unit 1 the reformation western civilization ii his-102

UNIT 1 THE REFORMATION

Western Civilization IIHIS-102

Europe at 1500

By 1500, Europe was on its way to recovery after the terrible 14th century The population was finally starting to increase into pre-

plague levels The economy was expanding, including trade and

colonialism Monarchs had secure holds on their thrones in England,

France, and Spain The Catholic church had survived upheavals by the Lollards

(England) and the Hussites (Bohemia)

What was unexpected were the huge changes that were going to take place: the Protestant Reformation

The Reformation

The Reformation was a movement to reform the Catholic Church Instead, it broke the monopoly the Catholic Church had

on throughout the Middle Ages It led to the rise of Protestantism and bloody wars that

tore Europe apart

The Reformation came about mainly in response to the numerous problems the Church had The clergy were uneducated and often corrupt The popes were unable to provide spiritual leadership There was a rise of popular religion

Problems with the Clergy

While more and more clergy were receiving educations, there was still a large number who were uneducated Many were ignorant and could not read or write

There was an economic dichotomy among the clergy On one hand you had wealthy priests, those in the

highest ranks They led very comfortable lives while not even living in their

assigned areas On the other, you had very poor priests

They did not have enough money to live off of They usually had to take on other positions (i.e. running the

local tavern) to supplant their incomes


Pluralism was another large problem This is holding of more than one office at a time In order to boost their incomes, clergy would accept

and hold more than one church office at a time This led to absenteeism because the clergy could not

cover the entire areas of the positions they held

Simony was another problem as well This is the buying and selling of church offices This meant that church positions would go to those

who would pay the most money rather than to those who earned it


Beginning in the 13th century, the Church began to sell indulgences An indulgence is granted by the Church to remove the

punishment associated with sin These would supposedly reduce a person’s time in

purgatory It comes from a treasury of good works committed by Jesus

and the saints Even though the Church put “limits” on the indulgences,

their sale was heavily abused throughout the 14th and 15th centuries

There were monks and priests who did not follow their vows of celibacy

Selling of Indulgences (c. 1530)

Problems with the Popes

The problems did not end with the clergy There were also serious problems with the popes Specifically, the actions of the popes led people to no

longer regard them as the spiritual authorityOver the course of the 14th and 15th

centuries, European kings challenged the absolute authority of the popes

In the 14th century, the French kings moved the papacy to Avignon to have greater control of the popes This was known as the Babylonian Captivity of the

Church

Problems with the Popes

In 1378, an Italian was elected as pope This was for the first time since 1305 The French would not accept an Italian pope so they

elected their ownThis led to the Great Schism (1378-1417)

None of the popes were willing to resign and each called the other the anti-Pope

In 1409, the Council of Pisa met to try to rectify the situation They elected a new pope Since the other two refused to resign, this meant that

their were three popes

Antipope Alexander V (1409-1410) The Pisan Pope

Popular Religion

These problems with the church led to a rise in popular religions People wanted a more meaningful religious experience

than just going to church and “leading good lives” They wanted a more certain guarantee of salvation

One form of popular religion was “Modern Devotion” They believed that to guarantee salvation, you needed

to act like Christ This was dangerous to the Church because all the

people had to do for salvation was read the Bible

Popular Religion

Another form of popular religion was the veneration of holy relics People began to see their salvation (or a reduction of

time in purgatory) guaranteed through the veneration of holy relics

This sort of veneration had been approved by the Catholic church

Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, was a major collector of holy relics By 1509, he had over 5,000 holy relics; these had

indulgences attached to them that would reduce his time in purgatory by 1,443 years

By 1520 he had 19,013 relics worth 5,209 years

Popular Religion

There were many instances of false relics One of the most common relics were pieces of wood

from the “true cross” of Jesus Erasmus once said that there were enough pieces of

wood from the “true cross” to make up “the freight of a large ship”

Luther complained that there were so many fragments of the “true cross” that 300 men could not have carried all of them

Five churches claimed to have the shinbone of the donkey that carried Jesus to Jerusalem

Twelve churches claimed to have the head of John the Baptist

Frederick III of Saxony (1486-1525)

Christian Humanism

The first major reform religious movement during the early part of the 16th century was Christian humanism It had its basis in the Renaissance humanist

movement that began in Italy Studia Humanitatis – These humanists studied the

“liberal arts” including rhetoric, philosophy, history, and poetry

ad fontes (“to the sources”) - They based their studies on primary sources rather than depending on later interpretations

Christian Humanism

The Christian humanist wanted to solve the problems of the Church by reexamining the early Christian works These included the Bible and the writings of the early

church fathers such as St. Augustine They found that Christianity had been a more simple

religion Over the years, the Catholic Church had altered the

original beliefs of Christianity

Christian Humanism

To fix the problem, they encouraged people to read the original sources From that, they would feel renewed piety and help

bring about reform in the church

They tried to help bring about the reform by publishing new editions of the classics, the Bible, and writings of the church fathers This would make it easier for people to get access to

such works

Erasmus (1469-1536)

Erasmus (1469-1536)

Desiderius Erasmus was one of the most influential Christian humanists of the 16th century He was an ordained priest and had been an

Augustinian monkIn his works, he criticized the abuses of the

church He focused on the classics and he encouraged reform He wanted to show how things were simpler and better

in the pastBut in all cases, he called for reform from within

the church rather than creating a new church

Erasmus (1469-1536)

In The Handbook of the Christian Knight (1503), he stated that the current church was too focused on dogma He believed that the church should be focusing on inner

piety rather than pilgrimages, sacraments, veneration of relics, etc.

