Elections:Every U.S. presidential election is fair game for quiz bowl questions, but some elections are asked about very frequently, either for the unusual nature of the election (e.g., 1876), for the extraordinary significance of the election in American history (e.g., 1860), or for the figures involved (e.g., 1912). The following 10 that "you gotta know" are listed in chronological order.

1. 1800: Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson narrowly beat incumbent Federalist John Adams 73-65, marking the ascent of that party's power. One electoral vote each is cast for president and vice president, so Democratic-Republican VP candidate Aaron Burr also has 73 votes, but Burr refused to step aside. In the House of Representatives, neither man won the necessary 9 state delegations outright until the 36th ballot, when James Bayard of Delaware changed his vote to Jefferson. The debacle leads to passage of the 12th amendment in 1804. The Federalists never recovered; Alexander Hamilton's opposition to Adams led to a permanent split between the two, and Hamilton's opposition to Burr was one cause of their 1804 duel, in which Burr (then vice president) killed Hamilton. Also notable is the first peaceful transfer of power from one party to another.

2. 1824: The candidates were John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson, all Democratic-Republicans. After John C. Calhoun decided to seek the vice presidency and Crawford (from Georgia) had a stroke, Jackson took most of the South and won the popular vote. Jackson had 99 electoral votes, Adams 84, Crawford 41, and Clay 37, but since none had more than 50% of the vote, the House decided the election. Adams won in the House with support from Clay, and Jacksonians cried foul when Clay was made Secretary of State (the so-called "corrupt bargain"), giving fuel to Jackson's victorious 1828 campaign. Jackson is the only candidate to lose a presidential race despite having the most electoral votes, and he is one of four (with Tilden, Cleveland, and Gore) to lose despite winning the popular vote. The election also led to the founding of the Democratic Party.

3. 1860: Another four-candidate election, with Republican Abraham Lincoln, (northern) Democrat Stephen Douglas, (southern) Democrat John C. Breckinridge, and Constitutional Unionist John G. Bell. The Republican Party, founded in 1854, won in its second election (its first candidate being Fremont in 1856), aided by the fragmenting of the Democrats. Bell took Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia, Breckinridge swept the other slave states, and Lincoln nearly swept the free states. Though winning under 40% of the total popular vote, Lincoln dominated the electoral count with 180 to a combined 123 for his opponents (Breckinridge 72, Bell 39, Douglas 12). Seven southern states seceded before Lincoln even took office, and war soon followed.

4. 1876: Republican Rutherford B. Hayes faced Democrat Samuel Tilden, best known for battling Tammany Hall and the Tweed Ring in New York. Tilden won the popular vote and seemed to win the election, but results in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana were contested, as was one vote in Oregon; if Hayes swept these votes, he would win the electoral count 185 to 184. In Congress, an informal bargain was reached (often called the Compromise of 1877) in which Hayes won the election in exchange for Reconstruction being brought to an end.

5. 1896: In the election itself, Republican William McKinley swept the North and Northeast to beat Democrat William Jennings Bryan, but the campaign was the interesting part. The most prominent issue, the gold standard versus free silver coinage, led to Bryan's famous "Cross of Gold" speech. Shunned by Eastern press, Bryan, a legendary orator, traveled 18,000 miles through 27 states and was heard by some 3 million people. McKinley would not accept Bryan's challenge to debate, comparing it to putting up a trapeze and competing with a professional athlete. McKinley instead had a "front porch" campaign, as railroads brought voters by the thousands to hear him speak in his hometown of Canton, Ohio. Mark Hanna, McKinley's campaign manager, is often considered the first modern campaign manager. The election also represented the demise of the Populist Party and ushered in a 16-year period of Republican rule. The gold question would disappear soon after the election with gold strikes in Australia and Alaska.

6. 1912: Three presidents--Teddy Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson--earned electoral votes. Roosevelt, displeased with his successor Taft, returned to lead the progressive Republican faction; after Taft got the Republican nomination, Roosevelt was nominated by the Progressive Party (nicknamed the "Bull Moose" Party). Wilson won with 435 electoral votes to Roosevelt's 88 and Taft's 8, making Taft the only incumbent to finish third in a re-election bid. Though Wilson did set forth his New Freedom program, his dominating win must be credited largely to the splitting of the Republican vote by Roosevelt and Taft.

7. 1948: In the most recent election with four significant candidates, Democrat Harry Truman beat Republican Thomas Dewey, contrary to the famous headline of the Chicago Tribune, printed before results from the West came in. Dewey dominated the Northeast, but Truman nearly swept the West to pull out the victory. Former vice president Henry Wallace earned over a million votes as the Progressive candidate, and Strom Thurmond--yes, that Strom Thurmond--took over a million votes and 39 electoral votes as the States' Rights (or "Dixiecrat") candidate.

8. 1960: John F. Kennedy defeated vice president Richard Nixon 303-219 in a tight election, winning the popular vote by just two-tenths of a percent. The first Kennedy-Nixon debate (from September 26, 1960) is a classic in political science; those who saw the calm, handsome Kennedy and the tired, uncomfortable-looking Nixon on television were more likely to select Kennedy as the winner than were those who listened on radio. (Theodore White's notable The Making of the President series began with the 1960 election.) Voting irregularities in Texas and Illinois (especially in Richard Daley's Chicago) led to allegations of fraud, but a recount would not have been feasible, and Nixon did not press the issue. Nixon would go on to lose the 1962 California gubernatorial race (occasioning his famous statement, "You won't have Dick Nixon to kick around anymore").

9. 1968: After Lyndon Johnson declined to run for re-election, and after Robert F. Kennedy was killed in California, the Democratic nomination went to Hubert Humphrey. Richard Nixon, gradually returning from political obscurity over the past six

years, gained the Republican nomination. Alabama governor George Wallace ran as the American Independent candidate, becoming the last third-party candidate to win multiple electoral votes. Nixon edged Humphrey by half a million popular votes and a 301-191 electoral count, while Wallace won nearly ten million votes. Wallace's presence may well have tipped the election to the Republicans, who, after being out of power for 28 of the last 36 years, would hold the presidency for all but four years through 1992.

10. 2000: The closest election in American history, it is sure to be a long-term staple of history questions. Al Gore won the popular vote but lost the electoral vote by a final count of 271-266 (one Gore elector abstained). Ralph Nader of the Green Party won an important 2.7% of the vote, while Pat Buchanan of the Reform Party placed fourth. New Mexico and Oregon were initially too close to call but went to Gore, and Florida became the center of attention. Ballot confusion in Palm Beach County, intimidation of vote recounters in Miami-Dade County, and absentee ballots throughout Florida became significant issues, as Americans had to hear about butterfly ballots, hanging chads, and Florida Secretary of State Katharine Harris for the next five weeks. Gore officially conceded the election on December 13, 2000.

Other notable election events include Polk's win as a "dark horse" candidate in 1844, Cleveland's loss in 1888 despite winning the popular vote, Wilson's narrow victory in 1916, FDR's defeats of Hoover in 1932 and Willkie in 1940, Reagan's victory in 1980, and Clinton's win in 1992.

Landmark Supreme Court Cases:Each case is followed by the name of the presiding chief justice, the vote, and the year it was decided.

1. Plessy v. Ferguson (Melville Fuller, 7-1, 1896) Homer Plessy (an octoroon) bought a first-class ticket on the East Louisiana Railway. He sat in the whites-only car in violation of an 1890 Louisiana law mandating separate accommodations. He was convicted, but appealed to the Supreme Court against John Ferguson, a Louisiana judge. The court upheld the law provided that "separate but equal" facilities were provided. John Marshall Harlan issued a famous dissent claiming "Our constitution is color-blind." Plessy was overturned by Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas.

2. Marbury v. Madison (John Marshall, 4-0, 1803) On his final day in office in 1801, John Adams signed commissions for 42 federal judges (the so-called "midnight judges"). His successor, Thomas Jefferson, opted to not deliver most of the commissions. One appointee, William Marbury, sued the new secretary of state, James Madison, to force the delivery of his commission. The Judiciary Act of 1789 had granted the court original jurisdiction in such cases, but the Constitution did not. The court ruled that the Judiciary Act conflicted with the Constitution and was therefore void. Therefore Marbury's request was denied for lack of jurisdiction. This case established the principle of judicial review, the power of the court to nullify unconstitutional laws.

3. Roe v. Wade (Warren Burger, 7-2, 1973) Norma McCorvey (under the alias Jane Roe), a rape victim, sued Dallas County attorney Henry Wade for the right to an abortion. When the case reached the Supreme Court, the plaintiff depended on the growing recognition of a "right to privacy" which began with the 1965 case of Griswold v. Connecticut. The court struck down state anti-abortion laws as "unconstitutionally vague," held that the word "person" in the Constitution "does not include the unborn," and legalized abortion in the first trimester. McCorvey later joined the pro-life movement and claimed that she was not actually raped and that she was pressured into filing the case by her ambitious attorney Sarah Weddington.

4. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (Earl Warren, 9-0, 1954) The suit was filed on behalf of Linda Brown, a third grader, who had to walk a mile to a blacks-only school when a whites-only school was much closer. Future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall argued the case for the plaintiff. The court overturned Plessy v. Ferguson and ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were not constitutional. A second case in 1955 required that desegregation proceed "with all deliberate speed" but Southern schools were notoriously slow in complying; it was not until 1970 that a majority had complied with the ruling.

5. McCulloch v. Maryland (John Marshall, 9-0, 1819) After the Second Bank of the United States began calling in loans owned by the states, Maryland passed a law taxing out-of-state banks. The federal bank refused to pay, so the state sued its Baltimore cashier, James McCulloch. The court ruled that the federal government had the right to establish the bank even though it was not expressly enumerated in the Constitution and also noted that since "the power to tax was the power to destroy," Maryland could not tax the bank without destroying federal sovereignty.

6. Baker v. Carr (Earl Warren, 6-2, 1962) Charles W. Baker, a Tennessee citizen, sued the Tennessee secretary state, Joe Carr, claiming that the state's electoral districts had been drawn to grossly favor one political party. The defendant argued that reapportionment

issues were political, not judicial, matters, but the court disagreed and declared the issue justiciable before remanding the case to a lower court. Two years later, in Reynolds v. Sims, the court mandated the principle of "one man, one vote."

7. Gideon v. Wainwright (Earl Warren, 9-0, 1963) Clarence Earl Gideon was accused of breaking into a pool hall in Florida. Because his crime was not capital, the court declined to provide him with an attorney. He was convicted, sued Louie Wainwright, the director of the corrections office, and took his case to the Supreme Court. The court overruled Betts v. Brady and held that the Sixth and Fourteenth Amendments required appointed counsel in all trials. Gideon was retried and found innocent. The case is the subject of the book Gideon's Trumpet.

8. Hammer v. Dagenhart (Edward Douglass White, 5-4, 1918) The Keating-Own Act prohibited the interstate sale of goods produced by child labor leading Roland Dagenhart to sue U.S. attorney Hammer in Charlotte since his two sons would be put out of work. The court ruled that the federal government did not have the right to regulate child labor; Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote a notable dissent focusing on the lack of proper state regulation. The case was overturned by the 1941 U.S. v. Darby Lumber Company case upholding the Fair Labor Standards Act.

9. Fletcher v. Peck (John Marshall, 6-0, 1810) In 1795 the Georgia legislature corruptly sold land along the Yazoo River (now in Mississippi) to private citizens in exchange for bribes. The legislators were mostly defeated in the next elections and the incoming politicians voided the sales. In the meantime, John Peck sold some of the land in question to Robert Fletcher, who then sued him, claiming that he did not have clear title. The Supreme Court held that the state legislature did not have the power to repeal the sale. This was one of the earliest cases in which the Supreme Court struck down a state law.

10. Ex Parte Merryman (Roger Taney, 1861) This was not actually a Supreme Court case, but a federal court case heard by Chief Justice Roger Taney while "circuit-riding" when the court was not in session. Lieutenant John Merryman of the Maryland cavalry took an active role in evicting Union soldiers from Maryland following the attack on Fort Sumter. Abraham Lincoln declared a secret suspension of the writ of habeas corpus and had a number of opposition leaders, including Merryman, arrested. Taney found the president had acted unconstitutionally (only Congress can suspend the writ), but Lincoln simply ignored his ruling.

Presidential Biographies:

1. George Washington (1789-97) George Washington was known as the "Father of our Country" and was unanimously elected the first President of the United States (1789-1797). He was Commander of the American forces during the Revolutionary War and helped frame the Constitution of the United States.

Vice President: John Adams

Notable Events: Judiciary Act, Federal capital established and Bill of Rights takes Effect, Whiskey Rebellion, Farewell Address

Background: Washington was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia on February 22, 1732. His father could trace his lineage back to King Henry VIII, who initially gave Washington's family its lands and titles. Washington's early years were spent on the family estate in Pope's Creek along the Potomac River. During these years, he had basic home schooling. After his father died, Washington went to live with his half-brother, Lawrence. After his half-brother's death, Washington inherited Mount Vernon in Alexandria, Virginia. Washington started his military career as an aide in one of Virginia's four districts. The Governor of Virginia sent him on a mission with dispatches warning the French at Fort Le Boeuf against taking more British land in the greater Ohio Valley. When Washington returned with the expected negative answer, he was named Lieutenant Colonel. As a twenty-two-year-old, Washington won acknowledgement in the French and Indian War (1754-63). By the time he was 23, Washington had become a full colonel and was appointed Commander and Chief of the Virginia Militia. He became known for his written accounts of military situations from recruiting to desertion.In 1758, Washington returned to Virginia where he renovated Mount Vernon and married a widow with two children. His marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis was a fruitful and happy union. From 1759-1774, he served in the Virginia House of Burgesses. It was during this time that the colonies started to have serious problems with England. Washington became a delegate to the Continental Congress of 1774-75, where he functioned as a peacemaker and politician. By June of 1775, Washington was the unanimous choice for Commander in Chief of the Continental Army.

Public Life: During the Revolutionary War, performed honorably, known especially for his perseverance. After his famous crossing of the Delaware River, he surprised the British in Trenton and forced them out of Trenton. He then led another successful attack against the British in Princeton, New Jersey. Washington's victories encouraged 8,000 men to join the Continental Army. Even though his army grew in size, Howe defeated Washington at Brandywine Creek and again at Germantown. These reversals forced Washington to retreat to Valley Forge, where his army spent a long, hard winter.During the difficult winter, the Continental Congress grew tired of Washington's constant requests for supplies. Because of this, he reached out to France for troops and supplies. In the spring of 1778 good news came; France decided to send money, troops, and a fleet. With the support of the French, Washington's mainly untrained and untested forces eventually went on to defeat the British. He led his forces to victory at the Battle of Yorktown, Virginia. This was the decisive battle of the American Revolution. Lord Cornwallis surrendered on October 19, 1781.After the American Revolution, an armed revolt in Massachusetts made it apparent that a stronger government was needed. The Constitutional Convention was held to deal with the problem. Washington was chosen president of the convention and he played an important role in getting the Constitution ratified.

Presidency: After the Constitution was ratified, Washington unanimously won the presidential election and took the oath of office in New York on April 30, 1789. At the time he was elected

President, there were no established political parties in the United States. During Washington's first term, the White House was built, but he was the only President who never lived there. A two party political system was created because of a disagreement between Washington and Thomas Jefferson regarding the support of France during the French and English War.Washington was unanimously reelected in 1793. During his first term he had appointed Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury. During his second term, Hamilton sponsored a tax on Whiskey. Irate grain farmers, who considered the tax an attack upon their liberty, revolted in what was called the Whiskey Rebellion. Washington called out 15,000 members of a nearby militia and quickly put the rebellion down. He successfully met the first real test of the federal government's rights and powers.After serving eight years as President of the United States, Washington grew tired of political battles. He declined to run for a third term. He chose to retire to his beloved Mount Vernon.

Afterwards: Historically Washington is a much-loved figure. Eulogizing Washington after his death on December 14, 1799, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia praised him as "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen."George Washington's portrait can be found on both the American quarter and the one-dollar bill. His legendary false teeth have been on display in our nation's capital. The capital of the United States is named after him. We still celebrate his birthday, a tradition that was started as a tribute to him soon after his death. Since Abraham Lincoln's birthday was in the same month, the two birthdays are now celebrated together on the third Monday of February, which is called Presidents' Day.

2. John Adams, 1797-1801 (Federalist) John Adams was the second President of the United States. He was a member of both Continental Congresses and he signed the Declaration of Independence. He was the first Vice President of the United States.

Vice President: Thomas Jefferson

Notable Events: Federalists support the highly unpopular Alien and Sedition Acts, U.S. capital relocated to Washington, D.C. and Congress established Library of Congress

Background: In 1755, he graduated from Harvard University and then went on to study law before being admitted to the Boston Bar in 1758. He married Abigail Boylston of Braintree, Massachusetts. Adams went on to write for two different newspapers under two different pen names. He argued both sides of issues using each of his pen names. He remarked that he was "carrying on a dialogue with himself in the two leading Boston newspapers." In 1770, he ambitiously defended British soldiers in the shooting deaths of five colonists in what was known as the Boston Massacre. He won the acquittal of the commanding officer and most of the soldiers.

Public Life: Adams always kept personal diaries, which revealed his true character; he was a much different man from the self-righteous, intellectual he seemed to project in public. When Adams was appointed to the Continental Congress, he made passionate speeches for the rights of colonists to revolt against England and its tyrant King George III. Adams was the first to call for independence, but the other delegates, thinking that he was obnoxious, rarely listened to him. Adams suspected that history would judge him more kindly than his peers did; he was right. It later became apparent that Adams was politically or morally correct on almost all of the issues.Adams was a member of the Declaration of Independence Committee with Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. Jefferson wrote most of the document and

John Adams presented it passionately in Congress. The vote passed on the day that became Independence Day, July 4, 1776. Adams served the new nation as a diplomat, negotiating the Treaty of Paris. He, John Jay, and Benjamin Franklin successfully negotiated the treaty in 1782 and 1783. In the treaty, Great Britain agreed to recognize its former thirteen colonies as the free and sovereign United States of America. From 1785 to 1788, Adams served as diplomatic envoy to Great Britain, a position that would later be held by both his son and his grandson.

Presidency: Adams served as Vice President under George Washington because he came in second place during both elections. As Vice President, he limited himself to presiding over the Senate. His detractors called him "His Rotundity" because he was short and heavy. When George Washington refused a third term in 1797, Adams was elected President (1797-1801).In 1797, Adams became the second President of the United States. He was the first President who belonged to a political party - the Federalists. The Federalist Party was formed while George Washington was President. The party believed in a strong central government. Adams, however, was an independent thinker and voted his conscience instead of the "Party Line." This put him at odds with many in his own party.While Adams was President, the United States government moved from Philadelphia to Washington, DC. Adams became the first President to live in the White House. The Department of Navy and the Marine Corps were established during his presidency.During Adams' term as President, the dominant issue was the threat of war with France. He maintained his resolve to keep the United States out of war. Although the country's ships fought many battles, war was never formally declared.

Afterwards: Much to his joy, Adams lived to see his son, John Quincy Adams, follow in his footsteps. His son became the sixth President. Both father and son were born in Quincy, Massachusetts. At the time, the town was called Braintree.During much of his life, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were bonded by their love for their country. Later in life, however, politics had them at each other's throats. Finally near the end of their lives, each forgave the other and expressed his feelings in a letter. Both men died on July 4, l826, without getting to read the other's letter.

3. Thomas Jefferson, 1801-9 (Democratic-Republican) Thomas Jefferson was the third President of the United States. He was the first President to be inaugurated in Washington DC, a city that he helped plan. The foremost spokesperson for Democracy of his time, he was the author of the Declaration of Independence.Although he kept slaves, Jefferson is famed as a champion of political and religious freedom. Jefferson loved liberty in every form and he worked for freedom of speech, press, religion, and civil liberties. Jefferson swore "eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind's of man." "Jeffersonian Democracy" refers to the ideal that the majority of people must govern themselves. He wanted to keep the government simple and free of waste.

Vice Presidents: Aaron Burr, George Clinton

Notable Events: Marbury v. Madison, Louisiana Territory was purchased, Lewis and Clark began exploration of the Northwest, Congress outlaws importing slaves from Africa

Background: Jefferson was born in Virginia in 1743. His family was wealthy and gave him a classical education. He graduated from William and Mary College. He was a philosopher, educator, naturalist, politician, scientist, architect, inventor, musician, farmer, and writer. He had a wide variety of interests, and he accomplished a great deal. As an architect, he was known for designing Washington DC, the Virginia Capitol, his Monticello estate, and the University of

Virginia, which he founded. As a writer, he was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence, as well as of Virginia's Statute of Religious Freedom, the Manual of Parliamentary Practice and much more.On New Year's Day in 1772, Jefferson had married Martha Wayles Skelton, a 24-year-old widow. In 1782 she died giving birth to his sixth child. He did not allow his children educated in Europe because he did not believe in their views toward man. They grew up studying in America, but were socially raised in the European style as their father.

