TYPES OF FLOUR AND ITS USESWhite flour is the finely ground endosperm of the wheat kernel.All-purpose flour is white flour milled from hard wheats or a blend of hard and soft wheats. It gives the best results for many kinds of products, including some yeast breads, quick breads, cakes, cookies, pastries and noodles. All-purpose flour is usually enriched and may be bleached or unbleached. Bleaching will not affect nutrient value. Different brands will vary in performance. Protein varies from 8 to 11 percent.Bread flour is white flour that is a blend of hard, high-protein wheats and has greater gluten strength and protein content than all-purpose flour. Unbleached and in some cases conditioned with ascorbic acid, bread flour is milled primarily for commercial bakers, but is available at most grocery stores. Protein varies from 12 to 14 percent.Cake flour is fine-textured, silky flour milled from soft wheats with low protein content. It is used to make cakes, cookies, crackers, quick breads and some types of pastry. Cake flour has a greater percentage of starch and less protein, which keeps cakes and pastries tender and delicate. Protein varies from 7 to 9 percent.Self-rising flour, also referred to as phosphated flour, is a convenience product made be adding salt and leavening to all-purpose flour. It is commonly used in biscuits and quick breads, but is not recommended for yeast breads. One cup of self-rising flour contains 1-1/2 teaspoons baking powder and 1/2 teaspoon salt. Self-rising can be substituted for all-purpose flour by reducing salt and baking powder according to these proportions.Pastry flour has properties intermediate between those of all-purpose and cake flours. It is usually milled from soft wheat for pastry-making, but can be used for cookies, cakes, crackers and similar products. It differs from hard wheat flour in that it has a finer texture and lighter consistency. Protein varies from 8 to 9 percent.Semolina is the coarsely ground endosperm of durum, a hard spring wheat with a high-gluten content and golden color. It is hard, granular and resembles sugar. Semolina is usually enriched and is used to make couscous and pasta products such as spaghetti, vermicelli, macaroni and lasagna noodles. Except for some specialty products, breads are seldom made with semolina.Durum flour is finely ground semolina. It is usually enriched and used to make noodles.Whole wheat, stone-ground and graham flour can be used interchangeably; nutrient values differ minimally. Either grinding the whole-wheat kernel or recombining the white flour, germ and bran that have been separated during milling produces them. Their only differences may be in coarseness and protein content. Insoluble fiber content is higher than in white flours.Gluten flour is usually milled from spring wheat and has a high protein (40-45 percent), low-starch content. It is used primarily for diabetic breads, or mixed with other non-wheat or low-protein wheat flours to produce a stronger dough structure. SUBSTITUTING• Any recipe calling for all-purpose flour may use ½ whole-wheat flour and ½ all-purpose flour.

• If wanting the product to be 100% whole wheat, substitute 1-cup whole-wheat flour minus 1-tablespoon for every cup of all-purpose or bread flour.

