Unit 1 Powerpoint

William Bae

Sam Lee

Period 6

Introduction

• Environment– External conditions that affect

living organisms

• Ecology– Study of relationships between

living organisms and their environment

• Environmental Science– how nature works.– how the environment effects us.– how we effect the environment.– how we can live more

sustainably without degrading our life-support system.

Solar Capital and Earth Capital• Solar Capital

– Energy from the sun– Provides 99% of the energy used

on earth

• Earth Capital– Life-support and Economic

Services

• Environment– Planet’s air, water, soil, wildlife,

minerals, natural purification, recycling, pest control,…

Carrying Capacity

• The maximum number of organisms of a local, regional, or global environment can support over a specified period

• Variables– Location– Time

• Short term ~ seasonal changes• Long-term ~global changes in

factors such as climate

– Technology

Sustainability

• The ability of a specified system to survive and function over time

• $1,000,000 – 10% interest– Live on up to $100,000

per year

• Examples: Sustainable earth, resource harvest, and society

• The steps to sustainability must be supported by sound science.

Linear Growth

• Quantity increases by a constant amount per unit of time

• 1,2,3,4,5, …• 1,3,5,7,9, …• When plotted on a

graph, growth of money yields a fairly straight line sloping upward

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1960 1980 2000 2020

Exponential Growth

• Growth yields a J-shaped curve

• Describes the human population problem that disturbs the environment today

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Population Growth

Rule of 70

• How long does it take to double? – Resource use– Population size– Money in a savings account

• Rule of 70 – 70 divided by the percentage growth rate =

doubling time in years– 70 / 7% means it takes ten years to double

Economic Growth - Key Terms• Economic Growth

– Increase in the capacity to provide goods and services for people’s use

• Gross National Product– Measures economic

growth in a country• Gross Domestic

Product– Market value in

current dollars of all goods and services produced only within a country during one year

Economic Growth - Key Terms• More Developed Countries (MDC)

– Highly industrialized – Average per capita GNP above $4000

• Less Developed Countries (LDC)– Low to moderate industrialization – Average per capita GNP below $4000

Economic Growth - Key Terms

• Development– Change from a society that is

largely rural, agricultural, illiterate, poor and rapidly growing population

• Per Capita GNP– GNP divided by the total population– Shows one person’s slice of the

economic pie

Questions1. The sun provides the earth with what percent of the energy?

(A) 2% (B) 25% (C) 50% (D) 80% (E) 99%

 

2. What is the carrying capacity of an environment?

(A) The number of animals that can be produced when mating.

(B) The maximum number of organisms in an area that can be supported.

(C) The amount an animal can carry in that environment

(D) The number of prey that an environment can sustain

(E) The minimum a population must have to survive in an environment

 

3. What is used in order to calculate the doubling of a resource, population, money, etc.?

(A) Rule of 2

(B) Rule of 20

(C) Rule of 40

(D) Rule of 70

(E) Rule of 90

POPULATION GROWTH, ECONOMIC GROWTH, AND ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT

• Economic growth provides people with more goods and services.

– Measured in gross domestic product (GDP) and purchasing power parity (PPP).

• Economic development uses economic growth to improve living standards.

– The world’s countries economic status (developed vs. developing) are based on their degree of industrialization and GDP-PPP.

Wealth Gap• The gap between

the per capita GNP of the rich, middle-income and poor has widened since 1980

• More than 1 billion people survive on less than one dollar per day

Sustainable Development

• Assumes the right to use the earth’s resources and earth capital to meet needs

• It is our obligation to create sustainability

• Environmentally sustainable societies meets basic needs of its people in a just and equitable manner without degrading the natural capital that supplies these resources.

Resources

RenewableRenewable Non-RenewableNon-Renewable

Potentially Potentially RenewableRenewable

Direct solar energy

Fossil fuels Fresh air

Winds, tides, flowing water

Metallic minerals (iron, copper, aluminum)

Fresh water

Nonmetallic minerals (clay, sand, phosphates)

Fertile soil

Plants and animals

(biodiversity)

Biodiversity

• Genetic Diversity– Variety in a genetic makeup among individuals

within a single species

• Species Diversity– Variety among the species or distinct types of

living organisms found in different habitats of the planet

• Ecological Diversity– Variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams,

lakes, oceans, wetlands, and other communities

Environmental Degradation

Common Property Resources

• Tragedy of the Commons

• Resources owned by none, but available to all users free of charge

• May convert potentially renewable resources into nonrenewable resources

Natural capital degradation

• The exponential increasing flow of material resources through the world’s economic systems depletes, degrades and pollutes the environment.