Public Life: Jefferson was first elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses in 1769. There, along with its other outspoken leader, Patrick Henry, he was a leader of the patriot faction. He was a legislator for Virginia from 1776 to 1779. In 1779, he was elected as Governor of Virginia. He failed keep the British from invading, but successfully guided the state through the troubled last years of the American Revolution.From 1784 to 1789, Jefferson replaced Benjamin Franklin as minister to France. He supported the French in their Revolution. He also served as Secretary of State under George Washington, a position from which Jefferson retired at the end of Washington's first term. He kept active and continued to promote the Democratic-Republican views versus the Hamilton Federalist position. Both Jefferson and Hamilton went on to head their individual parties.The two men had fundamental differences between them. Jefferson believed in an agrarian economy and a government that rested firmly in the hands of the people. Hamilton was more interested in commerce, was not so trusting of the people, and believed in a strong central government. These differences were the frameworks that created two distinct political parties.

Presidency: Jefferson served as Vice President under John Adams. Jefferson took a strong stand against the Alien and Sedition Acts, which prevented criticism of the government, as well as curtailed the privileges of non-citizens. The Acts had the effect of stifling criticism against President John Adams and his Federalist Congress, and Jefferson was outraged, believing them to be unconstitutional, according to the First Amendment. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, written by Jefferson and James Madison, gave states the right to nullify any federal law they felt the government didn't have the right to make.Jefferson tied with Aaron Burr during the presidential election in 1800, so the House of Representatives had to break the tie. Jefferson was declared President after thirty-six ballots. This led to the change in the voting system that required a separate vote be taken for President and Vice President.Thomas Jefferson's major presidential achievement was the Louisiana Purchase, through which the United States acquired all the lands owned by the French in North America. It doubled the size of the country. The Tripolitan War with the North African Barbary States also took place during Jefferson's tenure. This war was started because the Pasha of Tripoli demanded a tribute from American ships going through Tripoli's waters. The war ended in 1805 when the Pasha agreed to peace.The Embargo Act of 1807 was passed during his second administration. This prohibited exports from the United States. Unfortunately, it injured the United States more than it did Britain or France. The law had been passed in retaliation for attacks on US shipping. The law was finally repealed in 1809.

Afterwards: Jefferson retired from the presidency in 1809 to his estate in Monticello. There he pursued his numerous interests in science, music, and agriculture, to name a few. Jefferson was one of the most skilled and educated men that ever held office as President of the United States. The Jefferson Memorial and his Monticello mansion reflect the man and his class.It was Jefferson who developed the decimal system, upon which our currency is based. His picture can be found on the American nickel and on the two-dollar bill. His garden was said to be

one of the finest in the America's, and, as if that wasn't enough, he wrote a vocabulary of Indian languages. In keeping with his many and varied interests, Jefferson collected books, and his personal library of more than 6,400 volumes, provided a major beginning of the Library of Congress.

4. James Madison, 1809-17 (Democratic-Republican) James Madison was elected the fourth President of the United States (1809-17). Known as the "Father of the Constitution," he was the last of the founding fathers to serve as President.

Vice Presidents: George Clinton, Elbridge Gerry

Notable Events: War declared on England, Washington captured and burned

Background: Madison was born in Port Conway, Virginia, to a wealthy family and grew up at their estate called Montpelier. He graduated from the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) in 1771. In 1776, Madison was elected to the Virginia Convention. His role was to assist in writing the Virginia State Constitution.

Public Life: From 1777 to 1780, he was a member of the Governor's Council, where his lifelong friendship with Thomas Jefferson began. He was then elected to the Continental Congress, where, as its youngest member, he served from 1780 to 1783. He quickly rose to a position of leadership and helped to write the "Articles of Confederation." He became friends with Alexander Hamilton, despite the fact that Hamilton was a political opponent of his other good friend, Thomas Jefferson. Hamilton and Madison both agreed that there was a need for a strong central government.In 1786, Madison was appointed a delegate to the Annapolis Convention, which was called to discuss interstate commerce. Few attended, but Madison drew the favorable attention of George Washington. Madison became a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia where, again, he was one of the youngest delegates in attendance. During the meetings he kept a diary of the debates over the drafted plans. When all was said and done, it was Madison's "Virginia Plan" that became the basis for the US Constitution. This plan was to form a government in which the people would elect representatives to a Congress that would propose, debate, and pass laws for the country. His final draft was passed in September of 1787.Along with Hamilton and John Jay, Madison wrote a series of essays known as the Federalist Papers, which laid out the government in terms that the common people would understand. Simply stated, it was devoted to the principles of religious and intellectual freedom eventually included in the Bill of Rights. This document also included an explanation of the system of checks and balances that divided power between the central government and the individual states. At the urging of George Washington, Madison became involved in the Virginia State legislature and lobbied strenuously and successfully for acceptance of the Constitution, in spite of the opposition of Patrick Henry.James Madison's greatest contribution was his original draft of what eventually became the Constitution of the United States. This is his permanent mark on history. Once the Constitution was in place, Madison went on to serve his country in other ways. He was Secretary of State under Thomas Jefferson, completing the Louisiana Purchase, which James Monroe had negotiated and enabled the United States to expand west in one large stroke of a pen. Madison was also responsible for the executive veto and the federal government's ability to override state laws.

Presidency: Madison was not above reproach, however. As President, his foreign policies were criticized. He asked Congress to declare war against Great Britain, initiating the War of 1812. It was an unpopular and unsuccessful conflict fought over shipping rights, which ended in a

stalemate. During the war, the British invaded Washington DC, and the President and Congress were forced to flee. The British burned both the city and the White House.

Afterwards: In 1817, Madison retired to his Montpelier plantation with his wife Dolly, who is especially remembered for her charm as a hostess during his presidency. He avoided party politics, but later became a member of the Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829. He supported President Andrew Jackson in 1832 and helped Jefferson start the University of Virginia, becoming its President in 1826. Before he died Madison wrote "Advice to My Country", which was an endless succession of letters and articles. This prompted Henry Clay, a great orator in Congress, to say that after Washington, Madison was our greatest statesman. After years of various illnesses Madison died at Montpelier estate on June 28, 1836.

5. James Monroe, 1817-25 (Democratic-Republican) Vice President: Daniel Tompkins

Notable Events: Anglo-American Convention, Florida ceded by Spain, Missouri Compromise, Monroe Doctrine delivered to Congress

Background: He was born in Westmoreland County, Virginia and was the last of the so-called Virginia Dynasty (the first, third, fourth, and fifth Presidents were all born in Virginia). Unlike James Madison, James Monroe was adept at foreign policy. His career climaxed in the writing of the Monroe Doctrine.Monroe attended the College of William and Mary for two years before fighting in the Revolutionary War as an officer under the command of George Washington. He distinguished himself in several battles and was praised by Washington for his brave actions and common sense. After the Revolution, at the urging of his guardian (a wealthy uncle), he studied law with Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson and Monroe became friends and Jefferson helped Monroe pursue his political career. James Monroe was a delegate to the Continental Congress, where he opposed passage of the new Constitution, not agreeing to it until the Bill of Rights was added. He went on to become United States Senator from the State of Virginia and later to serve as it's Governor.

Public Life: In 1803, Jefferson sent Monroe to France, where, with Robert Livingston, he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. It was a matter of being at the right place in the right time. Napoleon, in need of money for his military, sold the Louisiana territories at a good price. Monroe then went to Spain in hopes of purchasing Florida from the Spanish, then on to London in an attempt to obtain a commercial treaty with the British, which did not meet America's objectives, and which Jefferson rejected. This created a rift between Jefferson and Monroe that lasted for a number of years.

Presidency: In 1817, Monroe started his first of two terms as President. Because of the domestic and political tranquility of the times, Monroe's tenure was called the "era of good feeling." The country's growing wealth, rapid westward expansion, and the new interest in roads, canals, and bridges helped to promote enthusiasm and newfound wealth among many eager to see the country grow and expand. Monroe's presidencies are among the least partisan the country has ever seen.Monroe's cabinet was one of the strongest in United States history and included such luminaries as John Quincy Adams and John Calhoun. It was natural that there were stringent disagreements. It was during the Monroe administration that the slavery issue began to heat up. The nation was evenly divided, with eleven slave-holding states and eleven free states. Missouri's desire to enter the Union as a slave state threatened that balance. Though himself a southerner and slaveholder, Monroe did not take sides. On March 6, 1820, James Monroe signed the

Missouri Compromise, which admitted Maine and Missouri simultaneously, thus maintaining that balance of power, and declared that slavery would not be allowed in the newly acquired Louisiana territories.Whatever domestic bumps he faced, Monroe scored stunning foreign policy successes. Most important was the Monroe Doctrine. Inspired by an interchange with Russia, the two main tenants of the doctrine were that the United States would oppose any further colonization by European powers in the western hemisphere and that interference with any nation in the hemisphere would be considered interference with the United States. In another foreign policy coup, he finally negotiated the purchase of Florida from the Spanish. He stopped the Russian expansion down the West Coast of Canada and down the Pacific coast. He created a United States that was now a true intercontinental country.

Afterwards: After his presidency, Monroe retired to his Oak Hill estate. In the course of his career, Monroe became known for his intelligence, sound judgment, and high integrity. Even John Quincy Adams, who criticized almost everyone, spoke well of Monroe. He was called a trusted soldier and a worthy President. He died in New York City on July 4, 1831. Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson also died on that date, which is the United States Independence Day.

6. John Quincy Adams, 1825-29 (Democratic-Republican) John Quincy Adams followed in his father's footsteps and became the sixth President of the United States. Besides George W. Bush, he was the only son of a President to also become President.

Vice President: John Calhoun

Notable Events: Henry Clay appointment, Erie Canal completed

Background: Both John Adams and John Quincy Adams were born in Quincy, Massachusetts. He began his career at the age of 12 when he went to Europe with his father. John Quincy Adams served as a French translator to Francis Dana, who was United States minister to Russia. He also served as his father's secretary during the peace negotiations that ended the American Revolution. He accomplished all of this before he was 17 years old. Later, he graduated from Harvard College with a law degree and opened an office in Boston.

Public Life: Adams' "Publicola" essays, which attacked Thomas Paine's views in the "Rights of Man," earned him political recognition. In 1793, George Washington appointed him minister to Holland and later sent him to London to help John Jay in negotiations. These negotiations led to Jay's Treaty.Adams was elected to the Massachusetts Senate in 1801 and to the United States Senate in 1803. His support of the Louisiana Purchase and endorsement of Jefferson's commercial warfare policy resulted in a break of the Federalist Party and his resignation in 1808. In 1809, Madison appointed Adams as minister to Russia. Later, he was one of the delegates sent to Ghent to negotiate the end to the War of 1812. He approved the peace treaty of 1814, which fell short of United States expectations. In 1815, Adams was appointed minister to Great Britain. As minister to Great Britain, he eased the tensions resulting from the war.President James Monroe appointed John Quincy Adams as secretary of state in 1817. Monroe relied heavily on his advice. Monroe supported Adams when he forced Spain to cede Florida and make a settlement of the Louisiana boundary in the Transcontinental Treaty, drafted in 1819. The treaty, which concluded in 1822, did not accomplish all he wanted it to accomplish.Adams' efforts to persuade Great Britain to open its West Indian trade to American ships were also unsuccessful. He also helped to formulate the Monroe Doctrine, urging Monroe to add that the United States regarded the Western Hemisphere as closed to further European colonization.

Presidency: In the 1824 Presidential election, Andrew Jackson had the most electoral votes but did not have the majority. Therefore, the vote was decided in the House of Representatives and John Quincy Adams was elected President. Henry Clay's support did much to get Adams elected by the House of Representatives. Later when Adams appointed Clay as secretary of state, his foes accused him of making a "corrupt bargain." The hostility of Jackson and Crawford supporters in Congress prevented Adams from executing his nationalist program. In 1828, Adams signed the Tariff of Abominations, which alienated the South. He lost the presidential election to Andrew Jackson in 1828.

Afterwards: After serving one term as President, he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1831. Adams served eight terms as a member of the House. He chaired the Committee on Manufacturers, which drafted tariff bills, for 10 years. Although he was not an abolitionist, Adams was against slavery and attacked all measures that would extend it. Every year from 1836 to 1844, he tried to lift the gag rule which tabled all resolutions concerning slavery. In 1844, he finally succeeded. Adams was also one of the leading defenders of Freedom of Speech.In 1848, John Quincy Adams suffered a stroke while on the floor of the House of Representatives. He died 2 days later without ever regaining consciousness. Adams was a vigorous speaker which earned him the nickname of "Old Man Eloquent".

7. Andrew Jackson , 1829-37 (Democrat) Andrew Jackson, the seventh US President (1829-1837), began life on March 15, 1767 in a log cabin on the frontier between the Carolinas. He was the first President not born of wealth, a fact that was not missed by the common people, who loved him. In addition to his presidency, Jackson was known for his military successes and for laying the groundwork for the modern Democratic Party. Because of his toughness and his fiery iron will, he was given the nickname "Old Hickory."

Vice Presidents: John Calhoun, Martin Van Buren

Notable Events: Indian Removal Act of 1830, U.S. became debt free (briefly) for the only time in history, Trail of Tears

Background: Although he was known as a man of the people, Jackson believed in and promoted slavery and took millions of acres of land from Native Americans. In spite of his popularity, his policies did little to improve the lives of working Americans.Jackson's father died days before his birth. One brother was killed in the Revolutionary War, while his other brother and mother died of smallpox. At the age of fourteen, Jackson was orphaned. His grandfather had left him an inheritance of $300, which Jackson used to study law. Later he moved to Nashville, Tennessee, where he began a practice. In 1791 he married Rachel Robards, who, although she thought she was divorced, was still married to someone else. The Jackson marriage was re-consecrated when Rachel's divorce was legal.

Public Life: In 1796 Andrew Jackson was elected as Tennessee's delegate to the United States House of Representatives. The next year he was called upon to fill the unexpired term of his state's Senator. In 1798 he retired to private life, vowing never to return to politics. Within a few years he was appointed a state superior judge, and from 1804-1812 he worked on his plantation, the Hermitage, raising horses. He was known as a man with a fast temper and was often drawn into fights and duels, many of them over comments about the irregularity of his marriage.In 1802 Jackson was a general of the Tennessee militia. Jackson fought in the Creek Indian Wars, during which he wrested twenty three million acres of land from tribal peoples. He was given the rank of major general by President Madison and commanded forces in the War of 1812.

In 1815, with a mere 5,000 troops, he defeated a British force of 10,000 in the Battle of New Orleans, while sustaining only twenty losses. This was one of the worst British defeats in history, and it made Jackson a national hero.In 1818, he led an attack against the Seminole Indians and captured Pensacola, involving the United States in conflicts with both Spain and Britain. Jackson claimed that the British were using the town as a base, and he executed two Englishmen for inciting the Indians. His success in Florida influenced Spain to sell the territory to the United States.In 1819 John Quincy Adams completed the purchase of Florida, and in 1820, Jackson was appointed Governor. In 1823, he was elected Senator from Tennessee, and in 1824 the Tennessee legislature nominated Andrew Jackson for President. Although Jackson received the most votes, he lost the election. Because no candidate had received a majority of the votes, the contest was decided in the House of Representatives. John Quincy Adams was declared the winner amidst allegations that his Secretary of State, Henry Clay, had influenced the election in a "corrupt bargain".

Presidency: After that unsuccessful bid, Jackson won the election of 1828 as a Democrat. He and Martin Van Buren were responsible for creating the political organization that was the basis for the modern Democratic Party. Andrew Jackson believed the presidency represented the will of the people, and, as such, should have broad authority. He was widely criticized for expanding the power of the presidency. He was known for rewarding his political supporters with government jobs. When reproached, he responded by claiming he was replacing aristocrats with the common man. It was Jackson who coined the phrase "To the victor go the spoils," and thus the spoils system of politics was born.The edge was taken off Jackson's victory when, shortly after the election, his wife died of a heart attack. Even though his supporters were wealthy landowners, bankers, and businessmen, to the public Jackson was "the peoples' President." He held meetings in the kitchen of the White House, and those present were called the Kitchen Cabinet.Jackson vetoed more bills than all previous Presidents combined. His denial of a bill to re-charter a Second Bank of the United States was an important issue in the 1832 election, in which he defeated Henry Clay. States Rights was a volatile issue until Jackson threatened to send federal troops into states that would not collect tariffs. Jackson used these monies to close the Second Bank and pay off the National Debt. Speculation in western lands caused Jackson to issue the Specie Circular, which required all public lands to be paid for with legal tender, which at the time was either gold or silver. This accelerated the Panic of 1837.Andrew Jackson was loved by the common people and, at the same time, hated by his political enemies, who sometimes referred to him as "King Andrew I." He was a great war hero who became associated with increasing participation of the common man in government; yet his enemies in the Senate accused him of being dictatorial and acting in ways that were unconstitutional. They even voted to censure him, and he was the first President to receive such a rebuke. Jackson and his friends fought for three years before finally having all evidence of the censure removed from the Senatorial Record.Before the next President Martin Van Buren was sworn into office, Jackson saw that the run on the banks leveled out and did not wipe out the country as anticipated. He was more popular when he left the presidency than he had been when he was elected. His legacy may not match that of the greatest Presidents, but he did strengthen the two-party system through his shrewdness. He also proved that being a common man and a military figure are factors that attract voters.

Afterwards: Andrew Jackson died at his Hermitage plantation on June 8, 1845. Today his portrait is found on the twenty-dollar Bill.

8. Martin Van Buren, 1837-41 (Democrat) Martin Van Buren was elected the eighth President of the United States (1837-41). He was the first President from the State of New York and the first President born after the United States had won its independence from England.He ran for President three times but only won the first time. His many enemies called him "The Little Magician." He was called this because of his wily and shrewd political maneuvering. He never attained the popularity of some Presidents, but he held the distinction of holding the offices of US Senator, Governor of New York, Secretary of State, Vice President, and President of the United States, all in twelve years. He was also a main founder of the Democratic Party.

Vice President: Richard Johnson

Notable Events: Banks closed in Philadelphia and New York City, depression, Trail of Tears

Background: Martin Van Buren was born of Dutch descent, on December 5, 1782 in Kinderhook, NY. His father was a simple farmer and tavern owner. Martin went on to study law and was admitted to the bar in 1803. He was elected to the New York State Senate in 1812 and served until 1820. He then served as State Attorney General from 1816 to 1819, and in 1821 he was elected to the United States Senate.

Public Life: While in the Senate, Martin Van Buren led the opposition movement against President John Quincy Adams and worked diligently to support Andrew Jackson in the upcoming elections of 1828. It was this effort that led to his forming what would become the Democratic Party. Jackson rewarded Van Buren for his support and ability by appointing him Secretary of State. In 1831, Van Buren resigned that position to become US Minister to Great Britain. He encouraged the feud between Andrew Jackson and his Vice President, John Calhoun -- a bit of cleverness that earned Van Buren the vice presidential slot on Jackson's ticket in 1832. Jackson handpicked Van Buren to replace him in 1836.

Presidency: Once elected, Van Buren's political prowess seemed to desert him. He had difficulty winning support even from members of his own party. To secure the Southern party members, he backed states' rights, which allowed for the keeping of slaves as property. He also opposed the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. At the same time, he did not support the annexation of Texas, which angered many Southerners. He got involved in a protracted war with the Seminole Indians over a policy that would take their land in Florida and move them west of the Mississippi. In addition he had to deal with problems in the North where Americans were involving themselves in a struggle between Britain and Canada.Van Buren also had problems on the economic front. The country fell into its first great depression 67 days into his presidency. The panic of 1837 was a world-wide depression that hit the rapidly expanding United States particularly hard. Van Buren refused to give government aid during the Panic. In 1840, along with Congress, Van Buren created a new bank, which would be under federal control and not utilized at all by individual states.

Afterwards: Van Buren was not a popular President, and James Polk won the next presidential election. After leaving the presidency, Van Buren worked to restore his image and even made another run for the presidency in 1848 on the Free-Soilers ticket. Losing, he eventually returned to the Democratic Party he'd worked so hard to establish. He returned to his home on Kinderbrook where he died on July 24, 1862.

9. William Henry Harrison, 1841 (Whig) William Henry Harrison, the ninth President of the United States (1841), is best remembered for the campaign slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too."

Vice President: John Tyler

Notable Events: Harrison delivers the longest inaugural address on an extremely cold day while not wearing a hat. He contracts pneumonia and dies in the White House one month later

Background: He was born on February 9, 1773, in Berkeley County Virginia, the third son of Benjamin Harrison, signer of the Declaration of Independence. He served as President for only one month, the shortest term of any President in history. His place in history is more marked by his military career than his presidency.

Public Life: Appointed Governor of the Indiana Territory, he put down a Shawnee uprising, defeating an Indian force led by Tecumseh at the battle of Tippecanoe Creek. It was his policies that were responsible for the uprising to begin with; but this victory was key to his election as President. During the War of 1812, Harrison captured Detroit and defeated a British force on the Thames River in Ontario. This battled established ongoing American control of the western territory.Harrison was elected to the Ohio Senate and to several terms in the United States House of Representatives. He was appointed Minister to Colombia by John Quincy Adams. In 1836 he ran against Martin Van Buren for President, but lost. The Whig Party nominated him again in 1840, depicting him as a "log cabin and cider man," though he was actually an aristocrat. Running under the famous campaign slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," he and his running mate John Tyler won a large victory. He was the first member of the Whig party to become President.

