Unit 2Is resistance to liberalism justified?

Chapter 4To what extent have various ideas and events shaped liberalism over time?Aboriginal Peoples and the Early Development of Liberalism Prior to the Europeans coming to North America, Aboriginals in eastern North America already were practicing forms of liberalism. The Haudenosaunee Confederacy was formed between 1400 and 1600 and consists of six different groups of Aboriginals. Each nation has its own council and chief who address their own nations internal affairs. The Grand Council deals with issues that affect all of the nations within the Confederacy. All chiefs are of equal rank and authority. All nations share a common goal – to live in harmony. See page 97, figure 4-3 for a map of the Confederacy.

The Haudenosaunee Confederation also had a constitution called the Great Law of Peace. This constitution has been passed down orally from one generation to the next. Originally, it was to bring harmony and unity between warring nations, divide powers between different levels of government, and establish equality among the people (including women) in government. It also guaranteed certain rights, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the rights of the individual. There are some who believe that the Great Law of Peace may have influence the American Constitution of 1787, which would later influence Canadian Confederation in 1867. Others argue that what influenced the American constitution was European.

While there was a form of liberalism in North America prior to the contact of Europeans, in Europe there was a very different story. Most societies in Europe did not practice democracy or liberalism. Power and the right to rule were meant only for the royalty, nobility and the church. Citizens were meant to follow the laws set by their rulers.Origins of Western Democratic Liberalism Prior to the 1800s, many European countries were ruled with an absolute monarchy. This meant that the king and his court had complete power over the government. Absolute power was often abused and used to restrict individual freedoms. By the early 1800s, many people started to challenge the idea of an absolute monarch. Rousseau proposed that society should ensure civil rights and freedoms for individuals in France.

Many believers in liberalism believed in: Protection of individual rights and freedoms

No one should be above the law What is good for the individual within a community can also be good for the community as a whole Most individuals can make good decisions for both themselves and their communities Government intervention should be limited so that people have the freedom of choice in their lives Individuals and companies should be allowed to create, market, purchase, and sell products with minimum government intervention (free-market economy)

Liberal Ideas on Economic Systems The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to the way people lived. It changed the way of farming, where people lived, how they worked and how people made money. It also changed how people thought about how the economy should work. Mercantilism is the idea that a country must export more than it imports. This way they make more money. However, the money did not go to the workers creating the product. It went into the pockets of the government (monarchy). The class system made it difficult for a person to advance in life. It limited the distribution of wealth which created a large gap between the rich and the poor. See page 107, figure 4-6 for Britain’s class system.

Adam Smith challenged mercantilism by claiming that it did not distribute wealth throughout all of society. He claimed that fairer distribution would only come if people had more say in what they made, how they made it, and how much they could sell it for. He also claimed that mercantilism led to governments (monarchies) to giver special rights to their favourite business owners and landowners, which would create monopolies. Monopolies don’t allow for competition, which results in a poor (and overpriced) product. Competition allows for the creation of better, faster and more effective products. The consumer then has the choice in the product that they want and the owners of those who make the better products make more money.

Adam Smith also believed that there needed to be limited government interference. This meant that a government was not allowed to restrict trade, to have government assigned monopolies, or to misuse public funds. Smith believed that there should be a limited government – a government that protected the security of the individual. The government was also responsible for the maintaining of public works (roads, bridges, etc).

Mercantilism vs. Capitalism

Liberal Ideas on Political Systems As a focus on the individual developed, liberalism also developed. This development can be seen in the 1700s with the American and French Revolutions. Documents such as the Declaration or the Bill of Rights expressed liberal values. Some essential rights and freedoms which the new governments of France and the USA were founded on are: Participation in government Free from excessive government control No one is above the law Protection and permission to exercise individual rights Freedom to make ones own decisions

These new governments were also the beginnings of liberal democracy. This is a political system where all citizens are equal and that the election process is free. It would also allow for multiple parties, have political decisions made by a democratically elected body, and legal decisions made by a separate body. John Stuart Mill wrote an essay called “On Liberty” to attempt to prove the benefits of allowing individual rights as possible by limiting the role of the government. Mills believed that the role of the government was to preserve the rule of law, protect private property, and to ensure the security of the individual.

Chapter 5 To what extent did classical liberalism meet the needs of society?

Conditions Created by Classical Liberalism In the late 1700s and 1800s, Europe and North America experienced an Industrial Revolution. People moved from the country to the cities to work in factories. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, the ideas of laissez-faire capitalism came into practice. This is a practice where the government does not intervene in the market. Due to the lack of government involvement, business men were able to invest their money as they pleased. They were free to risk in investing in business, building new factories, purchasing machines and supplies, and to hire workers in order to make and sell products. Many of the successful business owners sought to imitate the upper class. They bought large estate homes, hired servants, and purchased items to furnish their homes. This new upper middle class benefited from the laissez-faire capitalism. They spent their money on luxury items and trips. They formed exclusive clubs, where the wealthy would socialize. Business owners were seen as greedy because they did share their profits with their workers. Some were seen as being cold and ruthless men. (Think Scrooge) During this time, the gap between the rich and poor grew. Those who already had money, made more money and those who had little money, sank deeper into poverty. Peoples standard of living (the amount of goods and services one can afford to buy) did not improve during the Industrial Revolution. Also, during this time, the cost of living increased (the amount it costs for basic necessities). While the cost of living went up, the wages of the workers did not necessarily go up. Because of this, the people in the working class experienced many hardships. The working class were often treated poorly by the owners of the factories. Laissez-faire capitalism led to pollution, city slums, abuse of employees, unreasonable working hours, child labour and unjust firing practices. The government was not allowed to interfere because it was seen as harmful to the economy. Owners were allowed to do as they pleased because it was seen to be the best way to benefit the common good of society. Factories during the 1800s did not provide safe working conditions for its workers. They were often crowded, noisy and had very little light or ventilation. Dust and floating particles would result in lung diseases such as asthma, tuberculosis, and bronchitis. Rules were also very stringent. 12-16 hour days were the norm along with little to no lunch break. There were also no bathroom breaks – doing so meant a deduction in pay. If you were injured, you would be fired. The factories also created a lot of pollution. Therefore the working class neighbourhoods would be covered in soot and the people would breathe in the polluted air on a continuous basis.

