CHAPTER 2

THE U.S. MERCHANT MARINE

Merchant Marine

ships are an

important part of

U.S. sea power.

In wartime the Merchant Marine performs

the heavy lift tasks required for support

of our forces overseas, as well as for

continued support of our domestic

economy.

The U.S. Merchant Marine has experienced

several extremes in expansion and decline.

The U.S. Merchant Marine reached a

peak in the 1850s due to the superiority

of the American-built clipper ships.

The Merchant Marine decline

began during the Civil War.

Reasons for the

Merchant Marine

decline:

• The country’s

concentration

on westward

expansion

• The British dominance in building

iron-hulled ships

• Noncompetitive American wage scales

• Soaring insurance costs

• Increasing shipbuilding costs

By World War I, only 10 percent of American

trade was carried in ships flying the U.S. flag.

Strenuous efforts

were made to remedy

this situation during

W.W. I, these efforts

resulted in 2,318

ships being built.

During W.W. II - Liberty and Victory ships

were designed to meet the needs of the

wartime Navy. Over 6000 were built.

After World War II, the U. S. Merchant Marine

once again entered a long period of decline

that has lasted to this day.

S.S. John W. Brown

Few U. S. ships have been built in U.S.

shipyards, and foreign ships now carry

most American cargo on the high seas.

Three important Merchant Marine Acts

passed in the years 1920, 1928, and 1936

…promoted the development of

the American Merchant Marine.

The most

significant of

these acts was

the act of 1920,

better known as

the Jones Act.

The act specified that all domestic waterborne

commerce between two points in the U.S. must

be carried by U.S.—owned and operated vessels.

The act of 1936 provided for the payment

of construction and operating subsidies

to operators of U.S. flag vessels designed

to help them meet foreign competition.

Maritime power is vital to this

nation’s continued existence.

The Merchant Marine requires an

adequate support base to include:

• A population from which industrial and

seafaring personnel can be obtained

• A strong shipbuilding industry

• Modern ports and maritime facilities

• Sufficient financing for maritime building

The basic method of moving vast quantities

of primary products and manufactured trade

goods is by water.

The United States imports over a hundred

vital metals and minerals from more than

60 countries.

The U.S. and its major

allies import over

175 million tons of

five key primary

metallic ores:

• Bauxite

• Copper

• Lead

• Zinc

• Iron

Ocean trade will

continue to increase

significantly.

Keeping the sea lanes open is

important to America’s prosperity.

Operating the U.S. merchant fleet and

making a reasonable profit is much

easier said than done.

Shipping companies belong to

conferences that set the rates.

U.S. shipping companies often have to

compete with “rebates.”

Government-owed, Soviet-bloc shipping

offered substantially lower rates.

Periodically tie up U.S.—flag ships

U.S. Maritime Labor Unions

A ship that is U.S. owned and

U.S. registered

U.S.—Flag Ships

In 2000 the U.S. only had 300 ships in the

U.S. Flag Fleet out of 60,000 world wide

Rising costs have

hurt U.S. shipping.

North

Pacific

Ocean

North

Atlantic

OceanIn the U.S.

there are some

350 ports that

handle freight,

passengers,

or both.

Major U.S. Sea Ports

Ten leading U.S. ports in order

of volume handled in 2000

Japan and

South Korea

account for

some 70

percent of

the world

shipbuilding

market.

Most of the

shipbuilding

yards in the

U.S. specialize

in the

construction

of military

vessels.

The five largest shipyards as of 2000

United States Merchant Marine Academy

The future is bright, as over the next

several years, 100,000 new well-trained

merchant marine officers and seamen

will be needed.

Merchant Marine Academy

Innovative successes in the U.S.