Figure 1-11Figure 1-11

Nonrenewable Resources

• Nonrenewable/Exhaustible Resources– Exist in a fixed quantity in the earth’s crust and can

be used up

• Mineral– Any hard, usually crystalline material that is formed

naturally

• Reserves– Known deposits from which a usable

mineral can be profitably extracted at current prices

Nonrenewable Resources

• Recycling– Collecting and

reprocessing a resource into new products

• Reuse– Using a

resource over and over in the same form

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS: CAUSES AND CONNECTIONS

• The major causes of environmental problems are:– Population growth– Wasteful resource use– Poverty– Poor environmental

accounting– Ecological ignorance

Questions1. Approximately how many people in the world live on under a dollar a day?

(A) 40, 000

(B) 100,000

(C) 1,000,000

(D) 10,000,000

(E) 1,000,000,000

 

2. Which is not a renewable resource?

(A) Air

(B) Water

(C) Soil

(D) Metal

(E) Animals

 

3. What is genetic diversity?

(A) The distinction between species

(B) The variety of environments

(C) The genetic makeup of individuals

(D) The different genes from mating

(E) Hybrid species mating

 

4. Which is not a cause of environmental problems?

(A) Population growth

(B) Unsustainable resource use

(C) Poverty

(D)Global warming

(E) Trying to manage and simplify nature without knowledge

Poverty and Environmental Problems

• 1 of 3 children under 5, suffer from severe malnutrition.

Figure 1-12 and 1-13Figure 1-12 and 1-13

Our Ecological Footprint

• Humanity’s ecological footprint has exceeded earths ecological capacity. Figure 1-7Figure 1-7

Pollution

• Any addition to air, water, soil, or food that threatens the health, survival, or activities of humans or other living organisms

• Solid, liquid, or gaseous by-products or wastes

Point Source Pollutants

• From a single, identifiable sources– Smokestack of a

power plant– Drainpipe of a

meat-packing plant– Exhaust pipe of an

automobile

Nonpoint Source Pollutants

• Dispersed and often difficult to identify sources– Runoff of fertilizers and pesticides– Storm Drains (#1 source of oil spills in oceans)

Negativity of Pollutant

• Chemical Nature– How active and harmful

it is to living organisms

• Concentration– Amount per unit volume

or weight of air, water, soil or body weight

• Persistence– Time it stays in the air,

water, soil or body

Types of Pollutants

• Factors that determine the severity of a pollutant’s effects: chemical nature, concentration, and persistence.

• Pollutants are classified based on their persistence:– Degradable pollutants– Biodegradable pollutants– Slowly degradable pollutants– Nondegradable pollutants

Water Pollution

• Sediment• Nutrient overload• Toxic chemicals• Infectious agents• Oxygen depletion• Pesticides• Oil spills• Excess heat

Air Pollution

• Global climate change

• Stratospheric ozone depletion

• Urban air pollution• Acid deposition• Outdoor pollutants• Indoor pollutants• Noise

Solution: Pollution cleanup

• Output Pollution Cleanup– Involves cleaning up

pollutants after they have been produced

– Most expensive and time consuming

Questions1. Which is not one of the 4 R’s?

(A) Reduce

(B) Reserve

(C) Recycle

(D) Reuse

(E) Refuse

2. What resource is the world population most deprived of in poor countries?

(A) Adequate sanitation

(B) Electricity

(C) Clean water

(D) Enough food

(E) Fuel

 

3. What is NOT a point source pollutant?

(A) Smokestack from a coal processing plant

(B) Drainpipe of a meat-packing plant

(C)Runoff from fertilizers

(D)Exhaust pipe of a car

(E)Heated water from a power plant

Solutions: Pollution Prevention

• Input Pollution Control or Throughput Solution– Slows or eliminates the

production of pollutants, often by switching to less harmful chemicals or processes

• Four R’s– Reduce, reuse, refuse,

recycle

Biodiversity Depletion

• Habitat destruction• Habitat degradation• Extinction

Food Supply Problems

• Overgrazing• Farmland loss and

degradation• Wetlands loss and degradation• Overfishing• Coastal pollution• Soil erosion• Soil salinization• Soil waterlogging• Water shortages• Groundwater depletion• Loss of biodiversity• Poor nutrition

Agricultural Revolution

• Agricultural Revolution

– Cultural shift that began in several regions of the world

– Involved a gradual move from a lifestyle based on nomadic hunting

• Agroforestry– Planting a mixture of

food crops and tree crops

Agricultural Revolution

• Slash-and-burn– Cutting down trees

and other vegetation and then burning the underbrush to clear small patches of land

• Subsistence Farming– Family grew only

enough food to feed itself.