In In Praise of Folly (1511), a humorous criticism of society and the church, Erasmus focuses on the human fallibility and the abuses of the church It was a very popular piece of work and is considered

one of the greatest writings to come out of the Renaissance

Erasmus (1469-1536)

In 1516, he issued a new edition of the Greek New Testament He translated it himself into Latin pointing out

problems with the official church translation He even dedicated it to Pope Leo X

Unfortunately, Erasmus’ calls for reform were ignored by the church at this time It did, however, lay the foundation for the next group

of reformers, beginning with Martin Luther

Europe (c. 1519)

The Holy Roman Empire

The Reformation begins in Saxony which was part of the Holy Roman Empire It was a conglomeration of small states under the

control of the Holy Roman Emperor

The Holy Roman Empire seems like a very unlikely place for the Reformation to have started It was not a unified country The Renaissance had affected Germans the least and

they remained very religious At the same time, they believed that the were the

greatest victims of Church abuses


The Holy Roman Empire was created after the division of the old Roman Empire after the death of Charlemagne in the 9th century It did not become known as the Holy Roman Empire

until the reign of Emperor Otto I in 962With the Golden Bull of 1356, the election of

the Emperor was to be conducted by seven members of the Electoral Council This was made up by three archbishops and four princes

While the Electoral Council did technically elect the Emperor, the position was traditionally hereditary The only time the Council’s vote was important was

when a family no longer had a male heir for the position


Because of this, after 1452 the position of the Emperor remained in the hands of the House of Habsburg

When Emperor Maximilian died in 1519, there were two candidates vying for the position Charles I of Spain; Maximilian’s grandson and heir to

the House of Habsburg Francis I of France; House of Valois

Even though Charles was a shoe in for the position, numerous bribes had to be placed to secure a victory

Emperor Charles V (1519-1556)

Emperor Charles V

Charles was elected June 28, 1519 and became Emperor Charles V

Charles had control of a vast empire when he took the position He controlled Spain (and its overseas empire), the

Low Countries, lands in Austria and Hungary, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sardina, and Bohemia

He wanted full control over his lands and wanted to unify it under one faith: Catholicism

Lands Controlled by the House of Habsburg in 1556

Martin Luther (1483-1546)


Martin Luther was the first main figure of the Reformation He was born in Saxony in 1483 Under pressure from his parents, Luther attended the

University of Erfurt to study lawIn 1505, on his way home from school, he had his

“spiritual awakening” It supposedly occurred when he was caught in a

thunderstorm He fell to his knees and vowed to St. Anne that if he

survived the storm he would leave the university and become a monk

He joined the Augustinian monastery in Erfurt soon after


While at the monastery, Luther was able to reflect on how he was to achieve his own salvation He constantly prayed, fasted, and went on pilgrimages He supposedly went to confession so many times that

his confessor joked that Luther should go out and do something worth confessing

Nothing he did was able to give him the peace he sought after

His superior, Vicar-General Johann von Staupitz, told Luther that he should try an academic career

Luther became ordained as a priest in 1507


Luther then became a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg This included studying and lecturing about the Bible

At this time, the Catholic Church strongly believed that in order to be saved, a person needed to do good works as well as have faith However, Luther did not believe any person could do

enough good works to be saved


In 1513, he came across the passage “the just shall live by faith alone” in St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans (1:17) In the Catholic faith, “justification” meant God turning

a sinner into a righteous person eligible for salvation In other words, it meant that those who are saved are

done so through faith onlyThis was a huge revelation for Luther

He believed that all human virtue is worthless unless it is sanctified by God’s grace

Since mankind is doomed to commit sin, the only way a person could get into heaven was faith


Luther believed that you do not receive God’s grace through good deeds nor are you guaranteeing yourself salvation A sign of God’s grace is to perform good deeds

This became the foundation of his doctrine “justification by faith alone” This has the potential of being very dangerous for the

Catholic Church

It was not until 1517, Luther began his attacks on the controversial practices of the Church

Albert of Hohenzollern (1490-1545)


Albert of Hohenzollern was a bishop of two bishoprics: Halberstadt and Magdeburg

There were many who criticized Albert on two main objections: He was a shining example of pluralism and violated

the concept of one man, one job He received these jobs when he was only 23 years old

at the time Legally he was not old enough to be a bishop

Then in 1514, Albert went on to purchase the Archbishopric of Mainz


Albert had accumulated significant debt with the purchase of these offices He had to take out a loan to cover them The pope became concerned with this large debt the

young archbishop had

He struck a deal with Pope Leo X to cover his debts Albert would be given permission to sell indulgences Half of his income would be sent to Rome to help pay

the cost of the building of St. Peter’s Basilica The other half would go to paying off his loans


Albert hired Johann Tetzel, a Dominican monk, to sell these indulgences throughout northern Germany His slogan was “as soon as the coin in the coffer rings,

the soul from purgatory springs” He was very successful with his sales

Luther finds out about this and is very upset Luther believed people were saved by faith, not good

deeds or by buying indulgences Also, with these purchases, people would no longer

feel the need to confess to a priest

The 95 Theses

October 31, 1517, Luther wrote a letter to Albert condemning him for his sale of indulgences With the letter, he included his "Disputation of Martin

Luther on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences" He then nailed a copy of the same

“Disputation” to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg that same day These become known as the 95 Theses Some students translated them into German and

spread copies throughout Germany

The 95 Theses

82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial.“

86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"

The 95 Theses

Luther did not believe he was not breaking any church laws with his statements He did not consider them to be direct attacks against

the church but rather scholarly debates

The Theses were so popular that the sales of indulgences dropped dramatically in 1518

Albert did not respond to Luther’s letter but forwarded a copy of it to the papacy Pope Leo X actually dismissed Luther as a “drunken

German” in 1518

Luther nailing the 95 Theses to the church door

Break With the Church

Starting in 1520, Luther began to break even more radically from the Catholic Church This was illustrated with three pamphlets he

published in 1520, which also slowly lay the foundation of Lutheranism

Address to the Nobility of the German Nation He wrote that the German people should unite and

abolish papal powerOn the Freedom of a Christian Man –

He argued that every man is his own priest and that it is faith alone that brings salvation

Break With the Church

The Babylonian Captivity of the Church – In it, he said that the church had been hiding the real

meaning of the gospel hostage for 1,000 years He attacked the sacraments He also argued that the clergy should marry since

while virginity was good, marriage is better, and freedom of choice is best

On January 3, 1521, the pope issued the official decree of excommunication This stated that Luther was officially a heretic Technically, Luther should have been arrested and

then burned at the stake

Excommunication

Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony, intervened on Luther’s behalf He requested that Luther be given a fair hearing in

front of the Imperial Diet (parliament of the Holy Roman Empire)

On April 17, 1521, Luther appeared before the Imperial Diet at the city of Worms In attendance was the newly elected Holy Roman

Emperor, Charles V Many expected Luther to recant his writings in order

to avoid persecution

Diet of Worms

Luther did not recant anything He said that if they can find anything in the Bible to

prove him wrong, then he will recant “Since then Your Majesty and your lordships desire

a simple replay, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.”