Merchant Marine:

• Jumbo tankers

A tanker which carries 620,000 barrels

of oil and is about 1,138 feet (347

meters) in length—almost a quarter

mile, or in the popular idiom, “nearly

four football fields”—and a beam of

140 feet (42.8 meters)

Jumbo Tankers

Intermodal

ships are:

• Containerships

• Barge ships

• Roll-on/Roll-off

(RoRo) ships

A ship that carries cargo that is

then loaded directly onto other

forms of transport, such as vans,

railroad cars, or vehicles

Intermodal Ship

A passenger/cargo ferry with a stern

door for truck, cars, and trailers

Roll-on/Roll-off (RoRo) Ships

A merchant ship equipped to load,

transport, and discharge van-type

boxes containing general cargo;

the boxes then can be transported

on land via trucks or trains

Containership

Tankers make up the

largest segment of the

active U.S. Merchant

Marine.

Large tankers are used mainly to carry

crude oil from the producing regions to

the refineries.

Small tankers can carry

crude but generally

carry refined products

Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Carrier

A specialized type of tanker

The LNG carriers are designed to

carry natural gas in a liquid state

at extremely low temperatures.

Containerships can carry 1,000 containers

at 33 knots.

The speed of delivery is the primary

advantage of the containership.

RoRo ships have ramps and large

holds that can accommodate either:

• Containerized cargoes

• Wheeled and tracked vehicles

Barge carriers

load, carry,

and unload

specially

barges, each

loaded with

cargo.

Barge Carrier

Barge ships are designed to use the

inland waterway networks found in

many parts of the world.

The Merchant Marine contributes to the

national defense in five ways:

1. Military sealift

2. Carriage of strategic materials

3. Direct support of military operations

4. Auxiliary combatant role

5. Support of foreign policy

The Merchant Marine transports most

of the material to support military

forces in both peace and war.

In the Vietnam War, 95 percent

of all supplies went by sea

During Desert Shield, Desert Storm and

Iraqi Freedom most of the heavy

equipment used was transported by sealift.

In time of general mobilization, the

entire U.S.-flag merchant fleet is

subject to requisitioning for defense

Needs by the Secretary of Commerce

At present, the

Merchant Marine

would be

inadequate to meet

U.S. military needs

in a general war.

National-defense shipping for needs

short of general war comes from four

sources:

1. Military Sealift Command (MSC)

2. Active Merchant Fleet Sealift

Readiness Program

3. Effective U.S.-controlled ships

4. Foreign-flag ships

Four sources of national-defense

shipping for wartime needs:

1. Military Sealift Command (MSC),

responsible for arranging for the

ocean transport of all DoD war

materiel and supplies

Three categories of MSC strategic sealift

merchant ships:

• Active

• Inactive

• National Defense Reserve Fleet (NDRF)

• 20 medium-speed RoRo ships

manned by civilian crews

• Under long-term charter by MSC

Active Ships

Maritime Prepositioning Ship (MPS)

Maritime Prepositioning Ships (MPS)

Staged at:

Azores

Diego

Garcia

Guam

Maritime Prepositioning Ships (MPS)

• Fully crewed

• Ready to steam

MPS ships played

major roles in

Operation Desert

Storm and Iraqi

Freedom, and

operations in

Somalia, Liberia,

and Bosnia.

Inactive Ships

• 10 fast sealift ships (FSS)

• 2 hospital ships

• 2 aviation support ships

• A number of merchant-type ships of

the Ready Reserve Fleet (RRF)

Fast Sealift Ship

Hospital Ship

The Maritime Administration activated 13 roll-

on/roll-off ships from the Ready Reserve Force

on January 24, 2003:

Cape Horn

Cape Henry

Cape Isabel

Cape Hudson

Cape Orlando

Cape Inscription

Cape Washington

Cape Ray

Cape Wrath

Cape Island

Cape Intrepid

Cape Edmont

ADM W. M. Callaghan

Fast Sealift Ship (FSS)

• Partial civilian crew

• Begin loading troops within 96 hours

of an alert

USNS Algol (T-AKR 287)

The Military Sealift Command (MSC) also

activated two sealift ships early in 2003.

