Original Research Article1

Food habit change and adaptation: Perceptions and attitudes in2

drought areas of Bangladesh3

4

5

6

Abstract7

Adverse effects of climate change such as drought continue to be a major threat to rural8

livelihoods. This study investigates farmers’ perceptions of climate change and adaptation9

process through food habit change. Most farmers attributed climate change has affected in their10

daily livelihood. Farmers’ perceptions related to droughts were significantly associated with11

adoption of food habit change. The extent to which farmers’ perceived agricultural diversity as a12

climate changes adaptation strategy is suitable. However, food habit change is not the complete13

solution. This may be an adaptation to the changes that are real, controllable and within their14

reach. Therefore, people have to adapt to climate change such as drought and do that by15

producing and promoting fresh, sustainable, reachable, cost effective crops that can withstand16

environmental changes through food habit change.17

18

Key words: Climate change, drought, food habit change.19

1. Introduction20

Climate change is now a burning issue globally (Roberts, 2001) as well as in Bangladesh21

(Karim and Mimura, 2008). The Northern part of Bangladesh is among the most vulnerable22

regions to climate change impacts (Mbugua, 2011). The majority of the population lives in this23

area in abject poverty. People are extremely dependent on rain fed agriculture for their daily24

livelihood. As a consequence, the abnormalities in rainfall patterns and temperature adversely25

impact their socio-economic and environmental survival (Ruane et al., 2013).26

27Climate change with expected long term changes in rainfall patterns and shifting temperature28

regions are resulted to drought. The long-term climate variability impacts include significant29

changes in rainfall patterns and temperature which resulted drought affect agriculture has30

resulted significant reduction in food security, worsening water security, decimation of livestock31

herds, decrease in fish resources in natural water bodies due to rising temperature and rising32

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water stress (African Partnership Forum [APF], 2007). As a result of extreme climate variability,33

such as drought in the northern part of Bangladesh, is recurrently accompanied by ecological34

decline, widespread food scarcity and mass migration (Mbugua, 2011).35

36

In Bangladesh, the agricultural activities are mainly rain-fed and heavily depend on rainfall37

(Mbugua, 2011). In the northern part of the country, the other main source of water for daily38

livelihood and particularly for agriculture is harvested from the Teesta River. In Bangladesh, the39

major rivers passing through are Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and Teesta (Mbugua, 2011).40

Teesta Barrage Project (TBP), located at the Teesta Flood Plains (TFP) at Dalia in Lalmonirhat41

district, is the major source of surface water for agricultural activities since 1990. However, India42

has constructed a barrage in its side at Gozaldoba. This has resulted is low water flow in Teesta43

river of Bangladesh part. The northern part of Bangladesh experiences droughts regularly.44

Records show that 19 drought periods has occurred in Bangladesh between 1960 and 199145

which means a drought every 1.6 years (Mbugua, 2011). In the last three to four decades when46

climate change reported to be observed in the northern part of Bangladesh, the situation has47

gradually decreased. Surface water has moved out from small ponds natural canals. Even48

major rivers have reduced water level and flow volume. Deep wells, shallow machine wells were49

used for agricultural activities. The tube wells used for domestic needs have been deepened50

with time due to the ground water level continues to go down. Whereas the northern part of51

Bangladesh had become a food surplus region after promotion of deep well water for52

agricultural activities.53

This dependence makes this northern region particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of54

climate change. It has been reviewed in the literature that the scope (geographic coverage),55

frequency and magnitude of climatic changes and environmental degradation (disaster) such as56

deforestation, water level decreasing and soil erosion have been gradually increasing in this57

region (Brammer, 2012; Mbugua, 2011). The potential adverse effects of climate change on this58

region’s agricultural sector are of a major concern because of this dependence.59