Presidency: On April 4, 1841, one month into his presidency, Harrison died of pneumonia stemming from a cold caught on his inauguration day. He was the first President to die while in office, and his presidency is the shortest in American history. He was the only President besides Zachary Taylor to die in the White House.

Afterwards: Harrison was the only chief executive whose grandson also became President. His grandson, Benjamin Harrison, became President in 1888.

10. John Tyler , 1841-45 (Whig) John Tyler was the tenth United States President (1841-45). He was the first President born after the Constitution was adopted. He was a maverick Democrat who refused to truly give allegiance to any political party. He was the Vice President of William Henry Harrison and became President upon Harrison's death. This was the first time that the Succession Amendment had to be used.

Vice President: vacant

Notable Events: cabinet resigns, Texas annexed followed by war with Mexico

Background: John Tyler was born on March 29, l790, in Charles County, Virginia. He graduated from William and Mary College in 1807 and was admitted to the Virginia Bar in 1809, after which he began the practice of law. When he was twenty-one years old, Tyler was elected to the Virginia Legislature. He married Letitia Christian in 1813, and then went on to serve as captain of a militia in the War of 1812. In 1816, at the age of 26, he was elected to the US House of Representatives, where he served for four years before returning for a short time to the Virginia Legislature. Like his father, he served as Governor of Virginia. Two years after that, he was elected to the US Senate, where, for political reasons, he opposed Andrew Jackson's policies on states' rights and voted to censure the President. He had fifteen children; the most of any President.

Public Life: John Tyler was a consistent supporter of states' rights and favored a strict interpretation of the Constitution. This often put him in an awkward position. He actually resigned

his Senate seat in 1836 rather than yield to his state legislature's position to reverse his censure vote on President Jackson.

Presidency: In 1840 the Whigs nominated Tyler to run as William Henry Harrison's Vice President. Their memorable campaign slogan was "Tippecanoe and Tyler too!" A mere month after the inauguration, Harrison died of pneumonia. A President had never before died in office, so at William Henry Harrison's death, many thought Tyler should be merely an "acting President." He, however, firmly established the right of the Vice President to succeed completely to the presidency. He claimed all presidential rights and began his administration by vetoing a National Bank Bill. Being the first non-elected President, Tyler was widely resented and dubbed "His Accidency" by his political enemies. He was ridiculed in his day but is regarded today as a man of great courage.In spite of his vote against Jackson, Tyler did believe in states' rights, and he vetoed two bills because of this belief. Fiercely independent, he would not support either party's program, infuriating everyone and bringing himself into great conflict with both Congress and his own cabinet. All but one of the members of the Cabinet resigned. He replaced them with people who believed in strong states' rights views. He was the first President that Congress ever tried to impeach. The effort was unsuccessful; but in 1845 Tyler did become the first President to have a veto overridden by Congress.

Afterwards: Tyler was expelled from his own party. The Whigs and Democrats both refused to recognize him or his leadership. Despite the lack of support, he was able to establish a United States Weather Bureau and bring an end to the Second Seminole War in Florida. At the end of his term he had intended to seek the Presidential nomination, but the Democrats wanted James Polk. When Tyler returned to private life, he continued to defend states' rights, but stood firmly against secession and was a delegate to the Washington Peace Conference in 1861. After hearing Abraham Lincoln's inaugural address, however, Tyler changed his mind and urged Virginia to secede from the Union. Just prior to his death in November of 1861, he was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives.

11. James Knox Polk, 1845-49 (Democrat) James Knox Polk, the eleventh United States President (1845 - 1849), was born November 2, 1795 in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. A lawyer with a successful practice, he served in the state legislature for two years and in the US House of Representatives for fourteen, the last four of which he functioned as the Speaker of the House. Polk is the only President to have served as Speaker. Because he was a protégé of Andrew Jackson's, he was nicknamed "Young Hickory." His policy of land expansion was called "manifest destiny", which we relate to the newspaper owner Horace Greely, who said "Go West young man."

Vice President: George Dallas

Notable Events: Dispute with Britain over the Oregon Territory settled, Treaty of 1848 with Mexico, Gold discovered in California

Background: When James was eleven, his family moved to Tennessee where his father operated a prosperous farm. As a child, Polk was very frail and experienced such poor health that formal schooling was impossible. When he was seventeen, his problem was diagnosed as gallstones, and a risky and painful surgery corrected the problem. Eighteen years old and unable to read or write, Polk made up for lost time. By the age of twenty he had passed the prerequisite test to enter the University of North Carolina. When he graduated in 1818 he was considered an all around scholar.

Public Life: Upon graduation, Polk returned home to Tennessee and practiced law in Nashville, but politics fascinated the young man, and he began to associate himself with leading public figures of the time. In 1820 he was admitted to the bar, and that same year was confirmed as a Democrat. Polk was a popular orator, a skill that furthered his aspirations.On January 1, 1824, during his tenure as State Senator, he married Sara Childress. Her family was socially prominent and her skills as his official hostess helped him to become recognized. Polk was a very difficult person to get along with, and Sarah's ability to smooth things over was immensely helpful to his career. Andrew Jackson was one of his personal friends who encouraged him and helped advance his political career.From the State House Polk went on to serve in the United States House of Representatives, where he served from 1825 to 1839, when he left the House to serve as Tennessee's Governor. During his tenure, he became Speaker of the House. He was the only President who had served as Speaker of the House. He was known for his political support of Andrew Jackson's policies while he was President.

Presidency: When Polk attended the convention of 1844, he had not intended to seek the presidency. He felt there were many other more prominent politicians who could serve. As it turned out, the Democratic party needed someone who could run a campaign on the issues and not personality, and James Polk was selected as the man who could do this. He was the first "dark horse" candidate for the presidency from a major party. The leaders thought he could bring about more understanding between the legislative and executive branches and could help make the nation function better.As President, Polk would start work at 6 am every morning, and it was not unusual for him to work late into the night. At the age of forty-nine he was the youngest elected President up to that time, and his legislative experience gave him the ability to get the job done. Polk believed it was the nation's "manifest destiny" to expand across North America. The nation's greatest territorial growth occurred while this President was in office. First, the annexation of Texas came as the result of a two-year war with Mexico, which also yielded California and all the territory eastward to the existing frontier. The Oregon compromise of 1846 had extended the northwest boundary. Polk worked well with Congress, and his era became known as the "Fabulous 40's." Not everyone benefited, however. Many social problems occurred during his term such as child labor hardships and slavery.

Afterwards: He was not terribly well known when he came into office, nor is he rated as one of the greatest of all the Presidents; but he approached the presidency more methodically than many and accomplished much. Unlike some Presidents, he dominated his Cabinet and ruled his staff. He worked well with Congress, as he was one of their own, and thus legislation could be more easily worked out. He was one of the few Presidents who carried out every item of his political program. During his Presidency, the Golden Age of American Literature began with authors Poe, Hawthorne; Whittier; Emerson; Thoreau; and Longfellow.After his departure from the White House, James Polk went back to his home in Nashville where three months later he died.

12. Zachary Taylor, 1849-50 (Whig) Zachary Taylor was the twelfth United States President (1849-50) and the second to die while in office.

Vice President: Millard Fillmore

Notable Events: Clayton-Bulwer Treaty

Background: Although he was born in Montebello, Virginia in 1784, he grew up on the Kentucky frontier. He began his military service in 1808. He fought in the War of 1812, the

Seminole Wars, and the Mexican War. Conversely, he was nicknamed "Old Rough and Ready" for his plainness of manner and appearance.

Public Life: He spent over 40 years in the military and was the first President to be elected with no prior experience as politician or statesman. He also was one of the largest slave owners in the South. He and his friends demanded that slavery problems be settled prior to the territories of California and New Mexico becoming states, and if they did not they he threatened to secede from the Union. He went as far as offering his military leadership as head of the army to put down such action.

Presidency: His threats were not taken lightly as he was considered a military genius as well as a good leader. He wanted the Western States to be able to have slaves as the Southerners. California was admitted to the Union as a free state after the Compromise of 1850 by two great statesmen in the House, Clay and Webster. Today they are considered to be some of the most eloquent debaters to ever serve in the House. Taylor did oppose the controversial issue, but died on July 9, 1850 of cholera before the issue was decided.

Afterwards: His Vice President Millard Fillmore succeeded him in office and perpetuated the battle of states' rights while President. Taylor will be remembered as a military leader and for his accomplishments in the many wars he fought rather than as the twelfth President.

13. Millard Fillmore, 1850-53 (Whig) Millard Fillmore, the thirteenth President of the United States (1850-53), was born into a poor farming family in New Cayuga County, New York on January 7, 1800.

Vice President: vacant

Notable Events: Compromise of 1850 and Fugitive Slave Act

Background: Millard spent his youth helping out on the family farm and working in the shop of a clothier, attending school only sporadically. He was mostly self-taught. At the age of nineteen he began to study the law with a local judge, while supporting himself teaching school. His political career began in his mid-twenties when he became active in the Anti-Masonic Party. He was admitted to the bar in 1823 and opened a law practice outside of Buffalo. In 1826 he married Abigail Powers.

Public Life: In 1828 Millard Fillmore was elected to represent his district in the New York State Assembly. By 1833 he was elected to the United States Congress, where, as Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, he was largely responsible for the passage of the Tariff of 1842. He ran for Governor of New York in 1844 and lost. He first came to national attention in 1848 when he was chosen by the Whig Party to be Zachary Taylor's running mate.A conservative dresser, Fillmore always wore a dark coat and a high-collared shirt with a black silk neck cloth, which he tied into a bow. He was known for his courteous manner and his graciousness. He was such an extremely modest man that when Oxford University offered him an honorary degree, he refused to accept it because he felt he had done nothing to deserve it.

Presidency: When Zachary Taylor unexpectedly died in office on July 9, 1850, Millard Fillmore became the second Vice President in US history to inherit the presidency. He came into office at a crucial point in the slavery debate. In 1850 the Compromise issue over whether California and Texas would be admitted to the Union as free or slave-holding states was being debated, and the country stood on the threshold of a Civil War.Millard Fillmore was the last Whig President this country ever had. He became President during a critical time when the conflict between the Northern and Southern states on the issue of slavery was intensifying. By approving the Compromise of 1850, Fillmore delayed the Civil War for over

ten years. This bill contained five laws, the most important of which allowed runaway slaves to be returned to their owners. Although this postponed the outbreak of war, the Compromise did little to actually appease either side. The North was particularly upset about the provision for returning slaves to their Southern masters. Fillmore lost the support of most Northerners when he enforced the Compromise of 1850.One of the triumphs of the Fillmore presidency was the opening of a trade relationship with the Japanese. Fillmore sent the US Fleet under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan, a journey that ended the United States' policy of isolationism. When the election of 1852 came around, Millard Fillmore attended the convention, but withdrew his name from the running at a critical point, throwing his votes to Daniel Webster.

Afterwards: In 1856, Fillmore did run for President again as the American Party's nominee, winning only the State of Maryland. He returned to Buffalo where, in 1858, he remarried. He died in 1874.

14. Franklin Pierce, 1853-57 (Democrat) Born November 23, 1804 in Hillsboro, New Hampshire, Franklin Pierce became the fourteenth President (1852-56). At age forty-eight, he was the youngest man to have become the Chief Executive up to that time. He was elected during one of the most precarious periods in United States history, when the nation stood on the verge of a civil war over the slavery issue. Personally, Pierce sided with the Southern states and their belief in the right to own slaves as property. Keeping the country unified, however, was also a priority. This conflicted position created many difficulties, and eventually would lead to his being discredited.

Vice Presidents: William King, vacant

Notable Events: Gadsden Purchase, Kansas-Nebraska Act, Ostend Manifesto, Treaty with Japan

Background: Pierce graduated from Bowdoin College in 1824 and was admitted to the bar in 1827. A Democrat, he served in the state legislature and later became speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives. In 1833 he was elected to Congress, and on November 10, 1834, he married Jane Appleton Means. His wife had tuberculosis and did not like being in Washington, so she spent much time at their home in New Hampshire. In 1837 at the age of 32, Franklin became the youngest United States senator; but his wife wanted him to return to Hillsboro, and in 1842 he finally relented. He did not give up politics, however, and became the party boss in New Hampshire. He accepted a position as the state's Attorney General, but declined the opportunity to serve in the Cabinet of President Polk as the nation's Attorney General.

Public Life: Pierce accepted a military commission from President Polk and served in the Mexican War. He was not what one could call an inspired military leader. In fact, many laughed at him, as he would often faint when going into battle. Some said he was a coward. In 1848, he went back to New Hampshire to resume his position as head of the state's Democratic Party. Pierce did not go looking for his party's presidential nomination. He became the Democratic nominee for President in 1852 after balloting did not produce a winner. Pierce had supported the Compromise of 1850, which made him an acceptable candidate to the South. It was this that got him nominated for President in 1852. He said, "If the Compromise measures are not ... firmly maintained, the Constitution will be trampled in the dust." He believed that the Constitution was a sacred and unchangeable document.

Presidency: Pierce's administration was faced with Northern outrage over the expansion of slavery and over an increasing prejudice against immigrants. In 1854, he supported the Kansas-

Nebraska Act, angering Northerners. The Act would abolish the Missouri Compromise of 1820 and allow newly created territories to decide the slavery question for themselves. This angered Northerners because it made slavery possible in a large area of the West. This caused huge splits in both political parties and added to the conflict between the free and slave states. The struggle over the Kansas-Nebraska Act resulted in the formation of the Republican Party.President Pierce became even more unpopular when he took steps to protect the rights of the immigrants. This support, coming as it did during a time of rising prejudice against newcomers from foreign lands, was a main factor in the creation of a new political party called the Know Nothing or American Party. The formation of this and other parties eroded the strength of the Democrats.Pierce also supported the Fugitive Slave Laws, which returned runaway slaves to their owners. Overall, Pierce's handling of the slavery issue was inept. He kept changing his views, which made him unpopular. He was not elected to a second term.Pierce was in office during a very prosperous period which witnessed federal land grants that expanded railroads westwards and the Gadsen Purchase. The Gadsden Purchase added land from Mexico to the Territory of New Mexico. The California gold rush was still in full swing.

Afterwards: Franklin Pierce was a mild mannered politician whose presidency was embroiled in complex and controversial issues. To make matters worse, mere days before he was inaugurated, his eleven year-old son was killed before his parents' eyes when a train in which they were riding went over an embankment. Months before, when Pierce was first nominated for President, the child had written to his mother confiding that he hoped Pierce would not win, since neither mother nor child wanted to live in Washington. Pierce's wife was so full of grief over the loss of her son that she withdrew from society, and a family friend, Abigail Kent Means, came to Washington to serve as hostess in the Pierce White House. With the chips stacked against him, Franklin Pierce was not a particularly effective President and left office amidst public denunciation.Franklin Pierce spent his last years in New Hampshire in virtual seclusion and died in Concord on October 8, 1869.

15. James Buchanan, 1857-61 (Democrat) James Buchanan, the fifteenth President of the United States (1857-61) was born in Mercersburg, Pennsylvania on April 23, 1791. As a young man he had a tragic love affair, and he remains the only Chief Executive who never married. Even so, he had a reputation as a lady's man. Buchanan stood over six feet tall, had broad shoulders, and a portly, dignified bearing.

Vice President: John Breckinridge

Notable Events: Southern Succession, Pony Express, John Brown Raid

Background: Buchanan was, by nature, a peacemaker who tried to bring the various factions of the Democratic Party together. During his forty-two years of political service, he served twice in the Pennsylvania General Assembly; served one term in the United States Congress, was United States Minister to Russia; was a United States Senator, was James Polk's secretary of state, and was the United States Minister to Great Britain. Along with other United States ambassadors he signed the Ostend Manifesto, which said the United States could take Cuba by force if the purchase of Cuba failed.

Public Life & Presidency: Buchanan was liked by northern Democrats and southern moderates alike, but it was the Democrats who nominated him for President 1857. He ran on a platform promoting the rights of settlers in the various US territories to decide for themselves whether or not to sanction slavery. He was sixty-six years old when he was elected. Two days

before he was inaugurated, the United States Supreme Court decided that the Constitution protected slavery in all territories.Buchanan held office during the important years immediately preceding the Civil War. Personally, he was against slavery, viewing it as morally wrong; but he firmly believed that the Constitution protected it, and he considered it his duty to support it publicly. On that basis, he supported the admission into the Union of Kansas, a slave state. This caused conflict in the Democratic Party, and Buchanan was caught in the middle.He'd supported the Compromise of 1850, which stated that there would be maintained a balance of Senate seats between slave and free states. During the secession crisis, he declared that secession was illegal while trying to soothe the Southern states. His attempts at reconciliation failed dismally. His refusal to take a strong stand against slavery angered the North, and his stance against secession made him unpopular with southerners. When push came to shove, however, he refused to forcefully stop seven of the fifteen slave states from seceding from the Union. He delayed the Civil War until Abraham Lincoln became the next chief executive.In 1859 the split within the nation was further polarized when an abolitionist named John Brown led a raid against the arsenal at Harper's Ferry. The confusion demoralized a nation and further fractured the Democratic Party, already weakened by the compromises and waffling of several administrations around the issue of slavery. The country began to brace itself for the biggest challenge in its history -the War Between the States.During his term as President, the Pony Express began carrying mail across the continent; the Atlantic telegraph cable linking the European and North American continents was laid, and treaty and trade agreements were negotiated with China.

Afterwards: After his term of office, Buchanan retired to his home near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he supported the Union cause until his death in 1868. Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, took over the weighty responsibility as President during the impending War.

16. Abraham Lincoln, 1861-65 (Republican) Abraham Lincoln was the sixteenth President of the United States (1861-1865). He was born on February 12, l809 in a log cabin in Kentucky. When he entered the national limelight he had little experience with politics, and he experienced several failures on the path to the White House. His strength was his great character, which was reflected in his fortitude and strong will to resolve the discord in the Union. Many historians believe his innate wisdom and humanity made him the greatest of all the Presidents. Like Washington, he generated a legend, which is undoubtedly greater for his having been the first President to be assassinated while in office. He was known for his honesty and often wore a stovepipe hat. This six-foot-four-inch President was not an abolitionist; but he regarded slavery as evil.

Vice Presidents: Hannibal Hamlin, Andrew Johnson

Notable Events: Civil War, Emancipation Proclamation

Background: Lincoln grew up living in the wilderness of Kentucky and Indiana. During his entire life, he had less than one full year of formal education; but thanks to his stepmother, he was taught to read and write and do arithmetic at an early age. In 1830, when Abe was twenty-one, the Lincoln family moved to what is now Decatur, Illinois. There he worked as a laborer on farms and flatboats, and even, for a while, as a store clerk in New Salem, where he became a very popular man.

Public Life: In 1832 Lincoln decided to run for a seat in the Illinois House of Representatives as a member of the Whig Party. He was defeated. In fact, Abraham Lincoln lost more elections than he ever won, but he showed great persistence in overcoming the obstacles that belabored him and never gave up. Soon thereafter he was appointed New Salem's postmaster. In 1834 Lincoln

again ran for state office, and this time he won the election. Abraham Lincoln served in the Illinois State Legislature (1834-42) and the United States House of Representatives (1847-49). In 1842, while serving as an Illinois legislator, he married Mary Todd.Lincoln had studied the law and become a licensed attorney. At one point, he traveled extensively and made a name for himself as a frontier lawyer. His way of weaving stories and relating to the common man made him very popular. It was during this time that he became known as "Honest Abe." Lincoln supported the Wilmot Proviso, which proposed that slavery in the United States be prohibited in any territory acquired during the Mexican War (1846-1848). Since the Whig Party had a rule that representatives could serve only one term, Lincoln returned to Springfield to practice law.Lincoln's flagging interest in politics was revived in 1854 when Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which repealed the dividing line that had been established between free and slave states years earlier by the Missouri Compromise. When Stephen Douglas, a famous orator and Congressman, came to Springfield to defend the bill, Lincoln challenged him. This foreshadowed the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates that were held when Lincoln unsuccessfully challenged Douglas for his Senate seat in 1858.It was at this point that Lincoln finally joined the Republican Party. His staunch support of the party's anti-slavery position, combined with the national prominence gained in his debates with Douglas gave Lincoln clout with the Republicans. At their convention in Chicago he became their standard bearer and won the nomination for President. In 1860, Lincoln defeated Douglas and another Democratic challenger, although with only forty percent of the popular vote. His cabinet was troubled by internal hatred.

