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Unit Specification USP126 – Functional anatomy

Unit reference number: T/616/9395

Level: 3 Guided Learning (GL) hours: 120

Overview

A sound understanding of the main systems of the human body and how they function is essential when studying sport or exercise sciences. Functional anatomy underpins every aspect of sport and exercise science.

This unit provides the foundation knowledge of the structure and function of the main body systems – skeletal, muscular, circulatory, respiratory, nervous, endocrine, lymphatic, digestive, urinary and energy systems.

Learners will explore the structure and function of different body systems and the effects of sport and exercise on these systems. They will also explore the energy systems and their contribution for different sports and exercise.

Learning outcomes

On completion of this unit, learners will:

LO1 Know the structure and function of the skeletal system

LO2 Know the structure and function of the muscular system

LO3 Know the structure and function of the circulatory system

LO4 Know the structure and function of the respiratory system

LO5 Know the structure and function of the nervous system

LO6 Know the structure and function of the endocrine system

LO7 Know the structure and function of the lymphatic system

LO8 Know the structure and function of the digestive system

LO9 Know the structure and function of the urinary system

LO10 Know the roles and function of the energy systems in relation to sport and exercise


Unit content LO1 Know the structure and function of the skeletal system

Learners must know the functions of the skeleton

Content to include

Support and shape

Protection of internal organs

Muscle attachment and movement

Production of blood cells

Storage of minerals, mineral homeostasis

Learners must know the standard anatomical position and reference points, including anatomical axes and planes

Content to include

Terms – anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, superficial, deep, proximal, distal, medial, lateral

Planes - Frontal plane – anterior/posterior axis movements (adduction, abduction, lateral

flexion, eversion, inversion)

- Sagittal plane – bilateral axis movements (flexion, extension)

- Transverse plane – vertical axis movements (internal rotation, external rotation, horizontal flexion/adduction, horizontal extension/abduction)

Associated exercises in different planes and axes

Learners must know the names and locations of the bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton divisions and the classifications of different bones

Content to include

Axial – cranium, cervical vertebrae (7), thoracic vertebrae (12), lumbar vertebrae (5), sacral vertebrae (5), coccyx (3-5), sternum, ribs

Appendicular – scapula, clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges, ilium, ischium, pubis, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges

Classification based on structure and function - Long (e.g. femur, tibia)

- Short (e.g. tarsals, carpals)

- Flat (e.g. scapula, pelvis)

- Irregular (e.g. vertebrae)

- Sesamoid (e.g. patella)


Learners must know the stages of bone growth and the structures of a long bone

Content to include

Stages of bone growth – development of cartilage, growth of cartilage, development of ossification centre, development of diaphysis and epiphysis, ossification (osteoblasts, osteoclasts), changes in bone growth with age, importance of calcium, factors affecting bone density (exercise, age and osteoporosis)

Long bone structure – characteristics (greater length than width, slightly curved), structure (diaphysis, epiphyses, metaphysis, articular cartilage, periosteum, medullary, endosteum, compact bone, spongy bone, bone marrow)

Learners must know the structure of the spine in relation to posture and range of motion

Content to include

Vertebrae structure related to function in different regions of the spine (facet joints, vertebral foramen, spinal cord, spinal canal, cartilaginous discs)

Natural mild S-shaped curve of the spine (cervical and lumbar lordosis, thoracic and spinal kyphosis), primary curves of the spine, secondary (developmental) curves of the spine

Optimum position of spine and pelvis, maintenance of the natural spinal curvature (cervical, thoracic, lumbar), maintenance of posture in standing, sitting, lying positions

Normal thoracic kyphosis (20-45°), normal lumbar lordosis (20-45°), scoliosis (a right/left curve of more than 10°)

Movement potential of vertebral regions - Cervical (rotation, flexion and extension)

- Thoracic (rotation, limited flexion and extension)

- Lumbar (flexion, extension, hyperextension)

- Sacral (no movement)

- Coccyx (no movement)

Postural deviations – excessive deviations (hyperlordotic and hyperkyphotic), less than normal deviations (hypolordotic and hypokyphotic), definitions and causes (hyperkyphosis, hyperlordosis, scoliosis – genetic conditions, osteoporosis, posture and muscle imbalances), effect of pregnancy on posture (e.g. how carrying a baby affects the natural curve)

Stabilising ligaments of the spine – structure and function, ligaments (ligamentum flavum, anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments), intrasegmental and intersegmental ligament systems, role of spinal ligaments in core stability

Structural bones and joints of the pelvic girdle (ilium, ischium, pubis, sacrum, symphysis pubis and sacro-iliac joints)

Ligaments of the pelvis (iliolumbar, sacrospinous, sacrotuberous, anterior and posterior sacroiliac)

Importance of pelvic girdle for weight bearing exercise

Male and female differences (effect of pelvic width on femur Q-angle and the relation to knee injury risk)


Learners must know joint classifications and structures

Content to include

Structural and functional classification – fibrous/immovable (e.g. sutures of the cranium), cartilaginous/slightly moveable (e.g. intervertebral discs of the spine), synovial/freely moveable (e.g. knee)