60The climatic disasters, particularly drought, are becoming the major forces challenging the61

livelihoods of most farmers. Although the country’s crop production and productivity seem62

increasing since 2006’s (Mbugua, 2011; Ruane et al., 2013), the problem of food insecurity at63

national level remains the concern because of severity of food production constraints in this64

northern region. The rural population in this region, for whom agriculture is the primary source of65

food, direct and/or indirect employment and income, will be most affected due agriculture’s66

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vulnerability to climate changes (Ruane et al., 2013). As the sector is the largest consumer of67

water resources, variability in water access has a major influence on health and welfare of68

agriculture dependent poor.69

70

Vulnerability analysis made across the different regions of Bangladesh by reference (Ahsan71

and Warner 2014) indicated that the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of people72

differ from region to region. The other report (Mbugua, 2011) indicated that Kurigram district in73

the northern part of Bangladesh is among the most vulnerable regions because of higher74

frequencies of drought and floods, lower access to technologies, fewer institutions dealing with75

climate related hazards, and lack of infrastructures. Vulnerability to climatic change is highly76

correlated with poverty and living status of farmers determines their vulnerability to and77

adaptation with climatic changes. An increase in the frequency of climate related disasters could78

lead households to lower expected income which in turn can cause to fall below poverty79

threshold level.80

81

The study was aimed to generate primary information from the farming communities of Kurigram82

district related to climate change. This study also examined the perception of target farmers on83

the trend of climate change and related abnormalities, existing coping strategies in place to84

secure food through food habit change. Knowledge of farmers on various adaptation strategies85

was assessed using formal and informal dialogue, third person listening (TPL) approach and86

focus group discussion (FGD), self-reported perception survey and Likert scale survey. It would87

also draw implications that would assist policy makers to decrease the vulnerability of rural88

farming communities to adverse impacts of climate change to secure food in drought area.89

90

Limited study has conducted regarding the knowledge, attitudes and experiences on food91

consumptions and/or daily dietary changes due to the impact of drought. Therefore, the92

objectives of this study was to evaluate the perceptions, attitudes and experiences on food93

consumptions and/or daily dietary changes due to the impact of drought, and to assess the94

extent to which proper knowledge on consumption practices and resilience food security95

associated with drought due to the climate changes in the northern part of Bangladesh.96

97

2. Study area98

The study areas were selected in the drought prone northern part of Bangladesh where a99

particular community practices their knowledge as an experience to adopt their livelihood with100

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the drought. Two Upzila Bhurungamari and Chilmari in Kurigram district was selected based on101

the study objectives.102

103

The study investigated and tries to find out the answers through the research questions given104

below;105

1. Is there any relation between drought and livelihood particularly agricultural crops for106

food consumption among the target population in the study area?107

2. Which practices they are used to cope with the situation and how they adopt108

themselves?109

3. What are their perceptions and attitudes about the adaptation they are practicing?110

111

3. Methodology112

A cross-sectional study of perception, attitudes and experience of traditional and present113

agricultural activities for food consumption practice was carried out to collect required data.114

115

Two types of questions in the formatted questionnaire was applied, one for the traditional116

practices and another for the present practices in their daily dietary.117

118

The first part of the study questionnaire will be contained the following components:119

a) Personal data including name, address, age, gender, religion, educational status and120

ethnicity,121

b) Their perception and attitudes about drought which included temperature, rainfall,122

economic activities, year of cultivation, types of traditional cultivation for food123

consumption as well as their belief and practice about the traditional practices.124

125

The second part of the questionnaire was comprised of the following components:126

127

a) Their experience such as preference for changed food consumptions to traditional128

practice or willingness to convey their knowledge and integration of the two systems,129

reason for the acceptance of present consumption by the community, their views to130

adopt with the climate change condition.131

b) Finally adaptation strategy with the drought due to climate change.132

133

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Both part of the questionnaire was semi-structured with closed and open-ended questions and a134

separate part of self-reported Likert scale.135

136

3.1. Ethical considerations137

Ethical considerations are essential to any form of data collection in a humanitarian operation.138