Presidency: Lincoln was the first President not born in one of the thirteen original colonies. Also, he was the first President from the Republican Party. Prior to his election as President, seven Southern states had seceded from the Union. In his inaugural address on March 4, 1861, Lincoln reached out to the South by telling them he had no intention of changing slavery as it existed; but he held firm to the ideal that the Union be forever preserved and indissoluble. Soon after this, the Southern states banded together in their own Confederate Union. They demanded that the North abandon its garrisons in Southern territories, specifically naming Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, since it held strategic importance at the harbor to the city. That set the stage for the attack on the fort that became the first hostile act in the Civil War. Lincoln ordered supplies sent by sea to support Fort Sumter, but within two days the Confederates began their siege of the fort, and it surrendered.The border between North and South was drawn. Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland remained in the Union, while Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas joined the Confederacy. Lincoln called upon the Union states to send 75,000 militiamen, and he established a blockade of all Confederate ports.In leading the Union through the Civil War, Lincoln took powers no previous President had ever assumed. He did not wait until Congress approved expenditures, and he suspended the writ of habeas corpus, which allowed that a person could not be imprisoned indefinitely before being charged with specific crimes. He expected a swift battle or two and a quick end to the war, but realized he was wrong after the Battle of Bull Run in Virginia, where the Confederates trounced Union Army. The struggle for the heart and soul of a nation would weigh heavily on the shoulders of this Commander and Chief.In September of 1862 the Union Army won a small victory at Antietam in Maryland. Lincoln used this event to make one of his most important decisions. He issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which admonished slaves residing in rebellious states "be then, henceforward and forever free." This would become effective January 1, 1863. The Emancipation Proclamation was aimed only at those states at war with the Union, and did not effect slave-holding border states

that did not join the Confederacy. More than an attempt to free the slaves, it was an attempt to re-join the country. The Proclamation was an important factor in turning the tide of the war. Not only did freeing the slaves deprive the South of manpower, but in the neighborhood of 186,000 former slaves joined the Union Army. Additionally, it changed the European's perspective on the War from being about politics to being about principle. The northern defeats had tempted Britain and France to recognize the Confederacy; but the Proclamation made them reconsider.After the Proclamation it continued to be an uphill battle for Lincoln, and the North lost many key battles. General Robert Lee, the commander of the Confederate Army, began a push into Pennsylvania to meet the Union in battle at Gettysburg. Lincoln had appointed General George Mead to defend the North. In early July 1863 the two armies met. More losses were sustained in that battle than in all the previous American wars together; but the North held the ground and won the day. July 5, 1863 was a banner day for the North, for on that day word came that General Ulysses Grant had also captured Vicksburg, a key Confederate position on the Mississippi River. On November 19, 1863 the Gettysburg battleground became a military cemetery. Lincoln delivered his famous Gettysburg Address, which spoke of preserving a "nation conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal."In 1864, Lincoln named Grant Commander in chief of all the Union Armies. The strategy was bold. In lieu of attacking major Southern cities, Grant decided to attack the principal Southern Armies. It proved to be successful. The war, however, was expensive and in order to pay for it, the North had to raise tariffs, and the federal government started to print paper money. The National Banking Act of 1863 made it possible to sell government bonds. As the tide of the War began to turn in favor of the North, Lincoln started to plan for Reconstruction. His ideas were controversial, and some felt they did not punish the South enough. Nevertheless, with Andrew Johnson of Tennessee as his Vice Presidential running mate, he won a second term with ease.Lincoln's second inaugural address was conciliatory and spoke of the soon to be peace and the ending of national differences. In his second inaugural speech, he said "with malice toward none; with charity for all." On April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered his Army to General Grant at the Appomatox Court House in Virginia, officially ending the war. Only five days later on April 14, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated at Ford's Theatre in Washington, DC. while attending a play with his wife. At approximately 10:30 John Wilkes Booth, an actor (who was a Southern rebel), made his way into the President's box and shot him in the head at point blank range. Booth jumped onto the stage, injuring himself, but managed to escape. He was tracked down and killed twelve days later.Lincoln was taken to the house across the street where he died the next day without regaining consciousness. It was a sad event for the North, but also for the South, who had, in Lincoln, a peacemaker. Abraham Lincoln was laid in state, given a military funeral in Washington, and then his body was sent by train back to Springfield, Illinois for burial. Thousands lined the tracks to pay their last respects as the Lincoln Train passed by. Abraham Lincoln was the first President of the United States ever to be killed by an assassin.

Afterwards: Nicknamed "Illinois Rail-Splitter;" he was admired for the political moderation that allowed him to preserve the nation. On the third Monday in February, known as Presidents' Day, Lincoln, along with George Washington, is celebrated. Abraham Lincoln is one of the Presidents whose images have been carved into Mount Rushmore. His portrait is on the five-dollar bill.

17. Andrew Johnson, 1865-69 (Democrat/National Union) Andrew Johnson, the seventeenth President of the United States (1865-69), was the first Vice President to take over the presidency because of an assassination. He was also the first President to be impeached by the Congress. In the Senate trial he held onto the presidency by a margin of only a single vote. He is

the only President besides Bill Clinton to have been impeached. On the positive side, Alaska was purchased during his administration.

Vice President: vacant

Notable Events: Johnson's impeachment, Alaskan Purchase, End of the Civil War

Background: Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina on December 29, 1808. Like Lincoln, he came from a poor family. His father died when he was three, and his mother, Mary Johnson, worked as a seamstress to support him and his three brothers. He taught himself to read and learned a trade as a tailor's apprentice. In 1826 he moved to Tennessee where he married Eliza McCardle, who taught him arithmetic and writing. They had five children. One son served and was killed in the Civil War.

Public Life: This self-educated tailor rose in Tennessee politics to organize a workingman's party that elected him alderman and, later, mayor of Greeneville. His humble beginnings and homespun qualities endeared him to the local people. In 1835 he was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives, where he served until 1843. While there he became a straightforward spokesperson for the local mountaineers and farmers. He went on to represent them in the United States Congress for ten years. While he supported slavery, it was not much of an issue in his district.When redistricting threatened his election chances, he ran, instead, for Governor of Tennessee and won. In 1855 he was re-elected. One of his primary focal points was education, and he promoted a school tax, supported equal pay for female teachers, and established a state library.In 1857 he was elected to the United States Senate, still adhering to the Democratic party's views opposing antislavery agitation and lowering tariffs. His dramatic break with the Democrats came in 1860 when he violently opposed secession and he refused to give up his position in the Senate despite the opposition to him in his own state. When Tennessee seceded from the Union in June of 1861, Andrew Johnson refused to give up his Senate seat and did not join the Confederacy. This caught the attention of Abraham Lincoln, who appointed him military governor of Tennessee.

Presidency: He was nominated to be Lincoln's Vice President candidate in the 1864 election because it was thought his former Democratic base would broaden Lincoln's reelection chances. They won. A little over a month later, on April 15, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became the seventeenth President of the United States.Being from a Southern state, Johnson quarreled with Congress on Reconstruction issues and the readmission of states into the Union after the Civil War. After an initial period of bitterness toward the Confederacy, he vetoed several bills that sought to punish the South for the war. In the Congressional elections of 1866 Johnson lost a large number of supporters, and the new Congress had enough votes to override Johnson's vetoes. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 replaced the South's civil governments with military rule and set Negro suffrage and ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment as terms for getting it back.President Johnson battled with Congress on almost every issue. Congress countered with The Tenure of Office Act, which prevented the President from removing certain appointed officials on his own authority. Another bill, the Army Appropriations Act, contained provisions designed to undermine the President's right to command the Army. When Johnson tried to unseat Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, the House passed a Resolution of Impeachment against him; but he was acquitted by one vote in the Senate.

Afterwards: After his term as President he retired to Tennessee. In 1873 he returned to the Senate, but died shortly thereafter on July 3, 1875.

18. Ulysses Simpson Grant, 1869-77 ( Republican )

Ulysses Simpson Grant was the 18th President and a Civil War hero.

Vice Presidents: Schuyler Colfax, Henry Wilson

Notable Events: 15th Amendment, completion of the Trans Continental Railroad, Reconstruction

Background: He was born Hiram Ulysses Grant on April 27, l822, in Point Pleasant, Ohio. Due to a Congressman's error, he entered West Point as "Ulysses S." and kept the name. He graduated from West Point in 1843, and was the first President to do so. He served in the Mexican War under Zachary Taylor. He was stationed on frontier posts until 1854 when he resigned from the army to pursue farming and several business ventures, all of which failed.

Public Life: Grant returned to military life when the Civil War began. He was given the rank of colonel and put in charge of training volunteers. He provided the first Union victory in 1862 by capturing Fort Henry and Fort Donelson in Tennessee. As a Brigadier in the Battle of Shiloh, he led his troops to defeat 30,000 Confederate troops led by Pemberton, thus breaking Confederate control of the Mississippi by capturing Vicksburg. With the surrender of Vicksburg, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River, cutting the South into two parts. After his victorious Vicksburg campaign, Grant was made Commander in Chief of the Union Army; and it was he who accepted the surrender of General Robert E. Lee at the Appomattox Court House.During Grant's years of service as a Union officer he climbed to the highest rank in the United States Army. It was his strategy, determination, and successful campaigns that brought an end to the Civil War. In 1866 Grant was appointed General of the Armies of the United States, a position that only George Washington had held before him.When President Johnson removed his Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, Grant was appointed interim Secretary. When Congress did not support his appointment, Grant resigned, causing a rift between him and Andrew Johnson. This public break strengthened Grant's position with the Republican Party.

Presidency: The Republican Party nominated Grant for the presidency in 1868. Because of his status as a military hero, he won by a landslide. He served for two terms and his presidency was marred with widespread corruption. Though a brilliant military commander and strategist, at politics he was a failure. His appointees were dishonest and Congressional investigations showed extortion and kickbacks at the federal, state, and local levels of government. Historians call Grant's administration the most corrupt in US history. President Grant was not personally corrupt, but his lack of attentiveness allowed corruption to flourish in his administration.Grant's primary presidential accomplishments were passage of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution, which gave the right to vote to slaves, and the completion of the Trans Continental Railroad in Utah. His attitude toward the South remained harsh, and he pursued a vigorously punitive Reconstruction program. His secretary of state, Hamilton Fish, was skillful in the handling of foreign affairs, and the claims against the US by foreign countries for shipping lost during the war were equitably settled. Grant also tried to help farmers with debts and to correct some of the injustices committed against the American Indians. He was instrumental in passing laws to protect the rights of Black people. He also placed an American Indian as the Commissioner of Indian Affairs.He was able to annex Washington State against a claim by the British, and it became a part of the United States. In 1872 Horace Greeley, a newspaper magnate whose famous saying was "Go west young man, go west" ran against Grant, but lost. Greeley, in his bitterness, used his papers to expose the illegalities and irregularities in Grant's cabinet. This interfered with Grant's effectiveness and ensured that scandal became the trademark of his presidency. Grant's name was put into nomination for a third term in office but the books were closed, and James Garfield was nominated.

Afterwards: Grant left the presidency in disgrace and financial devastation. After his presidency he toured the world before settling in Illinois. Later he moved to New York City where, with the assistance of his friend, Mark Twain, he wrote his memoirs, in part to pay his debts. He died of cancer on July 23 1885. He is buried in Riverside Park, New York with an elaborate tomb to honor him.

19. Rutherford Birchard Hayes, 1877-81 (Republican) Rutherford Birchand Hayes was elected the nineteenth President of the United States (1877-1881) in the closest electoral vote in the history of the United States. He was one of three chief executives elected whose opponent received more popular votes.

Vice President: William Wheeler

Notable Events: Federal troops withdrew from the South, Railroad strikers and federal troops clash, Bland-Allison Silver Purchase Act

Background: Born in Delaware, Ohio, on October 4, 1822, he graduated from Kenyon College, then studied law at Harvard University and set up a practice in his home state, becoming well known as a defense attorney.

Public Life: He moved to Cincinnati in 1850, and two years later he married his childhood sweetheart, Lucy Webb. Her nickname was Lemonade Lucy, since she allowed no alcohol to be served in the White House. Hayes is most known for his controversial election, which he won by only one electoral vote. His motto was "He serves his party best who serves his country best." He was a man of impeccable morals and profound fairness. He did what he felt was right without thought of what it might cost him politically.In 1856 Hayes supported the Republican Party and their position against slavery. His hopes were that Lincoln would be able to avoid a confrontation between the North and South. When war broke out, Hayes took a position in the Union Army where he fought in numerous battles and retired with the rank of major general.While he was still off fighting the people of Cincinnati nominated him for their representative to the United States Congress. Hayes turned them down, saying that anyone who "would abandon his post to electioneer for a seat in Congress; ought to be scalped." In 1865, however, he was seated as their representative. In 1868 he was elected Governor of Ohio. He served two consecutive terms and a third a few years later.

Presidency: At the Republican convention in 1876, Rutherford Hayes was Ohio's favorite son and won the nomination for President. The Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden, the Governor of New York. The election was so close that both Tilden and Hayes claimed electoral victories. One elector was committed to both candidates. An appointed group called the Electoral Commission of 1877 settled the dispute. It consisted of five United States senators, five United States representatives, and five United States Supreme Court justices. There were seven Democrats, seven Republicans and one justice with no party affiliation. When the independent judge was elected to office and left the bench, he was replaced on the commission with a Republican, so Hayes was given the election. There was rumor of a back room deal whereby Hayes promised to withdraw troops from South Carolina and Louisiana, put through appropriations to rebuild the war-torn South, and name a Southerner to the Cabinet in exchange for the election.President Hayes did, in fact, nominate a Southern Postmaster General. He also did withdrawn troops from the South and allocate monies for rebuilding, which ended Reconstruction of the South. Hayes felt it was his duty to bring honor back to the Civil Service, and he proposed new regulations restricting political actions and contributions to electoral campaigns by government employees.

He clashed with both parties over his insistence that paper money be convertible to gold coin in order to establish a single monetary value, and he backed the Specie Resumption Act of 1875, which made paper money redeemable in gold starting in 1879. His opponents wanted to expand the money supply by allowing silver coinage, thinking it would help the farmers with debts from the 1870 depression. When the House voted to repeal the Specie Act, Hayes vetoed them successfully; but the silver coinage became law over his veto.

Afterwards: Rutherford Hayes was, overall, a fair and equitable President who saw the first telephone and phonograph installed in the White House. He became unpopular because he refused to hand out government jobs as political plums. Hayes had made a pledge to serve only one term, and he kept it. After his presidency he left politics and engaged in public education and prison reform. He died on January 17, 1893, at his estate, Spiegel Grove, in Fremont, Ohio. His wife, Lucy, was the first President's wife to be known as "The First Lady" and the first Presidential wife to have a college degree.

20. James Abram Garfield, 1881 (Republican) James Abram Garfield, the twentieth US President (1881) was born November 13, 1831, in Cuyahoga County, Ohio. When Garfield's father died in 1833, he left his family in poverty. Despite severe hardships Garfield managed to put himself through school and become a college professor. Garfield holds the distinction of being the last chief executive to be born in a log cabin.

Vice President: Chester A. Arthur

Notable Events: His assassination

Background: Garfield was a large, well built, good looking man with a gift for writing and oratory. His varied interests included a love of reading and writing poetry. A scholarly man, it was said that Garfield could "write Greek with one hand, while writing Latin with the other." He attended Western Reserve Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio, and graduated from Williams College where one of his teachers was Chester Arthur, his successor as President.He returned to the Academy as a teacher, and went on to become its president. In 1858, he married Lucretia Randolph, who was a fellow student at Hiram and Chester. They had seven children, one of whom served as Theodore Roosevelt's Secretary of the Interior. Admitted to the Ohio Bar in 1861, James Garfield was the epitome of the Horatio Alger myth (about a self-made man who goes from rags to riches).

Public Life: Garfield became a supporter of the newly organized Republican Party. During the Civil War he served as a colonel in the Ohio Volunteer Infantry and saw various actions. When he left the service, he was a major general. Upon returning home he was elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he served until 1880 -- a record seventeen terms, which is more than any other President and a testament to his popularity. While in Congress, Garfield served as Chairman of the House Committee on Appropriations, a position that utilized his fiscal expertise. During the Grant administration he was accused of taking bribes, but the allegation was never proved.In 1880, Garfield was elected to the Senate, but he never served his term. When he attended the Republican Convention as a supporter of John Sherman, he was nominated on the 36th ballot as a compromise candidate. Garfield won the popular vote by fewer than 10,000 votes, but, unlike Rutherford Hayes, he had a comfortable electoral vote margin. In his inaugural address, Garfield stressed the need for change in the Civil Service and promised that he would send Congress a bill for reform.

Presidency: Garfield had been in office only two hundred days and had not yet begun to make a name for himself or create a legacy for his presidency when, on July 2, 1881, while boarding a

train to attend a college reunion, he was shot by Charles Guiteau, a disgruntled job seeker. Garfield held on for eighty days before finally dying on September 18, 1881. James Garfield was the fourth Chief Executive to die while serving his term. He became the second chief executive to ever be assassinated. Two years after his death, the Pendleton Civil Service Act, the first step towards Civil Service reform, was passed.

21. Chester Alan Arthur, 1881-85 (Republican) Chester Allen Arthur became the twenty-first President of the United States (1881-1885) when James Garfield was assassinated. Arthur was the fourth Vice President to succeed to the presidency. There was some debate over his birthplace, and some claimed he was actually a Canadian who had assumed the identity of an American-born brother who had died; but the allegations were never proven. It is quite possible, however, that his vanity caused him to claim he was a year younger than he actually was. Chester Arthur never won an election of any kind. All of his service came through political appointments.

Vice President: vacant

Notable Events: Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, vetoing of the Rivers-and-Harbors Appropriation Bill

Background: Born in Fairfield, Vermont on October 5, 1829, Arthur studied law and had a successful practice in New York City. He was an ardent abolitionist who won several cases in favor of the "runaway slaves" he was defending. Before the Civil War, Arthur also won two important Civil Rights cases, one of which decided that slaves were free once they reached New York, and the other of which clarified that blacks had the same rights as others to ride street cars. In that case he won $500 in damages for a black woman who was thrown off a New York City bus. While practicing law Chester Arthur continued his education.

Public Life: As the Civil War approached, Arthur was assigned the position of New York's Quartermaster-General, which put him in charge of supplying the state's volunteer troops. He was given the rank of brigadier general and was to be called General all his life. His excellent and efficient handling of the job earned him an important place in the state's Republican organization. In 1831, President Grant appointed Arthur Collector of the Port of New York. While there, he utilized his 1,000 employees to further the partisan interests of the Republican Party, such patronage being typical Grant's appointments. He was removed from the Republican Party machine of New York City in 1878 after abusing his position as the collector of the New York Custom House. In spite of this blemish, in 1880 the Republican Party nominated him for Vice President, and upon Garfield's death in 1881, he became President.

Presidency: During the eleven weeks that President Garfield hung between life and death, Arthur was cautious. Garfield's assailant had claimed to have shot Garfield so that Arthur would become President, which made the country a bit leery of him. As President, however, Chester Arthur surprised both friends and enemies when he followed his own light and called for both Civil Service reform and sound monetary policies. He fought to have the income tax abolished and tariffs, except on tobacco and alcohol, lowered. He vetoed a Chinese exclusion bill, which violated a treaty with China; and he vetoed a wasteful rivers and harbors bill, which Congress managed to pass in spite of the veto. Going against his Republican Party, he supported the first comprehensive United States Civil Service legislation, which started a new era of reform in national politics. He was also the first President to have the White House renovated.Chester Arthur's greatest achievement as President was signing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act on January 16, 1883. This act was passed in response to the discovery that Post Office officials and stagecoach operators had come up with a plan to steal millions of dollars from the United States government. It was the Pendleton Act that established the Civil Service

Commission. It also established the merit system, whereby government jobs were given based on a person's ability instead of a person's politics. Prior to that, government jobs were often given as rewards for political loyalty, a practice that had resulted in widespread fraud and corruption. Arthur also strengthened the United States Navy.His signing of the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act and vetoing of the Rivers-and-Harbors Appropriation Bill and the bill that discriminated against Chinese immigrants caused Arthur to lose the support of the Republican Party. This cost him the nomination for a second term. It was of little consequence. Arthur had known for some time that he was seriously ill with a kidney disease, but had managed to hide the fact.

Afterwards: On November 18, 1886, just eighteen months after leaving office, Chester Arthur died in New York City. Mark Twain noted that the man was a fair and good President and that he should be remembered as such.Arthur, who was nicknamed the "Gentlemen Boss," and enjoyed the finer things in life. He traveled extensively during his presidency. He attended the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge and toured both Florida and Yellowstone National Park. During his presidency the United States celebrated the 100th anniversary of the Yorktown surrender, and many cities and towns adopted the use of Standard Time after the railroad established time zones.

22 & 24. Grover Cleveland, 1885-89; 1893-97 (Democrat) Grover Cleveland, the only President to ever serve nonconsecutive terms, was the 22nd and 24th President of the United States (1885-89) (1893-97). He was known to be honest, independent, and opposed to corruption and the spoils system. His motto "A public office is a public trust," demonstrated his stubborn courage and integrity. Born in Caldwell, New Jersey on March 18 l837, he is noted for many things. His friends called him "Uncle Jumbo" because of his size and jolly demeanor. He was the first sheriff of Buffalo, New York to hang a man.