Planetary Management Worldview

• There is always more• All economic growth is

good• Potential for economic

growth is limitless• Our success depends

on how well we manage earth’s system for our benefit

                                                                                   

Earth-Wisdom Worldview

• Nature exists for all of the earth’s species, not just for us

• There is not always more• Not all forms of economic

growth is beneficial to the environment

• Our success depends on learning to cooperate with one another and with the earth

What Is Science?

• Science is a pursuit of knowledge about how the world works

• Scientific data is collected by making observations and taking measurements

• Observations involve the five senses, and help answer questions or problems

Observation• QualitativeQualitative

– of, relating to, or involving quality or kind

– ie.: red, hot, burns quickly, etc.

• QuantitativeQuantitative– of, relating to, or

involving the measurement of quantity or amount

– ie.: 350 degrees Celsius, 5 inches, etc.

Inference1. To conclude from evidence

or premises

2. To reason from circumstance; surmise: We can infer that his motive in publishing the diary was less than honorable

3. To lead to as a consequence or conclusion: “Socrates argued that a statue inferred the existence of a sculptor”

Questions

1. Which of the following contributes to biodiversity degradation?

I. Recycling II. Habitat destruction III. Pollution

(A) II only (B) III only (C) I and II (D) II and III (E) I, II, III

2. All of the following are ways we can prevent food sustainability EXCEPT

(A) Prevent soil salinization (B) Sustain groundwater supplies (C) Protect biodiversity

(D) Subsistence farming (E) Overfishing

3. Which of the following is a qualitative observation?

(A) The color of a rock (B) Diameter of a leaf (C) Size of a plant (D) Taste of a fruit (E) Smell of dirt

Vocabulary

• Experiment – A procedure to study a phenomenon

under known conditions – Must have a Control

• Hypotheses – A possible explanation of something

observed in nature.

• Model – An approximate representation of a

system being studied.

Theory and Law

• Scientific Theory – A hypothesis that has been supported by

multiple scientists’ experiments in multiple locations

• A Scientific Law – a description of what we find happening in

nature over and over again in a certain way

Scientific Laws

• Law of Conservation of Matter – Matter can be changed from one form to

another, but never created or destroyed.

• Atomic Theory of Matter– All matter is made of atoms which cannot be

destroyed, created, or subdivided.

Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy– The extent to which a

measurement agrees with the accepted or correct value for that quantity.

• Precision – A measure of reproducibility, or

how closely a series of measurements of the same quantity agrees with one another.

Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning – Uses observations and facts to arrive at

hypotheses– All mammals breathe oxygen.

• Deductive Reasoning– Uses logic to arrive at a specific

conclusion based on a generalization– All birds have feathers, Eagles are birds,

therefore All eagles have feathers.

Scientific Methods

• What is the question to be answered?

• What relevant facts and data are known?

• What new data should be collected?

• After collection, can it be used to make a law?

• What hypothesis can be invented to explain this? How can it become a theory?

Experiments

• Variables are what affect processes in the experiment.

• Controlled experiments have only one variable

• Experimental group gets the variable

• Control group does not have the variable– Placebo is a harmless pill

that resembles the pill being tested.

– In double blind experiments, neither the patient nor the doctors know who is the control or experiment group.

Systems

• A system is a set of components that function and interact in some regular and predictable manner

• It has a structure and a function– The earth is a closed

system for matter and an open system for energy

• Can use models– Graphic, physical,

conceptual, mental, mathematical

Feedback Loops• A feedback loop occurs

when an output of a system is fed back as an input (two kinds)– Positive loops are

runaway cycles where a change in a certain direction causes further change in the same direction

– Negative loops occur when a change in a certain direction leads to a lessening of that change

Synergy and Chaos

• Synergy occurs when two or more processes interact so the combined effect is greater than the sum of the separate effects

• Chaos occurs in a system when there is no pattern and it never repeats itself

Questions1. Which procedure is NOT part of the scientific method?