• USNS Bob Hope (Ro/Ro)

• USNS Bellatrix (FSS)

Ready Reserve

Fleet (RRF)

Merchant-type ships maintained by the

Maritime Administration (MARAD)

Ready Reserve Fleet (RRF)

Hospital Ship

USNS Mercy (T-AH 19)

Older merchant ships owned by MARAD

and mothballed in NDRF anchorages

National Defense Reserve

Fleet (NDRF)

• About 30 ships available

• Former regular Navy ships

• Designated USNS vice USS

MSC

These are former regular Navy ships

now designated MSC U.S. Naval Ships

(USNS, rather than USS), and can be

identified by blue and gold stripes on

their stacks.

USNS

USNS Gordon

Four sources of national-defense

shipping for wartime needs:

2. Active Merchant Fleet Sealift

Readiness Program

Sealift Readiness Program

Designed to improve the response of

private operators to national defense

needs

3. Effective U.S.-controlled ships

Effective U.S.-controlled ships

(Flag of Convenience Ships)

Ships owned by U.S. citizens or corporations

that are licensed by and fly the flags of other

nations

These flag-of-convenience ships are

licensed under foreign flags in order

to escape high insurance and wage

costs.

The responsiveness and value of

flag-of-convenience ships in a military

role is questionable.

A ship owned and controlled by a

shipping company of one nation but

registered and sailed under the flag

of another, to take advantage of more

favorable labor and insurance rates,

taxes, or government policies and

regulations

Flag-of-Convenience

Their foreign crews may not support

American interests in wartime.

Four sources of national-defense

shipping for wartime needs:

4. Foreign-flag ships

Foreign-flag ships

The charter of foreign-flag ships makes

their reliability questionable in times of

national emergency

Three unique wartime military sealift

requirements:

1. A critical need to transport large

numbers of vehicles

RoRo Ships

Best suited to carry

vehicles

Barge carriers

have proven

their worth in

this area.

Container ships are not well suited to

carry vehicles.

2. The transport of helicopters

The RoRo and

barge ships are

the best suited

for helo transport.

3. A heavy lift

capability for

earth-moving

equipment,

harbor craft,

locomotives,

and buses

The RoRo and

barge ships are

best suited for

heavy lifting

equipment

transport.

The ever-growing U.S.

industrial demand for

bulk strategic materials

requires larger and more

productive ships.

The wartime loss of only a few ships

would have a serious impact on

strategic imports.

Wartime Merchant Ship Configurations

• Improved compartmentation

• Helicopter pads

• Container crane foundations

• More rugged materials

• Modular weapons systems

Countries

lacking

modern

port facilities

may not

be able to

handle huge

containerships.

The U.S. must support the construction

of a fleet of smaller ships with improved

capabilities.

A strong combatant force together with

a strong Merchant Marine to serve the

nation’s needs is the beginning of true

sea power.

The Merchant Marine must carry the strategic

materials and energy resources to support the

civilian economy and defense production

of the nation.

Merchant Marine ships used in direct support

of some military operations:

• Tankers were fitted with underway refueling

rigs.

Merchant Marine ships used in direct

support of some military operations:

• Freighters were fitted to transfer

cargo at sea.

Merchant Marine ships used in direct

support of some military operations:

• Sealift of follow-on supplies to

support an amphibious operation.

Merchant ships can be converted to

perform a variety of combatant roles.

The U.S. converted tankers and

freighters into “jeep” carriers in

World War II.

Modern Merchant Marine ships have

many possible military applications.

Such auxiliary combatants could

be fitted with defensive weapon

systems or sonar.

These ships

with their large

clear main

decks can

support

helicopter

and V/STOL

(vertical takeoff)

aircraft.

RoRo

Sea barge

The Merchant Marine has historically

supported foreign policy.

During the Cold War, the Soviets

reinforced their national policies

with a rapidly expanding modern

merchant fleet.

The United States has not actively

pursued this option in recent years.

The U.S. needs a strong Merchant

Marine for both commerce and defense.