• To create a lighter whole-wheat loaf, add 1-tablespoon gluten flour and 1-tablespoon liquid for each cup of whole-wheat flour.luten flour improves baking quality and produces high-protein gluten bread.TYPES OF SUGAR AND ITS USESWhite Sugar: There are many different types of granulated sugar. Some of these are used only by the food industry and professional bakers and are not available in the supermarket. The types of granulated sugars differ in crystal size. Each crystal size provides unique functional characteristics that make the sugar appropriate for a specific food’s special need.Bakers Special Sugar - The crystal size of Bakers Special is even finer than that of fruit sugar. As its name suggests, it was developed specially for the baking industry. Bakers Special is used for sugaring doughnuts and crumb texture. Castor/caster sugar Spelled both "caster" and "castor." The spelling castor sugar used to be the prevailing one, but caster sugar seems to be more usual now, perhaps because it is used by some sugar manufacturers on their packaging. See superfine sugar. UK castor/caster sugar is very finely granulated sugar (finer than U.S. granulated sugar) which allows it to dissolve almost instantly. In the United States, superfine sugar or the new Baker's sugar may be substituted. It is called "berry sugar" in British Columbia.Confectioners or powdered sugar - In Canada and Great Britain (England) it is called icing sugar and in France sucre glace. This sugar is granulated sugar ground to a smooth powder and then sifted. It contains about 3% cornstarch to prevent caking. Powdered sugar is ground into three different degrees of fineness. The confectioners sugar available in supermarkets – 10X – is the finest of the three and is used in icings, confections and whipping cream. The other two types of powdered sugar are used by industrial bakers.Coarse sugar - Also known as pearl or decorating sugar. As its name implies, the crystal size of coarse sugar is larger than that of “regular” sugar. Coarse sugar is recovered when molasses-rich, sugar syrups high in sucrose are allowed to crystallize. The large crystal size of coarse sugar makes it highly resistant to color change or inversion (natural breakdown to fructose and glucose) at cooking and baking temperatures. These characteristics are important in making fondants, confections and liquors.Date sugar - Date sugar is more a food than a sweetener. It is ground up from dehydrated dates, is high in fiber. Its use is limited by price and the fact it does not dissolve when added to liquids.Fruit sugar - Fruit sugar is slightly finer than “regular” sugar and is used in dry mixes such as gelatin and pudding desserts, and powdered drinks. Fruit sugar has a more uniform small crystal size than “regular” sugar. The uniformity of crystal size prevents separation or settling of larger crystals to the bottom of the box, an important quality in dry mixes.Granulated sugar – Also called table sugar or white sugar. This is the sugar most known to consumers, is the sugar found in every home’s sugar bowl, and most commonly used in home food preparation. It is the most common form of sugar and the type most frequently called for in recipes. Its main distinguishing characteristics are a paper-white color and fine crystals.

Sugar cubes – They are made from moist granulated sugar that is pressed into molds and then dried.Maple sugar - Granulated maple sugar (also known as stirred sugar or Indian sugar) is prepared by heating maple syrup until the temperature is 45˚ to 50˚F (25˚ to 28˚C) above the boiling point of water. It is then allowed to cool to about 200˚F (93˚C), and stirred either in the cooking vessel or in an appropriately sized container until granulation is achieved.Raw sugar – It is essentially the product at the point before the molasses is removed (what’s left after sugarcane has been processed and refined). Popular types of raw sugar include demerara sugar from Guyana and Barbados sugar, a moist, fine textured sugar. Turbinado sugar is raw sugar that has been steam cleaned to remove contaminates., leaving a light molasses flavored, tan colored sugar.Sanding sugar - Also known as coarse sugar. A large crystal sugar that is used mainly in the baking and confectionery industries as a sprinkle on top of baked goods. The large crystals reflect light and give the product a sparkling appearance.Superfine, ultra fine, or bar sugar - This sugar’s crystal size is the finest of all the types of granulated white sugar. It is ideal for delicately textured cakes and meringues, as well as for sweetening fruits and iced-drinks since it dissolves easily. In England, a sugar very similar to superfine sugar is known as caster or castor sugar, named after the type of shaker in which it is often packaged. Brown Sugar:Brown sugar (light and dark) - Brown sugar retains some of the surface molasses syrup, which imparts a characteristic pleasurable flavor. Dark brown sugar has a deeper color and stronger molasses flavor than light brown sugar. Lighter types are generally used in baking and making butterscotch, condiments and glazes. The rich, full flavor of dark brown sugar makes it good for gingerbread, mincemeat, baked beans, and other full flavored foods.Demerara sugar - Popular in England, Demerara sugar is a light brown sugar with large golden crystals, which are slightly sticky from the adhering molasses. It is often used in tea, coffee, or on top of hot cereals.Muscovado or Barbados Sugar - Muscovado sugar, a British specialty brown sugar, is very dark brown and has a particularly strong molasses flavor. The crystals are slightly coarser and stickier in texture than “regular” brown sugar.Free-flowing brown sugars - These sugars are specialty products produced by a co-crystallization process. The process yields fine, powder-like brown sugar that is less moist than “regular” brown sugar. Since it is less moist, it does not clump and is free-flowing like white sugar.Turbinado sugar - This sugar is raw sugar which has been partially processed, where only the surface molasses has been washed off. It has a blond color and mild brown sugar flavor, and is often used in tea and other beverages. Liquid Sugar:Liquid sugars - There are several types of liquid sugar. Liquid sugar (sucrose) is white granulated sugar that has been dissolved in water before it is used. Liquid sugar is ideal for products whose recipes first require sugar to be dissolved. Amber liquid sugar is darker in color and can be used in foods where brown color is desired.