Collecting information for any purpose, including monitoring, assessments or surveys, can put139

people at risk not only because of the sensitive nature of the information collected, but also140

because simply participating in the process may cause people to be targeted. The risks can141

range from physical violence to social marginalization and are often unknown to the individual142

soliciting the information. Prior to filling the questionnaire, informed consent was obtained.143

Participants were treated fairly and with dignity. Because the research involved an intrusion into144

the private lives of the participants, the Principal Researcher and field investigators (FIs) were145

always be respectful, polite and reliable to the respondents. This helped to built rapport between146

interviewer and respondents.147

148

The fieldworkers were required to sign a statement that they would not reveal identifying149

information to anyone outside the research. Furthermore, code names were used in all field150

notes. A master key was retained for un-coding the personal data at the end of the study, at151

which time all keys were destroyed. In some cases, interviews were take place in a quiet152

confidential area in a mutually convenient location particularly for roaming population. Possible153

precautions were taken to minimize the risks during the survey.154

155

3.2. Research design156

An interpretive hermeneutic phenomenological research approach was adopted in order to157

provide an understanding of the subject population’s beliefs and perceptions. Within this158

framework, ethnographic data were collected using observation, formal and informal dialogue159

and third person listening techniques. Where possible, interviews were formally prearranged,160

but informal opportunities were also taken, at times and place where the participant’s interest161

could be obtained and retained.162

163

3.3. Selection of study group164

Based on the socio-economic circumstances in the study area, initial observation suggested165

that a number of significant and distinct groups of people are affected due to drought in the166

selected study areas such as;167

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168

a) ultra-poor169

b) marginalized people170

c) middle income population, and171

d) high income172

173

However, other consequence was considered to identify the subject people such as;174

e) educated population175

f) illiterate176

g) ethnic community177

178

3.4. Determination of Sample Size179

Having identified these potentially significant groups, each group was sampled according to a180

sampling plan appropriate to that type of population. Sample size refers to the number of181

subjects to be included in the study. These were sampled according to 95% confidence intervals182

using a Population Proportionate to Size (PPS) stratified plan considering the study subjects.183

The sample size was allocated to different groups on a PPS basis, with redistribution of the184

sample to ensure that the minimum sample size required for any group in both of the Upazila. A185

total of n = 210 participants were surveyed across the selected groups by purposive and186

authoritative sampling technique. Each participant was given a unique code number with sex187

(Rs1- Rs210). Various factors including gender, age, access to irrigation water, occupation,188

income, ethnicity and land holding size were considered during sampling.189

3.5. Data collection190

3.5.1. Observational approach191

An observational approach reduces the impact of the data collection process on the behaviours192

of the observed population. The principal investigator watched the actions and behaviours of193

selected participants in their usual settings, noting the routine aspects of daily life and nature of194

work activities.195

196

3.5.2. Third Person Listening Approach197

A third person listening approach was used to develop an understanding of the interaction198

between two or more individuals within the pragmatic social and cultural environment of their199

daily livelihoods as described by Patwary et al, (2011). In this listening approach, the researcher200

concentrated on the interactions between two or more speakers and, as well as noting key201

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aspects of the conversation, observed other signals such as fleeting facial expressions, how the202

tone of voice shifted, and body language accumulated as unfocused impressions and in later203

stages, more focused data.204

205

3.5.3. Formal interview206

A number of formal semi-structured interviews were arranged, as judged appropriate in each207

individual circumstance, including demographic information, occupational activity, questions208

dealing with agricultural activities and finally adaptation with drought in the changed climate and209

coping strategies.210

211

3.5.4. Informal dialogue212

An informal dialogue approach was also applied where formal techniques were not being judged213

appropriate. The dialogue approach involved face-to-face interviews between the researcher214

and selected informants at times and places where the participant’s interest could be obtained215

and retained. Interviews may be conducted in tea-stalls or in a local restaurant, close to a216

roadside or in an agricultural land, at any free time, during the day or at night, in good weather217

or bad.218

219

3.5.6. Focus Group Discussion220

Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were conducted to generate information on the perception of221

the farmers on climate change, its related hazards, vulnerable groups of the community and222

existing coping strategies with volunteers from each of the various subject groups.223