(A) Hypothesis (B) Systematic estimation (C) Analysis (D) Observation (E) Conclusion

2. According to the Atomic Theory of Matter, all matter is made of atoms which cannot be

I. Created II. Destroyed III. Subdivided

(A) I only (B) II only (C) I and II (D) I and III (E) I, II, and III

3. The earth is a ______system for matter and an ______ system for energy

(A) closed; open (B) open; open (C) closed; closed (D) open; closed (E) created; open

4. Which of the following is an example of a negative feedback loop?

(A) Warming that leads to melting of glacial ice which raises sea level

(B) Deforestation which leads to reduced biodiversity which leads to less gene diversity

(C) Agricultural runoffs which leads to water pollution which decreases biodiversity

(D) Temperature sensors on the skin that detect a stimulus

(E) Burning of coal which leads to acid rain which leads to deforestation

Resource Consumption and Environmental Problems

• Underconsumption

• Overconsumption

– Affluenza: unsustainable addiction to overconsumption and materialism.

CULTURAL CHANGES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

• Agricultural revolution– Allowed people to stay in

one place.• Industrial-medical revolution

– Led shift from rural villages to urban society.

– Science improved sanitation and disease control.

• Information-globalization revolution– Rapid access to

information.

SUSTAINABILITY ANDENVIRONMENTAL WORLDVIEWS

• Technological optimists:– suggest that human

ingenuity will keep the environment sustainable.

• Environmental pessimists:– overstate the

problems where our environmental situation seems hopeless.

Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability: Copy Nature

• Reliance on Solar Energy

• Biodiversity• Population Control• Nutrient Recycling

Figure 1-16Figure 1-16

Implications of the Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability

Figures 1-17 and 1-18Figures 1-17 and 1-18

TYPES AND STRUCTURE OF MATTER

• Elements and Compounds– Matter exists in chemical

forms as elements and compounds.

• Elements (represented on the periodic table) are the distinctive building blocks of matter.

• Compounds: two or more different elements held together in fixed proportions by chemical bonds.

Ions

• An ion is an atom or group of atoms with one or more net positive or negative electrical charges.

• The number of positive or negative charges on an ion is shown as a superscript after the symbol for an atom or group of atoms

– Hydrogen ions (H+), Hydroxide ions (OH-)

– Sodium ions (Na+), Chloride ions (Cl-)

• The pH (potential of Hydrogen) is the concentration of hydrogen ions in one liter of solution.

Figure 2-5Figure 2-5

Compounds and Chemical Formulas

• Chemical formulas are shorthand ways to show the atoms and ions in a chemical compound. – Combining Hydrogen

ions (H+) and Hydroxide ions (OH-) makes the compound H2O (dihydrogen oxide, a.k.a. water).

– Combining Sodium ions (Na+) and Chloride ions (Cl-) makes the compound NaCl (sodium chloride a.k.a. salt).

Organic Compounds: Carbon Rules

• Organic compounds contain carbon atoms combined with one another and with various other atoms such as H+, N+, or Cl-.

• Contain at least two carbon atoms combined with each other and with atoms.

– Methane (CH4) is the only exception.

– All other compounds are inorganic.

Questions1. The industrial-medical revolution

(A) Created more rural cities (B) Decreases the life expectancy of people (C) Decreased sanitation

(D) Controlled disease better (E) was not beneficial to most people

2. All of the following are part of the Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability EXCEPT(A) Reliance on Solar Energy (B) Biodiversity (C) Sanitation (D) Population control (E) Nutrient

recycling

3. Which of the following is an example of an inorganic compound?(A) Methane (B) Acetone (C) Benzene (D) Butane (E) Ammonia

Organic Compounds: Carbon Rules

• Hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon and hydrogen atoms (e.g. methane (CH4)).

• Chlorinated hydrocarbons: compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine atoms (e.g. DDT (C14H9Cl5)).

• Simple carbohydrates: certain types of compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g. glucose (C6H12O6)).

Cells: The Fundamental Units of Life

• Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all forms of life.– Prokaryotic cells

(bacteria) lack a distinct nucleus.

– Eukaryotic cells (plants and animals) have a distinct nucleus.

Figure 2-6Figure 2-6

Macromolecules, DNA, Genes and Chromosomes

• Large, complex organic molecules (macromolecules) make up the basic molecular units found in living organisms.– Complex carbohydrates– Proteins– Nucleic acids– Lipids

Figure 2-7Figure 2-7

States of Matter

• The atoms, ions, and molecules that make up matter are found in three physical states:– solid, liquid,

gaseous.• A fourth state, plasma,

is a high energy mixture of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons.– The sun and stars

consist mostly of plasma.

