queda de blocos. Os métodos de

aquisição empregados foram o tradicional mapeamento de talude

e o levantamento remoto por fotogrametria digital terrestre. A

classificação de maciços Slope Mass Rating (SMR) foi aplicada.

Os resultados evidenciaram diferenças nos ranges de detecção de

estruturas e a fotogrametria se mostrou mais completa, com mais

dados de descontinuidades do que o mapeamento tradicional,

com exceção das estruturas oblíquas ao talude. Esta deficiência

se explica pelo fato do talude estudado ser subvertical, sem

reentrâncias e saliências, que permitem muitas vezes a detecção

dos traços de descontinuidades e não dos planos. Contudo,

mesmo nestes casos, a fotogrametria mostrou-se importante, por

permitir a caracterização de todo talude, impossível pelo método

tradicional. A classificação SMR mostrou baixos valores,

indicando instabilidade por rupturas planares e em cunha do

maciço em alguns pontos, o que coincide com as frequentes

quedas de blocos.

Palavras-chave: Fotogrametria; Classificação de Maciços

Rochosos; SMR.

UTILIZACIÓN DE FOTOGRAMETRÍA DIGITAL

TERRESTRE EN LA CLASIFICACIÓN DE MACIZOS

ROCOSOS FRACTURADOS.

Resumen

El presente trabajo discute el empleo de métodos de adquisición

remota de datos geotécnicos de macizos rocosos. El área de

estudio es una cantera de árido localizada en la región Este de la

ciudad de Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais (Brasil), con

afloramiento de gneises migmatizados e desprendimientos

frecuentes. Los métodos empleados fueron la adquisición de

datos tradicional de contacto, y la remota con fotogrametría

digital terrestre y foto aérea; con el objetivo de la caracterización

de discontinuidades e identificación de estructuras lineares

ISSN: 2447-3359

REVISTA DE GEOCIÊNCIAS DO NORDESTE

Northeast Geosciences Journal

v. 7, nº 2 (2021)

https://doi.org/10.21680/2447-3359.2021v7n1ID23403

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6134-2501

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1830-1912

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1670-9471

https://periodicos.ufrn.br/revistadoregne

https://doi.org/10.21680/2447-3359.2021v7n1ID23403

Sant’Anna, S. N.; Alameda-Hernández, P. M.; Bacellar, L. A. P., Rev. Geociênc. Nordeste, Caicó, v.7, n.2, (Jul-Dez) p.111-122, 2021 112

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

por fotointerpretación . Después de la validación, los datos

fueron introducidos en la clasificación geomecánica Slope Mass

Rating (SMR). Los resultados mostraron la mayor capacidad de

la fotogrametria para obtener datos, con la salvedad de las

estructuras oblicuas al talud. Esta deficiencia se explica por el

hecho de que el talud estudiado es subvertical y sin entrantes ni

salientes que permiten muchas veces la detección de

discontinuidades a través de los trazos. De todos modos, incluso

en estos casos la fotogrametría se mostró útil, por permitir la

caracterización de todo el talud, imposible con el método

tradicional de contacto. La clasificación SMR mostró valores

bajos a ruptura planar y en cuña, coincidiendo con los

desprendimientos puntuales observados.

Palabras-clave: Fotogrametría; Classificación de massas

rochosas; SMR.

1. INTRODUÇÃO

Correct rock slope stability analysis demands a thoughtful

discontinuity characterization, which is based on the attributes

proposed by ISRM (1978): orientation, persistence, spacing,

opening, wall roughness and weathering degree. The most

common data acquisition process is the traditional, with contact,

and considerably time-consuming. Furthermore, the contact need

leads to insecurity in some outcrops.

In the last few decades, some contactless techniques have

appeared, eliminating some operational drawbacks of the

traditional procedures. Among these new techniques, terrestrial

digital photogrammetry (TDP) (ALAMEDA-HERNÁNDEZ et

al. 2017, BUYER et al., 2016, TANNANT 2015, THOENI et al.,

2014, HANEBERG 2008, HANEBERG., 2006) is especially

interesting due to the rapidness in field and low cost, especially

when compared with RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) or

LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging).

Birch (2006) defines TDP as the 3D data creation from two

or more 2D images, where the same physical point is shown in

more than one 2D image. Consequently, image quality is crucial

for good photogrammetric processing, with well-defined point

clouds. Variations in the illumination between images can be

troublesome for 3D images definition. Furthermore, in some

slopes, TDP might present limitations compared to the traditional

procedure in some outcropping geological structure detection.