Invert sugar - Sucrose can be split into its two component sugars (glucose and fructose). This process is called inversion, and the product is called invert sugar. Commercial invert sugar is a liquid product that contains equal amounts of glucose and fructose. Because fructose is sweeter than either glucose or sucrose, invert sugar is sweeter than white sugar. Commercial liquid invert sugars are prepared as different mixtures of sucrose and invert sugar. For example total invert sugar is half glucose and half fructose, while 50% invert sugar (half of the sucrose has been inverted) is one-half sucrose, one-quarter glucose and one-quarter fructose. Invert sugar is used mainly by food manufacturers to retard the crystallization of sugar and to retain moisture in the packaged food. Which particular invert sugar is used is determined by which function – retarding crystallization or retaining moisture – is required.Home cooks make invert sugar whenever a recipe calls for a sugar to be boiled gently in a mixture of water and lemon juice.EGGS AND FUNCTION (Size, weight and freshness)Egg whites are 88 percent water. Yolks nearly 50 percent. So the task of contributing liquid to batters and doughs is an easy one for eggs. As flour absorbs liquid in baking, starch granules swell to form the framework that becomes a cake, a muffin, a cookie. Eventually moisture converts to steam, a leaven so powerful that just one part liquid explodes into 1,600 parts steam. Break into a cream puff or a popover (high ratio of eggs) and their hollow centers provide dramatic testimony to steam's immense power. On a smaller scale, the steam created from the liquid in just one or two eggs works quietly in most batters and doughs to boost rising.The proteins in eggs also enable them to act as leavens but in a completely different manner. Proteins unwind and stretch to form the flexible, elastic film that encases air bubbles. When eggs are beaten, they can expand to a foam that's up to eight times their original volume. Beaten egg whites hold millions of tiny air bubbles, which lift angel-food and sponge cakes, meringues, and souffles. Even in batters containing baking powder, beaten eggs whites are an additional source of leavening.Sizes and weightThe size of an egg in a cake can make a big difference. The difference between a large and a medium egg is about half an ounce. Of course, if your recipe calls for 8 eggs it'll make a greater difference than if it calls for 1 egg. Here's a guide to use in making your decision:Extra Large egg – 73g and upLarge egg – 63g to 73g Medium egg – 53g to 63g Small – 53 g and underHow To Tell if Eggs Are Fresh

1. Fill a deep bowl or pan with enough cold tap water to cover an egg.2. Place the egg in the water.3. If the egg lies on its side on the bottom, the air cell within is small and it's very fresh.4. If the egg stands up and bobs on the bottom, the air cell is larger and it isn't quite as fresh.5. If the egg floats on the surface, it it should be discarded.6. A very fresh egg out of the shell will have an overall thick white which doesn't spread much

and the yolk will stand up.7. Grade AA eggs are the highest grade available. They cost more than other grades, but may

be a good choice because of their high quality and longer shelf life.

Tips:1. Store eggs in the refrigerator small end down in their original carton.2. Eggs which are a week or so old are easier to peel than very fresh eggs when cooked in the

shell.