Joint structures - Fibrous – synarthrosis, immovable, have no joint cavity, are connected via fibrous

connective tissue, e.g. skull bones are connected by fibrous joints

- Cartilaginous – amphiarthrosis, slightly moveable, a joint in which the surfaces are connected by disks of fibrocartilage, as between vertebrae

- Synovial – diarthrosis, freely moveable, all diarthroses have this characteristic space between the bones that is filled with synovial fluid. Articular capsule, fibrous capsule, synovial cavity, synovial membrane, synovial fluid (lubrication), articular cartilage (shock absorption, decrease friction between bones), bursae (shock absorption), ligaments (attach bone to bone, joint stability)

Learners must know the different types of synovial joints, their location, range of motion and joint actions

Content to include

Types of synovial joint - Gliding (side to side, back and forth, e.g. between carpals and tarsals)

- Pivot (rotation, e.g. atlanto-axial joint)

- Saddle (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, e.g. metacarpo-phalangeal joint of thumb)

- Ellipsoid/condyloid (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, circumduction, e.g. radiocarpal joint of the wrist)

- Ball and socket (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, e.g. hip and shoulder)

- Hinge (flexion and extension, e.g. elbow joint)

Joint movement potential and actions - Shoulder (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, horizontal flexion/adduction,

horizontal extension/abduction, internal rotation, external rotation)

- Elbow and radioulnar joints (flexion, extension, supination, pronation)

- Shoulder girdle (elevation, depression, protraction, retraction)

- Spine (flexion, extension, lateral flexion, rotation)

- Hip (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, internal rotation, external rotation)

- Knee (flexion, extension)

- Ankle and foot (plantarflexion, dorsiflexion, inversion, eversion)

Joint actions during different exercises, significance of joint type and structure for movement potential, associated joints crossed by muscles, associated muscle group contractions, analysis of different multi-joint and single joint exercises


Learners must know exercise and movement considerations in relation to the skeletal system

Content to include

Associated range and stability of motion/movement of synovial joint types – range norms, factors affecting stability (shape of articular surfaces, capsule, ligaments, muscle tone, gravity)

Associated injury risk to joints types and ligaments – e.g. positions of strength and weakness, shearing forces, joint alignment during movement, greater range of movement allows increased risk of injury

Effects of exercise and considerations - Short-term – synovial fluid, joint lubrication, increased circulation of blood and

delivery of nutrients

- Long-term – increased bone mineral density, increased joint stability and mobility, effects of appropriate or inappropriate repetitive loading on cartilage



Learners must know the different types of muscle tissue and the characteristics and functions of each type

Content to include

Cardiac muscle (striated, involuntary, large fibre diameter, moderate fibre length, moderate speed of contraction, e.g. heart muscle/myocardium)

Smooth muscle (no striations, involuntary, small fibre diameter, short to long fibre length, slow speed of contraction, e.g. artery walls)

Skeletal muscle (striated, voluntary, up to very large fibre diameter, short to moderate fibre length, up to fast speed of contraction, attach to bones, e.g. quadriceps)

Learners must know the different skeletal muscle fibre types and their characteristics

Content to include

Slow twitch oxidative type 1 (red in colour, low intensity, long duration/endurance, high in mitochondria, high in myoglobin, slow contraction speed, resistant to fatigue)

Fast twitch or intermediate type 2a (pink or white in colour, intermediate contraction speed and rate of fatigue, adapt characteristics to training to become more like type 1 or type 2b fibres)

Fast twitch type 2b (white in colour, high intensity, short duration, low in mitochondria, low in myoglobin, fast contraction speed, fast to fatigue)

Learners must know the structure of skeletal muscle and the sliding filament theory

Content to include

Gross muscle structure – tendon (attach muscle to bone), epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, fascicle

Arrangement of fasciculi (parallel, fusiform, pennate)

Cellular structure – muscle fibres, myofibrils, myofilaments (actin, myosin), sarcolemma, sarcomere

Sliding filament theory (myosin and actin, cross bridges, shortening of sarcomere), process (attachment of myosin to actin, power stroke, detachment, ATP and energy transfer)

Learners must know the names and locations of the major muscles of the body

Content to include

Anterior muscles – pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, deltoids (anterior and lateral divisions), biceps brachii, brachialis, rectus abdominis, obliques (internal and external), transversus abdominis, hip flexors (iliacus, psoas major), quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius), adductors (longus, magnus and brevis), anterior tibialis

Posterior muscles – trapezius, rhomboids, deltoids (posterior and lateral divisions), triceps brachii, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, gluteus maximus, abductors (tensor fascia lata, gluteus medius and minimus), hamstrings (biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus), gastrocnemius, soleus,


Learners must know the types of muscle action and joint actions

Content to include

Definitions of muscle contractions (isotonic concentric, isotonic eccentric, static/isometric, isokinetic)

Definitions of muscle roles (agonist/prime mover, antagonist, synergist/assistor, fixator)

Contractions and muscle roles during different joint actions and exercises - Pectoralis major (adduction of arm, horizontal flexion of arm)

- Deltoids (abduction of the shoulder, flexion and extension of the shoulder)

- Biceps (flexion of the elbow)

- Rectus abdominis (flexion of the spine)

- External and internal obliques (lateral flexion and rotation of the spine)

- Transversus abdominis (isometric stabilisation of the spine)