At the same time, there was also an increase in child labour. Many factory owners saw child labour as cheap labour. Children were small, agile, obedient, and unlikely to join unions.Responses to Conditions Created by Classical Liberalism During the Industrial Revolution, there were those who wished to bring about change. Some did not like that skilled workers lost their jobs to the factories or that their wages decreased. They began to fight back. One group to do this was the Luddites. Between 1812 and 1816, Luddites broke into factories and destroyed machinery. They also attacked factory owners. The British government sent troops to protect the factories and the punishment for destroying machines was death.

Improving conditions of the working class As people witnessed the conditions of the working class, many people began to speak out against poverty, child labour, and the living/working conditions. In response, the government began to impose some restrictions to the laissez-faire capitalism. The Factory Acts were some of the first restrictions imposed in Britain. Pg. 126 Child labour also became legislated. For example, in 1812, children could only work a maximum of 12 hours. By 1878, school was mandatory for children under 10, and children between the ages of 10 and 14 could only work half days. By 1874, no worker was allowed to work more than 56.5 hours a week. Labour unions also began forming. These are groups that try to improve working conditions and wages for a specific group of workers or for an entire industry. There are those who believe that labour unions were necessary to reduce the negative impacts of laissez-faire capitalism. Unions limited hours, ensured safe working conditions, protected job security, obtained medical benefits, and provided members with legal services. For work related issues. Others believe that labour unions interfere with the economy because they create artificially high wages and result in businesses having to increase prices to make a profit. This then leads to an increased cost of living for everyone. It is also believed that labour unions protect workers who are unskilled, unproductive or even unsuited for their jobs.

The Welfare State The welfare state came about in the 1900s. This is a society where the government plays a large role in providing for the needs and the common good for its citizens (education, healthcare, employment and disability insurance, public housing and social assistance).

Evolution of Individual and Collective Rights Feminism also came forth after the Industrial Revolution. Prior to this movement, the ideas of liberalism did not apply to women. They were not allowed to pursue certain types of careers or to vote. Many women began to push for change. The “Famous Five” from Canada, fought to have women legally declared as persons. The feminist movement also showed the unequal treatment of people in society and helped bring forth change. Because of the feminist movement, liberalism shifted to ensuring the basic needs, a decent standard of living, and safety and security for all citizens. Human rights also became a major movement after World War 2. After the horrors that people faced during WW2, many sought change so that no one would have to endure such tragedy again. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was created in 1948. It was to set the standard on how people were treated as citizens in their countries. There are, however, many countries that do not follow the Declaration. Many choose to violate basic human rights. Today, other countries place economic sanctions on those who violate human rights. Or if needed, troops will be sent in to protect those who are in danger. Today we live in modern liberalism. This is an ideology that addresses the concerns of inequality and injustices that have been created by capitalism, while at the same time focusing on individual rights.

Chapter 6To what extent are socialism and Marxism responses to classical liberalism?Robert Owen (1771-1885) Was the first British business man who felt it was the responsibility of the owners to run profitable businesses while providing decent work conditions for the workers. What he did: provided safe working environments, schools for children and adults, created markets with good, nutritious foods at decent prices, basic health care, and a voice in the operation of his textile mills. Owens felt that if workers were treated better, that they would be more willing to make better products. New Lanark (where Owens mills were established) is believed to be the birth place of socialism. Socialism is an ideology based on the belief that collective values, such as collective responsibility, collective interest, co-operation, equality, etc, should be the foundation for political, economic, and social life.

Charles Fourier (1772 – 1837) A French socialist who believed in the idea that the perfect place could be created where people could prosper and develop to their full potential. People who believe in this are called utopian socialists. Fourier believed that with careful planning and organization, these utopian communities could provide the economic, political, and social needs of the citizens successfully.Karl Marx (1818 – 1883) Wrote The Communist Manifesto in 1848 with Friedrich Engels. He was influenced by the socialist movement and wrote about the failings of capitalism and its negative effects on the working class. He wrote that the working class should rise against the business owners and seize control in regards to politics, economics, and social systems. Marx also believed that society should be classless and that all people should be equal.

A social society would involve: A shift from private property to public All factories controlled by the government Government controlled all banks through a national bank Government controlled all means of transportation and communication Free education for all children in public schools

Early Democratic Socialism Democratic socialism came about in the late 1800s when socialists believed that modern liberalism would not meet the needs of the people. Democratic socialism embraces some of the ideas provided by communism such as a classless society but without the violence. Communism was thought to be brought about by revolution – by more violent means, while democratic socialism would bring about change without revolution. Democratic socialists believe in some values from liberalism, such as democracy, freedom and individual rights. At the same time, they felt that capitalism hindered workers’ rights and kept them from being free. Democratic socialists believed that the government should have control in the economy so that everyone would be treated fairly. In a democratic society, the government would control most key industries, support labour rights, and provide extensive social programs (unemployment insurance, health care, education, and child care).

Examples of Democratic Socialism in CanadaThe Great Depression and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation The Great Depression hit the world on October 29th, 1929. It began with the crash of the stock markets. Many companies went bankrupt, investors lost their money, and many people lost their jobs. Many felt that the reason behind the crash was the lack of regulation on the economy. Due to these conditions, many began to feel that more government intervention was needed.

Co-operative Commonwealth Federation The CFF formed in 1932 during the Depression in Calgary. In the Prairies were hit the hardest and the CFF was created to bring about change for the people. The goals of the CFF were to: Provide shelters for the jobless and homeless Job creation programs Pensions for those who had worked all their life Health services that were subsidized The CCF peaked in 1944 when Tommy Douglas was elected premier of Saskatchewan by a huge majority. The CCF eventually became the NDP. Even though the CCF or NDP have not had a lot of success in the federal system, a lot of their policies are seen in Canada’s government policies today.

Socialism in Quebec After WW2, Quebec was ruled by Premier Maurice Duplessis. He was very anti-communist and anti-union, and he promoted laissez-faire policies. He was also for Quebec sovereignty.

As time went on, his government began to implement more government involvement in the economy and it also promoted more public works projects (highways, schools, and hospitals). After his death, Quebec sovereignty was tied to socialism. Many groups felt that the Canadian government was oppressive and did not look after the people.The Parti Quebecois Rene Levesque founded the new political the Parti Quebecois. It was a separatist party that came to power in 1976. The PQ party introduced government social programs such as pharmacare (insurance for perscriptions), a $7-a-day universal child care, and a parental leave program.