Focus group methodology was adopted to collect qualitative descriptive data to identify224

and explore the attitudes and beliefs about livelihoods stress and circumstances. These225

focus groups were explored attitudes, beliefs, and social/cultural norms and values in a226

group-discussion format. This group setting has provided a forum that encouraged the227

participants to disclose their personal experiences with droughts, to reveal their228

attitudes and beliefs to brainstorm about climate related hazard identification and229

characterization, identification and prioritization of coping mechanisms. The FGD was audio-230

recorded and subsequently transcribed by a professional transcript writer and later for231

accuracy.232

233

3.6. Setting and participants234

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General beliefs about drought related to coping strategies by food habit change were extracted235

with several open-ended questions. Examples of questions were asked as: “Why do you feel to236

change your agricultural activities for food consumption?” “What do you think causes this237

change?” The FGD and informal dialogue approach were progress by asking more specific238

questions about their personal experiences with the daily livelihoods circumstance: “How do you239

know that you need to change your agricultural activities?” “How has drought affected you in the240

agricultural environment?” “How has it affected your daily life?” and then began to target how241

participants chose to manage their change: “How do you usually cope with this change?” “What242

strategy preferences do you have in coping with drought related change?” “What experiences243

have you had seeking strategies for coping with change?” Probes were utilized by the facilitator244

to gain a deeper understanding into individual responses.245

246

Tools such as food habit identification and characterization, food habit behavior story telling247

(time-line), food habit ranking matrix were used to acquire information on subject populations’248

perception on agree or disagree of food habit changes, priority and finally satisfaction on249

changes. The different coping strategies used by the community were also identified and250

analyzed for their effectiveness. Effectiveness was rated as satisfactory Likert Scale ranked as251

very satisfactory-satisfactory-neither satisfactory or nor dissatisfactory-not satisfactory and the252

rating number converted to percent to assess satisfaction level.253

254

The study procedure was conducted in Bangla and than transcribed verbatim and translated255

into English. Most interviews were tape-recorded. The interviews were coded and categorized256

by the researcher, himself as a native person, several time to create a system of thematic257

classification (Allen and Jensen, 1990). A process of theoretical validation was undertaken to258

ensure that the units of classification (themes, issues, concepts) was sensitive to the informants’259

narratives.260

261

3.7. Data analysis262

Data were analysed by using six activities for conducting hermeneutic phenomenological263

research as described by Brysiewicz (2007). Hermeneutic phenomenology is chosen for its264

ease of interpretation. Hermeneutic phenomenological research approach was adopted in order265

to provide an understanding of study subjects beliefs and perceptions.266

267

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Finally, these were combined in a grounded theory approach following Glaser and Strauss268

(1967). Manual line-by-line in-vivo microanalysis of the interview data was conducted. Each line269

of text was read and assigned a code utilizing the respondents' own words. The researcher270

examined the interview narratives and field notes looking for indications of categories. With271

each category, it was coded on the document, and after several read-throughs, the codes272

developed into a name that described the event or issue. Each code was then transferred into a273

separate document in which consistent categories could be again compared. For example,274

when respondents expressed their views about “nature of the agricultural activities leading to275

drought and food habit change”, the instance would be labelled “drought, agriculture and food,”276

and the content was transferred to the “food habit change as an adaptation due to drought”277

document. Subcategories were arranged when needed. Categories of data were then combined278

to create over-arching themes. This process was repeated several times, as the codes were279

needed to be re-organized and re-named after further comparisons with other events. Once the280

categories became more firm, the core themes became the central focus of the research. The281

results section of this manuscript was developed based on the categories of central focus.282