- Hip flexors – iliacus, psoas major, rectus femoris (flexion of the hip)

- Quadriceps – rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis (extension of the knee, flexion of the hip)

- Adductors – adductor magnus, adductor longus, adductor brevis, gracilis, pectineus (adduction of the hip)

- Anterior tibialis (dorsi flexion of the ankle)

- Trapezius (extension of the neck, elevation of the shoulder, depression of the scapula, retraction of the scapula)

- Triceps (extension of the elbow)

- Latissimus dorsi (adduction of the shoulder, shoulder extension)

- Erector spinae (extension of the spine)

- Gluteus maximus (extension of the hip)

- Abductors – gluteus medius and minimus, tensor fasciae lata (abduction of the hip)

- Hamstrings – biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus (flexion of the knee, extension of the hip)

- Gastrocnemius (plantar flexion of the ankle, assist flexion of knee)

- Soleus (plantar flexion of ankle with bent knee)

The muscles of the pelvic floor and pelvic girdle - Pelvic floor muscles – levator ani (pubococcygeus, puborectalis, and iliococcygeus),

coccygeus, associated connective tissues which span the area underneath the pelvis (perineum, perineal membrane, perineal pouch), pelvic cavity, function (stability of the pelvis, support bladder and bowel, support uterus in women)

- Pelvic girdle – associated muscles (iliopsoas, pectineus, rectus femoris, sartorius, adductors, gluteus maximus, hamstrings, gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, piriformis)


Learners must know the stabilising muscles of the spine and their role in maintaining optimum posture and core stability

Content to include

Location and role of local postural stabilisers (lumbar multifidus, transversus abdominis, diaphragm, pelvic floor muscles, abdominal aponeurosis, thoracolumbar fascia), location and role of global phasic stabilisers (rectus abdominis, internal obliques, external obliques, rectus abdominis, erector spinae, quadratus lumborum)

Stabilisation systems, reasons for insufficient stabilisation (heredity, medical conditions, lifestyle, ageing, muscle imbalances), muscle changes (muscles lengthened, muscles shortened, weak/inactive muscles, overactive/strong muscles, imbalanced kinetic chain, compensation patterns, synergistic dominance, inefficient movements)

Effects of abdominal adiposity and poor posture – inefficient movement patterns, compensation, muscle imbalances, stability, alignment, centre of gravity excursions

Postural deviations – deviations (flat back, sway back, hyperkyphosis, hyperlordosis, scoliosis), importance of deviations for exercise safety, potential problems of deviations (muscle imbalances and compensation, inefficient movement patterns, joint and muscle pain, spinal disorders), methods of identifying deviations (postural analysis form, postural photography, postural analysis computer software), referral to appropriate professionals (GP, physiotherapist), reasons and procedures for referral

Impact of core stabilisation exercises – definition of core stability (maintaining spinal alignment and pelvic position, statically and dynamically), impact (improved posture, improved motor skill performance, improved power application, muscle balance throughout kinetic chain, injury prevention for spine and shoulder girdle, improved aesthetics), potential for injury and aggravation of problems (improper technique, contra-indicated exercises for specific postural problems and deviations, importance of correct motor sequencing during movements and exercises)



Learners must know the location, function and structure of the heart

Content to include

Located centrally in the chest, mediastinum, thorax, between lungs, apex points towards left hip

Function of heart – circulation of blood, receiving and pumping blood to body and lungs

Structure of heart – pericardial sac, myocardium, endocardial lining, atria, ventricles, interventricular septum, interatrial septum, atrio-ventricular valves (bicuspid valve, tricuspid valve), semi-lunar valves (aortic and pulmonary), blood vessels (aorta, superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, pulmonary veins, pulmonary arteries)

Function of valves – control blood flow through heart chambers, prevent backflow of blood

Learners must know blood flow through the heart chambers and different circulatory systems, including the locations and roles of blood vessels entering and leaving the heart

Content to include

Functional considerations – heart rate (maximal and resting), stroke volume, cardiac output

Systemic (oxygenated blood from lung capillaries, pulmonary venules, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid/mitral valve, left ventricle, aortic semi-lunar valve, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries of muscles and organs)

Pulmonary (deoxygenated blood from muscles and organs, capillaries, venules, veins, vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, semi-lunar valve, pulmonary artery, lungs, gaseous exchange, oxygenation of blood in pulmonary capillaries)

Coronary – circulation of blood to the myocardium of the heart (oxygenated blood, root of aorta, aortic sinuses, epicardial coronary arteries, left coronary artery, circumflex artery, left anterior descending artery, right coronary artery, anastomoses, marginal arteries, cardiac veins, right atrium)

Learners must know the structure and function of blood vessel types

Content to include

Types – arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins

Structure – comparison between blood vessels (wall thickness, internal diameter, direction of blood flow, pressure, presence or absence of one-way valves)

Functions – transport blood, blood flow distribution by vasoconstriction and vasodilation, pre-capillary sphincters

- Arteries and arterioles (transport blood away from the heart to muscles and organs, pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to lungs)

- Veins and venules (transport blood back to the heart from tissues and organs, venous return, blood pooling, pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs)

- Capillaries (exchange of gases and nutrients between blood and tissues or blood and alveolar air in lungs)