Chapter 7To what extent is communism or fascism a response to liberalism?

Soviet Communism According to the communist ideology, the collective is more important than the individual. It is believed, under communism, that the well-being of the individual is the responsibility of the government, not of the individual themselves. Values of communism: Collective ownership of the means of production Elimination of private property Economic equality Communism also promotes change through revolution rather than democratic means. In the last 100 years, communism has developed in different countries based on different interpretations. In the Soviet Union, there was Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism In China, Maoism developed. These understandings of communism are defined by the beliefs of the leaders. Communism focuses on the importance of collectivism to meet society’s basic needs. Communism that developed in the 1900s believed that their needed to be a large amount of government involvement and control to meet society’s needs. Marx, however, believed that a true communist society did not need a government.

Russian Revolution and the Beginning of Communism in the USSRThe Failure of Liberal Reform By the 1800s, Russia was one of the least industrialized nations in Europe. Russia was slow to develop economically because of its large size and its focus on subsistence agriculture – people only farm what they need to survive. Over 90% of the population lived in poverty, while the remaining 10% lived in extreme wealth. Russia at this time, was ruled by a czar (tsar), who had complete control over the political, economical, and social aspects of the country. People did not have basic rights and the serfs were enslaved to the landowners. In 1861, Czar Alexander II freed the serfs and began to introduce liberal reforms to the country. He abolished capital punishment and created local government that included representatives from all classes (who made decisions on things like taxation and education). Even though Alexander had began to bring reform to Russia, for some socialists, it was not enough. They wanted immediate change. In March of 1881, he was assassinated by members of a radical group called the People’s Will.

After his assassination, many of his liberal reforms were reversed and the freedoms of the Russian people were restricted by the new czar, Alexander III.

The Rise of Socialism During the 1800s, many industrialized European countries began to invest money to develop Russia. They invested money in new roads and factories, and Russia was pushed into a period of sudden social and economic change. Russia had began the Industrial Revolution later than the other European countries and needed to catch up. The nobility, business owners, and foreign investors benefited greatly from this rapid change, while the working class did not. Just like the working classes in Britain and America, those in Russia were also treated poorly and were overworked in poor conditions. By the 1900s, many Russians felt that the working class was being treated poorly and began to turn to Marxism and The Communist Manifesto for change. In 1898, a group of Marxists form the Socialist Democratic Labour Party but the czar banned the group. The members were forced into exile but kept the revolutionary spirit alive through an illegal newspaper called Iskra (Spark). Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, and Joseph Stalin were the main components of the group. Even though the social activists were exiled from the country, civil unrest grew among the people in Russia. In January 1905, the people of St. Petersburg marched to czar Nicholas’s Winter Palace to demand for food and better working conditions. When they arrived at the Palace, they were greeted by the czars soldiers, who opened fired on the crowd, killing hundreds of people. After Bloody Sunday, mass strikes occurred across the country. In October, Nicholas II agreed to allow an assembly of the people’s representatives and the St. Petersburg Soviet (council) was formed. Then, Nicholas signed the October Manifesto, which allowed for the formation of political parties and the basic civil rights of the Russian people. The events of 1905 led to the Russian Revolution of 1917, the abdication of the czar, civil war, and the establishment of a communist nation.

Leninism After the forced abdication of Nicholas II, Russia was without a formal leader for the last years of WWI. Alexander Kerensky led the temporary government but met very little success. The government refused to give land to the poor peasants in rural areas and also decided to continue fighting the war (which Russia was losing at the time). While the temporary government lost the support of the people, support for communist and Marxist ideas grew.

In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin (leader of the Bolsheviks) called for the end of Russian participation in the war. The slogan of the Bolsheviks was “Peace! Land! Bread!” Many people turned their support to the Bolsheviks and in October 1917, had the strength and power to take control of the government.

Lenin began to transform Russia into his interpretation of communism (called Leninism). Lenin used many of Marx’s ideas for the foundations of his political and economical policies. Leninism, however, differs from Marxism because Lenin believed that a strong government was needed while Marx believed that the people did not need a government to rule over them. There were many people who did not support the Bolsheviks and shortly after their takeover of government, the Bolsheviks were faced with a civil war. The Bolshevik Red Army and the Anti-Bolshevik White Army fought for approximately 5 years. The White Army was supported by Britain, France, and the USA who feared Lenin and communism. However, in the end, the White Army was defeated, and those among their ranks were exiled or executed. In 1922, many republics joined Russia to create the Union of Socialist Republics (USSR or Soviet Union), led by Lenin. Some of the positive changes: Land was redistributed to the people Factories were given to the workers so that they could make decisions about wages and working conditions Men and women were equal Art and music flourished as there were no longer any restrictions on what one could create Many people felt the benefits of Lenin’s changes to the country. However, Lenin still felt opposition from those who did not feel like their needs were not being met. In 1924, Lenin died from a stroke and had been seen as the Father of the Soviet Union.

Stalinism After Lenin’s death in 1924, Leon Trotsky was to be his successor. Trotsky was an ally of Lenin and had the same interpretation of communism as Lenin did. However, Stalin also wanted to be leader of the Soviet Union and there was a struggle between Trotsky and Stalin for power. In the end, Stalin won the power struggle and sent Trotsky to exile in Mexico where he was later assassinated. By 1928, Stalin had complete control and had become supreme leader of the country. While Stalin claimed to be a Marxist-Leninist, his interpretation of communism was formed by his desire for control and absolute power.