Diet of Worms

May 8, 1521, Charles and the Diet issued the Edict of Worms of 1521 It reaffirmed Luther’s position as a heretic and

political outlaw It stated that all of Luther’s writing were to be burned Luther had left Worms by this point

As he was escaping, he was kidnapped by Frederick the Wise and spent over a year in hiding under his protection Luther spent his time in hiding working on building

a new reformed church

Luther at the Diet of Worms

The New Lutheran Church

Luther based his new church on two things: His “justification by faith” Disregarding anything that was not specifically stated

in the Bible

This meant an even more radical break with the Catholic Church

The main belief was that if it was not in the Bible, it should not be followed This meant he rejected dogma and church decrees as

supplements to the Scriptures


In the new church, good works do not lead to salvation This got rid of fasts, pilgrimages, and veneration of

relics

He believed that there was no need for a hierarchy of priests If all Christians followed the Word of God, they would

be their own priests This would mean no bishops or popes This would also mean no monasteries or convents


He rejected the Catholic policy of transubstantiation According to the Catholic Church, priests would

“miraculously” transform the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ

It would literally become the body and blood Instead he believed that it was a representation

(consubstantiation) of the body and blood, although there was some presence of Christ in it


Luther redefined the Sacraments He believed that only two had support of the

scriptures: baptism and communion The rest were considered “good deeds” and thus

worthless

Mass should be in German, not LatinIn 1525, he married a former nun, Katherina

von Bora This provided a new model of marriage and the family

for future Lutheran ministers

The Rise of Lutheranism

His ideas were popular with the masses Preachers went from town to town spreading his

message His followers also made use of the new printing

presses to help spread his ideas

However, the only way Lutheranism could survive was getting the support of the German princes and free cities No matter how popular it was, the movement could

easily be crushed Luther realized that he needed the help of the princes

if he wanted to succeed

Role of the German Princes

Throughout Europe, many rulers were able to get more control over the churches in their countries Many of these rulers wanted to make themselves the

dominant secular and religious authorities in their states France, England, and Spain were able to use their power

to get the pope to grant them concessions which usually included more control over their churches

The German states were not as lucky They did not have such power Therefore they were not able to get concessions from the

church


This meant that the German princes did not have any say in church affairs The only way they would be able to get this would be

by force and they did not have armies large enough to do so

Luther’s beliefs were popular with the German rulers If there is no church hierarchy, then there are no

church officials to challenge their authority This gave them more power than they ever had before


Luther used this to his advantage He encouraged the princes to confiscate church lands

and its wealth as a way of gaining their support He also got them involved in organizing and guiding

the new Lutheran churches However, they could not just embrace Lutheranism

The princes had to wait to see what Holy Roman Emperor Charles V would do against the Protestants first If Charles took notice, he would send in troops from

all over Europe to crush the movement

Role of Charles V

At the time, Charles was preoccupied with more pressing matters

After Charles was elected emperor, his rivalry with King Francis I of France got worse Francis felt that France was in a position of weakness

since it was surrounded by Habsburg controlled lands Spain was on one side and the Low Countries on the

other Each king laid claims to the other’s lands

This included the Low Countries, southern France, parts of Spain, and Italy

Role of Charles V

From 1521 to 1544 both Francis and Charles were tied up in a series of wars with each other These were collectively known as the Habsburg-Valois

Wars These wars prevented Charles from focusing on the

growing threat of Protestantism in Germany

Charles had hoped the pope, Clement VII, would take care of the Protestant threat in the Holy Roman Empire However, Clement was more fearful of Charles’ growing

power in Italy so he joined the French in against Charles

Role of Charles V

Charles ended up sacking Rome in 1527 and arrested Clement VII This prevented the Pope from annulling Henry VIII’s

marriage to Catherine of AragonOn the eastern front of his empire, Charles

had to deal with the growing power of the Ottoman Turks Under the leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent, the

Turks were able to take Hungary and got as far as Vienna

With all of this, it became quickly evident that Charles V was unwilling to bring troops into the Empire to defend Catholicism

Support for Luther

Because of this, many princes joined the Lutheran movement Some joined for pious reasons Others joined for economic and political ones since they

could now elect church officials and prevent money from going to Rome

Many free cities also converted to Lutheranism They too could now control the politics of their cities

without the interference of bishops or other church officials

This meant that Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas

Peasants’ Revolt (1524-1525)

Support for Luther

With the support of the princes and free cities, Lutheranism was able to flourish in those areas In areas still held by Catholic princes, Lutherans were

forced to flee for fear of death

Then in 1524, the Peasants’ Revolt broke out This could have drastically altered the course of the

ReformationIts causes were the result of the changing

economy of Germany Princes and nobles were changing over from knights to

mercenaries and the use of artillery in their militaries


As this changeover was expensive, this meant that the princes to levy new taxes against the population

This taxation was both direct and indirect For example in 1514, in Württemberg, the peasants

discovered that the standard weights used to measure their crops were altered against their favor