Vice President: Adlai E. Stevenson

Notable Events: repealed the Tenure of Office Act, Pullman Strike of 1894

Background: Grover Cleveland's minister father died when Grover was just sixteen. While Grover was growing up, the Cleveland family moved around quite a bit. At age fourteen, young Grover had gone to work to help support the family. He worked for two years as an assistant at the New York Institute for the Blind. Ultimately, he left home to go west and seek his dreams, but only got as far as Buffalo, where he ended up staying and working on an uncle's farm. Within a year, Grover became a clerk at a law firm and began to study law. He was soon admitted to the bar. For his work in the Governor’s race he was named assistant District Attorney in Erie County. He ran in his first election for District Attorney and lost. Then he ran for sheriff and won. He gained a reputation for being honest and exposing corruption. Cleveland went on to become the mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York, where he came into the national spotlight.

Public Life: As Governor, Cleveland continued his fight for reform. He lost the support of New York's Democratic Party when he argued with Party Chairman, John Kelly. He lost public support when he vetoed a bill that would have lowered the fare on the elevated railroads in New York City.

Presidency: In spite of these problems with the party and the people, Cleveland ran for President. His reputation for integrity made him the ideal candidate to run against the Republicans, who, at that point, had become identified with corruption and scandal. Cleveland defeated James Blaine to become the first Democrat elected to the presidency since the Civil War. As President, he continued his fight for reform. Upholding the merit system, he not only denied government jobs to thousands of party members, but he convinced Congress to repeal

the Tenure of Office Act so that he could remove officials appointed by the previous administration without having to wait until their terms expired.Cleveland vetoed a bill that would have allowed American Civil War veterans to collect pensions for disabilities that occurred after the war, and he stood against protective tariffs on imported goods. During his first term, he married Frances Folsom, becoming the only President to wed while in the White House. Although he received the majority of popular votes, he lost the 1888 election to Benjamin Harrison.In 1892 Grover Cleveland was re-nominated, and this time he beat Harrison. This made him the only US President to serve nonconsecutive terms. He took office again just as the nation was entering a depression. His second administration was beset by political and industrial unrest. He invoked the Monroe Doctrine and threatened, if necessary, to use force to arbitrate a dispute with Britain over a South American boundary. He recognized the new government American settlers had established in Hawaii, and he prevented expeditions from leaving the US to assist the rebels in Cuba.In the Pullman Strike of 1894, Cleveland sent troops in to break the strike on the grounds that movement of the US mail was being halted. He repealed the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in order to maintain the gold standard of the dollar. When Cleveland left office, the US economy was still in a depression and the United States Treasury was nearly bankrupt. In spite of his stubborn courage and simple honesty, Grover Cleveland was not able to solve the problems facing the nation at that time. He was true to his ideals and, when he thought he was right, said "no," even to powerful groups such as farmers, manufacturers and veterans.

Afterwards: Upon leaving office in 1897, Grover Cleveland settled in Princeton, New Jersey, lecturing, writing, and transacting business until he died there on June 24, 1908. On his deathbed he summed up his life well by saying "I have tried so hard to do right."

23. Benjamin Harrison, 1889-93 (Republican) Benjamin Harrison, the twenty-third President of the US (1889-93), was called the Centennial President because he was inaugurated 100 years after George Washington. He was born on August 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio. His grandfather was President William Henry Harrison, and his great grandfather had signed the Declaration of Independence. He was the only chief executive whose grandfather was also President.

Vice President: Levi Morton

Notable Events: Sherman Antitrust Act, McKinley Tariff Act, Pan American Union

Background & Public Life: Harrison was a lawyer and served in the Civil War, rising to the rank of major general. After the War he returned to his law practice and became active in the Republican Party. As a Republican, he was defeated in his run for Governor of Indiana, but was elected to the US Senate before he was nominated to run for President against incumbent Grover Cleveland. The ethics of the Harrison campaign were questionable, and supporters circulated a document called the Murchison Letter, which implied Great Britain was for Cleveland. He lost the popular vote to Cleveland narrowly, but won the electoral vote and thus the election. He was one of three chief executives elected whose closest opponents received more popular votes.

Presidency: Harrison believed in a sound monetary system. During his term, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act and called for the building of a two-ocean Navy of steel ships. President Harrison supported the Silver Purchase Act, which set silver as the standard with which to back the value of the dollar; the Sherman Antitrust Act, which made monopolies illegal; and the McKinley Tariff Act, which raised tariffs on imported goods.

Harrison called the first Pan American Union to develop unity and cooperation in all the Americas. He attempted to annex Hawaii and gain foreign bases for the Navy. He ordered the flag to be flown above the White House and other government buildings; and he urged schools to do the same. He spent treasury surpluses on roads and harbor improvement. The Homestead Steel Strike caused major domestic problems with union labor and the public. After rioting led to several deaths, Harrison sent in troops to break the strike.

Afterwards: Harrison's wife died two weeks before the election of 1892. Although he had beaten Grover Cleveland in the election of 1888, Cleveland easily retook the office in 1892. After his term of President Benjamin Harrison returned to his law practice where he handled the border dispute between Venezuela and British Guyana. In April of 1896, he remarried a younger woman who was a niece of his first wife, and they had a daughter. Harrison died in Indianapolis on March 13, 1901, still a respected statesman.

25. William McKinley, 1897-1901 (Republican) William McKinley was the twenty-fifth President of the United States (1897-1901) and the third Chief Executive to be assassinated. McKinley was a gentle, kind, and considerate man who was loved by the American people. When he was shot by his assassin he cried out "Don't let anyone hurt him."

Vice Presidents: Garret Hobart, vacant, Theodore Roosevelt

Notable Events: Gold Standard Act of 1900, Spanish-American War, his assassination

Background: Born on January 29, l843 in Niles, Ohio, he attended Allegheny College in Meadsville, Pennsylvania. William McKinley served in the Civil War under Rutherford Hayes. He entered the Civil War as an enlisted man and left with the rank of major. He risked his life in the Battle of Antietam, going through heavy enemy fire to bring supplies to his troops. That heroism got him promoted to major. Even after the war was over, McKinley was called "Major." He studied law, was admitted to the bar, and also functioned as prosecuting attorney of Stark County, Ohio. McKinley served in the US House of Representatives. As a congressman from Ohio from 1877-1891, he was a strong advocate of a protective tariff. He sponsored the McKinley Tariff Act, which placed high taxes on imported goods.

Public Life: With the help of political boss, Marcus Hanna, McKinley was elected Governor of Ohio in 1891 and again in 1893. While Governor, he blocked attempts to regulate public utilities, in which Hanna had an interest. The Republican Party nominated him for President in 1896. He defeated William Jennings Bryan in the election of 1896 on a platform advocating a protective tariff and endorsing the gold standard.Although he was outgoing by nature, as President, McKinley rarely entertained because of the lasting emotional toll the loss of the McKinley's two young daughters had on his wife. He enjoyed quiet evenings at home reading poetry to his wife while she crocheted. He didn't have any hobbies and was not ever involved in sports. An easy-going companion, he always wore a fresh red carnation and a white vest. He empathized with the farmers and laborers who were being mistreated by big business, but he didn't interfere because he felt it was not government's place to do so.

Presidency: McKinley's presidency was noted for the Dingley Tariff Act, which raised duties on imported goods even higher than the tariff of 1890 had. The McKinley years also saw the passage of the Gold Standard Act of 1900. The nation had come out of its severe depression and started to prosper once again. Confidence in business was high. Since the Republicans were credited with the nation's return to prosperity, they remained the dominant party until the 1930's.Confidence was restored in the business world, and the nation once again became prosperous. In 1898 the American battleship Maine exploded in the harbor at Havana, Cuba initiating the

Spanish-American War. Mckinley led the United States during the Spanish-American War. McKinley was accused of Imperialism, the newspapers owned by William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer alleged that he created demands for United States intervention. As part of the peace treaty, the United States acquired control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines.McKinley used this return of prosperity as his platform in the presidential election of 1900. He was so loved by the public that he received more popular votes than any candidate since the Civil War and more electoral votes than had any other President to that date.On September 6, 1901, while McKinley was greeting visitors at the Pan-American exposition in Buffalo he was shot by an anarchist name Leon Czolgosz. He died eight days later and once again the country was in national mourning for a fallen President. Theodore Roosevelt, his Vice President, ascended to the presidency.

26. Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-9 (Republican) Theodore Roosevelt became the 26th US President (1901-1909) after the assassination of President William McKinley. Nicknamed Teddy, he was one of the most popular and important Presidents ever to serve in the Chief Executive Office. A hero in Cuba during the Spanish-American War, his foreign policy was summed up in the phrase "Speak softly and carry a big stick." The Panama Canal was built during his tenure in the White House.

Vice Presidents: vacant, Charles Fairbanks

Notable Events: Panama Canal, Russo-Japanese War

Background: Roosevelt was born on October 27, 1858 into a prosperous Dutch New York City family. As a child he was sickly, suffering from asthma and poor eyesight. He exercised vigorously to improve his health and increase his body strength. He was a man of hearty enthusiasm and was devoted to physical fitness. When he was pleased he would say "Bully!" Roosevelt enjoyed big game hunting, and toy makers created the teddy bear after a cartoonist drew Roosevelt with a bear cub. His hunting produced a unique collection of animals that he donated to the Smithsonian Institute.Teddy Roosevelt was also an author. Between 1880 and 1900 he wrote more than a dozen books, the best known of which is "The Winning of the West", which was published in four volumes. Teddy was much loved by the public, and he thoroughly enjoyed his presidency. Upon leaving office, he said, "I do not believe that anyone else has ever enjoyed the White House as much as I have."

Public Life: Theodore Roosevelt's first taste of politics came when was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1882. In 1884, bereaved by the deaths of his mother and his wife, Alice Hathaway Lee (who died giving birth to a daughter who did survive), he left New York and retired to his ranch in the Dakota Territory. He spent the next two years ranching and hunting for big game.In 1886, Roosevelt both remarried and reentered politics. After an unsuccessful campaign in 1886 for mayor of New York City and a failed bid to get on the national Republican ticket in 1888, he was finally, in 1889, appointed United States Civil Service Commissioner. He was re-appointed in 1893. From 1895 to 1897, he served as New York City's police commissioner. In 1887 he met and subsequently married Edith Carow.In 1896, Roosevelt had once again tried and failed to get a spot on the national Republican ticket. McKinley won that election and appointed Roosevelt Assistant Secretary of the Navy, where "TR", as he was called, worked to broaden and upgrade the service. In 1898, Roosevelt, along with physician and soldier Leonard Wood, formed the Rough Riders. The Rough Riders' victory at the Battle of San Juan Hill in Cuba made Roosevelt a popular national figure. After that (in 1899),

he was elected governor of New York. As governor he followed his own mind and heart above the wishes of the Republican Party. Nevertheless, in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became William McKinley's Vice President; and when McKinley was assassinated in September of that year, Roosevelt assumed the presidency. At the age of forty-three, Theodore Roosevelt was the youngest man to ever become President of the United States.

Presidency: As President, Roosevelt took a moral approach toward the nation's social problems. He used his Presidential powers as none before him had. He handled the coal miners strike of 1902 by appointing a commission to investigate.The Sooner Act of 1902 was drafted to gain the right to build a canal to create a shipping route through what is now Panama, but what then was part of Columbia. Columbia refused to ratify The Sooner Act, but a new Panamanian government was established in 1903, which did pass it. Having gained the right to build the Panama Canal, The United States began construction immediately. Also in 1903, the United States won a dispute with Great Britain over the boundary between lower Alaska and Canada. Teddy Roosevelt was able to keep the Germans from interfering with Venezuela in 1902, and he declared that only the U. S. had the right to intervene in South American affairs.During his administration Theodore Roosevelt initiated forty lawsuits against big trusts and initiated measures for the conservation of national resources. He had 125 million acres set aside as National Forests. Later he added another 85 million acres in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.Roosevelt was reelected to the presidency in 1904 with ease. In that year The Roosevelt Corollary, stating that the United States had "police power" over Latin America, was added to the Monroe Doctrine. Roosevelt's second term was also noted for the Hepburn Act of 1906 and the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. The Hepburn Act strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) and prevented the railroad from charging unjust rates. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 established the Food and Drug Administration.Also in 1906 Theodore Roosevelt was the first American to win the Nobel Peace Prize when his mediation in the Russo-Japanese War led to The Treaty of Portsmouth, which ended the war between Russia and Japan. He also helped to settle a conflict between Germany and France over control of Morocco. When several international crises arose between 1904 and 1906, Roosevelt was key in keeping the balance of European power intact.During both terms of his presidency, Roosevelt fought to broaden and upgrade the Navy and other armed forces. He got Congress to agree to build more battleships and cruisers. In 1907 he sent the battle forces on a world tour to show off United States naval ability. This impressed the Japanese so that Taft was able to negotiate agreements with them that settled the dispute over immigration. In his last public appearance as President, Roosevelt inspected the naval fleet when it returned from its world tour.

Afterwards: Upon leaving the White House, Teddy Roosevelt left politics for four years, returning in 1912 when he split the Republican Party by running as the third party Progressive candidate. During this campaign, while in Milwaukee Wisconsin, Roosevelt was shot in an assassination attempt; but he went ahead and gave his speeches before going to the hospital. He brushed off the attack saying, "It takes more than that to kill a bull moose." From that time on, the Progressive Party became known as the Bull Moose Party. Roosevelt lost that election to Woodrow Wilson. In 1914, while in the Amazon, Teddy Roosevelt caught tropical fevers. On January 6, 1919, he died in his sleep in Oyster Bay, N.Y. His failing health did not prevent him from remaining active until the very end of his life.

27. William Howard Taft, 1909-13 (Republican)

William Taft was the twenty-seventh President (1909-1013) and tenth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court (1921-1930). Taft was the only Chief Executive in the nation's history to serve first as President and then as Chief Justice. Thus, he became the only person in history to ever head two branches of the federal government -- the executive and the judicial.

Vice Presidents: James Sherman, vacant

Notable Events: passage of the 16th and the 17th Amendment Background: Taft, the nation's largest President; stood over six feet tall and weighed over three

hundred pounds. A special bathtub was made in the White House to accommodate him. He enjoyed athletics, especially baseball. He is credited with starting the tradition of the President's throwing out the first pitch in the first game of the World Series, as well as with initiating the seventh inning stretch. He was a good dancer and an accomplished equestrian, who rode daily.Born on September 15, 1857, in Cincinnati, Ohio; William Taft was the son of Alphonso Taft, Secretary of State for President Grant. He was educated at Yale University and graduated second in his class. His also graduated from the Cincinnati Law School and then married Helen Herron in 1886. He then spent most of the next twenty years the courtroom as an attorney and later as a judge. In addition, he served as assistant district attorney, as a collector for the Internal Revenue Service in Cincinnati, and as solicitor general of the United States, and as a judge of the Circuit Court of Appeals.

Public Life: He chaired a commission to establish civil government in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War, and he served as its first Civilian Governor. As Governor of the Philippines, William Taft set up the local government and the judicial system. He also helped settle land disputes between the churches and government officials.During his first administration, Theodore Roosevelt appointed Taft Secretary of War. While serving in this capacity, Taft directed construction of the Panama Canal, established the Canal Zone government, and helped upgrade the United States Army. He also participated in the negotiations that would end the Russo-Japanese War, and he helped Japan settle an immigration conflict. On two occasions, Theodore Roosevelt offered him a seat on the Supreme Court, but Taft turned him down both times. When Roosevelt chose not to run in the 1908 Presidential election, he persuaded the Republican Party to nominate Taft, who easily won the election.

Presidency: Because of his experience in law and government, William Taft was as highly qualified as any President who had held the office up to that time; but his administration was less than happy. Taft signed a tariff bill that angered the progressive wing of the Republican Party, especially Roosevelt. The Taft administration also passed parcel post reforms and workman's compensation laws. It was during the Taft presidency that Congress passed the 16th Amendment to levy an income tax on the American people, and the 17th amendment, which allowed election of United States senators by popular vote.William Taft also established the Federal Children's Bureau, had the Mann-Elkins Act passed, and signed the Publicity Act. The Mann-Elkins Act placed the telephone, telegraph, radio, cable services, and other communications companies under the control of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). The Publicity Act required political parties to account for the money spent on federal campaigns. Taft wanted to expand the influence of the United States overseas, so he started a plan called Dollar Diplomacy, which encouraged United States banks and businesses to make investments abroad. He was not above using the Marines to accomplish his objectives.Roosevelt broke with Taft in 1910, and ran as a third party candidate on the Progressive or Bull Moose ticket in the election of 1912. This split the Republican Party and their votes, giving an easy victory to Democrat, Woodrow Wilson. Unlike Teddy Roosevelt before him, Taft was very unhappy as Chief Executive, and when he left the White House in 1913, he told incoming President, Woodrow Wilson, "I'm glad to be going. This is the loneliest place in the world."

Afterwards: The years following his term as President were Taft's most fulfilling and productive. He became a professor at Yale Law School in 1913, headed the League to Enforce Peace in 1915, and served as co-chairman of the National War Labor Board in 1917. He found his greatest fulfillment was when President Harding appointed him Chief Justice in 1921.As Chief Justice he reduced the Supreme Court's backlog and got the Court to look at property rights and governmental limitation more conservatively. He was instrumental in getting The Judiciary Act of 1925 passed, giving the justices more control when selecting cases to be heard.William Taft administrated the Supreme Court efficiently, and through his lobbying efforts, Congress passed laws to strengthen the Court's power. Another far reaching program Chief Justice Taft voted for was the minimum wage. Taft was the only former President to ever give the Oath of Office to an incoming President. He performed this honor for both Coolidge and Hoover.On March 8, l930, only one month after retiring from the Supreme Court, William Taft died. He was the first President to be buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

28. Woodrow Wilson, 1913-21 (Democrat) Thomas Woodrow Wilson, the twenty-eighth President of the United States (1913-1921) guided the country through The First World War. A Democrat, Wilson was elected to the US presidency in 1912 after having served as president of his alma mater Princeton University (formerly The College of New Jersey) and as Governor of New Jersey (1910).

Vice President: Thomas Marshall

Notable Events: establishment of Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission, World War I

Background: Wilson was born on December 28, 1856, in Staunton, Virginia. His father was a Presbyterian minister and his mother was the daughter of a minister. He married Ellen Louise Axson and authored several books on the government, history, economics, and the US Congress. His first book, Congressional Government, was published in 1885.

Public Life: Wilson studied law, but only practiced for a year before returning to college at Johns Hopkins University, where, in 1886, he got a Ph.D. in political science. Wilson was a noted scholar and lecturer, who taught at Bryn Mawr College and Wesleyan University before becoming a professor of jurisprudence and political economy at Princeton. In 1902 he became President of Princeton and reorganized the curriculum and the undergraduate program; however the wealthy alumni and trustees defeated many of his proposed changes to the college. In 1920, he was elected Governor of New Jersey. As Governor, he broke the control of the party bosses and supported bills dealing with election reform, workmen's compensation, and creating a Public Utilities Commission to combat monopolies.

Presidency: The Democratic Party nominated him for the presidency in 1912. After 46 ballots he defeated the Speaker of the House, Champs Clark. When the Republican vote was split between William Howard Taft and Theodore Roosevelt, Wilson easily won the general election.One of the primary goals of his presidency was to regulate big business. With his programs nicknamed "New Freedom" the all-Democratic Congress easily passed them. The Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission were established. The Federal Reserve Act established a new system to support finance and banking. The Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 established an Antitrust Commission with broad powers to enforce laws that further limited the power of large corporations. The Underwood Tariff Act lowered tariffs on imported goods for the first time in forty years, which stimulated foreign trade. Also during Woodrow Wilson's first term, the Federal Farm Loan Act was passed, as was a law giving railroad workers an eight-hour day.