283

4. Results and discussions284

General beliefs about drought related to coping strategies by food habit change were extracted285

in summarized form as follows.286

287

Study revealed through qualitative discussion among the subject populations that some288

changes are occurred in the nature which may define as climate change. One of the respondent289

(Rs 24, male; aged 38) stated when asked about the changes that;290

291

“...it has been observed that there are clear differences in the seasons between when292

we were young and nowadays. There is a many of confusion, it gets cold in the night293

during the summer when it is not supposed to and gets hot when it wants, rains are no294

longer well... but it is not common nowadays because of hotness...seasons are295

confusing nowadays...”296

297

Another respondent (Rs 73, male; aged 62) claim;298

“At the present time rain just comes in a messy manner, whenever it wants and goes at299

anytime… sometimes it rains continuously that we cannot do any work and sometimes300

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instead of the rains reducing and stopping, it continues and falls heavily devastating our301

crops that were ready for harvesting. It is confusing to understand the rains nowadays...”302

303

The in-depth question such as “why do you feel to change your agricultural activities for food304

consumption?” a respondents (Rs 61, male; aged 56) replied due to the previous stated reason;305

306

“…therefore, we need to change our life style such as cropping pattern, food habit307

consumption, daily dietary and frequency of the daily diet.”308

309

About the changes some of the respondents (Rs 20, male, aged 38; Rs 89, male, aged 35, Rs310

102 aged 43) among many define in another way and revealed the answer when asked “what311

do you think causes this change?” replied one of them (Rs 20, male; aged 38)312

313

“This is the changes of modern world. People are practicing technological irrigation and314

disturb the nature like soil, so that water goes down as a result weather are changing.”315

316

A few number of respondents (Rs 109, male aged 30; Rs 145, male, aged 46; Rs 110, male317

aged 48 ) out of the sampled populations believed that climate change is a natural and normal318

process as reflected one of the respondents (Rs 109, male aged 30) with intellectuality from319

many;320

321

“Nature keeps changing since human civilization. It is a cycle of nature.”322

323

Another (Rs 201 male aged 51) added with him that,324

“…nature is normal but we are experiencing climate change in a short time frame.”325

326

These qualitative findings are consequently observed in the structural analyses which are327

presented in the following graphical distribution.328

329

Figure 1 shows the occupational situation of the respondent’s in the study area. Non-farm330

economic activities are found to be higher than farm economy for both of the study area. But the331

situation was different before 50 years stated a number of respondents. As the farm economic332

activities are disturbed due to drought, people are occupied themselves nowadays in non-farm333

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economy. Consequently, this has influences crop diversity and finally people are changing their334

food habits which have observed in the sampled area.335

336

Figure 1: Occupational situation of the respondent’s in the study area337

338

339

340

The consequent result has reflected on the economic activities which are shown in figure 2. In341

the Chilmari, non-farm economic activities are significantly higher than farm economy (X2 test).342

This may be due to drought. In the field survey, it was observed that people are suffering of343

water scarcity. Therefore, some of them are not interested about agricultural activities due to344

weather constraints. In that particular area, the main source of water for irrigation is ground345

water or rain water. However, due to the decreasing water level and increased temperature346

people cannot do their normal agricultural activities. In a particular time, people experience on347

water from rain and river. Due to the scarcity of water at present time, farmers have to pay more348

for agricultural activities from before. Therefore, people are switching in non-farm activities and349

the rate of non-farm economic activities are increasing. They don’t need to wait for natural350

blessing. They can earn more money to survive. If they earn good amount of money, they351

believe it may help to solve any problem such as food consumption. They have got the352

ownership on their food choice and can change their daily dietary.353

354

Figure 2: Economic activity in the study area355

05

1015202530

Bhurungamari

Chilmari

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356

357

358

Figure 3 shows the perception of the respondents on patterns of temperature change in the359

study area. Consequently figure 4 shows the patterns of rainfall in the study area. In both of the360

figure shows the changed behaviour of climate which is the indication of drought.361