Matter Quality• Matter can be classified as

having high or low quality depending on how useful it is to us as a resource.– High quality matter is

concentrated and easily extracted.

– low quality matter is more widely dispersed and more difficult to extract.

Figure 2-8Figure 2-8

CHANGES IN MATTER• Matter can change from one

physical form to another or change its chemical composition.– When a physical or chemical

change occurs, no atoms are created or destroyed.

• Law of conservation of matter.

– Physical change maintains original chemical composition.

– Chemical change involves a chemical reaction which changes the arrangement of the elements or compounds involved.

• Chemical equations are used to represent the reaction.

Chemical Change

• Energy is given off during the reaction as a product.

Nuclear Changes: Radioactive Decay• Natural radioactive decay:

unstable isotopes spontaneously emit fast moving chunks of matter (alpha or beta particles), high-energy radiation (gamma rays), or both at a fixed rate.

– Radiation is commonly used in energy production and medical applications.

– The rate of decay is expressed as a half-life (the time needed for one-half of the nuclei to decay to form a different isotope).

Nuclear Changes: Fission

• Nuclear fission: nuclei of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are split apart into lighter nuclei when struck by neutrons.

Figure 2-9Figure 2-9

Nuclear Changes: Fusion

• Nuclear fusion: two isotopes of light elements are forced together at extremely high temperatures until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus.

Figure 2-10Figure 2-10

Questions1. All of the following are examples of macromolecules EXCEPT

(A) Complex carbohydrates (B) Proteins (C) Nucleic acids (D) Lipids (E) Minerals

2. Which of the following are states of matter?

I. Solid II. Liquid III. Gas IV. Plasma

(A) I and II (B) I and III (C) I and IV (D) I, II, and III (E) I, II, III, and IV

3. Which is an example of ionizing radiation?

(A) Microwaves (B) Gamma rays (C) X-rays (D) Cosmic rays (E) UV rays

4. Which law states that we cannot create or destroy energy?

(A) Atomic Theory of Matter (B) First Law of Thermodynamics (C) Second Law of Thermodynamics (D) Law of Conservation of Matter (E) Scientific Law

ENERGY

• Energy is the ability to do work and transfer heat.

– Kinetic energy – energy in motion

• heat, electromagnetic radiation

– Potential energy – stored for possible use

• batteries, glucose molecules

Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Many different forms of electromagnetic radiation exist, each having a different wavelength and energy content.

• Organisms vary in their ability to sense different parts of the spectrum.

Figure 2-11Figure 2-11

ENERGY LAWS: TWO RULES WE CANNOT BREAK

• The first law of thermodynamics: we cannot create or destroy energy.

– We can change energy from one form to another.

• The second law of thermodynamics: energy quality always decreases.

– When energy changes from one form to another, it is always degraded to a more dispersed form.

– Energy efficiency is a measure of how much useful work is accomplished before it changes to its next form.

SUSTAINABILITY AND MATTER AND ENERGY LAWS• Unsustainable High-Throughput

Economies: Working in Straight Lines– Converts resources to goods in a manner that

promotes waste and pollution.

Figure 2-15Figure 2-15

Sustainable Low-Throughput Economies: Learning from Nature

• Matter-Recycling-and-Reuse Economies: Working in Circles

– Mimics nature by recycling and reusing, thus reducing pollutants and waste.

– It is not sustainable for growing populations.

Calculations Without Calculations Without CalculatorsCalculators

Pam Shlachtman and Pam Shlachtman and

Kathryn WeatherheadKathryn Weatherhead

NSTA Boston 2008NSTA Boston 2008

The Problem:The Problem:

How do we help our students How do we help our students achieve success on AP achieve success on AP Environmental Science Environmental Science

Exams when they cannot Exams when they cannot

use calculators?use calculators?

Solutions:Solutions:

1.1.Teach your students to use Teach your students to use exponents whenever numbers exponents whenever numbers are especially large or small.are especially large or small.

Scientific notation is a way to express, numbers the form of exponents as the product of a number (between 1 and 10) and raised to a power of 10.

650 000 6.5 x 105

0.000543 5.43 x 10-4

In scientific In scientific notation notation remember to have remember to have one number to one number to the left of the the left of the decimal and to decimal and to use correct use correct significant significant figures.figures.

2. Practice math manipulations 2. Practice math manipulations with exponentswith exponents• When adding or subtracting numbers

with exponents the exponents of each number must be the same before you can do the operation.