Stalin’s form of communism meant oppression and fear for the people, not revolution and freedom. Stalin rejected all liberal ideas, feeling that they would only hinder the USSR and not help achieve its goals. Some of the policies that Stalin enforced: Creation of the Gulag to contain those who opposed him. Use of the secret police (NKVD) to control people and instill fear in them. The purges of 1936 and 1939 to eliminate all those in the Communist Party and the Soviet armed forces who opposed him. Rewriting Soviet history and prescribing a state view of the history of the country. (see page 167 figures 7-8 and 7-9 for an example) Collectivization of all farms to state or collective farms. All farms were taken by force. The Ukraine (one of the Soviet Republics) opposed the idea of collectivization of the farms. As a result, Stalin targeted the Ukraine heavily. In prior years, the Ukraine had experienced draught and had low grain output. Stalin increased the quota that the Ukraine needed to meet and withheld the grain, which resulted in the starvation of 7 to 10 million people. It is said that Stalin did this to squash his opposition and to remove the resistance of collective farms. Stalin also did this to help industrialize the Soviet Union. After Stalin’s death in 1953, there were many successors. And there was a division of the world: those who supported the Soviet Union and those who did not. This led to tension between the USA and the USSR, known as the Cold War. By the mid-1980s, Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union. He was the first leader to embrace liberalism. This could be seen in his policy of glasnost (openness and greater freedoms). Gorbachev also introduced changes to the economic and political systems of the USSR. He moved towards a market economy, private ownership of business, and multi-party elections. This was known as perestroika.

Fascism The term fascism was first used by Mussolini (Italy’s leader) in 1922. It comes from the Latin word fasces which means sticks bundled around an axe, a symbol of power and authority in ancient Roman times. Fascism is a dictatorship that includes extreme militaristic nationalism, a belief in the rule of elites, and a totalitarian society in which individual interests are not as important as those of the nation-state. Fascism also rejects the ideas of liberal democracy, communism and socialism. Fascism began to grow after World War One, particularly in Germany, Italy and Japan. Many felt that liberalism had failed them and that the war was a result of liberal values.

To fascists, democratic governments were weak, unstable, and unable to solve the social, economic, and political problems many countries faced after the Great War. Some key principles of fascism: Society as a whole has a shared purpose Dominate other nations around the world Aware of cultural distinctions Their goal of dominating other peoples can only be achieved through discipline, obedience, and the creation of an all powerful state. Many fascists also turned to social Darwinism – the idea that some individuals or groups achieve power and advantage over others because they are stronger and fitter. They believed that there are “natural” inequalities among individuals and therefore there should be a division among the people. Social Darwinism also looked at improving the human species through selective breeding and genocide. Fascists used social Darwinism to justify policies that discriminated against other groups and to use violence against these groups.

Fascism and Germany Germany became a unified country in 1871 with Otto von Bismarck as its leader. A unified Germany presented itself as a challenge to other European powers. Germany entered World War One as an ally to Austria. The war did not go as Germany had planned and in the end, Germany lost. With the end of the war, came a new liberal democratic government for Germany, called the Weimar Republic. The Weimar Republic was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty of Versailles which included harsh punishments for Germany. The Treat included the following terms: Germany must give up some of its own territory and all of its colonies. Germany must accept responsibility for causing all of the loss and damage to Allied governments Germany must pay approximately US$4.5 billion (at the time) in reparations to the Allied governments between 1919 and 1921 and an additional US$18 billion after. Even though Germany was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty, the government could not afford to pay the reparations that it demanded. By 1923, Germany stopped paying them. At the same time, the German government had printed massive amounts of the German mark, which in turn made the value of the mark decrease. The people of Germany face hyperinflation. The Weimar Republic face hyperinflation, massive unemployment, and a drop in the standard of living. These were things that a liberal democracy had never face before. The 1930s brought the Great Depression, and nearly 5 million Germans were unemployed. Many people blamed the democratic government for their problems. There was also political chaos at this time. The Weimar Republic had no strong leaders or clear leadership of the country. It also lost the support of many Germans because it had accepted the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

As support for the Weimar Republic dropped, support for new political parties began to rise. One of these parties was the Nationalist Socialist German Workers’ Party or the Nazi Party. While economic and political factors contributed to the rise of Hitler and fascism, there was also an extreme fear of communism that led to his rise. The people did not want a communist revolution such as the one in Russia, so they turned to the other ideology that rejected liberalism – they turned to fascism.

Hitler and the rise of Nazism Hitler began his rise to power in the Nazi party in the 1920s. By 1923, he decided that the only way to gain power in Germany was to take it by force. After his attempt to take control of the government failed, Hitler was tried and sent to prison. At the same time, the Nazi party was banned. While in prison, Hitler wrote his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle) which described his understandings of fascism and that would influence the fascist movement in Germany. In 1925, Hitler was released from prison after promising to use legal means to promote his ideas and politics. At the same time, the ban on the Nazi party was also lifted and within 2 years, support for the party had grown. Hitler blamed many people and groups for the troubles that Germany was facing. Some of the groups included the Weimar government, communists, the Jewish population, and other minority groups. Nazi support continued to grow. In January of 1933, Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, leader of the democratically elected government. One month later, the German Parliament building (the Reichstag) was on fire, and a member of the Communist Party was found inside. Hitler used this chance to blame the Communists for the destruction of the Reichstag, and used the peoples fear of communism to take further control of the country. Hitler made it out that the communists were planning a revolution with the burning of the Reichstag – the people feared this. With the turmoil occurring, a snap election was called and the Nazi Party became the party with the most seats in parliament. Hitler then passed the Enabling Act, and any opposition was wiped out, as well as many individual rights and freedoms. Germany was now a dictatorship. Nazism uses fascism but with the added belief that there was one superior race, the Aryans. Hitler used many techniques to ensure the support of the German people such as propaganda, youth movements, elimination of the opposition, the use of terror and force (the SA – storm troopers and the SS – Schutzstaffel), and the use of scapegoats. Hitler also encouraged the rejection of liberalism and its values. He used fascism to take away the rights and freedoms from those who he deemed as not part of his ideal society. For example, he targeted the Jewish population, Roma, people with mental or physical disabilities, homosexuals, and those who opposed Hitler’s rule (communists, democratic socialists, feminists, etc)

The group that Hitler focused on most – the Jewish population. The Jewish population was blamed for a lot of Germany’s hardships even though they only made up 1% of the whole German population. Hitler believed that northern European “Aryans” were superior and that the Jewish peoples and others were inferior, therefore they needed to be removed. In 1935, Hitler passed the Nuremberg Laws to define who was Jewish and who was not in order to preserve the “pure Aryan” or master race. In November of 1938, the Night of the Broken Glass or Kristallnacht occurred and many Jewish people were sent to concentration camps. After this night, many others were sent to the concentration camps and by the end of World War Two, approximately 6 million Jewish people were killed of the 9 million that had resided in Europe. Hitler did not only target the Jewish population. In the end nearly 14 million people died in the camps. They included Polish people, Soviet POWs, Jehovah’s Witnesses, and anyone who opposed Nazi beliefs or values. Nazism rejected the political values and beliefs of liberalism. It was a dictatorship that limited the rights and freedoms of individuals. The state was the primary concern of Hitler and the Nazi’s, not the people.