362

Figure 3: Respondents' perception on patterns of temperature change in the study area363

364

Figure 4: Respondents' perception on patterns of rainfall change in the study area365

01020304050607080

0

0102030405060

357

358

359

Figure 3 shows the perception of the respondents on patterns of temperature change in the362

study area. Consequently figure 4 shows the patterns of rainfall in the study area. In both of the363

figure shows the changed behaviour of climate which is the indication of drought.364

363

Figure 3: Respondents' perception on patterns of temperature change in the study area364

365

Figure 4: Respondents' perception on patterns of rainfall change in the study area366

1 2 3

Farm economy

Non farm economy

Bhurungamari

Chilmari

358

359

360

Figure 3 shows the perception of the respondents on patterns of temperature change in the365

study area. Consequently figure 4 shows the patterns of rainfall in the study area. In both of the366

figure shows the changed behaviour of climate which is the indication of drought.367

364

Figure 3: Respondents' perception on patterns of temperature change in the study area365

366

Figure 4: Respondents' perception on patterns of rainfall change in the study area367

Bhurungamari

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366

367

Figure 5 shows the perception on drought in the study area where significant number of368

respondents is experiencing on increasing drought and most of them are aware about it.369

Similarly most of them are thinking that it affects in their daily livelihood.370

371

372

Figure 5: Respondents' perception on drought in the study area373

374

375

376

377

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Decreaserailfall

Increaserainfall

Changedrainfall

Nochange

Don’tknow

Bhurungamari

Chilmari

0102030405060708090

100

Bhurungamari

Chilmari

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Figure 6 shows the impact of drought on daily livelihood of the subject population in the study378

area according to their perception. Self-reported perception analysis was applied to assess the379

prevalence of impact of drought on daily livelihood among the subject population in the study380

area. The survey was conducted simultaneously in Chilmari and in Bhurungamari to eliminate381

the confounding effect of seasonal variation on livelihood response. Since many respondents382

were illiterate and poorly educated, the investigators explained the drought related questions.383

Self-reported perceptions were scored by using the pseudo-score system (SSC, 2001). This384

system was chosen for its ease of interpretation. The respondents were asked to prioritize the385

impact which affected them and to rank daily livelihood according to priority. A phenomenon386

which was given first priority was allocated 11, second priority was allocated 10 and third priority387

was allocated 9 and so on. The first priority was allocated 11 because the highest number of388

phenomena was found to be 11 among all the respondents. Finally the analysed summaries of389

data are presented by the graphical arrangement.390

391

It was observed that a number of daily activities are impacted where the prevalence of the392

impact was observed to be higher on cropland, food consumption and finally on food habit393

change indicates that the target populations have already been adapted with changed food394

habit. This result also reflected on the other analysis presented in figure 7.395

396

Figure 6: Respondents' perception on drought impact in the study area397

398

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Food habit change

Food consumtion

Fishery

Poultry

Livestock

Crop storage

Homestead gardening

Crop harvesting

Cropping diversity

Cropping pattern

Crop land

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Figure 7: Respondents' perception on food habit change in the study area399

400

401

Figure 8 shows the respondent’s perception on food habit change in daily dietary using Likert402

scale. This results are also indicates that most of the people are agreed then disagree to403

change their food habit which may help them to adapt in the changed climate. However, a few404

of number respondents have found with no comments and not concerned.405

406

407

Figure 8: Respondents' perception on food habit change in daily dietary in the study area408

409

0

10

20

30

40

50

Verychanged

Moderatechanged

No change

Bhurungamari

Chilmari

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

No comment

Don’t know

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Neither agree nordisagree

Agree

Strongly agree

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Figure 9 shows the final analysis of the satisfaction on food habit change among the studied410

population using satisfaction Likert scale. The analyzed data shows that most of the studied411

populations are happy and satisfied about their food habit change in both of the study area. This412

may suggest that peoples have already received the ‘food habit change’ as an adaptation413

process. However, the results show that food habit change in daily dietary can be a suitable414

adaptation process due to climate change. This may be an effective adaptation process in the415

area where local crop is affected due to climate change. But the farmers need to be habituated416

with the diversified crop and farmland.417

418

419

Figure 9: Respondents' perception on satisfaction about food habit change in the study area420