Learners must know the effects of disease processes on the blood vessels and the effect on blood pressure

Content to include

Diseases (arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis)

Processes (inflammation, thickening of artery walls, loss of elasticity, endothelial damage, smooth muscle fibre proliferation, lesions formed by fatty plaque)

Definition of blood pressure – pressure exerted by blood on vessel wall - Systolic pressure (pressure exerted during systole, ventricular contraction)

- Diastolic pressure (residual pressure during diastole, ventricular relaxation)

Blood pressure classifications – see NICE guidance for current classifications of clinical high blood pressure (hypertension) e.g. above 140/90

- Associated health risks of hypertension – cardiovascular disease, stroke, coronary heart disease, coronary artery disease, kidney disease, loss of vision

Effects of exercise on blood pressure - Short term – no change in diastolic pressure, progressive increase in systolic pressure

during CV training, rapid and greater increase in SBP during resistance training, beware of Valsalva manoeuvre during resistance training as this can cause a sharp severe increase followed by a sudden drop in blood pressure, reduced BP for up to 24 hours after physical activity

- Long term – reduction in resting blood pressure, improved regulation of blood pressure

Learners must know the effects of exercise on the circulatory system and benefits to cardiovascular fitness

Content to include

Aerobic exercise and resistance training both improve vascular health, benefits of aerobic exercise are greater for the epithelial lining of blood vessels

Benefits – increased heart strength and efficiency, increased capillary network, increased stroke volume and cardiac output, increased elasticity of blood vessels, improved blood flow distribution, improved blood cholesterol profile, reduced blood pressure, improved ability to tolerate heat, reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases

Risks – overexertion, aggravation of cardiovascular contraindications to exercise, overtraining, overuse injuries



Learners must know the location, function and structure of the lungs

Content to include

Located laterally in the chest on the left and right sides, thorax

Function of lungs (paired organs for ventilation, external respiration, elimination of carbon dioxide, supply of oxygen)

Structure of lungs (left lung – two lobes, right lung – three lobes, trachea, bronchi, sub-divisions, bronchioles, alveoli, capillaries)

Learners must know the muscles involved in passive and active breathing and the passage of air through the respiratory tree

Content to include

Muscles – inhalation (inspiration), exhalation (expiration), muscles involved in passive breathing (diaphragm, external intercostals), and active breathing – forced inspiration accessory muscles (sternocleidomastoids, scalenes, pectoralis minor), forced expiration accessory muscles (internal intercostals, transversus abdominus, rectus abdominus), functional considerations (e.g. total lung capacity, vital capacity)

Passage of air during breathing – upper respiratory tract (mouth, nose and pharynx), lower respiratory tract (larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles), alveoli, alveolar sacs

Process of gaseous exchange – surface area for gas exchange (300 million alveoli, 2400km of airways), partial pressure difference (higher and lower partial pressures), diffusion of gases, effect of breathing rate and depth

- Gaseous exchange in lungs is external respiration (oxygen in alveoli passes to pulmonary capillaries and carbon dioxide in capillaries passes to alveoli) removed via exhalation

- Gaseous exchange in tissues is internal respiration (oxygen in capillaries passes into cells for aerobic energy production, carbon dioxide in cells moves to local capillaries for circulation back to heart and lungs for removal)

Relative composition of inhaled air (21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide), relative composition of alveolar air (14% oxygen, 5.5% carbon dioxide), relative composition of exhaled air (16% oxygen, 4.5% carbon dioxide)



Learners must know the roles and functions of the different components of the nervous system

Content to include

Main functions (sense changes to stimuli, information processing, response to stimuli)

Central nervous system components (brain, spinal cord). CNS roles (receive messages from peripheral nervous system about environment, interprets information, sends messages back to the peripheral nervous system, higher cognitive processes)

Peripheral nervous system components (sensory neurons, motor neurons). PNS roles (transmits information from receptors to CNS, transmits information from CNS to muscles and glands)

Peripheral nervous system divisions (somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system (ANS), and subdivisions of ANS (sympathetic branch, parasympathetic system)

Somatic nervous system roles (sensory input, control of voluntary muscle)

Autonomic nervous system roles (sense hormonal balance, internal organ function, control of involuntary muscle, control of endocrine glands)

Sympathetic branch of ANS roles (increase heart rate, increase breathing rate, mobilise energy stores, regulation of blood pressure, blood flow redistribution, most active during exercise – fight, flight or fright response)

Parasympathetic branch of ANS roles (slows down functions, more active during rest and recovery – rest and digest response)

Learners must know the role of the nervous system in muscle contraction and motor unit recruitment

Content to include

Nervous control and nerve impulse transmission – role of the brain and spinal cord, nerve impulse, sensory neurons, receptor organs, synapse, motor neurons, axon terminal, acetylcholine, neuromuscular junction, effector organs, action potentials

Structure and function of a neuron – structure (dendrites, nucleus, cytoplasm, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier, nerve endings), function (transmit signals to muscles)

Motor unit recruitment – motor units (motor neuron plus the innervated muscle fibres), small motor units (type I), large motor units (type II), size principle, factors affecting recruitment patterns (specific movement pattern, high and low firing threshold, skill and experience of participant), all or none law (if a stimulus is above threshold individual muscle fibres fully contract, if a stimulus is below threshold muscles fibres do not contract), determinants of the strength of a muscle contraction