This issue depends on the slope face and geological structure

relative direction.

Some authors applied TDP for rock slope classification

through Romana (1985) Slope Mass Rating (RMR)

(ALAMEDA-HERNÁNDEZ et al., 2017 and BUYER &

SCHUBERT, 2016). TDP is mainly applied to acquire

discontinuity orientations, spacings and persistences

(ALAMEDA-HERNÁNDEZ et al. 2017, TANNANT 2015,

HANEBERG 2008). The other parameters (aperture, wall

roughness, weathering and moisture) must be defined with other

procedures, generally the traditional. Those parameters complete

the Rock Mass Rating (RMR) (BIENIAWSKI, 1989).

Nowadays, TDP is mainly applied in big companies.

However, the operation security, rapidness and low cost make it

very appealing for other institution such as Brazilian local

councils. They could easily establish hazard zonification routines

regarding rock slopes. This policy could be of great help in many

settlements of the region where this study was developed.

Nevertheless, the traditional contact methods and the thoughtful

geological analysis must not be abandoned for the correct

geotechnical database maintenance.

On the other hand, abandoned querries, like the one shown in

this paper, require data validation regarding the discontinuity

origin. These quarries suffered blasting, which might cause rock

fractures that could be confused with natural discontinuities. This

identification is crucial for a correct slope stability analysis,

especially regarding deep failures.

This paper applies TDP in an old quarry with sub-vertical

slopes where low foliated highly fractured migmatitic gneisses

outcrops. TDP data validation was performed by comparing data

obtained through the traditional contact method and regional

aerial photo interpretation. The validated data were applied for

RMR and SMR classifications.

2. AREA OF STUDY

The area of study belongs to Belo Horizonte City, the capital

of the Minas Gerais Brazilian state (Figure 1). It consists of a

quarry, deactivated thirty years ago, in the Mariano de Abreu

neighbourhood. Currently, this place serves as a local welfare

facility.

The quarry area is approximately 12850 m2, with slopes

reaching 30 m high. A broad illegal settlement spreads over the

top of the quarry slope (Figure 2), some buildings are at high risk.

The slope toe is restricted due to the detected rockfall risk.

2.1. Geology

The study area is inserted in the Belo Horizonte Metamorphic

Complex, which constitutes the basement rocks of the Iron

Quadrangle (QF).

Locally, the area is characterized by migmatized gneisses,

located near a north-south thrust fault that overlaid supracrustal

rocks of the QF on an Archean basement of the Belo Horizonte

Complex (DORR, 1969).


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 1 - Study area localization and geological map, modified from Parizzi (2004). Universal transverse Mercator Projection; datum:

SIRGAS 2000 Zone 23S.

Figure 2 - Quarry partial view, modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

The gneisses of the Belo Horizonte Complex present a

polycyclic structural evolution, with several tectonic events of

different regimes, which can explain the great variation of

orientations of discontinuities mapped in this unit (NOCE et al,

1994).

Because they are rocks with few geotechnical problems in

relation to the supracrustals in the region, there are few works of

geotechnical classification or kinematic analysis concerning the

gneisses of the Belo Horizonte Complex. Some published works

(REIS JR., 2016; PARIZZI, 2004) classify these as RMR good

quality rock masses and identify four discontinuity set in the

surroundings of this paper area of study.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Aerial photography interpretation

Aerial photography from the 50s at a scale of 1:30.000 was

analyzed. By the time, the area was sparsely inhabited yet. At this

stage of the research, the lineations identified from aerial

photogrammetry were compared with the rock mass outcropping

fractures to identify the blast-induced fractures.

3.2. Geotechnical data acquisition

For operational reasons, there were two data acquisition

stages. The first was the traditional contact method dividing the

slope into homogeneous areas around a point. The second was

the images acquisition for TDP application on each one of the

homogeneous areas. To compare, the central points of the

sampling windows of the homogeneous areas were the same for

the TDP and the traditional procedures, named in figure 3 as

"points" and "sections". There were six points in all the quarry.

The orientation data of all the accessible discontinuities were

acquired with a Brunton Clar Transit compass; an average of 50

discontinuities per point. Persistence and spacing data were

obtained with a metric tape, aperture with a millimetre ruler, and


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

strength with an Estwing geological hammer through the ISRM

(1978) suggested method. Weathering degree, infill presence and

wall roughness were classified according to the RMR method.