Example:

(1.9 x 10-3) – (1.5 x 10-4 )

(19 x 10-4 ) - (1.5 x 10-4 ) = 17.5 x 10-4

When multiplying numbers with base 10 exponents, multiply the first factors, and then add the exponents.

Example, (3.1 x 105) (4.5 x 105) =13.95 x 1010 or 1.4 x 1011

When dividing numbers, the exponents are subtracted, numerator exponent minus denominator exponent.

Example: 9 x 10 5 = 3 x 10 2

3 x 10 3

3. Use Dimensional Analysis3. Use Dimensional Analysis or or factor/label method for calculationsfactor/label method for calculations

The following formula based on the cancellation of units is useful:

Given Value x Conversion factor =Answer 1

ORold unit x new unit = new unit

1 old unitExample:

25 ft x 1 yd x 1.094 m = 9.117 meters 3 ft 1 yd

4. Be sure to know how to 4. Be sure to know how to convert numbers to percentages convert numbers to percentages and percent change.and percent change.Example: If 200 households in a town of 10000 have solar power, what percent does this represent?

200/10000 x 100%= ? Example: If a city of population 10,000 experiences 100 births, 40 deaths, 10 immigrants, and 30 emigrants in the course of a year, what is its net annual percentage growth rate?

5. Keep it simple. They don’t 5. Keep it simple. They don’t expect you to do calculus!expect you to do calculus!

Try reducing the fraction from the previous problem 200/1000 to 2/10= 1/5

Then solve:

1/5 x 100%= 20%

6. Remember that the numbers will 6. Remember that the numbers will likely be simple to manipulate.likely be simple to manipulate.

• The APES folks know you only have limited time to do 100 multiple choice and 4 essays

• If you are getting answers like 1.365, then it is likely wrong

7. Show ALL of your work and 7. Show ALL of your work and steps of calculations, even if steps of calculations, even if they are too simple.they are too simple.

8. Show all of your units, too!8. Show all of your units, too!

Numbers given without units are often not counted even if correct.

9. Answers should make sense! 9. Answers should make sense! LOOK them over before you finishLOOK them over before you finish

Example:

No one is going to spend 1 billion

dollars per gallon of water!

10. Know some basic metric 10. Know some basic metric prefixes for simple conversionsprefixes for simple conversions

Giga G 10 9 = 1 000 000 000

Mega M 10 6 = 1 000 000

Kilo k 10 3 = 1 000

Base 10 0 =1(m, l, g)

Milli m 10 -3 = .001

Micro μ 10 -6 = .000 001

Nano n 10 -9 = .000 000 01

Centi c 10 -2 = .01

Conversions from US to metric Conversions from US to metric will probably be given and do not will probably be given and do not need to be memorized. They need to be memorized. They should be practiced, however.should be practiced, however.

Gallons to Liters 1 gal= 3.8 LLiters to Gallons 1 L, l= .264

galMeters to Yards 1 m= 1.094 ydYards to Meters 1 yd= .914 mGrams to Ounces 1 g= .035 ozOunces to Grams 1 oz= 28.35 gKilograms to Pounds1 kg= 2.2 lbPounds to Kilograms1 lb= 454 gMiles to Kilometers 1 mi= 1.609kmKilometers to Miles 1 km= .621 mi

11. Know some simple energy 11. Know some simple energy calculationscalculations

12. Remember some other common 12. Remember some other common formulas like the Rule of 70formulas like the Rule of 70

The growth rate (in %) for a given period into 70 then you will get the crude population doubling period for that population.

Number of years to double= 70 / annual percentage growth rate

13. Be able to calculate half life13. Be able to calculate half life

Example: Example:

A sample of radioactive waste has a half-A sample of radioactive waste has a half-life of 10 years and an activity level of 2 life of 10 years and an activity level of 2 curies.curies. After how many years will the activity level of this sample be 0.25 curie?

14. Know how to graph data14. Know how to graph data• Title the graph

• Set up the independent variable along the X axis

• Set up the dependent variable along the Y axis

• Label each axis and give the appropriate units

• Make proportional increments along each axis so the graph is spread out over the entire graph area

• Plot points and sketch a curve if needed. Use a straight edge to connect points unless told to extrapolate a line.

• Label EACH curve if more than one is plotted.

Study Time

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15. Know what is meant by “per 15. Know what is meant by “per capita” when solving a problem capita” when solving a problem or interpreting a graphor interpreting a graph

16. Be able to 16. Be able to interpolate interpolate and and extrapolate extrapolate datadata

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