université lyon 1...cachard 2016 elbasan basic us 1 basic physics of ultrasound christian cachard...
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 1
Basic physics of ultrasound Christian CACHARD
CREATIS www.creatis.insa-lyon.fr
Université Lyon 1
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 2
Université de Lyon
Elbasan
Lyon
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 3
CREATIS is a key european laboratory for biological and medical imaging
3D modelling of human heart based on MRI
Simulation of dose distribution for radiotherapy at the interface between
engineering, computer sciences and living
sciences
Elastography
About 200 persons
Development of imaging methods, new algorithms, and instrumental systems to answer medical questions
CREATIS: www.creatis.insa-lyon.fr
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 4
1 - Imaging of the Heart-Vessels-Lungs 2 - Images et models 3 – Ultrasound Imaging 4 - Tomographic imaging and therapy with radiation 5 - MRI and Optics : Methods and Systems 6 – Brain imaging
MR spectroscopy
Multi-organs segmentation Dynamic model of the heart
Diffusion Tensor Imaging of the brain
Microarchitecture and micro-vasculature of trabecular bone(1 voxel=1,4µm)
6 research teams
Segmentation and tracking of carotid artery wall in US
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 5
Ultrasound imaging platform
Adjust PRF to velocity flow
Longitudinal motion of the carotid artery wall as a new marker of cardiovascular risk
6 research ultrasound scanners 10 PhD students
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6
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4
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1 –Magnetic Resonance Imaging 2 – Ultrasound 3 – Positron Emission Tomography 4 – X ray 5 – Angiography
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 7
Ultrasound scanning
Scanner
Probe Ultrasound imaging is Non Destructive Testing
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 8
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 9
The place of ultrasound in medical imaging
– 9 MRI
– 11 scanners
– 8 gamma (scintillation) cameras
– 1 PET (Positron Emission Tomographie)
– More than 100 ultrasound scanners
Public Hospitals in Lyon (2012) – 2 million inhabitants
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 10
Real time imaging
10 to 60 frames/s
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 11
The place of ultrasound in medical imaging
Ultrasound has the last ten years been the fastest growing imaging modality for non-invasive medical diagnosis.
Of all the various kinds of diagnostic produced in the world, one of four is an ultrasound scan.
Reasons for this are the ability to image soft tissue and blood flow • the real time imaging capabilities, • the harmlessness for the patient and the physician (no radiation) • the low cost of the equipment. • no special building requirements as for X-ray, Nuclear, and Magnetic
Resonance imaging.
Limitations are that ultrasound imaging cannot be done through bone or air (limitations on chest imaging).
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 12
Why such a place ?
Limited price (compared to other modalities) Ultrasound: 50 k€ to 150 k€ X-Ray Scanner : 0.5 et 0.8 M €. MRI: 1.5 M € PetScan: 3 M €
Non ionizing radiation
It is the case with X-Ray or PET
Non invasive Except in IVUS (Intra Vascular US: a catheter is inserted) or in contrast enhanced ultrasound imaging
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 13
Why such a place?
Real time and fast (and even ultra-fast) 10 to 100 images/second (and even > 1 000 images/second) Other acquisitions take several seconds to several minutes
Easy access
The scanner can be moved (e.g. to the patients bed) Now miniturized US scanners (tablet, smartphone)
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 14
Sometimes limited • For a number of patients the exam might be complicated
(obese, constipated: attenuation)
• Some organs can hardly be imaged with ultrasound: lungs (because of the air), brain (because it’s behind the skull bone)
• Operator dependent
• Limited tissue characterization
Limitations
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 15
Ultrasound scanner and sonar
• Ultrasound scanner works as sonar
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 16
The probe: transmitter and receiver
• The same probe is used first as transmitter, second as receiver
• Probe ⇔ Loudspeaker + Microphone
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 17
Diagnostic Ultrasound
Echoes return
Processed into picture
Pictures analysed
Sound waves directed into
patient Which pulse(s)?
Which processing?
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 18
Mechanical wave
Sound is a mechanical wave Created by a vibrating object
Propagated through a medium
Vacuum chamber
The sound produced by the bell cannot be heard
since sound cannot travel through the vacuum
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 19
The acoustic pressure
The acoustic pressure is the change of pressure around the static (ambient) pressure
Acoustic pressure amplitude
t
p (Pa)
105 Ambient pressure
• Ultrasound energy is exactly like sound energy, it is a variation in the pressure within a medium.
• Sound is a pressure wave
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 20
The wave motion: transverse and longitudinal wave
Up and down
Particle movement
Wave propagation
Stadium wave
Particle movement Wave propagation
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 21
At each spatial position , the material points are oscillating around their equilibrium position with a particle velocity v
if u is the displacement of the material point, v = du/dt
Molecules do not travel from one end of the medium to the other.
Depth
wave velocity c
Example: f = 3 MHz, P0 = 150 kPa, the order of u is 5 nm
Molecules do not travel from one end of the medium to the other.