Similarities of Communism and Fascism Both are anti-democratic and elitist in practice, in both the USSR and Nazi Germany the leader was glorified and given unlimited powers Both emphasize the collective good over individual rights and freedoms Both are willing to use force and terror and use secret police to enforce their one party rule Both are willing to use scapegoating Both used controlled participation. E.g. in both the USSR and Nazi Germany membership in the ruling party ensured success, and although elections were held regularly, the elections did not allow for free choice or a secret ballot. Both used propaganda and indoctrination. E.g. in the USSR and Nazi Germany, totalitarian control was common. Media and education, as well as other areas of life were controlled by the government. All information was controlled by the government. Organizations for young people like the Hitler Youth or the Young Pioneers (USSR) helped to indoctrinate the youth.

Differences of Communism and FascismCommunism Based on ideas by Marx and Lenin A form of left wing dictatorship Stresses reason and logic Believes in equality Emphasizes internationalism Stresses public ownership Emphasizes class struggle (rich vs. poor) Appeals to the working class,

Fascism Based on the ideas of Hitler and Mussolini A form of right wing dictatorship Stresses emotion Believes in inequality Emphasizes nationalism Emphasizes private ownership Emphasizes racial struggle (Aryans vs. others)

especially the poor Appeals to industrialists, militarists, middle class

Chapter 8To what extent can ideological conflict influence international relations?

End of WWII: Agreements and Ideologies Before the end of the war, the Allied leaders of Britain, USA, and the USSR began to discuss the future of Europe. It wasn’t too long into these discussions that it was discovered the USSR had a very different image of Europe than the USA or Britain had. While all three saw Germany completely demilitarized, there was a difference in ideologies. It was Britain and the USA with their ideas of democracy and the USSR with their ideas of communism.

Yalta Conference The “Big Three” (Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin) met in February of 1945, in Yalta (Southern Ukraine). The meeting was to discuss the end of the war and the postwar future of Europe. They were set to “redraw the map” of Europe. The Yalta Conference brought the hope that the “Big Three” would be able co-operate with one another. However, it was clear that future negotiations with the USSR would be different. The agreements made at the Yalta Conference: Dividing Germany into four zones of occupation (British, American, French, and Soviet) Having free elections in the newly liberated countries of Europe, in keeping with “the right all people to choose the form of government under which they will live.”

The Potsdam Conference Germany unconditionally surrendered on May 8, 1945. Due to the war, many countries were facing uncertainty because their political, economic, and social systems were in chaos. There were changes for the “Big Three” prior to their meeting in the summer of 1945 in Potsdam. In April of 1945, Roosevelt passed away and Harry Truman had become the new President of the United States. The USA had also developed the atomic bomb at this time. For Britain, Churchill had lost the general election and Clement Atlee was now the Prime Minister of Britain. Both men (Truman and Atlee) were very anti-communist. The USSR at the time, had also set up communist-friendly governments in each of the countries the Soviet troops had liberated in 1945. Stalin was not keen on giving up his control on these regions. The Potsdam Conference stated: The allowance for free elections in Poland Germany would pay $20 billion in reparations to the Allies The Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan Restructuring the German economy towards agriculture and light industry

Division of German and Austria into four zones of occupation (British, French, American, and Soviet)

Expansionism Positive relations between the USA and the USSR were short lived. By the end of WWII, both countries began to establish their spheres of influence (the countries that they would influence politically). Countries that were liberated by the Western Allies were under the US sphere of influence, while those who were liberated by the Soviet Union were under their sphere of influence. Soviet expansionism was a way for the Soviet Union to get “command of the world economy.” He justified expansion with specific reasons: Keep Germany divided. A unified Germany had invaded the Soviet Union twice in history. When the US, Britain and France pushed to unite Germany to help the economy, Stalin said no. Wanted to maintain or expand Soviet influence to surrounding countries (Finland, Poland, Romania) to create a buffer zone for the safety of the Soviet Union.

Containment US President Truman wanted to stop Soviet expansionism in order to contain the spread of communism (containment). To do so, he created alliances and gave aid, among other methods.

Truman Doctrine In order to support anti-communist forces in Turkey and Greece in 1947, President Truman set up a $400 million economic and military aid package when the governments of Turkey and Greece asked for support to defeat communism within their. This policy later expanded to include other governments that felt that they were being threatened by communism.

The Marshall Plan In 1947, US secretary of state, George Marshall, announced a $13-billion plan to help European countries that were devastated by war to recover. This aid was offered to all countries, whether there were democratic or communist. The idea was the if countries became prosperous again, the expansion of communism was less likely because the upper and middle classes of society do not support communism. In July of 1947, European governments were invited to Paris to discuss the Marshall Plan. The Soviet Union ordered all Eastern European countries not to attend. Czechoslovakia had expressed interest in the Marshall Plan but Stalin put a stop to that. Stalin had advised, “I believe that the sooner you [reject the invitation], the better.” In order to counter the Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union provided an alternative – the Molotov Plan. It would provide aid to rebuild countries in Eastern Europe that were aligned with the USSR.

NATO and the Warsaw Pact During the Cold War, there was an international ideology conflict and countries had to choose between communism and the Soviet sphere of influence or capitalism and the US sphere of influence. Some people joined alliances because of a shared a similar ideology, for financial or military assistance, or increased national security. On March 17th, 1948 Britain, Belgium, France, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands signed the Brussels Treaty. This treaty made it so that if one of its member nations was attacked, the others would assist them. This led to the USA wanting to join and the creation of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) which was a collective security alliance for the mutual protection of its member against the Soviet Union. It included more of the countries in Western Europe and North America. As a response, the Warsaw Pact was created among the communist nations. The Warsaw Pact was also a response to West Germany joining NATO. A rearmed West Germany was a threat to the East.