Those who were hit the hardest were the burghers (merchant class) in the cities and the peasants in the countryside The nobility and the clergy were usually exempt from

taxation


The clergy was also blamed for many of the problems as well They were considered just as bad as the princes because

they collected taxes as well Many also viewed the clergy as “lazy” and “loose” and were

commonly despised by the burghers and peasants

Luther’s work actually added more fuel to the fire By focusing on what was in the Scriptures, the peasants

found that feudalism was not mentioned in the Bible They also read his pamphlet The War on German Liberties


The revolts began near simultaneously in various parts of Germany The peasants drew up lists of grievances and swore an oath

of allegiance to their cause They were armed with usually no more than a pitch fork

Luther had a serious predicament: Does he side with the peasants and thus lose the support of

the princes? Does he side with the princes and thus lose the support of

the masses?While Luther sympathized with the peasants’

grievances, he also realized the importance of secular authority


In 1525, he published Against the Robbing and Murderous Hordes of the Peasants He was particularly upset that they used the scripture

to support their rebellion “…they cloak this terrible and horrible sin with the

Gospel, call themselves ‘Christian brethren’, receive oaths and homage, and compel people to hold with them to these abominations. Thus they become the greatest of all blasphemers of God and slanderers of his holy Name, serving the devil, under the outward appearance of the Gospel, thus earning death in body and soul ten times over. I have never heard of a more hideous sin.”


Luther also encouraged those who could to go and kill the peasants “Stab, smite, slay, whoever can. If you die in doing it, well

for you! A more blessed death can never be yours, for you die obeying the divine Word and commandment in Romans XIII, and in loving service of your neighbor, whom you are rescuing from the bonds of hell and of the devil.”

The revolts were eventually put down Because of Luther’s support of the princes, they gave him

free reign in implementing the Lutheran church in their regions

The peasants no longer supported Luther Some returned to Catholicism while others turned to more

radical protestantism

Spread of Protestantism

Lutheranism was limited to northern Germany and Scandinavia It was not as popular in the rest of Germany The Kings of Sweden and Norway were quick to

embrace Protestantism to give them stronger control over religion

What Luther was able to do was encourage others to stand up against the Church

The term “protestant” came from Luther standing up and “protesting” at the Diet of Worms This term was then applied to other religious groups

who also sought to break with the Catholic Church

Swiss Confederation

Reformation in Switzerland

The Swiss still were part of the Holy Roman Empire In 1499, they were able to defeat Emperor Maximilian

and were able to gain some autonomy They formed the Swiss Confederation which consisted

of six forest cantons and seven urban cantons No one person had control over Switzerland and the

members of the cantons decided what they wanted

In the 16th century, the Swiss were known as the best fighting men in all of Europe They even exported mercenary soldiers

Reformation in Switzerland

The Swiss themselves had strong loyalties to their local governments They deeply resented the papacy getting involved in

Swiss affairsBecause of their autonomy, there was no one

who could tell them what they could or could not do in terms of religion

The Protestant movement came to Switzerland in 1520

By 1550, three forms of Protestantism took root: Zwinglianism, Anabaptism, and Calvinism

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)


Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) was the one who brought the Reformation to Switzerland He was born to a prominent middle-class family with

close ties to the church He graduated from the University of Basel with a

Master’s Degree in Divinity

It was at Basel where he was first exposed to the writings of the northern Humanists This has a huge impact on his further religious

development


In 1506, Zwingli became a priest in Glarus This was when he was first exposed to the corruption

of the Catholic Church He had to buy off Heinrich Göldi, who was the papal

appointee, to get the positionOn December 11, 1518, he was appointed the

People’s Priest at Great Minster in the city of Zürich His opponent had a concubine, six children, and many

benefices At the time, though, Zwingli had his own female lover The position gave him little income or influence but

gave him many opportunities to preach to the public


On January 1, 1519, Zwingli gave his first sermon As part of it, he read from a Greek Bible and gave his

own interpretation of it His speech was entirely based on the scriptures This had a sensational impact on the attendees

With this popularity, he continued on with similar sermons

In 1519, the bubonic plague hit Switzerland and hit Zürich in August Zwingli tended to the sick He eventually caught the plague himself but survived


Getting the plague had a huge impact on Zwingli’s teachings He became more serious in his reforms of the church It was also at this time that he secretly broke away

from the Roman ChurchIn 1522, he made his next open criticism of

the Catholic Church’s policies He and some followers broke their fast during Lent He said that there was nothing in the Bible that

supported fasting The Bishop of Zürich admonished him saying that he

violated church doctrine


Zwingli then sent a letter to the Bishop requesting that clergy be allowed to marry It was published as A Friendly Petition and Admonition

to the Confederates Zwingli strongly supported the abolition of celibacy

especially since he secretly wed his lover a few months prior

This was denied

This was a strenuous time for the city There were growing conflicts between the teachings of

Zwingli and the Catholic Church There was also a clash with the forest cantons as well


In December 1522, the Swiss Diet prohibited any radical religious teachings throughout the cantons This ruling was specifically aimed at Zwingli and the

city of Zürich

The city council of Zürich decided to hold a public debate on religious teachings to decide what its position would be In January 1523, the first disputation took place

between Zwingli and representatives of the Bishop of Zürich, led by Johannes Fabri, the Vicar General of Constance


Zwingli’s platform during the debates were published as the Sixty-Seven Articles He knocked down many of the practices of the Church

including fasting, pilgrimages, monastic vows, celibacy, penance, and purgatory

The main point of his argument was that the church needed to be restored to its ancient purity based on the scriptures

Zwingli won the debate and gained the support of the city council The council then ordered that all priests inside the

canton would preach Zwingli’s teachings The council did not do this solely for religious purposes

as this gave them more authority over their city


During 1524 and 1525, Zwingli’s reforms were put into place These included removing all statues and images from

the churches, music was eliminated, and papal authority was abolished

He even was publically married in 1524Zwinglism spread to other cities throughout

Switzerland by 1529However, it faced its most serious resistance

in the forest cantons that remained Catholic


In 1529, Zwingli attempted to create an alliance of the Swiss and German reformed churches However, other Protestant leaders, including Martin