Muscle proprioceptors and the stretch reflex – function of muscle spindles (detect changes in muscle length), function of Golgi tendon organs (detect changes in muscle tension), stretch reflex (contraction of stretched muscle, reflex arc) inverse stretch reflex (inhibition of muscle contraction, reflex arc)

Reciprocal inhibition – agonist muscle contraction, antagonist muscle relaxation, relevance to exercise (allows appropriate muscle contraction, can be used to promote flexibility development), efficiency and power of movement


Learners must know how exercise enhances neuromuscular activity and improves motor fitness

Content to include

Resistance training adaptations (improved motor recruitment, improved recruitment of fast twitch fibres)

Types of motor skills training (reaction time, balance, coordination, speed, agility, spatial awareness, power)

Motor skills training adaptations (growth of new nervous system connections, increased frequency of nerve impulses to motor units, improved synchronous motor unit recruitment, improved intermuscular coordination, automatic performance of movement patterns)

Methods of motor skill development (short training duration to avoid fatigue, repetition, drills, progressing movement speed, whole-part-whole, progressive layering of demands on motor skills, positive reinforcement and feedback)

• Benefits of improved neuromuscular co-ordination – improved movement efficiency and economy, improved accuracy of movement patterns, improved force generation, improved stability, improved spatial awareness, automatic movement patterns



Learners must know the functions of the endocrine system

Content to include

Maintains homeostasis

Regulation of growth

Development and metabolism

Production of hormones

Close links with nervous system

Learners must know the names of the major glands, their locations and hormones excreted, including the functions of hormones

Content to include

Major glands – pineal, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands, testes and ovaries

Functions of hormones - Growth hormone (growth of body cells, protein anabolism, elevation of blood

glucose)

- Thyroid hormones – thyroxine and parathyroid hormone (metabolism, growth, development, nervous system control)

- Corticosteroids – cortisol (regulate metabolism, release of energy substrates, stress hormone)

- Adrenaline and noradrenaline (control of sympathetic nervous system, ‘fight or flight’ response before exercise)

- Insulin (lowers blood glucose, increases lipogenesis, stimulates protein synthesis)

- Glucagon (raises blood glucose, conversion of nutrients to glucose for energy release)

- Testosterone from adrenal gland (male and female) and testes (in male) (anabolic and androgenic, male secondary sex characteristics)

- Oestrogen, progesterone (female sex hormones, regulate menstrual cycle and pregnancy, female secondary sex characteristics)



Learners must know the structure of the lymphatic system

Content to include

Primary and secondary lymph organs

Lymphatic vessels - Thoracic duct

- Right lymphatic duct

Lymphatic capillaries (lacteals)

Lymph fluid – monocytes, lymphocytes

Lymph nodes - Occipital

- Popliteal

- Inguinal

- Axillary

- Cubital

- Spleen

Learners must know the functions of the lymphatic system

Content to include

Fight and prevent infection – white blood cells, immunity, distribution of fluid throughout the body, transportation of fats

Remove excess tissue fluid (oedema) and return it to the bloodstream

Learners must know the structure of lymph nodes

Content to include

Capsule, trabeculae, cortex, follicles, medulla, medullary cords, afferent vessels and efferent vessels

Learners must know the functions of a lymph node

Content to include

Filtration of foreign substances, destruction of foreign substances, immune response


Learners must know the location of the major lymph nodes

Content to include

Occipital – back of neck

Submandibular – below jaw

Cervical – superficial, deep and posterior locations within neck

Auricular – pre and post-auricular in front of and behind ear

Axillary – armpit and breast tissue

Abdominal – intestinal node, iliac node, spleen on upper left side of the abdomen just inferior (below) to rib cage

Inguinal – groin

Popliteal – behind knee

Supratrochlear (cubital) – crook of elbow



Learners must know the structure of digestive tract and associated digestive organs

Content to include

Mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, sublingual, buccal), pharynx (epiglottis), oesophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), pancreas, liver, gall bladder, large intestine, rectum, anus

Learners must know the functions of the different sections of the digestive tract and associated organs in the digestion and absorption of nutrients

Content to include

Ingestion

Mouth – mechanical digestion begins (mastication, food chewed and moistened) chemical digestion begins (salivary amylase breaks down starch into simple sugars)

Oesophagus – mucus-lined smooth muscle tube, peristalsis pushes food towards the stomach. No additional chemical digestion

Stomach – chemical digestion of proteins (Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and enables enzymes e.g. pepsin to perform their actions. Pepsin breaks protein down into smaller amino acid chains. Peptides and lipase break down short chain triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides.) Mechanical digestion (food churned and mixed with liquid until broken down into chyme)

Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and the ileum) – breaks down nutrients into usable components. Chemical digestion (gall bladder releases bile made by liver to emulsify lipids (fats) and pancreas secretes pancreatic juice containing lipase and other enzymes to complete macronutrient breakdown.) Mechanical digestion (via peristalsis and segmentation in ileum.) Absorption of nutrients into hepatic blood stream and lymph by capillaries and lacteals

Pancreas – secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes that assist breakdown of carbohydrates, protein and fat in small intestine. Role of pancreatic enzymes – trypsin, amylase, lipase