During the first Wilson term, Louis Brandeis was appointed the first Jewish member of the Supreme Court.Wilson's skill in foreign was tested when instability in the Mexican government was seen as threatening to American interests there. General Victoriano Huerta, the man seen as most supportive of American business interests in Mexico, had seized power illegally, so Wilson refused to acknowledge his government. After an incident at sea and the discovery of a German ship delivering ammunition to Mexico, Wilson intervened, and briefly had hopes regarding the Mexican bandit Pancho Villa, who ultimately turned on him. The situation was ultimately resolved, but it was not one of Wilson's finer moments.Wilson had maintained a neutral position when World War I broke out in Europe in 1914. He saw it as an imperialistic conflict between European monarchs, and thought the United States should have no part in it. In January of 1915 Wilson warned Germany, telling them that they would be accountable for the loss of any American lives. The British passenger liner the LUSITANIA was sunk in May of 1915 and 128 American lives were lost, but still Wilson did not join the fray. Instead he asked Germany to respect American shipping as neutral, a request they honored for a while. Wilson did his best to end the War through diplomatic means, sending a trusted advisor, Colonel Edward House, abroad to explore a peaceful end to the conflict in secret meetings with the German and British governments. In 1916, he made a public appeal for "peace without victory".President Wilson was up for reelection during these trying political times. He ran on the slogan "He kept us out of war." In 1916 he defeated Republican opponent Charles Evans Hughes by one of the narrowest victories in history. The election came down to California, which Wilson won by 1500 votes, and thus gathered enough electoral votes to win.Finally, when Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare and attempted to make an alliance with Mexico, Wilson severed diplomatic relations with the Axis Powers. On April 6, l917, at Wilson's request, Congress declared war on Germany, rallying the country around the slogan "the world must be made safe for democracy." Large armies were raised; food and fuel were rationed; industry and labor were organized; railroads were taken over by the Federal Government; public opinion and civil liberties were curtailed. In May of 1917, Congress approved The Selective Service Act, which empowered him to draft 2.8 million Americans into the countries' armed forces. He also sought and was given broader Presidential powers for the duration of the war. A War Commission Board restricted production to war supplies. Woodrow Wilson instituted the first federal income tax since the Civil War.On June 28, l919 the Treaty of Versailles was signed, ending World War One. Wilson set out his plan for the implementation of peace in his famous Fourteen Points. An important point was an organization of nations to enforce peace. This was the beginning of the League of Nations, forerunner of the United Nations. Surprisingly, the Senate refused to allow the United States to join the League. When Wilson returned from France, the Congress refused to ratify the treaty. Wilson responded by embarking upon a personal campaign to win public support for the League of Nations. On his way back to Washington after a journey of 8,000 miles during which he delivered over forty speeches, Wilson suffered a stroke from which he never recovered. At the time of Wilson's stroke, three months of his term remained. His wife kept the truth about his condition from the public by taking over Presidential duties herself.

Afterwards: In 1919 Woodrow Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts. Congress refused to allow the United States to join the League and never did ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Wilson died on February 3, 1924.

29. Warren Gamaliel Harding, 1921-23 (Republican)

Warren Harding was the twenty-ninth President of the United States (1921-1923). Historians regard him as one of the weakest chief executives in the nation's history. Born November 2, 1865, in Ohio, he attended Ohio Central College and graduated in 1882. He started out as a newspaper editor and publisher. He entered politics at the urging of his wife.

Vice President: Calvin Coolidge

Notable Events: Peace between Germany and Austria declared, Teapot Dome Scandal, Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act

Background & Public Life: Harding first served as an Ohio State Senator, then as Lieutenant Governor (1904-1905). He lost the election in 1910 to become the Governor of Ohio, but in 1914 he was elected to the United States Senate. While in the Senate he never proposed any legislation, but was popular with the Republicans for keeping harmony within the party. Although at this time, his home state of Ohio was torn apart by factionalism, Harding worked diligently to walk a middle path and not alienate anyone. His role of harmonizer brought him into the national leadership of the Republican Party. At the end of World War I he was on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and strongly opposed the League of Nations. At the 1920 Republican Convention, Harding was nominated as a compromise candidate. He campaigned under the slogan "Back to Normalcy" and promised to return the country to the more lighthearted environment that existed before the war.

Presidency: Harding's administration was involved in widespread corruption and graft including the Teapot Dome Scandal. Control of naval oil reserves had been transferred from the Department of the Navy to the Department of the Interior, whose secretary leased the reserves on the basis of a received payback, rather than through competitive bidding. This was but one example of the corruption that took place during the Harding presidency. Most of it did not come to light until after his death from a heart attack on August 2, 1923. While Harding had looked and acted like the President, others had actually been running the country, and Harding had not paid sufficient attention to what was happening on his watch.Although remembered for scandal, Harding did move the nation out of wartime emergency conditions. He increased federal hiring, proposed agricultural legislation, and created a Bureau of the Budget. He concluded the peace treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. He also took strong action in the movement to limit the extended hours of labor in the American Steel Industry.Warren G. Harding became the sixth Chief Executive to die in office. Upon his death, he was succeeded by his Vice President, Calvin Coolidge. After his death, a series of congressional investigations and criminal trials resulted in many high officials, some of them Harding's personal friends, being convicted of crimes. Misconduct was found in the Interior and Navy Departments, the Veterans' Bureau, the Justice Department, and the Office of the Alien Property Custodian. Two of the most prominent people indicted were Attorney General Harry Daugherty and Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall.

30. Calvin Coolidge , 1923-29 (Republican) Calvin Coolidge became the thirtieth United States President (1923-29) when Warren Harding died suddenly. Coolidge was the sixth Vice President to inherit the presidency. Coolidge was a former Governor of Massachusetts. His calm, shy personality appealed to the attitudes of the time. His common sense and dry wit earned him a reputation for being wise. Coolidge refrained from giving public statements unless they were absolutely necessary, and when he did, they were short and to the point.

Vice Presidents: vacant, Charles Dawes

Notable Events: stripped the Federal Trade Commission and the Tariff Commission of their powers

Background: Born in Plymouth, Vermont on July 4, 1872, Coolidge studied law at Amherst College and began a practice in Northampton, Massachusetts. He served in local offices, as a state legislator, and as the mayor of Northampton. He cut taxes, lowered the city debt, and raised employees pay while adding to his own prestige. While serving in the State Senate he was known for his admiration of businessmen, was happy with the status quo, and promoted the idea that all that was needed was to wait until the laws that had already been passed had time to make an impact. The Republican Party supported him first for Lieutenant Governor in l9l5 and again in 1918 when he was elected Governor of Massachusetts.

Public Life: He won national recognition in 1919 when he used state troopers to crush a strike by Boston policemen. Coolidge's stand was firm and expressed in his announcement, "There is no right to strike against the public safety by anyone, anywhere, anytime." He quickly called in the state's militia to deal with the looting and random acts of violence; then he negotiated a successful end of the conflict with the Labor Party organizer, Samuel Gompers.The Republicans chose Coolidge as Harding's Vice Presidential running mate on the 1920 ticket because he was against political machine politics. When President Harding died suddenly on August 2, 1923, Coolidge's father, a local notary public, administered his oath of office at their family farm in Vermont where Coolidge was vacationing.

Presidency: Coolidge began his administration by cleaning up the scandals of the Harding years. In 1924 Coolidge was elected in his own right. The slogan "Keep Cool With Coolidge" summarized the man and his campaign. Coolidge believed that less government interference in business made for prosperity. He became known as "Silent Cal" for his quiet manner and Laissez Faire economics. The term "laissez faire" is a French term for leaving things as they are.Coolidge summed his policies into one sentence: "The chief business of America is business." The rise in the stock market and the business boom of the time was called "Coolidge Prosperity." Coolidge stripped the Federal Trade Commission and the Tariff Commission of their powers, resulting in improved foreign trade. He vetoed bills for aid to America's farmers, which resulted in a coalition of western representatives against him. Their chief argument was that everyone else in the industry was given assistance, but not the people who were providing the natural goods. He also vetoed a bill that would have increased benefits for World War I veterans, and failed to sign one that would have provided for government control of a hydroelectric plant at Muscle Shoals, Tennessee.He appointed Frank Kellogg and Dwight Morrow to the State Department. It was Frank Kellogg who, along with French minister Aristede Briand, wrote the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which condemned war and made it a criminal act of aggression. Morrow averted a war with Mexico over the potential nationalization of oil and mineral deposits there and helped American businessmen in the Mexican courts and legislature. Coolidge spent billions of dollars on foreign aid to improve the balance of trade.Coolidge was President during the Roaring Twenties. During his presidency, Babe Ruth hit 60 home runs in one season; boxer Gene Tunney defeated Jack Dempsey; Charles Lindbergh made his famous solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean; and the first talking picture, The Jazz Singer, was released. Prohibition was the law, but the people ignored it, and gangsters became rich selling bootleg liquor. It was a time of spectacular economic growth and far-reaching social change.

Afterwards: Surprisingly, Coolidge chose not to seek reelection in 1928. His most famous words were "I do not choose to run for President in 1928." Instead he supported his Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover. Coolidge was the only President besides Hoover to be sworn into office by a former President (Taft). Coolidge retired to write articles and pursue private life. Many

deemed his economic practices as contributing greatly to the stock market crash of 1929 and the ensuing depression. Calvin Coolidge died on January 5, 1933, on his family farm in Northampton, Massachusetts while writing his autobiography.

31. Herbert Clark Hoover, 1929-33 (Republican) Herbert Hoover, the thirty-first President of the United States (1929-33), bore the brunt of the blame for the Great Depression, which was the result of the stock market crash of 1929. Born on August 10, 1874, in West Branch, Iowa, he was orphaned at the age of eight and spent his childhood in the home of his wealthy uncle. He worked his way through Stanford University, where he studied engineering. In 1895, he graduated, married Lou Henry, and began work as a laborer in the California mines. Soon after that he took a position in Australia directing gold mining ventures. The next twenty years were primarily devoted to traveling throughout Asia, Africa, and Europe as a mining entrepreneur and, subsequently, he earned a considerable fortune.

Vice President: Charles Curtis

Notable Events: Stock Market Crash of 1929, start of the Great Depression

Background: Herbert Hoover was a passionate man who, because of his Quaker upbringing, believed in peace. He was also an author of several books, American Individualism, The Challenge to Liberty, and Memoirs. His hobbies included fishing, hiking, and reading. He had a quiet sense of humor and seldom laughed out loud.

Public Life: When World War I broke out, Hoover was in London. He organized the return of thousands of American tourists who were stranded in Europe at the time. He was appointed to head the Commission for Relief in Belgium. This was a position in which he received national attention for his humanitarian efforts. The Commission fed over 10,000,000 people during the war. In 1917 he was recalled to the United States to serve as Food Administrator (which was a special office designed for wartime purposes). It was created to promote American agricultural production and coordinate the rationing and distribution of food. President Wilson then asked Hoover to return to Europe and direct The American Relief Administration, an agency whose purpose was to relieve suffering throughout Europe.In 1920 Hoover declared himself a Republican, but declined to run for President. In 1921, President Warren Harding appointed him Secretary of Commerce. He held this post until 1928 when his campaign for President began. As Secretary of Commerce, he expanded his department to promote foreign trade and standardized industry to reduce waste. During the two Presidencies he served in this position, he was nicknamed the Secretary of Domestic Affairs. He believed deeply in the self worth of individuals. Many of his beliefs were founded in his Quaker roots.Continuing his public service as a member of President Coolidge's cabinet, Hoover pressed for the regulation of radio and utilities. He initiated construction of one of the largest dams in the world on the Colorado River. Appropriately, the Hoover Dam bears his name. Hoover was considered the natural heir to President Coolidge and won the 1928 election easily, defeating Alfred Smith by the largest number of electoral votes in history up to that time.

Presidency: Hoover was the only President besides Calvin Coolidge to be sworn into office by a former President - President Taft. Hoover believed that business people should unite and form trade associations, believed that the sharing of important information about cost, production, and distribution would expand market growth. He believed the government should support, but not control business. In 1929 when stock prices plunged and $15 billion dollars was lost, Hoover, sincerely hoping that businessmen and voluntary agreements could restart the economy, told the public that the depression was temporary and prosperity was just around the corner. The next

year, however, brought drought, massive unemployment, and great suffering. Still he passionately clung to the notion that the citizens would rally and by their individual cooperative actions would cure the ills of the economy without the help of government intervention.Hoover was the first President to use the authority of the Federal Government to combat a depression, although he did so in a very limited way. In 1932 he sponsored the Reconstruction Finance Corporation to use assets of institutional investment to give loans to the troubled business community. He still refused to assist farmers or to pay unemployment compensation, insisting such aid should come at the local level. When Veterans of World War I marched on Washington to force payment of bonus guarantees, Hoover sent the Army under General Douglas McArthur to remove the "Bonus Army" from its encampment. Cardboard shantytowns called "Hoovervilles" sprang up across the country. Rabbits were called "Hoover Hogs," and the migration from the "Dust Bowl" of the plains began.

Afterwards: As the election of 1932 neared, the result was a foregone conclusion. In 1932 Franklin Roosevelt defeated Hoover by the greatest margin of electoral votes in the nation's history up to that time. Hoover remained the spokesperson for the Republican Party and continued to maintain that individuals should not look to the government to cure them of their ills. After World War II, he picked up in Europe where he had left off after the First World War. He coordinated the European Food Program (1946-47) and served on President Eisenhower's Commission on the Re-Organization of the Executive Branch of Government (1953-55). He gave many recommendations to the committee on how to make the government more efficient and make the President more accountable to Congress and the people. Many of these ideas are still used today as the standards of the Republican Party. Herbert Hoover was a man of great ethics and principle, but unfortunately, he is remembered as the President who brought the United States' economy to ruin. He died in New York City on October 20, 1964, at the age of ninety.

32. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1933-45 (Democrat) Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the thirty-second President of the United States (1933-45), was the only United States President to be elected to four terms. FDR, as he was called, served during the worst times in the history of the United States, including the Great Depression and World War II.

Vice Presidents: John Garner, Henry Wallace, Harry S. Truman

Notable Events: Great Depression, World War II

Background: Born January 30, 1882 in Hyde Park, New York, his uncle was the former President, Theodore Roosevelt. His mother, Sarah Delano, was his father's second wife, and she could trace her ancestry back to the Plymouth Colony. As the only son of a wealthy family, Franklin first attended the prestigious Groton School, where his sense of social responsibility was formed, and then went on to Harvard. He was only an average student, but during his senior year was the editor of the elite Harvard Crimson (the student paper).He graduated in 1903 and went on to Columbia Law School (1904-07), but he dropped out upon his admission to the New York State Bar Association in 1907. On March 27, 1905, he had married Eleanor Roosevelt, a distant cousin. As a young woman, Eleanor was shy, but she grew into one of the most prominent first ladies of this nation. In the latter part of her life she worked for social betterment, and she was highly regarded as a lecturer and newspaper columnist. From 1949 to 1952 she served as a United States delegate to the United Nations.

Public Life: Franklin Roosevelt was elected to the New York Senate in 1910. His first elected public office was State Senator from the Hudson River District. At this time, he became a Democrat, despite the fact that his Uncle Teddy was a Republican. During the bitter fight for President in 1912 he supported Woodrow Wilson. In 1913, President Wilson appointed him

Assistant Secretary of the Navy under Josephus Daniels. This is where he got the reputation as an elitist and a dandy (a finely dressed man) that followed him throughout his career. In 1920 he was the Vice Presidential candidate on a ticket with James Cox. They lost to Warren G Harding.While in his thirties Roosevelt, vacationing at his summer home on Campobello Island, suffered an attack of poliomyelitis. For the rest of his life, he was unable to walk without assistance. Inspired by his own experience with the illness, he would later found the March of Dimes to raise money for research into a cure for polio, as well as a national foundation at Warm Springs, Georgia for its treatment. FDR, himself, underwent treatment at this facility. His mother was the matriarch of the family and encouraged him, in her usual dominating manner, to retire to his home in Hyde Park and live his life contently there. Instead, he and Eleanor went against the grain. Eleanor, with the help of his trusted aide Louis McHenry Howe, assisted Franklin in keeping active in the Democratic Party. Franklin's mother was not happy at her lack of control, and she often took out her wrath on Eleanor.At the Democratic National Convention of 1924, Franklin Roosevelt finally made a return to the political stage. He was given the honor of placing Alfred Smith as the nominee for President of the United States. In his nomination speech, he referred to Smith as "The Happy Warrior." Franklin's delivery was masterful, and the speech gathered the Democrats behind Smith, who upon securing the nomination, strong-armed Roosevelt into running for Governor of New York. Smith had hoped that Roosevelt's appeal to the Protestants of rural New York would help him to carry the state in the election.Smith lost the race for President to Herbert Hoover, but Roosevelt did become Governor of New York, although by a narrow margin, proving to all that, despite his health, he could manage a strong campaign. While Governor, he initiated various welfare reforms, the development of public power, and civil service reforms. He also began to have serious Presidential aspirations. He met with a group of trusted advisors, many of them prominent new Yorkers, whose purpose was to brainstorm ideas that might put the nation back on its feet and, at the same time, quietly position FDR with a Presidential image. Reelected in 1930, he began to use the radio as a means of contact with the people. Roosevelt was still Governor of New York when he first mounted his campaign for the White House. During the National Convention he promised the delegates a " New Deal." That terminology was forever linked to his presidency and is a great part of United States history.Roosevelt gathered together a "Brain Trust" from New York's Columbia University. The group was formed prior to the Chicago Convention and included Raymond Mosley (a law professor), Rexford Tugwell (agriculture economist), and A. A. Berle, Jr. (a specialist in corporate structure and finance). These men provided Roosevelt with a specific platform on which to run his campaign. He began to speak of "an economic constitutional order," which included conservation, relief, social insurance, and cheaper electricity. The Great Depression helped give him an overwhelming victory in the general election. His opponents criticized his physical limitations, but he used his powers of persuasion and charm. Some say that had there been television back then, a man in a wheelchair would never have been elected President of the United States; but Franklin was able to make voters forget his disability.

Presidency: He became President in March of 1933 at one of the worst points of the Great Depression. On the eve of his inauguration he inspired confidence with the people when he told them " The only thing we have to fear is fear itself." Roosevelt began by winning the confidence of ordinary Americans through regular "fireside chats" on the radio. He asked them to stop hoarding cash, and on his first day as President he closed the Banks and ordered the Congress into special session to pass emergency banking legislation. It was a crisis situation. Between 12 and 14 million people were unemployed, and many were actually starving. In response, FDR recommended passage of programs such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA) that

provided building projects, built schools and public buildings; the Civil Concentration Corps [CCC], wherein unmarried men built roads and public projects under the direction of the Army; and The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), formed to build dams and hydroelectric plants for electricity and flood control on rivers. The Agricultural Adjustment Acts of 1933 and 1938 promoted reforestation and conservation and controlled supply and demand by paying farmers not to plant certain crops.During Roosevelt's presidency; the gold standard was abandoned and the Social Security Act introduced. The Social Security Act provided unemployment compensation, retirement funds, and disability insurance on a national scale. The dollar was devalued to stimulate foreign trade and to support more competitive business practices. As part of the New Deal, aid and assistance were provided to farms and businesses. The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was passed to stabilized industry by eliminating cutthroat practices, maintaining prices, and promoting labor unionization. The United States Supreme Court claimed that the NIRA and the Agricultural Adjustment Acts were unconstitutional. In 1938 Roosevelt had Congress pass another AA Act that did fit the Supreme Court's Standards. Employment for the unemployed and "a chicken in every pot" were the themes of the times. Many critics called the programs socialistic and said they were creating a welfare state funded by the government. Roosevelt's social welfare platform created federal deficits never seen before in this country.Roosevelt defeated Hoover for a second term and, for an unprecedented third term, he defeated Wendell Wilkie. Finally, in a fourth run, he defeated Thomas Dewey. Franklin Delano Roosevelt has been called the greatest President since Lincoln. But he is also highly criticized, especially for circumventing Congress and even his own Cabinet to get his programs through. He would constantly employ the use of radio and his now famous "fireside chats" to talk directly to the American people.Roosevelt foresaw the coming of the war that began in Europe in September of 1939. He kept playing cards with foreign policy, finding ways to aid the Allies against the Axis Powers. He advocated preparedness. Hitler was smashing his way through Europe, one country at a time, until he finally took France. In an overt gesture that broke the United State's neutrality, Roosevelt gave warships to the British, docking them in ports in the West Indies. Soon after this he introduced legislation to the Congress called the Lend-Lease Act. Under this act, the Allied countries could trade leased foreign bases for supplies and ships under a cash and carry arrangement that would have materials delivered to their ports by American ships. Soon America's factories were again humming, and war materials flowed to the Allies in huge numbers.Many of the American people did not want to enter into another war. Like the public, Roosevelt and his staff were divided on the matter; but the less-than-neutral actions of the United States with regard to shipping made for deteriorating relations with the Axis powers. The decision to enter the war was made for the US when on December 7, 1941, the Japanese Navy bombed the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. Hitler then also declared war on the United States. This truly was a world war to end all wars. When Roosevelt spoke of the attack in his address to Congress on December 8, 1941, he called it "A day that will live in infamy." Yet Roosevelt had been eager for the United States to enter The War on the behalf of the Allies, and some argue he welcomed the Japanese attack as the excuse he needed. Roosevelt mobilized for war by enacting Woodrow Wilson's Selective Service Act, which created a draft to secure men for armed forces, and the War Production Board, which consolidated industry for the production of war materials on a massive scale.Roosevelt and Britain's Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, planned all aspects of the war with unity and purpose. Their first mission was to annihilate Hitler and force Germany into an unconditional surrender, which would never again allow an opening for the Germans to wage war upon the continent of Europe. Together they coordinated all of their countries' will and power to

defeat the enemy. But to truly mount the war effort, they needed Stalin; and Stalin needed them. Although they knew of his plans for Eastern Europe, they had to align with the Communist for strategic purposes.Roosevelt initiated the Manhattan Project, which eventually led to the development of the Atomic Bomb. Food and gasoline were rationed. Drives for rubber, scrap and even paper were conducted to support the war effort. Women took over the jobs formerly filled by the fighting men. Eleanor Roosevelt traveled about the country motivating these women with her wit and praise, while Franklin attended high level conferences with Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill in places like Quebec, Malta, Tehran, and at Yalta. It was during the Yalta conference that the discussion that led to the formation of a United Nations was held.Roosevelt's health had been deteriorating during the latter years of the War. The burden of the presidency took a toll on his body; but his mind persevered. Doctors constantly attended to him, doing what was necessary to keep him functioning. Roosevelt knew his days were numbered, but he desperately wanted to bring the War to a close. At Yalta the cold of the sea had made him ill, and upon his return, he went to Warm Springs, Georgia, for a much-needed rest. His wife was not with him, but was carrying his message from city to city when, finally, on April 12, 1945, Franklin Delano Roosevelt died without getting to see the peace.