421

422

423424425426

5. Discussion427The review of literature shows that climate change will have a significant impact on428

agriculture, primarily through its effect on crop yields. While climate influences429

pragmatically all aspects of life, the impact on agricultural production and consequently430

food consumption is likely to be particularly important. Because food demand is431

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

No comment

Don’t know

Strongly dissatisfied

Dissatisfied

Neither satisfied nordissatisfied

Satisfied

Strongly satisfied

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inelastic, the reduction of agricultural production from the direct impact of drought can432

induce more increase in agricultural price and raise people’s food habit change.433

434

Researchers have pointed out that rural people are particularly vulnerable to climate435

change, especially in the case of extreme weather events such as droughts. In the dry436

regions of northern districts in Bangladesh such as Kurigram, a reduction in rainfall and437

an increase in the incidence of drought in recent years have been shown to affect local438

farming activities and farmer income.439

440

In the future, if not adopting adaptation measures such as adjusting crop varieties or441

improving farm management, it would be difficult to change food habit as an adaptation442

process. In order to improve adaptation capacities by food habit change through443

agricultural production, it is not only the role for government to undertake actions such444

as improving irrigation strategy and adoption of improved technology or farm445

management, but also necessary for farmers to make appropriate responses such as446

cropping patterns change. If these actors are able to adapt adequately, it is possible447

that Bangladesh’s agricultural sector can actually take advantage of changes in drought.448

Future agricultural crop pattern will depend on the ability of these actors (population of449

drought area) to make effective responses.450

451

In the present study a few options were examined to know the attitudes of farmers on452

crop cultivation in responding to drought regarding food habit change. Crop choice453

based on empirical analysis of the selected respondents in the study area, showed that454

farmers in drought places are more likely to produce peanut, cereals, potatoes, oil455

crops, spice crops, strawberries and maize and less likely to grow rice, wheat, jute, and456

sugar. These results indicate that they have already started to make crop planting shifts457

according to local climatic conditions. Field studies in both Upazilla have showed similar458

behavior among farmers. Ju et al. (2008) indicates that, farmers faced with drought are459

inclined to choose a crop that is more adaptive, multi-functional and high yielding, with460

better economic returns under such conditions.461

462

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However, the analysis of the respondent’s perceptions and attitudes also suggests that463

the marginal effects of climate change on irrigation choice depend on the distribution of464

seasonal rainfall and temperature. As a result, irrigation choice will vary from place to465

place.466

467

Despite the importance of improving adaptation capacity to mitigate the impacts of climate468

change on agriculture sector, the current level of knowledge on climate change and its impacts469

such as drought is not adequate to support the implementation of strategic plan on adaptations470

in the study area. The implementation of adaptation plan is constrained by the institutional,471

socio-economic, attitudinal and behavior barriers and the availability of resources and building472

adaptive capacity are particularly important for developing countries. How to identify these473

constraints or barriers is one of the key steps to facilitate the adoption or implementation of474

suitable adaptation options in the study area. In addition, understanding the effectiveness and475

cost-benefit of adaptation options are also particularly important for policy makers to design476

suitable adaptation strategies. Presently, although some scientists have applied the top-down477

approach (mainly crop model) to examine the effectiveness of some adaptation options (Xiong478

et al. 2009; Tao and Zhang 2011), the bottom-up approach to evaluate the effectiveness and479

cost-benefit of adaptation practice are still in their infancy. Until now, only a few studies (e.g.,480

Wang et al. 2010) quantitatively analyze the farmers’ adaptive responses to climate change481