Moisture measurement was confusing because of the time

variability; some field sessions registered no water presence, and

other, continuous water leakage. This leakage was not only due

to rain but also to the human settlement at the top of the slope,

probably septic tanks according to the smell. RQD was assessed

through scanlines according to Priest and Hudson (1976)

procedure.

The camera positions for TDP image acquisition were close

to the slope in Section 2 and farther, around 50m, for section 1

and 3. Section 3 consists of 18 photographs that needed to be

divided into two groups due to computational equipment

limitations. Each one of the two groups gave a 3D model, or

"mosaic". Hence, the TDP data are divided into mosaic 1, the

southern part of the slope belonging to point 4, and mosaic 2, the

northern part of the slope belonging to point 5.

Figure 3 - Localization of the photogrammetrical sections and

traditionally surveyed points. Base map from Google Earth, 15

of May 2018, with geographical coordinates, modified from

Sant’Anna (2019).

The procedure followed is suggested in Alameda-Hernández

et al. (2017) and applied by Lacerda (2019). Consequently, the

distance measurements were used only for correct overlapping

but not for georeferencing. This rapid method, with no need of

control points, was proved in this paper. The materials used were

a tripod with triple bubble level, digital single-lens reflex camera

with 24mm and 50mm focal distance lenses, compass for

orienting the camera normal to the slope face and the software

Sirovision 6.2.0.13 (developed by CSIRO in Melbourne-VIC,

Australia).

In sections 1 and 3, the photographs taken had different

inclinations; consequently, some mosaics include the slope from

toe to top.

The mosaics were defined manually with the software

Sirovision merging several 3D images. A correct mosaic shows

a dense point cloud where the discontinuities shall be identified

visually. In the mosaics (Figure 4), discontinuities were

recognized through planes, when possible, and through traces

otherwise.

Figure 4 - Mosaic generated in section 2, with the planes and

traces identified; performed on software Sirovision. Modified

from Sant’Anna (2019).

After the planar structure identification, they were clustered

in sets to determine spacings and persistences further. The

images were not georeferenced, and the mosaics were eve out of

scale; thus, a reference, such as metric tape, was used for distance

values assessments. The orientations were assessed with the aid

of the compass measurements in field. The data obtained with

this procedure in the software Sirovision was exported to Dips 7

(developed by Rocscience in Toronto-ON, Canada) for kinematic

analyses for planar, wedge and toppling failures.

3.3. Rock slope RMR and SMR assessment

The data obtained were used for classifying the rock slope

homogeneous areas with RMR and SMR. RMR is very popular;

the procedures can be consulted on Bieniawski (1989) and shall

not be explained in this paper. This work only applied the basic

RMR value, the one without the relative orientations

consideration. Orientations shall be considered in the SMR, very

appropriated for sloes. The SMR is obtained by adjusting the

basic RMR with the orientation values between the slope face

and the orientation of the sets embedded in the indexes F1, F2,

F3 and F4.

The first step was to define the sets from the orientations

acquired through the traditional method and TDP.

The sets definition was performed with stereographic

projection on software DIPS 7.0 by plotting the poles; TDP data


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

had a previous analysis performed in Sirovision. The results were

added to the basic RMR calculi.

F1, F2 and F3 were calculated for SMR assessment for planar,

wedge and flexural toppling failure, respectively. Regular

blasting gives F4 equals zero. F1 and F2 were assessed with

equations 1 and 2 (ROMANA, 1985); F2=1 for toppling failure.

F3 was assessed with 3 (planar failure), 4 (wedge failure) and 5

(toppling failure) (TOMÁS et al, 2007):

F1= (1 - sen αj - αs)²

(1)

Where:

αj: set dip direction for planar failure and sets intersection

trend for wedge failure

αs: slope face dip direction ‘

F2 = tan2 βj

(2)

Where:

βj - main discontinuity set dip (for planar and toppling

failure)

𝐹3 = −30 +1

3arctan(𝛽𝑗 −𝛽𝑠)

(3)

Where:

ΒS - slope face angle

𝐹3 = −30 +1

3arctan(𝛽𝑖 −𝛽𝑠)

(4)

Where:

βi - main sets intersection plunge for wedge failure

𝐹3 = −13 +1

7arctan(𝛽𝑗+𝛽𝑠 − 120)

(5)

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Drainage lineations identified aerial photographs of the

quarry surroundings (Figure 5) show wide orientation variability,

with the predomination of the E-W and NNW-SSE, there is also

a NE-SW and NNE-SSW trend.