Escalating International TensionsWar of Words The Cold War was not a war of military action. It was a war of words and images (the use of posters, cartoons, and movies). In some cases the governments would treat one another disrespectfully, threaten one another, or call each other names. Governments would also use propaganda to promote their ideologies or attack their opponents. All of these tactics could lead to increased tensions between the two superpowers.

Prestige War Prestige wars are wars of achievements and not direct battles. A government may believe or present the achievement of being the first or the best, or the winner in a non-military competition as proof of being the better ideology. When Canada won the summit series, it was seen as a win for democracy and a loss for communism. When the USSR sent the first satellite into space, that was a win for communism. They also sent the first living creature into space.

Espionage During the Cold War, each government felt that it was important to know as much as possible about the other government. What we know of spies and espionage was created by the media. For example, James Bond was created and was the most famous spy, even today. One real spy that impacted the world was Igor Gouzenko in September of 1945. He fled the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa with 109 documents that proved the existence of a Soviet spy network within Canada. Many were arrested and his revelations helped to ignite the Cold War.

Espionage is continued today as well. The Cox Report (May 1999) detailed how the Chinese government had stolen and bought US military secrets from the US since 1970, including information a variety of nuclear technology and submarine detection technology.

Deterrence By 1949, the Soviet Union had developed nuclear arms. A war could lead to the destruction of not only the superpowers but also the world. Deterrence was defined as the belief that when both superpowers possess enough nuclear warheads to destroy each other, they will be deterred from starting a nuclear war because nuclear war was not desirable or winnable. Those who supported deterrence argued that this threat would maintain a balance of power between the US and the USSR.

Brinkmanship and the Cuban Missile Crisis Brinkmanship is when a dangerous conflict is pushed to its tipping point, where the conflict can end in disaster. The Cuban Missile Crisis is an example of brinkmanship. Fidel Castro overthrew the Cuban government in 1959. The United States then refused to lend Cuba money or buy their sugar. As a result, the USSR began to loan Cuba money and buy their sugar. The US didn’t like the idea that the Soviets had allies so close to the shores of the USA. The Americans wanted to overthrow Castro and put in a government that was more aligned with the USA. The Americans trained 1500 Cuban exiles who went and invaded but without proper support, they failed and were killed by Cuban forces. In October 1962, a USA U-2 spy plane brought back pictures from Cuba that showed that the Soviet Union had brought medium range ballistic missiles to Cuba. These missiles could hit every US city except for Seattle. Kennedy then ordered a naval blockade around Cuba to prevent Soviet ships from entering the area. The world waited to see what would happen but in the end, Khrushchev and Kennedy came to a deal.

Proxy Wars A proxy war is a war that results when two countries use third parties or countries as an alternative to fighting each other directly.

Korean War During WWII, Japan had occupied Korea. In August 1945, the USSR attacked and advanced to the 38th parallel – the location where both the USA and USSR had agreed where the Soviet Army would stop. Korea was to be split into two zones of occupation and the people were to have free elections in 1947. The elections took place in the south but not in the north because the Soviets wouldn’t allow it. In the south, the Republic of Korea was created in 1948 and in the north, the Korean People’s Republic was created. By 1948, the Soviets had left North Korea and by 1949, the Americans had left the south. Kim Il-sung, leader or North Korea, believed that Korea needed to be reunified. With weapons from the Soviet Union and approval from Stalin, North Korean forces attacked South Korea. The US became involved immediately, as did the United Nations. As per a UN resolution, the USA and 15 other UN member nations (including Canada) sent troops and supplies to push the North Koreans out of the south. In October of 1950, the UN forces had pushed North Korean forces back over the 38th parallel but did not stop. Their first aim was to protect South Korea, but later the aim came to the point where they were pushing communism back. China, who was a new communist country, felt this was a threat and with the backing of the Soviet Union entered the war in late October of 1950. The war continued until July 27, 1953 when an armistice (ceasefire) was declared.

The Vietnam War Prior to WWII, Indochina (today Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) had been colonized by France. The Japanese took control of the region during the war and when the war was finished, control was given back to the French. There were those that resisted either French or Japanese control. One man, Ho Chi Minh, was the leader of a resistance group in Vietnam. He was very popular and also a communist. In 1954, he and the resistance group defeated the French at Dien Bien Phu. In 1954, a conference was convened in Geneva, Switzerland, to solve the problems of Vietnam. Vietnam was to be divided at the 17th parallel and free elections were to take place in 1956. In northern Vietnam, these elections never took place. The US fear that Vietnam would become communist because of the larger northern population. By 1956, the USA was sending the government of South Vietnam advisors and weapons. By 1966, there were nearly half a million US troops in Vietnam fight the North Vietnamese.

By 1975, North Vietnam controlled all of Vietnam with the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Over 1 million civilians and 58 000 US soldiers died during the conflict. The US had to pull out in 1973 due to high death tolls, the failing draft system, and the anti-war and peace movements. The Soviet War in Afghanistan In 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to gain a friendly neighbour by supporting the Marxist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) government. This government was fighting against the Mujahedeen (a Muslim involved struggle for the sake of Islam) resistance group. The US supported the Mujahedeen and equipped them with rifles from WWI and other arms in a secret operation that cost the US millions of dollars a year. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan resulted in the boycott of the 1980 Moscow Summer Olympics by the USA and its allies and it renewed hostilities between the two superpowers. The Soviet Union and the pro-communist government had a difficult time winning the war due to a number of factors. Some of these factors were the provision of US weapons and support of other Arab Islamic countries to the Mujahedeen; the Afghan people were more loyal to their clans than to the government; and the rural areas were very anti-communist. The people did not support the communist government policies because the policies were not appropriate to the peoples traditions and religious beliefs. The Mujahedeen were popular with the rural people because of their traditional views. By 1989, after many deaths of both civilians and Soviet soldiers, the USSR pulled out of Afghanistan. The war left a weakened Afghan government and state, but a strong, well-armed Afghan military force (the Mujahedeen). This force included some of the commanders who later supported Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda in the 9/11 attacks on the USA.

Reducing International Tensions During the Cold War, the world nearly faced a nuclear war. While there were many instances and occurrences that increased the tensions between the two superpowers there were also those tried to ease the tensions between the two groups. Anti-war protests, staged events, refusal to join the military, and peace groups were all part of a movement to ease tensions.