FUNCTION OF SALTPreservative - Salt curing meat and other foods is the oldest method of food preservation and was was heavily used prior to refrigeration. Salt acts as a preservative by drawing out moisture from food, which is essential to microbial growth. Many pathogenic microbes are also simply unable to grow in the presence of salt.Texture Enhancer - Most people don't realize that salt plays a large roll in creating texture in food. When making yeast breads, the amount of salt greatly affects the rate of yeast fermentation and gluten formation, both of which will significantly affect the bread's final texture. Salt also has a profound effect on the gelatinization of proteins, which occurs in cheese production and many processed meats such as sausage, bologna, and ham. Large salt crystals are also often used to add a crunchy texture, as with pretzels.Flavor Enhancer - Salt acts in multiple ways to enhance the flavor of food. Not only is the "salty" flavor element one of the most desired by humans, but salt can also affect other flavor elements, such as sweet and bitter. In small amounts, salt will intensify sweetness and is therefore often sprinkled on fresh fruit or added to candies like caramel. Salt can also counteract bitter flavors in food. For this reason salt is often used to "de-bitter" cruciferous vegetables and olives.Nutrient Source - Although most Americans consume far too much sodium, it is a nutrient essential for survival. Pure table salt is comprised of approximately 40% sodium and 60% chlorine. Most table salts in the United States also have iodine added to them to prevent iodine deficiencies. Iodine deficiencies can cause disorders of the thyroid, including goiters.Binder - Because salt helps form protein gels, it can be used as a binding agent. When salt is added to foods such as sausage or other processed meats, it causes gelatinization of proteins which then hold the product together.Color Enhancer - The vibrant color of many processed meats, such as ham or hot dogs, is partially due to salt. The presence of salt helps maintain color, whether artificial or natural, and prevents it from turning grey or muddy.DAIRY PRODUCTS AND THREIR FUNCTIONSMilkMost baked goods rely on a handful of ingredients, including milk, eggs, sugar, flour and butter or oil, and each of these items plays a vital role. Milk has several roles in baking beyond just moistening a batter or dough. Milk adds structure to a batter so it doesn't collapse in the oven. Milk can also give baked goods their crisp crust. Baking a cake or bread is akin to building a house. Some ingredients, such as flour, egg whites and water, form the foundation of the baked good, giving it structure and strength. Other ingredients, including sugar, oil and egg yolks, add the aesthetics that make a baked good truly satisfying. These ingredients add tenderness, flavor and moisture to the baked good. Milk -- and in particular, whole milk -- perform both functions. The protein in milk creates a strong batter or dough, capable of rising and withstanding the rigors of baking. The sugar and fat in milk help tenderize and moisten the baked good, while adding flavor. Sugar is also the ingredient that creates a golden brown crust on baked goods.

CreamThere are two types of cream - fresh cream and long-life cream. Both types of cream have different characteristics and this article is concerned only with fresh cream varieties. Fresh cream is rich, smooth and velvety. Fresh cream has uses in many different dishes, including as a source of thickening soups, making sauces taste richer and garnishing desserts. Naturally, cream also makes a substantial ingredient in its own right for some dessert dishes such as syllabubs and ice cream.Fresh cream breaks down into the following varieties 

Double cream: contains a butterfat content of no less than 48%. The main features to look for are a cream that is rich and extremely creamy. This is a suitable pouring cream and goes well with fruit and chocolate puddings. This cream will hold its shape well. In the U.S., it is referred to as extra-heavy or manufacturer's cream and is rarely available through retail outlets. In Australia it may also be marketed as "rich cream".

Whipping/whipped cream: The minimum butterfat content is 35%. This cream is thinner than double cream. It is usually cheaper also. Once whipped, this cream goes well with cakes (topping and filling), on desserts (e.g., pavlova) and atop hot drinks (e.g., hot chocolate). In the U.S., this would be referred to as "heavy whipping" cream. If it has between 30-36% butterfat, it is referred to as "whipping" or "light whipping" cream. In Australia it may also be marketed as "thickened cream".

Single cream: The butterfat content of single cream is no less than 18%. Single cream is a pouring cream that goes well with fruit salad and as a coffee milk substitute for those who like a richer taste in their coffee. Single cream is also the best cream for adding to sauces, soups, stocks, and in casserole dishes.

Half-cream/light cream: With a butterfat content of no less than 12%, half-cream is great for people who find the taste of cream too rich. Like single cream,, half-cream works well with coffee and can also be used on fruit salads where the taste of the cream should not overwhelm the dish. Try dipping a biscuitor cookie in it for an extravagant treat.