At the same time, the rock mass characterization in the quarry

showed high dispersion on the discontinuity orientation values.

For simplicity and operativeness, sets were defined by observing

all the data obtained in the quarry. Afterwards, those sets were

compared with the structural data on each point and section

separately. Hence, the 301 orientation measurements showed

five discontinuity sets (Figure 6 and Table 1). The orientation

data obtained from TDP consisted of 370 measurements, and it

showed three discontinuity sets (Figure 7 and Table2).

Figure 5 - Drainage delineation identified on aerial photographs of the surroundings of the Mariano de Abreu Quarry. Modified from

Sant’Anna (2019).


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 6 - Schmidt projection of the 301 discontinuities surveyed

with the traditional contact method for clustering: J1 with higher

pole concentration than the rest of the sets. Modified from

Sant’Anna (2019).

Figure 7 - Schmidt projection of the 370 discontinuities surveyed

with TDP for clustering: F1 with higher pole concentration than

the rest of the sets. Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 1 – Slope discontinuity sets, according to the traditional

contact acquisition procedure. (SANT’ANNA, 2019).

Set Dip (o) Dip Direction (°)

J1 11 089

J2 42 100

J3 69 280

J4 78 003

J5 66 051

Locally concentrated orientation measurements showed new

discontinuity sets in specific rock mass localizations. Hence, J6

and J7 sets are more visible on points 4 and 5. TDP shows a

similar situation in Section 3 with F4 and F5 sets.

Schmidt diagrams analyses are shown in Figure 8 and Table

3 for Point 1 and Section 2; Figure 9 and Table 4 for Point 2 and

Section 1; Figure 10 and Table 5 for Point 4 and Section 3

(Mosaic 1); and Figure 11 and Table 6 for Point 5 and section 3

(Mosaic 2).

Table 2 - Slope discontinuity sets, according to the TDP

acquisition procedure (SANT’ANNA, 2019).

Set Dip (°) Dip Direction (°)

F1 80 088

F2 02 143

F3 50 120

A wide variability on the discontinuity orientations is

manifest. Being a quarry, a verification of the origin of the rock

fractures is necessary because a fracture can be natural or blast-

induced. This analysis was performed through drainage

lineations and some previous clustering performed in the same

rock massif (REIS JR, 2016; PARIZZI, 2004).

Figure 12 shows a rosette diagram with the orientation

measurements showing set J1, subhorizontal, considered a stress

relief set. This Figure shows that all the discontinuity sets found

in this paper, but J6 were already mapped or correspond to

regional delineations


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 8 - Discontinuity poles projection for: a) point 1 and b)

section 2. Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 3 – Discontinity sets in Point 1 and TDP Section 2.

(SANT’ANNA,2019).

Point 1 Section 2

Set Dip

(°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

Set Dip

(°)

Dip

Direction

(º)

J1 01 095 F1

72 096

J2 45 090 F2

01 243


section 1. Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 4 - Discontinity sets in Point 2 and TDP Section 1. (SANT’ANNA, 2019).

Point 2 Section 1

Set Dip

(°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

Set Dip (°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

J2 33 103 F1 72

096

J3 50 265

J5 55 051


_________________________________________________________________________________________________


section 3 (mosaic 1). Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 5 - Discontinity sets in Point 4 and TDP Section 3 – Mosaic 1. (SANT’ANNA, 2019).

Point 4 Section 3 – Mosaic 1

Set Dip

(°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

Set Dip

(°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

J1 06 086 F1 80 095

J2 42 101 F2 03 165

J4 82 357 F4 48 282

J6 36 213


section 3 (mosaic 2). Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 6 - Discontinity sets in Point 5 and TDP Section 3 –

Mosaic 2 (SANT’ANNA, 2019).

Point 5 Section 3 – Mosaic 2

Set Dip (°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

Set Dip (°)

Dip

Direction

(°)

J3 69 281 F1 80 095

J7 67 099 F5 67 260

F4 32 103

.


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 12 - Comparison between sets and drainage delineations directions. J: discontinuity sets surveyed manually in this work; D:

Drainage delineations defined in this work RE: discontinuity sets from Reis Jr (2016); PZ: discontinuity sets from Parizzi (2004).

Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Regarding the six sets identified in the aerial photographs, it

can be observed a main N-S trend, almost the same direction of

most of the quarry slope face. Not many outcropping oblique

discontinuities in the slope face were detected with TDP. The

intact rock strength, high fracture degree of the rock mass and the

quarry operation gave almost vertical slopes with small and

geometrically well-defined irregularities. This geometrical

peculiarity and the relative orientation between the slope face and

these delineations made it difficult to identify these structures

with TDP; trace recognition was needed. This might be seen as a

TDP limitation.