Liver – secretion of bile to emulsify fat and assist breakdown and absorption of fats

Gall bladder – located under the liver, stores and releases bile into small intestine via bile duct

Large intestine – final stage of digestive process. Partial breakdown of cellulose (soluble fibre), reabsorption of the water from undigested food, undigested food fibre forms faeces and passes to the rectum

Rectum – expels faeces

Kidneys – help to keep blood composition constant. Filter blood to remove excess water and waste products, which are secreted as urine

Appendix – no known function in digestion. Vestigial part of colon with an immune system function


Learners must know the effects of exercise on the digestive system

Content to include

Diversion of blood flow away from intestines and digestive organs during exercise caused by sympathetic nervous system dominance and blood shunting, i.e. capillary sphincters constrict blood vessels to digestive system

Slowing of digestive processes during exercise due to reduced blood flow

Can lead to upper digestive system discomfort and vomiting if large meals are eaten shortly before exercising

Exercise speeds up transit time of faeces and prevents constipation, reducing risk of colon cancer and other diseases of large intestine

Some types of exercise e.g. long distance running can cause lower abdominal cramps and diarrhoea as water is not absorbed form the large intestine



Learners must know the structure of urinary system

Content to include

Structure – kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

Learners must know the functions of urinary system

Content to include

Main functions – controlling blood composition, controlling blood volume and pressure, removing and restoring water and solutes

Functions of each urinary structure - Kidneys – filter waste from the blood, produce urine

- Ureter – tubes where urine leaves the kidneys and passes to the bladder

- Bladder – stores urine until excreted

- Urethra – carries urine from the bladder out of the body

Learners must know the effects of exercise on the urinary system

Content to include

Exercise improves kidney function and reduces risk of developing kidney disease. For individuals with kidney disease, aerobic exercise is recommended as part of a treatment plan

Exercise can stimulate a need to urinate, this may be more noticeable in water due to the effect of hydrostatic pressure

High impact exercise places pressure on the pelvic floor and can cause stress incontinence

Pelvic floor exercises, some core stability exercises and whole-body exercises such as squats that engage the pelvic floor muscles can help to reduce stress incontinence



Learners must know the macronutrients, common food sources and their role in the production of energy

Content to include

Carbohydrates (e.g. found in bread, pasta), proteins (e.g. found in meat, fish), lipids (e.g. found in cheese, butter), energy yield per gram of macronutrient carbohydrates 4kcals per gram, protein 4kcals per gram, lipids 9kcals per gram

Carbohydrates – break down into glucose, stored as glycogen in muscles and liver

Lipids (fats and oils) – break down into fatty acids, stored as adipose tissue, protection, energy store

Proteins – break down into amino acids, growth and repair of muscle, used for energy when other nutrients are depleted

Learners must know the energy systems used during exercise and the by-products of different systems

Content to include

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP – the energy currency of the body, break down and re-synthesis, energy equation)

Energy systems (Phosphocreatine system, anaerobic lactic acid system, aerobic system – glycolysis and lipolysis)

- Phosphocreatine or Creatine phosphate (CP) system (high intensity activity of 6-10 seconds limited by availability of CP), e.g. 100 metre sprint, throwing, explosive events

- Anaerobic lactic acid system (moderate to high intensity activity of up to 90 seconds, inefficient break down of glycogen/glucose, limited by accumulation of by-products), e.g. 400 metre sprint

- Aerobic system (low to moderate intensity longer than 90 seconds, unlimited means of re-synthesising ATP but exercise intensity is limited by availability of glucose/glycogen and an individual’s ability to use this system limited by availability of oxygen, i.e. VO2max), e.g. long-distance events

By-products

- Phosphocreatine system (adenosine diphosphate, phosphate, creatine, all by-products re-used)

- Anaerobic lactic acid system (Hydrogen ions (acid) lactate ions (buffer))

- Aerobic system (metabolic water, carbon dioxide)

- Associated significance of by-products in muscle fatigue (limitation of mechanical and biochemical muscle contraction processes, lactate threshold, onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA))


Learners must know the effects of exercise on the energy systems

Content to include

The energy continuum for intensity and duration, relative percentage contributions of energy systems during different activities/sports (exercise type, exercise duration, exercise intensity)

Effect of training on the relative proportions of fuel used for exercise, glycogen sparing, ability to utilise fats at higher exercise intensities, increased lactate threshold, improved ability to tolerate and remove lactate


Assessment requirements

External examination

This unit will be assessed by an external examination. External examinations will test knowledge and understanding from across the whole unit. Learners should use the unit content section of this specification and listed assessment criteria to aid revision since exam questions will test the full breadth of this section.

All unit learning outcomes are covered in each and every qualification. The full breadth of unit content is covered equally over the life of the qualification; this provides scope for significant variation between examinations and reduces examination predictability.

A sample examination paper can be downloaded from the VTCT website.

The assessment criteria to guide theory paper development and support learner revision are listed below.