Luther, could not agree on the Lord’s SupperIn October 1531, war broke out between the

Protestant and Catholic Cantons Zwingli was injured in battle His enemies found him, killed him, and then cut up his

body and burned the pieces When Luther found out about this, he said that Zwingli

got what he deservedWith the Peace of Kappel (November 16, 1531),

each canton was permitted to choose its own religion

John of Leiden (c.1509-1536)

Anabaptists

The Anabaptists were a group of radical reformers in Switzerland and northern Germany “Anabaptism” means “rebaptism” The Anabaptists were originally part of Zwingli’s

movement in Zurich but broke off because they argued against infant baptism

Their main ideas included: The church community should elect its own ministers

since anybody could be a priest Adult Baptism – They believed that only adults could

make the true decision on whether they should be baptized or not

Pacifism – They would not bear arms because of the commandment “Thou shall not kill”

Anabaptist Troubles

After leaving Zurich, the Anabaptists moved around from city to city They were kicked out from cities because of their

revolutionary ideas and their uncompromising leadersThey were able to settle in Münster

They became so influential there that they were able to obtain a majority on the city’s council

This was followed shortly thereafter with the expulsion of all the non-Anabaptists

On January 5, 1534, the Anabaptists took full control of the city One of the leaders, John of Leiden, took the title of

“King of the New Temple”

Anabaptists in Münster

Reforms were instituted throughout the city Anabaptist religious practices became mandatory Private property was abolished Common ownership was introduced Polygamy was allowed, as it has precedents in the Old

TestamentSoon after, Franz von Waldeck, the Bishop of

Münster, lay siege to the city with the help of Catholic troops

On June 24, 1535, Waldeck was able to successfully retake the city

Anabaptists in Münster

John of Leiden and two of his lieutenants were tortured to death Their bodies were pulled apart with red-hot pokers

and they were killed with a dagger through the heart Their bodies were then put in cages, which hung from

the steeple of St. Lambert's Church, to rot and were eventually removed 50 years later

After the Anabaptists were put down in Münster, the remain Anabaptists were put down violently throughout Europe Those who survived did band together into a new

groups, including the Mennonites

Cages at St. Lambert’s Church

John Calvin (1509-1564)


John Calvin was born in Picardie, France His father had very strong ties to the church Many expected Calvin to become a priest He received an MA in theology from the University of Paris

When his father fell out of favor with his church friends, he insisted Calvin to go into law so instead Calvin received his law degree from the University of

OrleansWhen his father died in 1531, Calvin returned to

theology and moved back to Paris While there, he became involved in a reform movement that

was based upon Humanism


Sometime between 1531 and 1533, Calvin had a “sudden conversion” experience He believed that while he “was too obstinately devoted

to the superstitions of popery” he had a conversion experience which removed him from “so profound an abyss of mire”

He converted to Protestantism

On October 18, 1534, Protestants plastered the city with posters proclaiming the abuses of the Catholic Church This was known as the Day of the Placards In response, the French king, Francis I, executed a

number of Protestants


Calvin himself was forced to flee Paris After he had left, 24 people were burned at the stake

in France for being heretics

He spent the next two years wandering around France, Italy, and Switzerland He finally settled down in the city of Basel in

Switzerland in 1536

While he was there, he wrote his Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536 It was written in response to the harsh treatment of

the French Protestants by the French king

Institutes of the Christian Religion

Institutes became the foundation of Calvin’s theology He believed that because of Adam’s sin, all men were

born sinners and were doomed to a life of sin He also believed that nothing that we do on earth

affects where we end up in the afterlife Instead, God predestines some humans for salvation

(the Elect) with the rest going to hell From reading the Institutes it is clear that Calvin was

strongly influenced by St. Augustine

It originally was published as a pamphlet but expanded to over four volumes

Institutes of the Christian Religion

He believed that the “elect” will automatically do good because God “programs” them to do so A sign of predestination would be the desire to live a good

Christian life Part of this included being a member of the reformed

church

He also believed it was the duty of all Christians to prevent sin because it diminishes God’s glory

With his ideology laid out in the Institutes, Calvin wanted to put his theories into practice

Calvin in Geneva

In the 1530s, Geneva was in the middle of political and religious turmoil Calvin had visited the city to work on his studies but

was encouraged by a fellow reformer to stay He moved there in 1536 but was expelled in 1538 for

the too radical move of not using unleavened bread in celebration of Communion

Calvin spent the next three years as a minister in Strasbourg During this time, Geneva was being torn apart with

religious and political strife Also, church attendance declined rapidly with Calvin

gone

Calvin in Geneva

In 1540, Geneva’s city council decided they wanted Calvin back However, Calvin did not want to go back because of his

bad experience there “Rather would I submit to death a hundred times than

to that cross on which I had to perish daily a thousand times over”

After more negotiations and prodding by his friends, Calvin did return to Geneva Calvin was well received by the local council who gave

him both an income and a house He remained in Geneva for the rest of his life

Calvin in Geneva

Calvin set up a theocracy in Geneva which was divided into two parts

The “lower house” was the Congregation which included all members of the clergy Their job was to write legislation

The “upper house” was the Consistory It contained twelve elders and the pastors of the city’s

churches They met every Thursday to pass the legislation from

the Congregation

Calvin in Geneva

The Consistory also supervised all public and private morality in the city The city was divided into four districts and members

of the Consistory would visit every house in the city every year, most the time without warning

Any type of dancing, playing, working, card playing, etc. on Sunday was prohibited and a punishable offence

Heresy, adultery, and blasphemy were considered capital crimes

Between 1541 and 1545, 58 people were executed out of 16,000 who lived in the city

Calvin in Geneva

Because of Calvin’s success in Geneva, many Protestants throughout Europe were influenced by him John Knox started his reform movement in Scotland

based on Calvinism (became the Presbyterians) Calvinists started their own movements in Holland

(Dutch Reformed Church), England (Puritans), and France (Huguenots)