Figure 13 shows the correlation between the sets identified

with the TDP data and with the traditional contact method. Those

sets show parallelism with the slope face.

Regarding discontinuity conditions, traditional sampling

showed some common characteristics for all the quarry. For

instance, all the discontinuities close to the slope toe were

unweathered, rough and planar, and closed or with unfrequent

apertures, always below 5 mm. RQD range goes from 60 to 85 in

all the quarry.

Water presence on the rock mass is very variable; some days,

the discontinuities were dry, but there was a continuous leakage

in other moments, even on the dry period. The origin of this water

is probably in the houses at the top of the slope, as shown in Fig.

2. Consequently, the RMR hydrogeologic parameter was set to

7.

Regarding discontinuity geometry, subhorizontal

discontinuity sets, J1 and F2, showed high persistence. The other

discontinuities showed low trace length, mainly below one meter.

Most spacing values were centimetric, but some values were

above one meter (Figure 14).

All those parameter values acquired in field were applied for

the basic RMR assessment, for points and sections. Results

confirm a good quality rock mass (Table 7). Those data were used for SMR assessment, with the

geometric characteristics regarding sets and slope face. The slope

face angle at points 1, 2, 4 and 5 ranged from 80 to 90 degrees,

East dip direction. At points 3 and 6, the slope face was not so

vertical, and the dip direction is West and South. On the latter,

no TDP application was possible due to the dense vegetation and

other obstacles.


_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure 13 - Pole projection comparison between sets defined with

TDP data (F) and with the traditional contact survey (J). Modified

from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 7 – Basic RMR values on mapped points and TDP sections.

(SANT’ANNA,2019).

Position RMR

(BÁSIC)

Local RMR

(BÁSIC)

Point 1 75 Section 1 75

Point 2 72 Section 2 73

Point 4 68 Section 3 – Mosaic 1 78

Point 5 76 Section 3 – Mosaic 2 71

The kinematic analysis performed on Dips showed

compatibility with some kinds of failure, especially wedge and

planar. In some cases, SMR took very low values (Table 8),

mainly due to the F3 value, which regards the relationship

between slope angle and set dip, or intersection plunge. The

parallelism between sets and slope face also gives low SMR

values.

Hence, SMR values, even below 20, suggest failures;

however, the only observed failures are the frequent rockfalls,

with the evidence of the blocks at the toe and the scars on the

slope face. The scar shapes show planar-like and wedge-like

failures; in this paper, low SMR values indicate rockfall.

Figure 14 - Sub-horizontal discontinuities persistence overview

in set 1 (several meters); and spacing overview on set J5 (several

centimeters). Modified from Sant’Anna (2019).

Table 8 – SMR values for the failure types with kinematic

compatibility. (P: planar; W: Wedge; T: Toppling).

(SANT’ANNA,2019).

Position RMR SMR Type Position RMR SMR Type

Point 1 75 24 P Section

1

72 36 P

75 68 W 72 12 W


2

77 72 P

73 48 W 77 70 T

Point 4

68 46 P Section

3

Mosaic 1

72 65 P

68 39 W 72 55 T


3

Mosaic 2

75 61 P

75 58 W

5. CONCLUSIONS

The studied rock mass complexity, with an enormous

structure variability regarding orientation and persistence meant

serious difficulty on the discontinuity clustering task. The reason

for this variability is the tectonic environment, with polycyclic

structural evolution and the proximity of a thrust fault, and the old

blasting in the quarry.

The comparison between the discontinuity sets found with

TDP, with the traditional contact method, with the aerial

photography interpretation, and those from previous publications,

show that those sets have a tectonic origin.

TDP showed difficulties in identifying the discontinuities

outcropping oblique to the slope face. Furthermore,

discontinuities outcropping with a small plane were difficult to

identify with TDP; this is frequent in this rock mass, with strong

intact rock but highly fractured. For other lithologies, with

foliation or bedding planes, this issue would be the opposite, and

TDP would be especially appropriate.

Regarding the rock mass classification, SMR value pointed to

high failure probability, and it is valid in this situation for

rockfalls.

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Received in: 23/11/2020

Accepted for publication in: 04/07/2021

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1119-z

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use of terrestrial digital photogrammetry in the

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