The U.S. must push technology to cut

shipbuilding costs.

The nation must develop modular

defense systems for merchant ships.

The U.S. must use

containerships to

support the naval

fleet.

THE U.S. MERCHANT MARINE

Q.1. What makes the United States

Merchant Marine an important

part of U.S. sea power?

A.1. It contributes to the nation’s

economic well being by

exporting our goods to other

countries and by importing vital

materials. In war, it provides a

vital link to our fighting forces

and the civilian industrial force.

Q.1. What makes the United States

Merchant Marine an important

part of U.S. sea power?

Q.2. TRUE or FALSE. Our Merchant

Marine is the leader in world

trade.

A.2. FALSE

Q.2. TRUE or FALSE. Our Merchant

Marine is the leader in world

trade.

Q.3. In what year did Congress pass

the Merchant Marine Act?

A.3. 1936

Q.3. In what year did Congress pass

the Merchant Marine Act?

Q.4. What is the most efficient

method of moving vast

quantities of products and

manufactured trade good

between countries?

A.4. By water

Q.4. What is the most efficient

method of moving vast

quantities of products and

manufactured trade good

between countries?

Q.5. What factors led to the decline

of the United States Merchant

Marine after WWII?

A.5. Foreign government subsidies

and the high cost to build and

man ships in the U.S. as

compared to overseas.

Q.5. What factors led to the decline

of the United States Merchant

Marine after WWII?

Q.6. What percentage of ores such

as aluminum and chromium

does the U.S. import?

A.6. Nearly 100%

Q.6. What percentage of ores such

as aluminum and chromium

does the U.S. import?

Q.7. What does the 1936 Merchant

Marine Act require?

A.7. At least half of all government

cargoes be carried by U.S.

flagged shipping

Q.7. What does the 1936 Merchant

Marine Act require?

Q.8. TRUE or FALSE. The Merchant

Marine Act requires privately

owned commercial cargoes to

be carried on U.S. flagged

vessels.

A.8. FALSE

Q.8. TRUE or FALSE. The Merchant

Marine Act requires privately

owned commercial cargoes to

be carried on U.S. flagged

vessels.

Q.9. What is the prime advantage of

the containership?

A.9. Speed of delivery

Q.9. What is the prime advantage of

the containership?

Q.10. What are tankers ships

designed to carry?

A.10. Liquid cargo

Q.10. What are tankers ships

designed to carry?

Q.11. Approximately how many

commercial oceangoing ships

are in the U.S. flag fleet?

A.11. 300

Q.11. Approximately how many

commercial oceangoing ships

are in the U.S. flag fleet?

Q.12. TRUE or FALSE. Merchant

ships can be quite easily

converted to perform a variety

of combatant roles.

A.12. TRUE

Q.12. TRUE or FALSE. Merchant

ships can be quite easily

converted to perform a variety

of combatant roles.

Q.13. What is the prime advantage

of the RoRo Ship?

A.13. Their cargo can be loaded and

unloaded by using wheeled or

tracked vehicles and require

few shore facilities.

Q.13. What is the prime advantage

of the RoRo Ship?

Q.14. What is the Military Sealift

Command (MSC)?

A.14. It is the agency responsible for

arranging the ocean transport

of all DoD war materiel and

supplies

Q.14. What is the Military Sealift

Command (MSC)?

Q.15. What is unique about a United

States Naval Ship (USNS)?

A.15. These ships are part of the

MSC and are crewed by

civilians

Q.15. What is unique about a United

States Naval Ship (USNS)?

The different barge

carriers are:

• LSD type

• LASH version

• Sea barge type

Ships assigned to Military Sealift

Command’s Prepositioning Program

capable of carrying both barges and

containers

Lighterage Aboard ship (LASH)

Dock Landing Ship (LSD)

Supports amphibious operations

including landings via Landing Craft

Air Cushion (LCAC), conventional

landing craft and helicopters, onto

hostile shores