Luther versus Calvin

Differences Between Calvin and Luther

While they may seem similar, Calvin and Luther had different views on the church

Luther and Calvin had different views on the path to salvation Luther believed in faith alone while Calvin believed

in predestinationThey also differed on the role of the church

with the state Luther believed that the church should be

depended on the state while Calvin believed that the church should not be regulated by the state


Luther kept some ties to Catholic religion while Calvin completely severed all ties Luther did allow for some superintendents to run the

church like the bishops did in the Catholic Church Calvin completely rejected any hierarchy and believed

that the congregation should be led by elders called Presbyters

Luther also kept many of the entrapments of the church including the use of altars, music, vestments, and rituals

Calvin also prohibited music, vestments, processions, any church decorations


Calvin was much more legalistic than Luther While Luther believed a person should follow his own

conscience, Calvin believed a person should follow the scriptures

For example, Luther requested that people attend mass but Calvin believed they should also avoid work or pleasure for the remainder of the day

Calvin believed in true consubstantiation Luther believed that there was still some semblance of

Christ in the host and the wine


While Luther had a more “relaxed” attitude towards “good Christian behavior,” Calvin believed that it was the duty of all Christians to actively fight against sin For example, Luther felt that people should just

endure the trials of life but Calvin believed they should work for a better world

Calvin relied heavily on the Old Testament while Luther more on the New

Henry VIII King of England (1491-1547)

Reformation in England

The Reformation in England was very different than the rest of Europe England was not affected by the papacy and church

abuses as other countries While many called for reforms for the church, it was

the king’s decision to break from Rome that brought the Reformation to England

There were some religious reasons behind the English Reformation However, the major reason was political

Reformation in England

In London, Luther’s ideas were widely received There was a small group of German merchants living in

London who were spreading Luther’s ideas These ideas were very popular with English youth

Henry VIII wrote an article denouncing the teachings of Luther Because of this, the Pope gave Henry the title “Defender of

the Faith”

The political cause to the English Reformation had its roots in Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon Catherine was the daughter of Ferdinand II and Isabella of

Spain, two of the most powerful monarchs in Europe

Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536) (m. 1509-1533)

Divorced

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

Catherine of Aragon originally was married to Henry’s older brother Arthur, who died soon after the wedding

King Henry VII did not want to lose the alliance with Spain He suggested that his other son, Henry, would marry

Catherine insteadHowever, according to church law, Catherine was

not permitted to marry her dead husband’s brother Catherine said that she never consummated her marriage

with Arthur Thus, they were able to receive a papal dispensation from

Pope Julius II in 1503 and got married in 1509


Throughout the course of their marriage, Catherine was unable to give Henry a son She had a number of stillbirths and those that did

survive died shortly after birth Eventually, she did give birth to a daughter, Mary, in

1516

As the years went on, she could still not give birth to a son and the situation grew dim for Henry She eventually got well past the childbearing age She had no pregnancies after 1519


Beginning in 1525, Henry began having an affair with Anne Boleyn Anne had been one of Catherine’s Ladies-in-Waiting

He asked Catherine for an annulment so he could marry Anne but she refused

In 1527, he petitions Pope Clement VII for an annulment Henry argued that God was punishing him for

marrying his deceased brother’s wife Annulments had been given to ruling monarchs on

weaker grounds

Pope Clement VII (1523-1534)

The Divorce

Clement had a serious issue if he granted the annulment: He would be admitting the first papal dispensation was

invalid This would then question the validity of all other

dispensations

Holy Roman Emperor Charles V also became involved in this issue He was Catherine’s nephew He had recently invaded Rome and held the pope in captivity

The pope stalled the granting of the annulment because of all of this

The Divorce

Henry’s negotiator with Rome was Cardinal Wolsey Henry told Wolsey that the investigation was not moving

fast enough Since he did not speed things along, Wolsey was fired in

1529

Henry, in the meantime, asked his own chief clergymen to investigate the annulment This included Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of

Canterbury, and Thomas Cromwell

In late 1532, Anne Boleyn finally gave in to Henry and became pregnant soon after

The Divorce

Henry needed to act fast because if the child was a boy, he did not want it to be a bastard He secretly married Anne on January 25, 1533

In May 1533, Archbishop Cranmer in a special court declared Henry’s marriage to Catherine was void This decision could not be appealed by the papacy

because of the Statute of Praemunire (1353) The court also recognized Henry’s marriage to Anne

Anne Boleyn was crowned on June 1, 1533

Anne Boleyn (1501-1536) (m. 1533-1536)

Executed

Official Break With the Church

Pope Clement responded to the divorce by excommunicating Henry

Henry proceeded to have Parliament pass a series of laws cutting off all ties to Rome

Act of Supremacy (1534) The king “justly and rightfully is and ought to be the

supreme head of the Church of England” This created an independent national church which

was now known as the Church of England (Anglicans Ecclesia), or the Anglican Church

Official Break With the Church

Act of Treason (1534) Made it punishable by death to deny that the king was

the supreme head of the churchAct Dissolving the Greater Monasteries

(1539) This act shut down all monasteries and convents in

England All their wealth was then given to the king

These acts asserted that there was no authority in England greater than the king and Parliament The pope no longer had any standing in England

Other Religious Changes

As Henry wanted to break with Rome and not specifically Catholicism, he had Parliament issue the Six Articles of Faith in 1539 It included such ideas as transubstantiation, the celibacy

of the clergy, and the importance of oral confessions These became the basic beliefs of the Anglican church

but at the same time mirrored similar Catholic doctrines

It is not until later monarchs that England becomes a true Protestant state The Reformation does not end in England until the reign

of Elizabeth I

Henry and His Wives

Anne Boleyn (1501-1536)

Anne Boleyn became queen on June 1, 1533She gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, that

September However, she was unable to produce another heir for

Henry She was able to get pregnant but those ended in

either miscarriage or stillbirths

With Anne’s inability to give birth to a son, Henry focused his attentions on his new lover, Jane Seymour She was one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting

Anne Boleyn (1501-1536)

Henry began saying that he was tricked into marrying Anne

In April 1536, a court musician “confessed” to having an affair with Anne This was followed up with accusations that she had

incestual relations with her brother GeorgeIn May, Anne was put on trial for adultery,

incest, and high treason The high treason was based on the claim that Anne

was plotting to kill the king to marry one of her lovers She was executed at the Tower of London on May 19th

Jane Seymour (c.1508-1537) (m. 1536-1537)

Died

Jane Seymour (c.1508-1537)

Henry proposed to Jane Seymour on May 20, 1536 They were married on May 30th

Jane never had an official coronation Some say that Henry wanted to wait until she gave birth

to a son Others blame a plague that was ravaging London at the

time

She gave birth to a son, a sickly Edward VI, on October 12, 1537 She died shortly after his baptism from puerperal fever,

a form of blood poisoning

Anne of Cleves (1515-1557) (m. Jan.–July 1540)

Divorced

Anne of Cleves (1515-1557)

In order to guarantee that he would have an heir, Henry sought to marry again

It was suggested that he marry Anne of Cleves, the sister of the Protestant Duke of Cleves The Duke of Cleves was a potentially important ally

against the Catholic states The royal painter, Hans Holbein, was sent to paint a

portrait of her When Henry was shown a painting of Anne of Cleves,

he decided to marry her

Anne of Cleves (1515-1557)

However, when she arrived in England, he found her very unattractive He called her his “Flanders Mare”

Since he was an honorable man, he still married Anne on January 6, 1540 However, he was unable to consummate the marriage Also, the Duke of Cleves was on the verge of a war on

the continent against the Holy Roman Empire of which Henry did not want to get involved in

The marriage was annulled on July 9, 1540 Anne was given the title “King’s Sister” and lived in

comfort until her death in 1557

Kathryn Howard (1521-1542) (m. 1540-1542)

Executed

Kathryn Howard (c. 1525-1542)

Kathryn Howard married Henry on July 28, 1540 She had been one of Anne’s ladies-in-waiting who

caught Henry’s eyeShe was beautiful but was also unchaste

At this point, Henry was 49 years old, over 300 pounds, suffered from an oozing ulcer on his leg

She began flirting with the young men in court and appointed one as her personal secretary

When Henry found out about her adultery, she was put on trial for adultery and treason She was beheaded at the Tower of London on February

13, 1542

Katherine Parr (1512-1548) (m. 1543-

1547) Widowed

Katherine Parr (1512-1548)

Katherine Parr had already survived two husbands prior to her catching Henry’s eye in court She was interested in another man, Thomas Seymour,

when Henry proposed to her She broke off that relationship to marry the King on July

12, 1543Her marriage to Henry was a success

Her motto was “To be useful in all I do” She was a highly educated woman and doted on Henry’s

childrenWhen Henry died in 1547, she married Seymour

She died in 1548 shortly after giving birth to a daughter

Edward VI (1547-1553)

Edward VI (1547-1553)

Edward was nine years old when he was crowned king in 1547 Henry had requested that Edward have a Council of

Regency instead of just one regent However, in reality, Edward Seymour, later Duke of

Sommerset, became the most powerful political force during the regency

Many members of his regency were radical Protestants They were Calvinists who used their position of power

to revise church doctrines and ceremonies Edward himself was a devout Protestant as well which

helped in the success of these changes

Radical Protestantism

In 1547, Edward issued a list of injunctions which included: The abolishment of relics in churches The gospel and epistles be read in English The vow of celibacy was removed

Then in 1549, he introduced the Book of Common Prayer This was a prayer book that contained readings for

massMany in England saw these steps as being

too radical

Radical Protestantism

In 1553, his issued the 42 Articles of Faith These moved the Anglican church closer to Calvinism They denied five of the seven sacraments Believed that salvation was through faith alone Denied transubstantiation and accepted consubstantiation

When Edward was dying in 1553, he put in his will that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, was to be his heir He did not want his half-sister, Mary, to ascend to the

throne as she had been raised Catholic He was afraid that Mary would undo all of the reforms

made during his reignEdward died from tuberculosis on July 6, 1553

Lady Jane Grey (July 10-19, 1553)

Lady Jane Grey (1553)

Lady Jane Grey was declared Queen on July 10, 1553 She had the support of the Earl of Northumberland At this time, Mary had fled London to rally support

Mary returned to London on July 19th with troops This time she had the necessary support to force

Parliament to recognize her as queen

Lady Jane was imprisoned in the Tower of London She was not executed until there was an uprising in her

name in 1554

Mary I (1553-1558)

Mary I (1553-1558)

Mary was the daughter of Catherine of Aragon She was raised as a Roman Catholic She was 37 years old when she was crowned on July 19,

1553

When she took the throne, she vowed to bring Catholicism back to England At the time, a majority of England was still Roman Catholic

and resented the changes brought about under Edward’s reign

She sought to realign England with Rome as well Within a few months, she had arrested most of the

prominent Protestant religious leaders in England and brought back the Catholic bishops

Mary I (1553-1558)

In October 1553, she had Parliament pass the Act of Repeal It undid all the religious changes done during Edward’s

reign

In 1555, she reinstituted medieval heresy laws and began her prosecution of Protestants Over 280 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy Over 800 Protestants fled England at this time

Some of the other changes she made: Restored the celebration of mass in Latin and clerical

celibacy Forced Parliament to vote for the unconditional return of

England to papal allegiance

Mary I (1553-1558)

After restoring Catholicism, Mary’s next biggest concern was she did not have an heir She wanted an heir to prevent the throne from getting

into the hands of her Protestant sister, ElizabethIn 1554, she married Philip II of Spain

This was only a political marriage for Philip and he left England after a little more than a year

The English did not approve of this marriage They were fearful of Philip attempting to dominate

England As part of the marriage agreement, Philip was named

King of England and all official documents had both their names on them

Mary I (1553-1558)