No flow of particles
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 22
Sound is a mechanical wave • Created by a vibrating object • Propagated through a medium
Sound is a pressure wave • Consists of repeating pattern of high and low pressure
regions
Sound is a longitudinal wave • Motion of particles is in a direction parallel to direction
of energy transport
The Nature of a Sound Wave in tissue (liquids)
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 23
Ultrasound
Frequency of Sound
20 Hz
20 000 000 Hz
2 000 000 Hz
20 000 Hz Audible Sound
Diagnostic Medical Ultrasound (3-7 MHz)
Infrasound (earthquake) 20 Hz
20 MHz
2 MHz
20 kHz
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 24
Wavelength and frequency of the wave
Wavelength, λ = c T = c / f
Wavelength, λ Spatial periodicity
Time
Period, T=1/f
Temporal periodicity Depends on source
Depends on velocity of sound, c (depends on material)
Distance
Pressure rare
fact
ion
com
pres
sion
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 25
On ultrasound scanner the ultrasound wave is emitted as pulses (not a continuous sine )
Ultrasound Pulse
Pressure
Time
Length of pulse is about 3 to 5 periods
f = 3 MHz
1 µs < Tp < 1.66 µs
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 26
Velocity of the wave
26
Water c = 1500 m/s
If source is 3 MHz frequency λ = 1500/ 3 .106 = 0.5 mm
Air c = 330 m/s λ = 330/ 3.3 .103 = 0.5 m
If source is 3.3 kHz frequency
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 27
Air 330m/s Water 1480m/s Fat 1460m/s Blood 1560m/s Muscle 1600m/s Bone 4060m/s
Speed of Sound
Average soft tissue value = 1540m/s
Programme the ultrasound
machine with...
This can lead to small errors in the estimated distance travelled because of the variation in the speed of sound in different tissues.
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 28
Acoustic Impedance
Acoustic impedance analogous to electrical impedance
P = local pressure
v = local particle velocity
vPz =
U : Potential
I : Intensity
IUz =
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 29
Reflection at boundaries
At the boundary between tissues ultrasound is partially reflected
The relative proportions of the energy reflected and transmitted depend on the acoustic impedances z1 and z2 between the two materials
Incident wave
Transmitted wave
Reflected wave
The laws of optics apply to ultrasound
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 30
Reflection at interface perpendicular to the wave
z2 ≈ z1
12
12
zzzz
PP
i
r
+−
=Z1
Z2
Pi , vi
Pt , vt
Pr , vr
0r
i
PP≈
• z2 >> z1 or z2 << z1 1r
i
PP≈
complete transmission
complete reflexion
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 31
Similar Values
Air 0.0004 x 106 rayls Lung 0.18 x 106 Fat 1.34 x 106 Water 1.48 x 106 Blood 1.65 x 106 Muscle 1.71 x 106 Skull Bone 7.80 x 106
Acoustic Impedance
• z2 >> z1 or z2 << z1 complete reflexion
Air and tissue
Echographic gel
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 32
Specular Reflection
Non-perpendicular Incidence
Perpendicular Incidence
Reflected beam travels off at an angle.
No wave go back to the probe
Strong orientation dependence
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 33
Diffuse Reflection
Reflected waves travel in various directions away
from the interface
Reflected waves travel in various directions away
from the interface
Some orientation dependence
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 34
Rayleigh Scattering
Particles size <<λ
Little orientation dependence
Waves are scattered and travel off in all directions
Energy loss proportional to f 4
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 35
The amplitude of the echoes (image grey level) does not have a simple relationship with the tissue (unlike X-
ray CT [Hounsfield numbers]).
Echo size depends on • relative acoustic impedances across boundary • shape and orientation of boundary • size of structure compared with λ
Echo Amplitude - Beware!
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 36
In tissue: Specular Reflection, Diffuse Reflection or Rayleigh Scattering?
Particles size <<λ Specular reflection from
large flat boundaries Diffuse reflection from small structures
Rayleigh Scattering from very small structures
Reflection or scattering?
Strong Weak Very weak
Amplitude of the echoes
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 37
2tcd ⋅
=d = ?
c= 1500 m/s
Depth or time
Probe Time
tf time of flight
Range of depth and time of flight 0.75 cm < depth < 15 cm 10 µs < tf: time of flight < 200 µs
Target
(sound velocity in water)
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 38
The probe includes 128 to 512
transducer elements
… … … ....
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 39
Depth / time
Time of frame acquisition
Width
Amplitude
… … … ....