(such as adjusting cropping patterns or changing irrigation choice). While Ju et al. (2008)482

analyzed farmers’ responses to drought and proposed actions of changing crops or varieties in483

Ningxia, China, most existing studies are based on macro-level and qualitative analysis (Wang484

et al. 2008; Xia et al. 2008). As Mirza and Burton (2005) pointed out, adaptation measures and485

implementations face challenges due to a lack of micro- and empirical social and economic486

analysis.487

488

According to the scholars climate change might force changes in diets around the world as489

certain staple foods become harder to produce. The present study revealed the similar results in490

the study area. This may be a suitable adaptation process for the people who are affected due491

to drought. However, future shortfalls could be balance by diversifying to crops which can thrive492

in those altered climates. Important crops like maize and wheat produce less grain at493

temperatures above 30 degrees Celsius. These temperatures are being reached on a regular494

basis and more frequently in many countries now.495

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However, growing-season temperatures are not the only factors affected by climate change.496

Rainfall patterns are changing, too. Water level is also strained in some areas, while others will497

see more floods. In the study area, droughts are more likely as the climate changes, which498

could impact crops such as rice. Climate change is also altering habitats for pests and diseases499

and for some crops, particularly crops really local value, such as potatoes, are really likely to500

increase and change in their patterns in the future. Other local verity of crops will not be spared501

either.502

503

Some crops in the northern region of Bangladesh are able to adapt. It is an emerging time to504

have to think about switching out of growing some crops entirely. For example, by later this505

decade the drought prone area will no longer be suitable for growing some crops such as millet506

(local name ‘coun’), some oil corps (local name teel, tishi, kalijira) and some rice varieties.507

Potatoes, maize, and peanuts are becoming better options. When we start thinking through all508

that, it means changes in people’s diets and these are fairly fundamental cultural changes due509

to drought. A number of studies have been outlined the predicted impacts of climate change on510

food production, and also on food safety.511

512

But not all the news from climate change is bad. Many farmers are adapted through crop513

diversity which will open up in what used to be drought area. It suggests overall, the food supply514

may not suffer in near future through food habit change as an adaptation process. But, the515

question is what will happen most to people is what occurs when local crops begin to fail? Are516

we going to deal with that by greater global interconnectivity so that people can shift out of517

agriculture but buy their food from somewhere else, or do we deal with it by major changes in518

how people are growing food, and eating?519

520

In next future, there will need to expand wide range of trade, and adapt local farms to the521

realities of climate change. It is now emerging issue to produce different crops which may522

struggle in the farmland due to climatic changes, loss of biomass and over-irrigation.523

524

Food habit change is not the complete solution. This may be an adaptation to the changes that525

are real, controllable and within their reach. This has been doing since the first human being526

started to grow his own crops. This will help a verity of uncommon food products, from farmers527

that want to optimize, safeguard and maintain their and our future existence, without having to528

worry about environmental issues.529

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There is still debate that the evolution theory of Charles Darwin no longer applies to us as530

because human beings species is on the top of the food chain. What’s forgotten in this point is531

that our food chain itself is definitely still part of Darwin’s theories on the natural selection and532

adaptation of species through the environment. Therefore, people have to adapt to climate533

change such as drought and do that by producing and promoting fresh, sustainable, cost534

effective crops that can withstand environmental changes though food habit change.535

536

6. Conclusion537

Climate-friendly food consumption seems to be challenging for farmers. Adaptation to climatic538

changes requires a combination of various individual responses at the farm-level and assumes539

that farmers have access to alternative practices and technologies available in their area. But it540

mainly involves changes in agricultural management practices in response to changes in541

climate conditions for agrarian community. Adaptation of people to different hazards vary from542

household to households and region to region based on existing support system to increase the543

resilience of affected individuals. Despite growing literatures on the impacts of drought in the544

northern part of Bangladesh due to climate change on food habit change, there are still several545

research gaps that need to be addressed by the scholars in the near future.546

547

548

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