33. Harry S Truman, 1945-53 (Democrat) Harry S. Truman was the thirty-third President of the United States. Truman authorized the use of the atomic bomb against Japan in 1945. He became President when Franklin Roosevelt became the seventh Chief Executive to die in office. In World War I he was an officer in a unit known for the battles of Saint-Mihiel and Argonne. After the war he married Elizabeth Wallace, known as Bess, but whom Harry called "Mother." He became a partner in a clothing store that went bankrupt during the Depression. Harry Truman was much respected for his straight talk and his ability to make hard decisions, often heard saying, "If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen." He had a sign on his desk that read "The Buck Stops Here."His policy of containment of Soviet expansionism initiated the long Cold War with the Soviet Union. He had trouble with Congress and labor groups over the conversion of the economy back to peacetime conditions after WWII. While he was staying at the Blair House because the White House was undergoing renovations, two Puerto Rican nationalists tried to assassinate Truman. His reply to the assassination attempt was "A President has to expect those things." In 1965 he was given the Freedom Award.

Vice President: vacant, Alben Barkley

Notable Events: end of World War II, Atom Bomb

Background & Public Life: Born on May 8, 1884, in Lamar, Missouri, Harry Truman grew up on a farm. After being active in local Democratic politics for a decade, Truman was elected to the United States Senate in 1934. Prior to that, his first political position was as a judge in Jackson County in 1922, where he earned a reputation for firing inept workers and attempting to end corruption. As a United States Senator, he supported New Deal legislation and served on the Appropriations Committee and the Interstate Commerce Committee. Truman exposed fraud and waste in defense programs and revealed the appalling conditions in army camps and defense plants.

Presidency: Franklin Roosevelt chose Truman to be his running mate in the Presidential election in 1944, and when Roosevelt died eighty-two days after starting his fourth term, Truman took over as President.Truman believed that Stalin wanted to spread the Communist influence throughout Europe. The Truman Doctrine, which became law in 1947, was aimed at protecting Greece and Turkey from

Communist domination. Later, it also blocked Communist expansion anywhere in the world. Truman implemented the Marshall Plan to aid in the economic recovery of western Europe after World War II. In addition to providing financial aid to help war-torn Europe rebuild, The Marshall Plan made the United States a world power. He also initiated the establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO).NATO was formed to help prevent the spread of Communism. It was the first peacetime military alliance the United States had ever joined. The Soviet Union's ability to use and develop atomic weapons had put the United States in a nuclear arms race, which led to the development of the hydrogen bomb. When the Soviet Union sent Communist forces to China and Korea, Truman expanded the Truman Doctrine to include Asia. He sent American troops to support the United Nations in the Korean War, which was technically a "police action." In a controversial move, Truman removed General Douglas MacArthur from his command in Korea. Truman was also providing financial aid to the French in Vietnam.It was during the Truman presidency that the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency were established. These organizations bypassed the State Department and Congress to provide advice and information directly to the President. The Bureau of the Budget also started doing things that congressional committees had previously done. These changes increased the power of the presidency by giving the Chief Executive more ability to function outside of congressional restraints. Fear of Communism gripped the United States and the House Committee on Un-American Activities suggested that Communists had infiltrated the Truman administration. To combat these attacks, Truman decided that all federal employees had to be screened by loyalty boards.His domestic policy, called the "Fair Deal", was basically a continuation of Roosevelt's "New Deal," and was frustrated by the resurgence of the Republicans who won control of Congress in 1946. When Congress fought against his domestic policies Truman used the power of the veto. He unsuccessfully tried to stop the Taft-Hartley Act, which weakened some of the powers acquired by organized labor during the New Deal.In 1948 Truman won a stunning and unexpected victory over Thomas Dewey. As hard as he tried, Truman was unable to obtain civil rights legislation, get federal aid for education, repeal the Taft-Hartley Act, set up a public power project, or set up a national health insurance system. However, he was able to implement some of the New Deal policies, such as providing subsidies to farmers and public housing; establishing social security, and a minimum wage. His homespun, often feisty style of leadership made him a symbol of no-nonsense Middle America. Although not without support, Harry Truman decided not to run for reelection in 1952. He retired to Independence, Missouri where he remained active in politics until his death in Kansas City, Missouri on December 26, 1972.

34. Dwight David Eisenhower, 1953-61 (Republican) Dwight David Eisenhower was the thirty-fourth President (1952-61) and a war hero. His presidency was marked by an end to the Korean War.

Vice President: Richard Nixon

Notable Events: end to the Korean War, Sputnik

Background: Born in Denison, Texas on October 14, 1890, two years later his poor family moved to Abilene, Kansas. Ike, as he was called, graduated from West Point Military Academy in 1914 as a second lieutenant and began a career that would rank him as one of the greatest military leaders of World War II.On July 1, 1916, Eisenhower married Mamie Geneva Doud, who was the daughter of a wealthy family in Denver, Colorado.

Public Life: Although he didn't see combat during World War I, he was decorated with the Distinguished Service Medal and promoted to lieutenant colonel because he successfully commanded several training camps. He, along with another famous war hero George Patton, was an advocate of mobile armored tactics. From 1922 to 1924 he was Executive Officer to General Fox Conner, Military Commander of the Panama Canal Zone. Subsequently, with the assistance of Fox, he attended Command and General Staff School where he graduated first in his class. He then served on the Battle Monuments Commission under General John Pershing, after which he studied at the Army War College then went on to serve in the office of the Assistant Secretary of War.career military man, when World War II broke out, Eisenhower was appointed Chief of Staff of the Third Army. He was recognized as an ardent administrator, and politician. In 1943, he rose to Supreme Commander of Allied Expeditionary Forces in Europe. He oversaw the invasions of North Africa, Sicily, and Italy, and he announced the Italian surrender. He launched the Invasion of Normandy on D-day and oversaw the final defeat of Germany on May 8, 1945. After the war, Eisenhower served as President of Columbia University (1948-50), while remaining a military advisor. He rejected pleas of the Democratic Party to run for President in 1948.Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, working to achieve service unification and cooperation in the Department of Defense. In 1948, while doing this, he wrote "Crusade in Europe." President Truman named him Military Commander of NATO. He was stationed in Paris at the time where his great appeal enhanced his reputation throughout the Western World.

Presidency: Eisenhower resigned from the army in 1952 in order to make a bid for the presidency. He was so popular that both the Democrats and the Republicans wanted him as their candidate; but because of his own basic conservatism, he ran as a Republican. His campaign slogan was, "I like Ike," and America did. He and his Vice Presidential running mate, Richard Nixon, defeated the Democrat Adlai Stevenson in a landslide.As President, Eisenhower's policies tended to be middle of the road, with compromises that pleased both parties. He and his Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles continued Harry Truman's policy of containing Communism. Eisenhower sent military advisors and aid to anti-Communist countries like South Vietnam. By threatening to use nuclear weapons, he forced China into an armistice, ending the Korean War. He issued the Eisenhower Doctrine to resist Communism in the Middle East. Although he believed Communism would fail on its own and that nuclear conflict was to be avoided at all costs, he enlarged the United States nuclear arsenal to include missiles carrying multiple armed warheads. When the Russians launched a satellite named "Sputnik" in 1956, Eisenhower thrust the United States into the space race.Foreign affairs during the Eisenhower years were intense. At summit meetings in 1955 and 1960, Eisenhower, recognizing the nuclear threat, proposed an international Atoms for Peace Plan to reduce the arms race between the major countries. In l959 Fidel Castro seized control of the island of Cuba and set up a Communist regime there. Eisenhower responded with an embargo, or ban on trade. Just before he left office in l961, he broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba. A summit meeting in 1960 with Nikita Khrushchev ended abruptly when a U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russia, revealing that the United States had been spying on the Soviets with high altitude flights.Domestically, things were a bit smoother. Ike served during a time of postwar prosperity. He expanded the policies of the New Deal in the domestic economy and instituted the most far-reaching Civil Rights reforms since Reconstruction. He secured the right of blacks to vote, and in 1957 he sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce court ordered school desegregation. Eisenhower was fiscally conservative and believed in paying the national debt.

Afterwards: After his presidency, Eisenhower retired to his farm in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where he wrote his memoirs and several other books. He had several health problems including a heart condition and inflammatory bowel disease. He supported Richard Nixon his Vice-President for President against Kennedy. He died on March 28, 1969, in Washington DC after a long illness and was buried at Abilene, Kansas.

35. John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 1961-63 (Democrat) John Fitzgerald Kennedy, a Democrat, was elected the thirty-fifth President of the United States (1961-1963). This handsome, eloquent congressman defeated Richard Nixon for the presidency, partly as a result of the first televised debates. Born into the family of wealthy financier, Joseph Kennedy, on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts, John Kennedy was the first President born in the 20th century.

Vice President: Lyndon B. Johnson

Notable Events: Bay of Pigs, Cuban Missile Crisis, Berlin Wall erected, space race

Background: In 1953, he married elegant socialite Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. This charismatic young couple created the aura of what one reporter called "Camelot" from a Broadway play of the same name.While recovering from a spinal operation in 1956, John Kennedy had written "Profiles in Courage," which contained biographical sketches of political heroes, and for which he received a Pulitzer Prize in 1957. Kennedy became, at the age of forty-three, the youngest man, as well as the first Roman Catholic, to be elected to the United States presidency.

Public Life: Kennedy graduated from Harvard University in 1940, and became noted for "Why England Slept," a publication he wrote about Britain's lack of preparedness at the onset of World War II. Later to emerge as a war hero, initially Kennedy was turned down by the army because of a back injury. After doing special exercises, he finally passed the United States Navy physical examination and was given the command of a PT boat in the Pacific. He was distinguished for bravery after rescuing several crewmen when his boat was run over by a Japanese destroyer off the Solomon Islands. For four days they swam. They were finally rescued after a message Kennedy had carved into a coconut was found. For his heroic acts he received both the Purple Heart and the Navy and Marine Corps Medals.Kennedy was returned home for medical attention. After his recovery he entered politics. A Democrat, he was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1946. While serving as a representative, he focused mainly on domestic issues. In 1952 he was elected to the United States Senate, and in 1958 he was reelected with the largest margin of victory ever recorded in a Massachusetts senatorial contest.After not being nominated Adlai Stevenson's running mate in 1956 as he had hoped, Jack Kennedy began preparing himself for the 1960 Presidential election. During the 1960 campaign, the issues of defense and economic stagnation were raised during televised debates. Sixty-nine million people voted in that election, setting a new record. Kennedy won with a narrow margin of only 113,000 votes in one of the closest elections in the nation's history.

Presidency: His election began a period of optimism and idealism in the United States. He challenged the nation in his inaugural address with the famous phrase "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He established the Peace Corps and was a strong advocate for Civil Rights reform. In foreign affairs, things got off to a rocky start, when he approved the failed invasion of the Bay of Pigs, a major embarrassment. He laid the blame for this fiasco at the feet of the CIA Director and fired him. Kennedy's concern about the potential spread of Communism led him, in 1961, to establish the Alliance for Progress that was designed to give aid and to support the economic health of Latin America.

Redemption came later when, in what came to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis, Kennedy forced Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev to remove Soviet missiles from the island of Cuba, only ninety miles away. Kennedy put up a blockade around Cuba, not allowing the Russian ships to enter. It was one of the most tense times in history, as the world stood at the brink of nuclear war. At the eleventh hour they turned around and war was prevented. Khrushchev agreed to remove the nuclear weapons from Cuba in exchange for the United States removing the blockade and Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba. In 1963 a hot line was established between Moscow and the United States so the leaders of the two super powers could communicate in times of crisis.When a wall separating East and West Berlin was built, German soldiers blocked the route through East Germany until Kennedy sent 1,500 troops in to reopen it. The famous Checkpoint Charlie was made to allow passage from East to West. This was a personal and political victory for Kennedy. The Soviet Union and Great Britain agreed on a nuclear test-ban treaty in July of 1963.Kennedy's domestic policies were called the New Frontier. He strongly supported space exploration and the Civil Rights movement. It was during the Kennedy administration that Alan Shepard became the first man to go into space and John Glenn as the first to orbit the Earth. (Glenn returned to space in 1998 on the now famous space shuttle).When his major proposals for economic stimulus, tax reform, aid to education, and broadened welfare got bogged down in Congress, Kennedy said, "Every President must endure a gap between what he would like and what is possible." He was successful, however, in getting the steel industry to maintain prices, and he strongly supported the race to the moon. Kennedy supported integration in schools and sent troops to put down riots after the United States Supreme Court ordered the University of Mississippi to accept an African American student. Robert Kennedy, the President's brother, was his Attorney General, and he took the challenge of Civil Rights very seriously. Both of the Kennedy brothers felt strongly that African American's should have the right to vote, to attend public school, to have equal access to jobs, and to have access to public accommodations. Much of this was accomplished with the Civil Rights Act of 1964.The Kennedy's brought culture to the White House. They held events such as a dinner for all American Nobel Prize winners. They renovated the White House, and the First Lady gave a televised tour to the American people.While campaigning in Dallas on November 22, 1963, Kennedy was shot in the head, and rushed to Parkland Memorial Hospital, where he was pronounced dead. Lee Harvey Oswald, was captured a few hours later and accused of the crime. He was killed two days later when he was shot on national television by a man named Jack Ruby.There are often comparisons made between John Kennedy and Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln was elected in 1860, and Kennedy was elected in 1960. They both have last names composed of seven letters. Each was killed on a Friday while their wives were with them; both were concerned with Civil Rights; both had had their elections investigated for irregularities; both were succeeded by men named Johnson; both had served in the United States Senate; and both were carried on the same caisson. JFK.'s Vice President, Lyndon Johnson was born in 1908 and Lincoln's vice President, Andrew Johnson, was born in 1808; both Johnson's had 13 letters in their first and last names and both were southern Democrats. Lincoln's secretary, Kennedy, warned him not to go to the theater, and Kennedy's secretary, Lincoln, warned him not to go to Dallas. Lee Harvey Oswald and John Wilkes Booth were both southerners who favored unpopular ideas; both were murdered before they could be tried; each had 15 letters in his name; and they were born 100 years apart. Booth shot Lincoln in a theater and hid in a warehouse; Oswald shot Kennedy from a warehouse and hid in a theater. There was an uncirculated penny made, which was stamped with Kennedy's profile looking at Lincoln.

John Kennedy is buried in Arlington National Cemetery, where an eternal flame burns on his grave.

36. Lyndon Baines Johnson, 1963-69 (Democrat) Lyndon Baines Johnson was the thirty-sixth US President (1963-69) and the first President elected from a Southern state since before the Civil War. He succeeded to the presidency after the assassination of John Kennedy on November 22, 1963.

Vice President: vacant, Hubert Humphrey

Notable Events: escalation of Vietnam War, Voting Rights Act of 1965, "The Great Society" Program

Background: Born August 27, 1908, near Johnson City, Texas, he was the son of Sam Ealy Johnson Jr., a struggling Texas farmer. The senior Johnson had also served for five terms as a Texas legislator. Lyndon's mother made her children's education a top priority, and it is said that she had a great influence on her famous son. Lyndon Johnson went to the public schools in Johnson City, Texas. Upon graduating, Lyndon headed out west to "find himself," at various points picking fruit, washing cars, and working in restaurants. Three years later, he went on to college and received a BS degree in Education from Southwest Texas State Teacher's College. After graduating, he taught school.

Public Life: He had just begun his second year teaching when in 1931, Democratic Congressman Richard Kleberg asked him to come to Washington as his congressional aid. During the next two terms, Lyndon began to develop a network of political contacts in Washington. It was also during this time that on November 17, l934, he married Claudia Alta Taylor, who he called "Lady Bird." She was an affectionate and gentile Southern woman who was her husband's helpmate and confidant, though, unlike Eleanor Roosevelt, she remained quietly in the background. Her warmth earned her much respect and affection from the American people.In 1935, when Lyndon was twenty-seven, Franklin Roosevelt appointed him the head of the National Youth Administration in Texas, a position he held until 1937. This youth group sought to bring the importance of education to the young of Texas and train them for meaningful employment. Johnson was in awe of Franklin Roosevelt and became enamored with his liberal reforms. During his own presidency, he would look back on the Roosevelt administration and use it as a model.In 1937, Lyndon Johnson was elected to the United States House of Representatives, where he continued the liberal reform actions proposed by Franklin Roosevelt. Later in his life he would move politically to the right and show a more conservative side, but as a young man, Lyndon was a liberal. He left Congress for a short time in 1941 and 1942 to serve a term of active duty in the Navy, where he was stationed in the Pacific until Roosevelt recalled all members of Congress to Washington.After the war, Lyndon Johnson's politics grew more conservative, to the point where he even voted against Civil Rights legislation. In 1948 he ran for the Senate, barely winning. The election was so close that his opponent challenged the results in the Texas courts, but Johnson prevailed. In 1953 he became the Senate Democratic Leader, and the following year he was reelected to his Senate seat. When he returned to Washington this time, it was as the Senate Majority Leader, a post he continued to hold through the next six years, in spite of a serious heart attack in 1955.As the Majority Leader, Lyndon perfected the art of politics that he'd learned from his father, Sam. He was an excellent listener and could compromise when the situation required it. He established friendships with many Senators on both sides of the aisle, which served him well in his years as President. The former liberal was able to hold the conservative Southern leaders together. He

was also a friend of Eisenhower, though many in his own party disliked the warm relationship between the Democrat, Johnson, and the Republican President.Johnson wanted to run for the presidency in 1960, but purposely held back, counting upon a second ballot. When John Kennedy took the nomination on the first ballot and offered Lyndon the Vice Presidential slot, Johnson accepted. It was assumed that the Senator from Massachusetts had the North in his hands. He needed Johnson to help win the South. That year the Democrats won the White House with one of the narrowest victories in any Presidential campaign in United States history.Johnson was named by Kennedy to head the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunities. This gave Johnson a chance to use the skills that enabled him to work with African American leaders and other minorities. As Vice President he also had the chance to undertake missions abroad that broadened his knowledge of foreign policy.

Presidency: On November 22, l963, Lyndon Johnson was in the motorcade in Dallas, Texas behind President and Mrs. Kennedy when shots rang out. John Kennedy was dead, and Lyndon Johnson became the fourth Vice President to ascend to the office of Chief Executive after an assassination. Johnson took the Oath of Office aboard Air Force One with Mrs. Kennedy and Lady Bird on either side of him. The picture of Lyndon Johnson's swearing in next to the blood stained wife of a martyred President is one of the most famous in history.Johnson termed his domestic program the "Great Society," and his term as President was one of the most fruitful legislative eras in United States history. President Johnson had the largest push of legislation since FDR. Before he left office, Congress had implemented 226 of his 252 legislative requests, upholding his reputation as a man who could get things done. Among his better known programs was his War on Poverty and a strong Civil Rights Act in 1964. Later he would go on to pass Medicare, which provided health services to the elderly and the disabled. He also established the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). One of the most important acts was The Voting Rights Act of 1965, which suspended the literacy requirements that were often used to keep blacks from registering to vote. Also, In 1964, he prodded Congress into enacting an 11 billion dollar tax cut.In 1964 he and his running mate Hubert Humphrey ran a very quiet election compared to that of the staunch "father of conservatism" Barry Goldwater of Arizona. Goldwater warned against American continuation in a war that was undeclared and not even legislated to be called a war. In 1964, Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution which gave Johnson authority to take any action necessary to protect US troops. Vietnam was one of Johnson's largest priorities, and even before Kennedy was buried, he ordered more military troops into Vietnam and an escalation of the action. Many say this was to build the economy through a wartime increase of manufacturing in the defense Industries. It was for Lyndon Johnson a costly war that would lead him to many sleepless nights. In a stubborn attempt to win the war, Johnson escalated it to the heights never dreamed of when Dwight Eisenhower first sent a team of advisors into the area.Lyndon Johnson's presidency was tarnished by increasingly strident public opposition to his policies in Southeast Asia. Because of the increasing criticism over our involvement in Vietnam; he did not seek reelection in 1968. Johnson was a tired man. There had been race riots in most of the major cities. Anti-war demonstrations that had begun as peace parades had grown to battles between police and young people. The Lyndon Johnson who made the announcement that he would not be running for reelection appeared to the country as a broken man.

Afterwards: Johnson had hopes that his Vice President would win the election for President, but Hubert Humphrey lost to Richard Nixon that year. Lyndon Johnson retired to his beloved ranch in Texas where he wrote his memoirs and supervised the building of his Presidential Library and a school of government at the University of Texas at Austin. The Johnson Space

Center in Houston, Texas is named for him. On January 22, 1973, just five days before the Treaty ending the Vietnam War was signed, Lyndon Baines Johnson died in Texas, of a heart attack.