Clotted cream: This cream contains a minimum butterfat content of 55%. It is produced by a special process; the cream is heated to 82ºC/180ºF. The crust of the cooled cream is removed and is the clotted portion of the cream. It goes perfectly withscones and jam.

Crème fraîche: This cream is a mixture of sour cream and fresh cream, and has a touch of buttermilk. Its taste is rich and slightly sour. Best used for soups, desserts and as one ingredient in Asian-inspired dipping sauces.LEAVENING AGENTS (Yeast, baking soda and baking powder)Yeast makes dough riseYeast cells thrive on simple sugars. As the sugars are metabolized, carbon dioxide and alcohol are released into the bread dough, making it rise. The essentials of any bread dough are flour, water, and of course yeast. As soon as these ingredients are stirred together, enzymes in the yeast and the flour cause large starch molecules to break down into simple sugars. The yeast metabolizes these simple sugars and exudes a liquid that releases carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol into existing air bubbles in the dough.If the dough has a strong and elastic gluten network, the carbon dioxide is held within the bubble and will begin to inflate it, just like someone blowing up bubblegum. As more and more tiny air cells fill with carbon dioxide, the dough rises and we're on the way to leavened bread.Yeast strengthens bread doughWhen you stir together flour and water, two proteins in the flour—glutenin and gliadin—grab water and each other to form a bubblegum-like, elastic mass of molecules that we call gluten. In bread making, we want to develop as much gluten as we can because it strengthens the dough and holds in gases that will make the bread rise.Once flour and water are mixed together, any further working of the dough encourages more gluten to form. Manipulating the dough in any way allows more proteins and water to find each other and link together. If you've ever made homemade pasta, you know that each time you roll the dough through the machine, the dough becomes more elastic; in other words, more gluten is developed. And with puff pastry dough, every time you fold, turn, and roll the dough, it becomes more elastic.Yeast, like kneading, helps develop the gluten network. With every burst of carbon dioxide that the yeast releases into an air bubble, protein and water molecules move about and have another chance to connect and form more gluten. In this way, a dough's rising is an almost molecule-by-molecule kneading. Next time you punch down bread dough after its first rise, notice how smooth and strong the gluten has become, in part from the rise.At this stage, most bakers stretch and tuck the dough into a round to give it a smooth, tight top that will trap the gases produced by fermentation. Then they let this very springy dough stand for 10 to 15 minutes. This lets the gluten bonds relax a little and makes the final shaping of the dough easier. This rounding and resting step isn't included in many home baking recipes, but it's a good thing to do.Baking soda (not to be confused with baking powder) is sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) that is added to baked goods to make them rise. Recipes that use baking soda as a leavening agent also contain an acidic ingredient, such as lemon juice, milk, honey or brown sugar.When you mix together the baking soda, acidic ingredient and liquid you'll get bubbles of carbon dioxide gas. Specifically, the baking soda (a base) reacts with the acid to give you carbon dioxide gas, water and salt. This works the same as the classic baking soda and vinegar volcano except instead of getting an eruption the carbon dioxide fizzes to puff up your baked goods. The reaction occurs as soon as the batter or dough is mixed, so if you wait to bake a product containing baking soda the carbon dioxide will dissipate and your recipe will fall flat. The gas

bubbles expand in the heat of the oven and rise to the top of the recipe, giving you a fluffy quick bread or light cookies.Waiting too long after mixing to bake your recipe can ruin it, but so can using old baking soda. Baking soda has a shelf life of about 18 months. You can test baking soda before adding it to a recipe to make sure it is still good.

Baking powder is used in baking to make cake batter and bread dough rise. The big advantage of baking powder over yeast is that it works instantly. Here's how the chemical reaction in baking powder works. How Baking Powder WorksBaking powder contains baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and a dry acid (cream of tartar or sodium aluminum sulfate). When liquid is added to a baking recipe, these two ingredients react to form bubbles of carbon dioxide gas.The reaction that occurs between sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and cream of tartar (KHC4H4O6) is:NaHCO3 + KHC4H4O6 → KNaC4H4O6 + H2O + CO2