Diplomacy Some governments approach ideological conflict by using diplomacy – Canada has used diplomacy to help other nations find peaceful resolutions to their conflicts. Some decide to approach conflict by avoiding involvement all together. Rather than choosing sides, some decided to choose their own ideologies to follow. They were not willing to be influenced by the USA or the USSR. Many decided that colonialism in all forms was condemned and criticized both the USSR and the USA.

A movement called non-alignment began. This was where many countries decided not to side with either the Soviet Union or the United States and their allies.Liberation Movements During the Cold War, there were many countries under Soviet control who wanted independence. These countries wanted to change the ideologies under which they were run. There were four liberation movements during the time of the Cold War: Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and East Germany.

Hungarian Revolution 1956 Spontaneous revolution by the Hungarian people Began as a student demonstration in Budapest. State police were called in and shot at the students. Protests erupted across Hungary. A new government was formed and it planned to pull out of the Warsaw Pact and hold free elections. The Soviet Union invaded Hungary. The people resisted but many were dying. By January 1957, the new Soviet controlled government had eliminated its opposition.

Prague Spring, Czechoslovakia, 1968 The Prague Spring was a period of political liberation in Czechoslovakia. Alexander Dubcek came into power in January 1968 and brought reform to the country. He included things such as additional rights for citizens, partial decentralization of the economy, loosening of the restrictions on the media, speech, and travel. The Soviet Army came in to stop the reforms and stayed until 1990. Dubcek was replaced and all of his reforms were reversed.

Lech Walesa and Solidarity in Poland, 1980 In 1980, a trade union called Solidarity formed in Poland by shipyard worker, Lech Walesa. It was the first non-communist union in a communist country. The communist government in Poland tried to crush the Solidarity union but with little success. It went into negotiations that led to semi-free elections in 1989. In these elections, Lech Walesa was elected president of Poland.

The Berlin Wall – East German Liberation, 1989 In 1961, the Berlin Wall was built to prevent East Germans from fleeing into West Berlin. Those who tried to escape were shot. During 1989, a wave of pro-democratic movements spread throughout Eastern Europe. In October 1989, the communist leaders of East Germany were forced out of power and by November, the borders were opened between East and West Germany. By 1991, the Soviet Union had collapsed.

Détente and Treaties Nikita Khrushchev believed that it was in the benefit of the USSR if his country and the USA were able to coexist peacefully with one another, without resorting to war. He felt that the USSR could not continue to spend billions of dollars on the nuclear arms race and that if there were better relations with the USA, then perhaps it would open up trade with Western Europe. At the same time, the USA was interested in easing tensions with the USSR. The Vietnam War had cost the US government a lot of money. From the mid-1960s to 1979, the USSR and the USA used diplomatic methods such as peace treaties and reducing arms spending in order to reduce tensions between the two nations. This is called dètente.

Nuclear Arms Treaties In 1969, the USA and USSR met in Finland to begin negotiations to limit their nuclear stock piles. By 1972, President Nixon signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) in Moscow. This treaty limited anti-ballistic missiles and from the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles at 1054. In 1972, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty was signed by the USSR and the USA. It stated that if one country was able to develop a working ABM system, then nuclear war could be winnable.

Achievements of SALT I Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty A 5-year freeze on the number of long range land and sea ballistic missiles that could be possessed by both sides

Achievements of SALT II Further limitation of anti-ballistic missiles Limitations on long-range bombers and missiles

The End of the Cold War Through the 1980s, the ideological differences that led to the split between the East and the West began to soften. Both sides knew that if tensions were to increase to nuclear war that neither side would win. The use of diplomacy and cross-cultural interactions helped each nation develop an understanding of one another. The changes of glasnost and perestroika that Gorbachev brought in are also considered a contributing factor to the end of the Cold War. Others believe that the USSR could not keep up with the USA due to not having enough money and that they gave up. (Page 213, Figure 8-24) The Cold War officially ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Chapter 9To what extent, and for whom, has the imposition of liberalism been successful?

Aboriginal Experiences of LiberalismFirst National Holistic Worldview Live in peace and harmony for survival Co-operation brings group strength Traditional territories used for the benefit of the collective Shared land and resources, which provide the necessities of life Individuals are given the choice to learn to live in respectful relationships Each person is sacred and colpleteEuropean Liberal Worldview Keep the peace Gain allies to use strategically Acquire land and resources/ private property Capitalism/competition Change brings about progress Self-interest

Different Perspectives of Historic Treaties In the 1700s, treaties that were created between the First Nations people in Canada and the Europeans were intended to keep the peace and to gain allies against other colonial powers who sought to control North America. The treaty La Grande Paix de Montreal was signed between the Governor of New France and over 40 First Nations. This resulted in a long-lasting peace between the two groups. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 defined Canada’s relationship with First Nations peoples and is now mentioned in the Canadian Constitution. This set out the basis of law for Aboriginal land ownership and other collective rights. The Royal Proclamation states: Aboriginal peoples of Canada lived on traditional lands Interest in those lands belonged to groups and nations, not individuals Only the Crown could buy or accept Aboriginal lands The Crown generally required an an agreement to obtain lands from Aboriginal people Aboriginal people were under the Crown’s protection By 1812, European settlers outnumbered Canada’s Aboriginal peoples. Colonial governments decided to negotiate treaties across Canada, which resulted in the takeover of First Nations’ land in exchange for promises of compensation in the form of annual payments and other benefits. First Nations people would also continue to have use of some land and resources. Many First Nations leaders wanted peace and harmony with the growing population of Europeans and they also wanted to protect and maintain their way of life. When the treaties were made, there were many different understandings of how the treaties would work.

There were also language barriers that created differences in the understandings of the treaties between the Canadian government and the First Nations peoples. There were some government leaders of Canada who did not honour the treaties. They believed that European liberal ideology was superior to the collective ideology of the First Nations. They did not consider the First Nations people to be sovereign nations and therefore they believed that the treaties were not valid nation-to-nation agreements. These government leaders felt that treaties did not need to be honoured. Today, there are still annual Treaty Days. These are meetings at which treaty monies are distributed by government representatives to particular bands under the numbered treaties. In some cases, all one gets is $5, but it is important to the First Nations people as it represents a link to the past and reminds them that the treaties are real.