37. Richard Milhous Nixon, 1969-74 (Republican) Richard Milhous Nixon, the thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969-74) became President in 1969 after defeating Lyndon Johnson's Vice-President, Hubert Humphrey, in one of the closest elections in US history. Nixon won that election by only one percent of the popular vote. Nixon was the second youngest Vice President and the first Californian to serve in the White House. He was also the first Vice President to be elected President, but not to succeed the President under whom he had served. He was also the first President to resign the presidency, which he did after the House Judiciary Committee voted articles of impeachment against him in 1974. Richard Nixon was a controversial President, nicknamed "Tricky Dick" and demonized by some, while admired by others for his accomplishments.

Vice President: Spiro Agnew, vacant, Gerald Ford

Notable Events: Watergate Scandal, Pentagon Papers, end of American Involvement in the Vietnam War, improved relations with China, Nixon's public visit to China

Background: Born on January 9, l913 in Yorba Linda, California into a modest Quaker family, he spent his youth working hard and studying. A brilliant scholar, Dick Nixon graduated second in his class from Whittier College (1934), then third in his class from Duke University Law School (1937). Nixon practiced law in his hometown in Whittier, CA from 1937 to 1942. In l940, he married Thelma "Pat" Ryan.

Public Life: In 1942, Nixon joined the United States Navy where he served as a supply officer in the South Pacific during World War II. He left the service as a Lieutenant Commander. Back in Whittier in 1946, Nixon entered the political arena. He challenged Democratic congressman Jerry Voorhis. Nixon campaigned vigorously, and won by 16,000 votes.In 1948 and 1949, Nixon obtained national recognition while serving in the United States House of Representatives as a member of the Committee on Un-American Activities. He was dogged in his support for the investigation of Alger Hiss. Although Hiss was a former State Department official who had served as the President of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, he was found guilty of helping to transmit confidential government documents - called the "Pumpkin Papers" because they were hidden in a pumpkin -- to the Soviets. Nixon again used anti-communism to his advantage when, in 1950, he ran for the United States Senate against Congresswoman Helen Gahagan Douglas, a popular liberal Democrat. By dubbing her the "Pink Lady," he cast aspersions on her loyalty without actually accusing her of being a Communist. Although he won the election, his campaign tactics were widely criticized. Nevertheless, he became the bright young star in the Republican Party.In 1952, when Nixon was nominated to be Dwight Eisenhower's running mate, he was only thirty-nine years old. It was soon exposed that Nixon had accepted $18,000 for political expenses and Eisenhower's advisors wanted Nixon to resign. He responded with a brilliant speech that (because of a sentimental reference to his dog) became known as the "Checkers Speech." It saved his political career.Eisenhower and Nixon won the election defeating the Democrat Adlai Stevenson by over 6,000,000 votes. Although during the Eisenhower years, the relationship between the President and Vice President was somewhat strained, years later Nixon's youngest daughter, Julie, married Eisenhower's grandson, David, for whom the Presidential retreat, Camp David, is named.Eisenhower and Nixon won easily in the 1956 election. As Vice President, Nixon became a vigorous Republican spokesman. In non-election years, he traveled the country trying to raise money for the party. He also achieved foreign affairs credentials by visiting numerous other

countries, including the Soviet Union, where In 1959, Nixon, the anti-Communist, opened the American Exhibit in Russia. While escorting the Soviet leader through a model of an American house, an impromptu "kitchen debate" with Nikita Khrushchev made world-wide headlines. In an effort to make a strong point, Krushchev took off his shoe and banged it on the table.As undisputed party leader, Nixon easily won the Presidential nomination in 1960. That was the year of the first televised Presidential debates, and some say Nixon's appearance put him at a disadvantage next to the young, charismatic Jack Kennedy, who won the presidency, but just barely. Out of the 70 million votes cast, JFK received a mere 113,000 more than Nixon did.In 1962 Nixon went up against the popular Pat Brown for Governor of California. He lost that election and afterward bitterly attacked the press, saying "You won't have Dick Nixon to kick around anymore." Many felt it was the end of his career. Not so. He was again nominated in l968, when he and running mate, Spiro Agnew, won the White House by 500,000 votes.

Presidency: Richard Nixon's main interest had long been international affairs. After being elected President in 1968, he traveled to China and also established détente with the USSR. Perhaps his greatest achievement was opening lines of communication and trade with the People's Republic of China. Realizing the time was right for such a move, he sent a representative to secretly consult with the Chinese Premier, Mao Tse Tung, in 1971 and met with him himself in 1972. This diplomatic success amazed the critics. Within weeks of his successful China trip, Nixon was in Moscow negotiating the Strategic Arms Limitations Agreement (SALT) to reduce the chance of nuclear war. Nixon also established links with Egypt and Israel.Back in the United States, he adopted a program called the "New Federalism", which was supposed to end the habit of "throwing money at problems." He reversed many of the social and economic welfare programs of his predecessor; Lyndon Johnson. On racial matters Nixon adopted a passive stance toward efforts by African American to achieve educational, economic, and social equality, and he responded to the rising crime rate by demanding stricter law enforcement. The Nixon administration was plagued by economic problems that led to the imposition of wage and price controls in 1971. During his tenure in the White House, oil prices quadrupled.Nixon's biggest problem on both the international and domestic fronts was the War in Vietnam. He had campaigned to end it, and began withdrawing some of the troops, calling for the "Vietnamization" of the War. At the same time, however, he escalated the bombings and in 1970 authorized the invasion of Cambodia. The following year he committed American troops to assisting in a South Vietnamese invasion of Laos. At home the campuses were exploding, and demonstrations against the war were a daily affair.Nevertheless, in the election of 1972 Nixon and Agnew, were easily reelected in a landslide victory over George McGovern. Shortly after this election, Nixon was accused of irregularities and illegalities conducted on his behalf in a scandal that became known as Watergate. An attempted burglary and wire-tapping of the office of the Democratic National Committee in the Watergate complex had been traced back to men hired by some of the President's closest advisors. The media eventually exposed a much larger picture of political corruption. Illegal contributions, "dirty tricks", as well as irregularities in Nixon's income taxes where uncovered, and public trust dropped drastically. This overshadowed the fact that on January 28, 1973, a cease fire agreement went into effect. After years of bloodshed, Nixon and his secretary of state, Henry Kissinger, had finally been able to end the Vietnam War.Nixon's Vice President, Spiro Agnew, had been forced to resign in 1973 after pleading "no contest" to charges of income tax evasion. He was replaced by Gerald Ford. Before the Watergate investigation was over, all but one of Nixon's aides were forced to resign. In March of 1974, a federal grand jury named the President as an unindicted coconspirator in an attempt to obstruct justice in the Watergate investigation. The House Judiciary Committee began to

investigate the case for impeachment. The United States Supreme Court would not allow Nixon to claim Executive Privilege in order to avoid prosecution. Ultimately, The Judiciary Committee recommended impeachment to the full House of Representatives. Rather than face trial, on August 9, 1974, Richard Nixon became the first American President ever to resign from office. At noon on that same day, as Nixon was being flown to his retirement in California, Gerald Ford took the Oath of Office. The newly elected President granted Nixon a full pardon.

Afterwards: Upon his withdrawal from the American political arena, Dick Nixon turned to lecturing and writing until his death on April 22, 1994, shortly after the opening of his presidential library in Yorba Linda California.

38. Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. , 1974-77 (Republican) Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. was the thirty-eighth President (1974-1977). He was the only President who was never elected as either Vice President or President. He became President after the resignation of Richard Nixon over the Watergate scandal. He was born Leslie Lynch King Jr on July 14, 1913, in Omaha, Nebraska. His mother married Gerald Ford, who adopted the boy and gave him his name.

Vice President: vacant, Nelson Rockefeller

Notable Events: Pardon of Richard Nixon, Fall of Cambodia

Background: Ford went to college at the University of Michigan, where he was an average student, but played center for the football team. Upon graduating in 1935, he took a job as a football and boxing coach in the athletic department at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. He later was admitted to Yale Law School, finishing in the upper third of his class. He started a small practice in Grand Rapids, Michigan, and, when World War II began, he entered the Navy, serving aboard an aircraft carrier in the Pacific Fleet. At the time of his discharge, he held the rank of lieutenant commander.

Public Life: After the war he resumed his law practice and, in 1948, married Elizabeth Bloomer Warren, who was known to all as "Betty." In the same year he entered politics as a Republican member of the House of Representatives. He won reelection every year until he resigned in 1973 to replace Spiro Agnew as Vice President. Gerald Ford was a moderate, conservative, hardworking and loyal Republican. He was very faithful to his constituents in Michigan and looked after their needs vigilantly. In 1965 he was named House Republican leader. He would have been named Speaker of the House in 1973, but after Spiro Agnew resigned, Richard Nixon nominated him for Vice President. This was the first time the twenty-fifth Amendment, which includes provisions for a vacancy in the Vice Presidency, has ever been used. Gerald Ford was approved by Congress and sworn in on December 6, 1973.

Presidency: Eight months later on August 9, 1974, President Richard Nixon resigned, and Gerald Ford was sworn in as President of the United States. He had never before had national aspirations in politics, but had always been happy helping the people of his state. Ford brought a personal approach to the presidency in an attempt to heal the nation from the toll taken by Watergate, the Senate hearings, and the subsequent impeachment vote. He granted a full pardon to Richard Nixon.Problems for Ford began almost immediately, as there was terrible rancor over his pardon of Nixon for any crimes committed during his term in office. Ford was also faced with inflation and economic decline. Because of the pardon, the Democrats would give Ford no honeymoon, and an on-going conflict between the President and the legislature prevented much from being accomplished. Ford vetoed over sixty bills, and of them, only twelve were overridden.As for foreign affairs, Nixon had left the world a safer place, and that arena had been so well managed that Ford had only to be a caretaker of Nixon's policies. South Vietnam collapsed in

1975, as everyone knew it would when the peace treaty was signed. Cambodia was also taken over by the Communists.In 1976 Ford's presidential aspirations were subjected to a bitter struggle for the nomination with fellow Republican, Ronald Reagan, the then Governor of California. It was not Reagan's year, and he declined the offer to run as Ford's Vice President, though the position was offered. Ford ran, instead, with Robert Dole of Kansas.

Afterwards: Gerald Ford, who remains the only non-elected President of the United States, went on to lose the 1976 election to Georgia Governor and peanut farmer, Jimmy Carter. His defeat was attributed to an economic recession and high inflation. He is best known for his personal qualities, for being a good sport. Ironically, in light of the fact that he was such an athlete, Ford is also affectionately remembered for being clumsy.He and his wife, Betty, brought an aura of family back to the White House. Betty Ford gained prominence in her own right as a spokesperson for the fight against breast cancer and for her battle with alcoholism, which led to the founding of "The Betty Ford Clinic." Gerald Ford died continues to serves on various boards of directors and is active in charitable affairs. Ford died of heart failure at the age of 93 on December 26, 2006 at his home in Rancho Mirage, California of heart failure.

39. James Earl Carter, 1977-81 (Democrat) James Earl Carter, better known as "Jimmy", was the thirty-ninth President of the United States (1977-1981) and the first President from the Deep South since the Civil War. Born on October 1, 1924, in Plains, Georgia, he first attended Georgia Tech, then went on to the US Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. He was the first graduate of that prestigious institution to become President. Carter underwent the Navy's prototype nuclear submarine training program in 1952 and served as a naval engineer until he resigned in 1953.

Vice President: Walter Mondale

Notable Events: Camp David peace accords, Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, U.S. Olympic boycott, U.S. hostages in Iran

Background: When his father died, he returned to Georgia to take over the family peanut farm. He married Rosalynn Smith on July 7, 1946, and they had four children. In 1962 he was elected State Senator from his district. In 1966, he went on to campaign for Governor, but lost that election. In 1970 he ran for a second time, won, and from 1971 to 1975, served as Governor of Georgia.

Public Life: In 1972, he aspired to the presidency. As the unknown Southerner, he fought hard. To compensate for his inexperience, he took on as Vice President Walter Mondale, a seasoned and devoted liberal. He attracted votes from liberal and moderates in the Democratic Primary. During the debates Jimmy Carter looked as presidential as President Ford. Ford had taken the fall for the Nixon economy, and the voters did not forget his pardon of President Nixon. Although Carter lost the popular vote, he won the electoral vote 297 to 240.

Presidency: Jimmy Carter was a Fundamentalist, sometimes called a "born again" Christian. He was very open about his religion and wanted to dialogue with the people. In keeping with his low-key image, he kept his inaugural ball down to earth, and, on the day he was sworn in as President, walked with his wife from the Capitol to the White House. He adapted the Roosevelt fireside chats, using television instead of radio. He wore a cardigan sweater and sat in a chair in front of a fireplace, projecting a comfortable, down-home image.Known for his wide toothy smile, his comfortable informality, and his humanitarianism, Carter was considered an outsider in Washington and was blamed for high interest rates, inflation, and the

recession, which he had little success in controlling during his one-term presidency. Congress did not give him much support in meeting his campaign promises.Although his presidency was plagued with difficult relations with Congress, they did pass his Panama Canal treaties, giving eventual control of the canal back to Panama. In foreign affairs Carter was instrumental in negotiating the Camp David peace accords with Israel and Egypt in 1979. He recognized the government of Communist China and opened up diplomatic relations. He signed the Second Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty with the USSR and responded to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan by placing an embargo on grain sales to the Soviets and by keeping the United States out of the Olympic Games, which were held in Moscow in 1980. He added the Department of Energy and the Department of Education to the cabinet; but he also deregulated the oil industry, which drove up inflation.During the Carter presidency, Muslim extremists attacked and captured fifty-three United States hostages in Tehran, Iran. Carter sent a rescue force to Iran but the force met disaster before reaching Tehran. Carter took the blame for the failed rescue attempt. In addition to his domestic and foreign policy problems, and despite Jimmy Carter's personal sincerity, the Carter White House had its share of scandals. Charged with banking irregularities, Carter's Budget Director, Bert Lance, was forced to resign in 1977; a medical-policy adviser left over a minor drug scandal; and United States Ambassador to the United Nations, Andrew Young, resigned in 1979 after irregularities were alleged in his dealings with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).The President's brother, Billy, became involved with the Libyans in a scandal known as "Billygate", in which there were accusations of the involvement of the Attorney General in a cover up. While charges were not brought, there were allegations that White House Chief of Staff, Hamilton Jordan, had used cocaine, and questions arose as to whether Treasury Secretary William Miller knew that a company of which he had once been chairman had spent millions of dollars on illegal payoffs.Re-nominated by the Democratic Party in 1980, Carter was easily defeated by Republican Ronald Reagan. High inflation and rising interest rates, along with his failure to deliver on campaign promises were responsible for his defeat. Carter's last major official action was to secure the release of the United States hostages in Iran. They were released on Ronald Reagan's inauguration day.

Afterwards: Jimmy Carter returned to his family business. Since leaving office he has worked for several human rights causes, including Habitat for Humanity, which builds homes for economically challenged families. In 1994 he went to North Korea to help negotiate a dispute between that country and the US over the production of nuclear weapons. He later, helped negotiate the return of President Aristede to Haiti. Carter has also written several books, including Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (1983); The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East (1985); Turning Point: A Candidate, a State, and a Nation Come of Age (1993); and Talking Peace (1993).

40. Ronald Wilson Reagan, 1981-89 (Republican) Ronald Wilson Reagan, the fortieth United States President (1981-1989) was the oldest man to serve as Chief Executive. He was sixty-nine years old at the time of his election. The first movie actor to be elected President, he became known as "The Great Communicator" for his oratory skills.

Vice President: George H. W. Bush

Notable Events: Iran-Contra, crisis in Beirut, Strategic Defense Initiative

Background: He was born on February 6, 1911, in Tampico, Illinois, to working class parents who did not have much money. His father went bankrupt during the

Great Depression. Reagan worked his way through Eureka College, earning his BA in 1932. He got a job in radio and then tried acting. Ronald Reagan made over fifty movies.One of his more famous roles was in a movie called "Knute Rockne, All American," where Reagan played a Notre Dame football player. A line from that movie, "lets win this one for the gipper," was forever connected with him. Reagan was also the spokesperson for the General Electric Show. Reagan also became president of the Screen Actors Guild, serving five consecutive terms.

Public Life: Reagan took a sabbatical from acting to serve in the Army during World War II. He had married actress Jane Wyman in 1940 and they had two children, Michael and Maureen. They divorced in 1948, and in 1952 Reagan married Nancy Davis, another actress and the woman he calls the love of his life. They also had two children, Patti and Ronald, Jr.Reagan's foundation was rooted in the democratic views that his father had taught him growing up during the years of "New Deal," but later he went on to speak out against big government and Communism. By the 1960s he had become a well-known spokesperson for conservative positions. At the Republican Convention in 1964 he spoke passionately for Barry Goldwater, who he considered the father of Conservatism. Reagan traveled throughout the country in support of the Goldwater campaign, making important friends, who in later years would become known as his "Kitchen Kabinet."His first political challenge was to take on the popular Governor of California (Pat Brown) in 1966, and with a campaign focus of "let the people control their destiny", he easily won and subsequently went on to be reelected in 1968. When he left the office of Governor, the State of California had a half billion dollar surplus in its budget. In 1976, Reagan challenged Jerry Ford for the Republican nomination, losing to Ford, who then lost the election.

Presidency: In 1980 in spite of the fact that some Republicans made an issue of his age, Reagan fought a strong campaign against George Bush and became the Republican's nominee for President. He chose Bush to be his running mate. Together they easily beat the Carter-Mondale ticket. On Reagan's inauguration day, the Iran hostages were released.One of Reagan's primary strengths as President was his oratory. He also delegated heavily to his staff. He believed that to boost the economy it was necessary to build up industries through entrepreneurial skills, and that corporate wealth would ultimately trickle down to the people. This plan was known as Supply Side Economics. To support his program, Reagan ended many social programs instituted by Franklin Roosevelt and Lyndon Johnson, cutting over $40 billion from the budget while, at the same time, increasing military spending by billions.On March 31, l981, there was an assassination attempt on Reagan's life as he left a speaking engagement in downtown Washington. His Press Secretary, James Brady, was severely wounded and left disabled.(Anti-gun legislation, called The Brady Bill, has been named for him.) One secret service agent took a bullet that would have hit the President, and a local policeman also was wounded. Reagan was wounded, but not badly. The shooter, a disturbed man named John Hinckley, was found not guilty by reason of insanity and was committed to a mental institution.In 1982 inflation, which had been rampant, dropped from it's double-digit figures, and interest rates began to fall. Unemployment was at its highest level ever. On the foreign policy front, the build up of defenses made other countries, especially the Soviet Union, nervous. In 1982 George Schultz replaced Alexander Haig as Secretary of State. Also in 1982, in an effort to strengthen the Christian government of Lebanon, Reagan sent in the marines. In October of 1983 nearly 250 marines were killed when their headquarters in Beirut was bombed. Reagan withdrew the surviving marines early in 1984.

In the run for a second term, Reagan, again the standard bearer for the Republicans, went up against the Democratic team of Walter Mondale and Geraldine Ferraro. It was the first time a woman had run for Vice President on the ticket of a major party. Reagan won by a landslide.Reagan expanded the Strategic Defense Initiative, a controversial program to develop a space-based missile defense system. The press called it "Star Wars."In late 1983 the island country of Grenada in the Caribbean was taken over by rebels and a strategic air strip was built. Fearing another Cuba, Reagan had ordered an invasion. A more major problem developed in Nicaragua where the dictatorship of Anastasio Somoza was overthrown by a popularly supported leftist group called the Sandanistas. Reagan gave support to the new regime's opposition, called the "Contras."The CIA had been funneling weapons to the Contra's through Honduras. Money to fund the Contra support was raised by Oliver North, a member of Reagan's National Security Council, who sold weapons to Iran. Because of a law called the Boland Amendment, which made it illegal for the US Military to support the Contras, this raised huge questions. It was suggested that the release of hostages held by Lebanon was connected to the arms deal with Iran. What became known as the Iran-Contra Affair led, in 1987, to Senate hearings, whose purpose was to try to determine the extent of President Reagan's personal involvement. Ronald Reagan's defense that he had been unaware tarnished his image somewhat, but it left no lasting stain on his presidency.Reagan had several summit meetings with the Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev. In December of 1987, in Washington DC both leaders signed an Arms-control Agreement. At another summit meeting in Moscow, a follow up agreement provided for the destruction of intermediate-range missiles. The initiative that Reagan had begun with the Soviets would end with the break-up of the Soviet Union and a liberalization called perestroika. The two cold warriors developed a friendship, and after Reagan retired, Gorbachev visited him at his California Ranch, where few were ever invited. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher of Britain was also a personal friend of the Reagans. After Ronald Reagan left office in 1989, Queen Elizabeth II knighted him.

Afterwards: Upon leaving the presidency, he and Nancy returned to California. In 1994, it was announced that Ronald Reagan had Alzheimer's disease. After fighting the disease for ten years, he died on June 5, 2004 at his home in Bel Air, California.