Sodium bicarbonate and sodium aluminum sulfate (NaAl(SO4)2) react in a similar manner:3 NaHCO3 + NaAl(SO4)2 → Al(OH)3 + 2 Na2SO4 + 3 CO2

Using Baking Powder CorrectlyThe chemical reaction that produces the carbon dioxide bubbles occurs immediately upon adding water, milk, eggs or another water-based liquid ingredient. Because of this, it's important to cook the recipe right away, before the bubbles disappear. Also, it's important to avoid over-mixing the recipe so that you don't stir the bubbles out of the mixture.Single-Acting and Double-Acting Baking PowderYou can buy single-acting or double-acting baking powder. Single-acting baking powder makes carbon dioxide as soon as the recipe is mixed. Double-acting powder produces additional bubbles as the recipe is heated in the oven. Double-acting powder usually contains calcium acid phosphate, which releases a small amount of carbon dioxide when mixed with water and baking soda, but much more carbon dioxide when the recipe is heated. You use the same amount of single-acting and double-acting baking powder in a recipe. The only difference is when the bubbles are produced. Double-acting powder is more common and is useful for recipes that might not get cooked right away, such as cookie dough.TYPES OF CHOCOLATE (Dark, White and milk)Dark ChocolateUnsweetened ChocolateMade with solid chocolate liquor with nothing added. Too bitter to eat but lends a great chocolate flavor to brownies and cakes. It is made from a blend of fine cocoa beans that are roasted, crushed and ground between large heated rollers. Unsweetened is the purest form of chocolate. It is satin smooth, rich in cocoa butter and best for baking.

Semi-Sweet ChocolateThis is made using the same method as unsweetened chocolate, but with just a pinch of sugar, cocoa butter and vanilla to give it a rich, sweet taste. Semi-sweet is perfect for garnishes and fondues.Bittersweet ChocolateContains chocolate liquor, additional cocoa butter and sugar but with a darker more pronounced European chocolate flavor, due to the higher chocolate liquor content.Sweetened ChocolateRich and creamy with a milder chocolate flavor and a larger amount of additional cocoa butter and sugar. Often used in commercial candies or bars.Milk ChocolateMade from milk solids, cocoa butter and sugar, milk chocolate is most often eaten as a candy bar. The first milk chocolate bar was invented by Swiss candy-maker Daniel Peter in 1876 when he devised the process of adding condensed milk to chocolate.White ChocolateTechnically not even chocolate, it is made with cocoa butter, milk and sugar, but doesn't contain cocoa solids. As a result, it is creamy white in colour and mild and sweet in flavor. This is often used as a coating or decorative garnish.Remember, never substitute one chocolate for another in a recipe as this will affect the flavor and may cause the dessert to fail. For best results do not substitute chocolate chips for squares either. Chips are formulated with less cocoa butter to enable them to hold their shape. Squares are specially formulated with quality ingredients to melt easier than chocolate chips.SPICES (nutmeg, cinnamon, clove, mace, allspice)Allspice It is a dark-brown, pea-size berry. Comes from the evergreen pimento tree. Used for Breads, cakes, cookies, fruitsauce recipes.Cinnamon Bark from the Ceylon or Cassia tree Comes in buff color or dark reddish color. Use for Sweets, hot drinks, vegetables (carrots, winter squash, sweet potatoes).Clove Reddish-brown budds from the tropical evergreen clove tree. Used for spice cakes and cookies baked beans, pickling, sauces.Mace is a spice made from the waxy red covering that surrounds nutmeg seeds. The flavor is similar to that of nutmeg, with a hint of pepper and a more subtle note which can be overwhelmed by heavy-handed cooks. It is readily available in many cooking supply stores in both whole and ground form, and it has a wide range of uses from desserts to savory roast meats. The versatile flavor can make mace a useful spice to have around, especially since many recipes call for it. Used for cakes, scones, and spice cookies.  It can also be used in curries, soups, cream sauces, roasts, and a range of other ingredients. Nutmeg Oval seeds from the nutmeg tree. Dark grey color. Mace is the spice obtained from the membrane of the seeds. Used for Beverages, cakes, cookies, white sauces, sweet potatoes