Learning Outcome Assessment Criteria

LO1 Know the structure and function of the skeletal system

1.1. Describe the functions of the skeleton

1.2. Recognise the standard anatomical position

1.3. Define and provide examples of directional terminology

1.4. Identify the anatomical planes and axes

1.5. Name and locate the bones of the axial and appendicular skeleton divisions

1.6. Recognise the classifications of different bones

1.7. Recognise the stages of bone growth

1.8. Describe the structures of a long bone

1.9. Explain the structure of the spine in relation to posture and range of motion

1.10. Explain the structure of the main joint classifications

1.11. Locate and describe the different types of synovial joints and their range of motion

1.12. Identify the main joint actions at each synovial joint

1.13. Explain exercise and movement considerations in relation to the skeletal system

1.14. List the short-term and long-term effects of exercise on the skeletal system




2.1. Describe the different types of muscle tissue

2.2. Describe the different skeletal muscle fibre types

2.3. Describe the structure of skeletal muscle

2.4. Explain the sliding filament theory

2.5. Name and locate the major muscles of the body

2.6. Define the different types of muscle contractions

2.7. Define and explain different muscle roles

2.8. Identify joint actions produced by contraction of the main muscles

2.9. Give examples of exercises that work the main muscles

2.10. Name the main stabilising muscles of the spine and explain their role in maintaining optimum posture and core stability

2.11. Analyse a range of exercises and movements and identify different muscle roles

2.12. List the short-term and long-term effects of exercise on the muscular system



3.1. Describe the location and function of the heart

3.2. Describe the main chambers of the heart

3.3. Explain the locations and roles of the main blood vessels entering and leaving the heart

3.4. State the purpose of the heart valves

3.5. Describe blood flow through the heart chambers

3.6. Describe systemic circulation

3.7. Describe pulmonary circulation

3.8. Describe coronary circulation

3.9. Define the terms heart rate (maximal and resting), stroke volume, cardiac output

3.10. Describe the structure and function of different blood vessel types

3.11. Describe blood pressure

3.12. Explain the effects of disease processes on the blood vessels and the effect on blood pressure

3.13. List the effects of exercise on the circulatory system and benefits to cardiovascular fitness




4.1. Describe the location and function of the lungs

4.2. Identify the main structures of the lungs

4.3. Name the main muscles used for passive and active breathing

4.4. Describe the mechanical process of breathing

4.5. Describe the passage of air through the respiratory system

4.6. Explain the process of gaseous exchange in the lungs and body tissues

4.7. Describe the composition of inhaled and exhaled air

4.8. List the short-term and long-term effects of exercise on the respiratory system



5.1. Describe the roles and functions of the different components of the nervous system

5.2. Explain the role of the nervous system in muscle contraction

5.3. Describe the structure and function of a neuron

5.4. Explain the ‘All or none’ Law

5.5. Explain the size principle of motor unit recruitment

5.6. Explain the function of different muscle proprioceptors and the stretch reflex

5.7. Describe reciprocal inhibition

5.8. Explain how exercise enhances neuromuscular activity and improves motor fitness



6.1. State the functions of the endocrine system

6.2. Name and locate the major endocrine glands

6.3. Explain the functions of hormones excreted by the major endocrine glands



7.1. Recognise the structures of the lymphatic system

7.2. Describe the functions of the lymphatic system

7.3. Describe the structure and function of lymph nodes

7.4. Locate the major lymph nodes




8.1. Name and locate the structures of the digestive tract and associated digestive organs

8.2. Explain the functions of the different sections of the digestive tract and associated organs in the digestion and absorption of nutrients

8.3. Describe the effects of exercise on the process of digestion



9.1. Name and locate the structures of urinary system

9.2. Explain the functions of urinary system

9.3. Describe the effects of exercise on the urinary system



10.1. Describe the macronutrients

10.2. Explain the role of the macronutrients in the production of energy

10.3. Describe the structure and role of adenosine triphosphate

10.4. Name and describe the function of the energy systems used during exercise

10.5. Name and describe the effects of the by-products of the different energy systems

10.6. Give examples of activities which predominately engage each energy system

10.7. Define the terms: lactate threshold and onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA)

10.8. Explain the effects of exercise on the energy systems

10.9. Describe how training specific energy systems can improve sports performance


Delivery guidance Whilst this is largely a theoretical unit a wide range of practical delivery methods should be used to allow learners to explore the structure and function of the body systems.

The use of physical resources and practical delivery are encouraged to engage learners and to enhance the learning experience.

Teachers are encouraged to use innovative, practical and engaging delivery methods to enhance the learning experience.

Learners may benefit from the use of:

Interactive information and technology: These can be used to enable learners to actively learn about anatomical and physiological concepts and theories. There are a variety of apps, eLearning resources and YouTube presentations available to support learning and study of many body systems.

DVDs and animated clips: These offer also a useful means for reinforcing theoretical knowledge and understanding. For example, learners can observe and analyse different exercises and sports and discuss joint actions, muscle actions, muscle fibre recruitment and energy system contribution, e.g. contribution during different playing positions for team sports. It may be useful for learners to watch a DVD or animation on the functions of the muscles and in particular, different types of muscle contraction (concentric, eccentric). Animation clips can also be used to demonstrate how blood is circulated around the body and illustrate the role and functioning of the heart.

Anatomical models: Models of the skeleton, spine, knee joint, heart, lungs, digestive system provide a visual and kinaesthetic resource to enhance presentations and discussions. Life-sized models of skeletons, joints and disarticulated bones are excellent resources and provide a number of exciting options for workshop activities. Learners can label bones and joint structures and identify where muscles interact as well as analyse joint movements.