In 1557, Philip got England involved in the Italian Wars against France The people were strongly against this involvement but

Mary did not stop him England lost its last bit of territory on mainland

Europe (Calais)

Mary died on November 17, 1558, presumably from cancer She left no male heir and made no concessions for a

Catholic ruler to follow her This ended the Catholic Restoration in England

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Elizabeth was the daughter of Anne Boleyn She was raised Protestant but was not devout While Mary was Queen, she declared Elizabeth to be

illegitimate

Elizabeth’s main goal was to bring religious peace to England

She came up with a compromise between Catholics and Protestants by “going down the middle” in terms of religion

Elizabethan Compromise

She had the Act of Supremacy of 1559 passed This repealed all of Mary’s legislation Foreign princes were not allowed to exercise any

power in England Elizabeth was declared the spiritual and religious

head of the church It also included an Oath of Supremacy which every

person holding civil or church office must make or else they would be charged with treason


Act of Uniformity of 1559 reestablished some of the prayers and doctrines of Edward’s reign She made the 1552 Book of Common Prayer

compulsory She required all English to attend the Anglican church

on Sundays If they did not, they were charged a fine of 12 pence

called recusancy fines She also issued a new Confession of Faith


Elizabeth then issued the 39 Articles of Faith She had taken Edward’s 42 Articles of Faith and

removed the three most radical ones The Anglican church now took a closer theological

approach to Luther than to Calvin

By this point in time, a majority of English had accepted the Protestant religion The only ones who did not accept Elizabeth’s

compromise were the Catholics and the radical Protestants (the Puritans)

With the Compromise, the English Reformation was officially over

Pope Paul III (1534-1549)

Counter Reformation

The Catholic Church could not ignore the problems it was facing both internally and externally People inside the Catholic Church not only wanted to

fight the growing threat of Protestantism but to renew the Church from the inside as well

To Catholics, this is called the “Catholic Reformation,” while to non-Catholics is it referred to as the “Counter Reformation”

This Counter Reformation began with the Council of Trent in 1545 and ended with the Thirty Years War in 1648

Counter Reformation

During the period of the Counter Reformation even the position of pope was cleaned up These popes led very pious lives compared to previous

popes The first was Pope Paul III (1534-1549)

Pope Paul III – (1534-1549) He was the first pope to deal with the abuses of the

Catholic Church He sought to convert Protestants back to Catholicism

peaceably His main contribution was the formation of the

Council of Trent

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Council of Trent (1545-1563) was designed to respond to the challenges of the Protestants The council met three times between 1545 and 1563

in the city of Trent At the beginning, it had hoped to make a compromise

with the Protestants but that failedThe Council reaffirmed many of the Catholic

doctrines All seven sacraments, not just two, were considered

necessary It also stated that both good deeds and faith were

needed for salvation

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

It also reaffirmed transubstantiation, celibacy of the clergy, purgatory, and papal supremacy

Another major issue it faced was dealing with the major problems in the church Bishops and priests were no longer allowed to hold

more than one office Indulgences were to be earned, not sold They abolished certain popular religious cults and

replaced them with “approved” ones such as the Cult of the Virgin Mary

Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)

Pope Paul IV (1555-1559)

Pope Paul IV – (1555-1559) He was known for being very orthodox and demanded

reform in the church Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus ("Outside the Church

there is no salvation“) He brought back the Inquisition throughout Europe to

fight Protestants and Jews; he thought the Jews were involved in the Reformation somehow

He also set up the first ghettos for Jews

Pope Pius IV (1559-1565)

Pope Pius IV was best known for issuing the Index Librorum Prohibitorum in 1564 This was a list of books that could be “dangerous” to

Catholics It was an accepted form of censorship since the

purpose of the Church is to save souls Books were categorized into three categories:

Absolutely prohibited as they preached immorality or misrepresented Catholicism

Books that were acceptable with certain passages removed

Books that were safe for Catholics to read

Pope Pius V (1566-1572)

Pope Pius V (1566-1572)

Pope Pius V was another major reformerHe fought against the Huguenot movement in

France He fired clergy who converted and reformed the

churchHe issued the Tridentine Mass in 1570

It was a standardized Latin mass that was to be used in all Catholic churches

This was to prevent any “heretical” ideas from being put into Catholic masses

He also was the pope who excommunicated Elizabeth I

Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Society of Jesus (aka the Jesuits)

The Society of Jesus was founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540 It was a very militant society whose purpose was to

fight heresy and bring back the “lost souls” to Catholicism

It was also one of the major role players in the Counter Reformation

Ignatius Loyola – (1491-1556) He had been a solider in the Spanish army when he

got hit in the leg with a cannonball


His injury was very difficult to heal The doctors kept on setting the leg bones incorrectly

and had to reset it twice After the first reset, there was a bend in his leg so the

doctors decided to saw off the protruding bone Unfortunately, this left one leg shorter than the other A leg stretcher was then used to lengthen the leg

While Loyola was recuperating from the procedures he read the “Life of Christ” by Rudolf of Saxon It was at the time that he made the decision to be a

solider of Christ


In 1534, together with six friends, he formed the Society of Jesus In 1540, they received papal approval for the Society

to be an official order of the church

The Society played many roles in the Counter Reformation

They were able to regain territory lost to the Protestant movement They did this through rhetoric and persuasion rather

than force


They developed some of the best schools in the world to help educate Catholic children This had the effect of “indoctrinating” future

generations of CatholicsThey became confessors to the nobility

Because of this they also gained influence on the nobility

Due to their education and training, they were in demand to hold government positions They were then able to use their positions to keep

governments favorable to the Church and the pope


They also acted as missionaries to help convert new areas to Catholicism By the time of Loyola’s death, there were over 1,000

members of the Society Over the next century, the Society spread to Asia

(India and China) and South AmericanThe Jesuits, like the Reformation Popes and the

Council of Trent, helped the Catholic church survive during the course of the Reformation

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