Policy of Assimilation The liberal values of the Canadian government and the collective values of the

First Nations, Metis, and Inuit societies conflicted with one another. Due to this conflict the Canadian government adapted policies of assimilation. Under these policies, Aboriginal people were supposed to give up their distinct

cultures and traditions, such as the potlatch and the Sun Dance, and take on Western culture and traditions.

During the 1850s, the main goal of the government was to “protect the Indians and their land until they became civil or assimilated.”

Indian Act of 1876 The Indian Act of 1876 ignored the First Nations political institutions and all

forms of government. The Act was used to control the behaviour of the First Nations people and to

remove their cultural traditions and cultures. The Act encouraged First Nations people to leave their Indian status, identity, and

traditional cultures to become full citizens of Canada. Since its creation, the Indian Act has been amended several times. It continues to

give the federal government jurisdiction over “status Indians” and governs many aspects of their lives.

While many do not agree completely with the Act as it was a tool of assimilation, it also provides certain protections for the First Nations.

The Act today is still complex and there still remains controversy over how it imposes liberal values on the First Nations people.

Attempts to Assimilate the Inuit There have also been attempts to assimilate the Inuit. Aside from moving the

people into permanent communities, and sending the children to residential schools, the government also took another approach.

Between 1950 and 1970, the RCMP were ordered to kill many sled dogs. The Inuit claim that this was done to force the Inuit people to move to the

communities, buy snowmobiles, and to become dependant on government programs.

The RCMP claim that the dogs needed to be shot because of health and safety reasons and that it was done at the request of those who owned dogs.

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Female Identity and the Indian Act While the Indian Act had significant impacts on all First Nations people, it

impacted women even more. The Act discriminated against women by stripping them and their children of their

Indian Status if they married a man without Indian Status. A woman’s status was only measured in terms of her relationship to a First

Nations man. Prior to the Indian Act, women were highly respected within their communities.

In some cases these communities were matriarchal (female-dominated). The Indian Act, however, was very patriarchal (male-dominated).

Today, First Nations women have their rights reinstated. The passage of Bill C-31 gave First Nations women these rights.

Metis Scrip The Canadian government offered the Metis people scrip for the loss of their

original territory. Scrip is a document in the form of land or of money. Many Metis felt that the use of scrip was a method of enforcing liberal policies on

a people that valued collectivism. The policies treated them as individuals and not as distinctive groups of Metis peoples.

The Royal Commission of Aboriginal Peoples The RCAP was created in 1991 to examine the government policy with respect to

historical nations within Canada. In the end, it came to the general conclusion that the policy direction pursued by

the Canadian government was wrong. The writers of the report stated that the Aboriginal peoples of Canada must have

the right to decide for themselves what they need. The report also stated that both Aboriginal people and the government need to

work together to rebuild Aboriginal communities and improve the economic, social, and cultural well-beings of those communities.

Some of the recommendations of the RCAP: Legislation that recognizes the sovereignty of Aboriginal peoples Institutions of Aboriginal self-government Initiatives to address Aboriginal people’s social, education, health, and

housing needs. Since the report was published in 1996, many Aboriginals and non-Aboriginals

have been critical of the lack of government action to address the concerns of the RCAP.

Aboriginal Healing Foundation The Aboriginal Healing Foundation was created because of the RCAP. Its mission is to encourage and support Aboriginal people as they create a healing

process to address the issues of physical and sexual abuse in the residential school system.

There have been 1345 grants awarded to various community programs across Canada.

While the Healing Foundation has begun to make process, some feel that more needs to be done.

Promoting Liberalism in the World There are those who believe that liberalism does not suit all people in all countries around the world. Liberalism must be adapted to fit the culture, history and the circumstances of the group of people it is being imposed on. There are those that believe that the values of liberalism such as human dignity, freedom and equality can be expressed in different ways by different peoples. Some argue that liberalism ignores other values (such as human solidarity, community, a sense of belonging, humility, etc) that are important to some communities. There are two reasons why liberalism may be imposed on a country: National Interest: imposing liberalism to eliminate or reduces threats (whether communism or terrorism) or for economic reasons. Humanitarianism: imposing liberalism for moral or ethical reasons. For example, improve living conditions or to stop human rights violations.

Imposing Liberalism for National Interest Democratic nations have imposed liberalism on other nations for quite some time. They have even used force to impose liberalism on other nations. At the end of World War One, the Allies insisted that Germany and her allies had to set up democratic governments as part of the conditions of the peace treaties. This was done again to Germany at the end of World War Two, but this time it was only imposed on West Germany. The United States national interest is to spread democracy around the world. The fear is that if they don’t do this, then the political turmoil, economic instability, the refugee flows, and environmental damage will affect the Americans as well. The idea behind imposing liberalism on other nations is that if more people embraced liberalism, then the world would be a safer place. This belief was used to justify the “war on terror.” To establish a democratic government in Afghanistan, NATO forces invaded in 2001. Many nations backed the USA stating that this war was in their national interest to protect lives. They also argues that the terrorist attacks of September 11th were attacks against the values of many people around the world. Pg. 233-234

Countries do not only impose liberalism to protect oneself from acts of terrorism, they also impose liberalism for economic reasons. Turkey, for example, wanted to join the European Union in hopes of gaining economic benefits. The European Union also wanted this as it would benefit them as well. However, in order to become a member of the EU, Turkey was required to embrace liberal values, such as democracy, rule of law, human rights and a free-market economy. The EU is concerned about Turkey’s respect for freedom of expression, women’s rights, and the rights of minorities.

Imposing Liberalism for Humanitarian Reasons Nations will impose liberal values on others for the sake of humanitarianism. Humanitarianism is the ideology the advocates promoting human welfare. Humanitarians try to improve the lives of others and reduce their suffering. In order to do this, they try to reform societies. Humanitarianism was also used to justify the war on terror. The Taliban who controlled Afghanistan denied women basic human rights and used fear to control the people. Saddam Hussein also used fear and terror to control his people, and he also committed crimes against humanity. For example, using chemical weapons on the Kurdish people of Northern Iraq.

Reactions to the Imposition of Liberalism The imposition of liberalism had not always been met with success.

The enforcement of democracy and liberalism in Rwanda in the early 1990s created a government of conflicting ethnic groups. These parties were masks of the ethnic groups that created the militias which went on a spree of murder.