Dissections (where available and appropriate): The structure of many body systems are best explored in practical workshops, e.g. the use of dissection of the heart/lungs/kidneys of an animal.

Posters and diagrams: These can be used to identify the main structures of different body systems, e.g. skeletal, muscular, digestive, urinary, lymphatic, etc. They provide a valuable source for revision.

Worksheets and learner workbooks: These can be used to support learning. They are also useful as a revision resource. Labelling of diagrams provides an accessible method for learning about the structures of different body systems, e.g. labelling a skeleton, locating the main endocrine glands, labelling the heart, lungs, locating the muscles, labelling the structures of the digestive, lymphatic and urinary system, etc.

Flash cards: There are a range of flash cards available to support learning of different body systems. They can be used to assist learning of muscle names and their location and function and the names of bones/joints and their location and function.

Games and quizzes: These can be used to provide regular learning checks for all body systems. Learners may also design their own quizzes.


Interactive practical workshops: These are valuable to enable application of knowledge in a practical context, e.g. joint actions, energy systems, muscle actions can also be learned through experiential workshops. Practical exploration is an excellent way for learners to apply their knowledge and reinforce their learning, e.g. analysis of exercises, identifying the joints and joint movements used in different in sport and exercise activities. Learners can participate in a range of sport and exercise activities to experience the energy systems. Team sports are often good examples to use since the different energy systems are recruited depending on the playing position and activities undertaken. Learners can analyse the movements of their peers carrying out sport and exercise activities and explain which muscles are acting and the joint movements. Learners can use practical methods to monitor the short-term responses to exercise, such as heart rate and blood pressure. Learners can use practical activities to monitor the short-term responses to exercise, such as breathing rate. Lung volumes can be delivered practically with the use of spirometry; this way learners can relate to the specific volumes and start to reason why values differ between their peers. The values attained from spirometry can be recorded and the theory behind each reading can be explored. The functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems can be taught simultaneously so learners understand how the systems work together to provide oxygen and remove waste and carbon dioxide from the body, particularly in relation to sport and exercise.

Presentations: Teacher presentations can be used to introduce a range of theoretical topics. Learners should be able to explore the muscular system in detail, in particular, the different types of muscle tissue and the major muscles of the body. It is essential that learners can see the microscopic differences between the structures of the different muscle tissues and be able to relate these to their functions within the body. Muscle fibre types are best taught through directly comparing the characteristics of each, and the sports in which they are recruited. It may be useful to use examples of elite sports performers so learners can relate fibre recruitment to real life sport. Energy systems need to be explored in detail, including, the fuels used, the amount of ATP produced, by-products and recovery time. Learners may also conduct their own research on different body systems and present information gathered to peers, e.g. muscle and joint actions and/or energy systems for a specific sport or exercise.


Resources The special resources required for this unit must support learners to apply their knowledge of anatomy and physiology to sport and exercise.

Best practice should be encouraged by giving learners the opportunity to access current research and guidelines that inform sport and exercise science (e.g. NICE, ACSM, BASES, BHFNC, Department of Health).

Text books:

Bursztyn, P (1990) Physiology for Sports People. A serious user’s guide to the body. USA. Manchester University Press

Edward Alcamo, I. Ph.D. (2003) Anatomy Colouring Book. 2nd edition. USA. Random House

McArdle, W.D. Katch, F.I. and Katch, V.L (1996) Exercise Physiology. Energy, Nutrition and Human Performance. 3rd Edition. Leb and Febiger. US

Palastanga, N. Field, D. and Soames, R (1989) Anatomy and Human Movement. UK. Butterworth Heinemann

Sharkey, B (1990) Physiology of Fitness. 3rd Edition. Champaign, Illinois. USA. Human Kinetic

Stone, R. and Stone, J (1990) Atlas of Skeletal Muscles. USA. Wm. C. Brown Publishers

Thompson, C (1989) Manual of Structural Kinesiology. 11th Edition. USA. Times Mirror Mosby Publishing

Tortora, G & Anagnostakos, N (1987) Principle of Anatomy and Physiology. 5th Edition. USA. Harper and Row

NB: This list is not exhaustive. There are many other valuable text books.

Flash cards:

Bryan Edwards Publishing. The Ultimate Anatomy Flash Cards.

Websites:

American College of Sport Medicine (ACSM): www.acsm.org

British Association of Sport and Exercise Science: www.bases.org.uk

British Heart Foundation National Centre for Physical Activity and Health: www.ncsem-em.org.uk

Department of Health: www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-of-health

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE): www.nice.org.uk

School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences at Loughborough University (SSESHS): www.ssehsactive.org.uk

http://www.acsm.org/

http://www.bases.org.uk/

http://www.ncsem-em.org.uk/

http://www.ncsem-em.org.uk/

http://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-of-health

http://www.nice.org.uk/

http://www.ssehsactive.org.uk/


Document History

Version Issue Date Changes Role

v1 16/03/2018 First published Qualifications Manager

v2 11/07/2018 Amended following DfE approval Product Administrator

unit specification - vtct · 2018-07-12 · usp126 unit specification_v2 page 6 of 29 lo2 know the...

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