TPRF
128 to 512 transducer elements
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 40
Depth / time
0.75 cm < depth < 15 cm
10 µs < time of flight < 200 µs
TPRF
TPRF >> maximum time of flight PRF: Pulse Repetition Frequency
PRF = 1/ TPRF
TPRF > 5 x (maximum time of flight) 1 kHZ < PRF < 20 kHZ
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 41
Echoes from ONE pulse
The echo amplitudes are converted to
shades of grey
A-Mode (amplitude)
B-Mode (brightness)
Amplitude
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 42
One Frame
B (Brightness) Mode Image
64 to 512 transducer elements
10 to 60 frames/s
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 43
Visible scan lines (48)
1970’
B mode image 1970’
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Cachard 2016 Elbasan Basic US 44
Range
Frequency 1 MHz < frequency< 10 MHz
Time of pulse (length 3 periods) 0.3 µs < TP< 3 µs
Time of flight 10 µs < time of flight < 200 µs
Pulse Repetion Frequency 1 kHZ < PRF < 20 kHZ
Number of elements 64 <Nelt < 512
Frame rate (PRF = 5kHz) 10 frame/s < Nframe <80 frame/s
Time of frame(PRF = 5kHz) 12 ms < Time of frame< 100 ms
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Linear probe Sectorial probe
Shapes of the images: linear or sectorial
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Cachard 2014 ISTM 46
Scanning of pressure beam with a sectorial probe
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B mode and M mode
B-mode
M-mode (or TM mode,
Time Motion)
t1 t2 t3
Dep
th
Lateral size
time
Dep
th
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Imaging modes
A mode
TM mode B mode
Envelope Signal
Time (s) Scan plane
Distance (cm)
Depth (cm
)
Depth (cm
)
One frame: 20 to 50 ms One continuous image of 5 s
Depth (cm)
Am
plitude
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Doppler modes: velocity measurements
Spectral Doppler Colour Doppler
v v
θe
transmission-reception
F v ( ) 2 cosθef c0= −
Doppler frequency : the frequency difference between the frequency transmitted and received
F = fr – f0
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Elastography - Basic principle
Strain field t
Local strain estimation
Signal processing
RF ultrasound image at a pressure P
Scatterer location modification
τi
Window n° i S1(t) T
t t0
T
t
S2(t)
B mode image before compression
B mode image after compression
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Ultrasound beam from a plane disc source
Intensity
Distance from probe
Near field Far field
Intensity on axis propagation
Avoid measurements in the near field
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Spatial Resolution
Temporal Resolution
Contrast Resolution
Imaging Resolution
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Spatial Resolution
Spatial (in space) axial (along the beam) lateral (across the beam)
• azimuth (in the scan plane) • elevation or slice thickness
(perpendicular to the scan plane)
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Axial resolution
The minimum reflector spacing along the axis of the ultrasound beam that results in separate, distinguishable echoes on the display.
Display on the screen
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Axial Resolution
Example 10 MHz transducer
mmHzsm
fc 5.0
000,000,3/1540
===λ
mmHzsm
fc 15.0
000,000,10/1540
===λ
ra = number of cycles of the transmitted pulse x λ ≈ 3 λ
ra =3 x 0.5 = 1.5 mm
ra =3 x 0.15 = 0.45 mm
Example 3 MHz transducer First definition
Resolution is length at half size Second definition
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Lateral resolution
The ability to distinguish two closely spaced reflectors that are positioned perpendicular to the axis of the ultrasound beam.
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Elevational resolution (slice thickness)
Works in a direction perpendicular to the image plane.
Dictates the thickness of the section of tissue that contributes to echoes visualized on the image.
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Temporal Resolution
Interval to allow echoes to return
Sequence of pulses from transducer
Typical PRF = 5kHz
TPRF = 0.2 ms
Time
TPRF can be chosen as the delay of five times the maximum observed distance
TPRF
TPRF is usually set so that there is sufficient time for the most distant echo to return to the transducer before the next pulse is launched
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Contrast Resolution
The ability to display regions of differing echo size
Low
High
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Attenuation
The energy of the ultrasound beam is reduced with distance
Energy is lost from the beam by:
Absorption (conversion into heat)
Scattering (reflection out of beam confines, refraction, divergence)
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Attenuation Coefficient
zz eII α−= 0
The intensity, Iz, of an ultrasound beam is related to distance from the source, z, thus:
Where I0 is the intensity at z = 0, the transducer face.
Iz
z
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Attenuation Coefficient
Attenuation is approximately exponential, the slope of the logarithmic graph is constant.
Attenuation coefficient is quoted in dB/cm In addition, for soft tissue,
attenuation is proportional to frequency.
The attenuation coefficient for soft tissue is 0.5 - 0.7 dB/cm/MHz
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Attenuation – compensation: TGC
Average echo
Amplification factor
Echo train after compensation
Time (distance)
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TGC: Time Gain Compensation
depth
gain
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Scanner settings
•Fixed settings : MI, TCG, gain
•Adjustement: focus, sector size
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PHILIPS
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D. Vray and ass., "Ultrasound Medical Imaging", Medical Imaging Based on Magnetic Fields and Ultrasounds: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 1–72, 2014
Ultrasound Imaging, Bjorn A. J. Angelsen, ISBN 82-995811-0-9, Emantec AS, Trondheim, Norway, www.ultrasoundbook.com
Ultrasound in Medecine, Institute of Physics, Publishing Bristol and Philadelphia
References