7.95

Archive photographs and contemporary drawings

Allied tanks, trucks and weapons of World War I

The War Archives

WORLD WAR I often described as the Great War, or the war to end all wars was the fi rst confl ict in which technology played a signifi cant role... a role that allowed slaughter to take place on an unprecedented scale.

Following the German invasion of Belgium and north-eastern France in August 1914, the opposing sides quickly became bogged down on the Western Front. Far from it being over by Christmas, the armies dug-in for what turned out to be a very long haul, facing one another across, often narrow, strips of no-mans land. It proved impossible to make any signifi cant gains and the war became virtually static. The tactic of preceding an infantry advance by a heavy and prolonged artillery barrage proved less successful than was hoped and when the infantry were ordered to go over the top, thousands were immediately cut down by a hail of enemy fi re.

New technologies were developed in an attempt at breaking the stalemate. Toxic gas, for example, proved to be a fearsome, if unpredictable, weapon. Machine guns were deployed in huge numbers. It was hoped that the appearance of tanks on the Somme in 1916 would allow a breakthrough, but

mechanical unreliability combined with a lack of understanding as to how these new weapons should be used meant that it was not until the Battle of Cambrai in late 1917 that the potential of the tank became apparent.

But, the eff ects of technology were not just felt by those in the trenches. Armaments factories worked day and night to supply the fi ghting men with the tools for the job. In the fi rst 20 months of the war, British factories produced close to 25 million artillery shells, and the rate of ammunition production increased exponentially as the war dragged on... for example, by the end of 1918, the number of rounds of artillery ammunition produced in American plants was in excess of 20 million, with a further 10 million rounds provided to the US Army by the French and British. By the closing stages of the war, Britain, France and the USA were producing an incredible 98 million tons of high explosive a month!

Behind the lines, motor lorries and buses ferried men and ammunition to the front, whilst motor ambulances carried an endless stream of wounded in the opposite direction. The railways were used to

bring ammunition from the ports, and rail cars were adapted as mounts for huge artillery pieces and as mobile hospitals. Primitive armoured cars were developed that could provide mobility for machine guns, and motorcycle combinations were adapted for the same purpose.

There is little doubt that the technology was responsible, at least in part, for the unimaginable human and fi nancial cost of the war. The Allied armies lost fi ve million soldiers, whilst the Central Powers saw more than three million killed. The total number of military and civilian dead is estimated at 14.66 million worldwide, with a further 22 million wounded... in Britain alone, some 0.75 million men were killed and a further 1.5 million wounded. In fi nancial terms, the total cost of the war has been calculated at $186.3 billion.

...and despite a fi rm conviction that this should never happen again, it was little more than 20 years before a British Expeditionary Force (BEF) once again found itself in France!

Pat WareEditor

Collectors Archive

Mechanised WarfareAllied Vehicles and Weapons of World War I

Editor Pat Ware. Design and layout Rob Terry. Scanning assistant Lizzie Ware. Image restoration Paul Sanderson.Picture credits Special thanks to the National Library of France, Royal Armouries Collection, Royal Arsenal West Historical Society (RAWHS), Royal Artillery Archive Trust (RAHT), Tank

Museum, US Library of Congress, US National Archives, US Signal Corps, Warehouse Collection, and World War 1 Document Archive (GWPDA); other photographs as credited.Published by Kelsey Publishing Group, Cudham Tithe Barn, Berrys Hill, Cudham, Kent TN16 3AG. Telephone 01959 541444. Fax 01959 541400. www.kelsey.co.uk

Printed by William Gibbons & Sons Ltd, Willenhall, West Midlands. 2013 All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part is forbidden except with prior permission in writing from the publisher. The publisher cannot accept responsibility for errors in articles or advertisements. The views expressed

are not necessarily those of the Editor or Publisher. ISBN 978-1-909786-23-3

INTRODUCTION 3

Men of the Irish Brigade, part of Britains Fourth Army, returning from the front after taking the French village of Guillemont in September 1916. No doubt delighted that they no longer need to march, the men are riding in overloaded Wolseley CR6 3-ton trucks. (Warehouse Collection)

3 INTRODUCTION

6 ARTILLERYThe static siege war nature of combat on the Western Front meant that artillery was enormously important, and it was believed that the sheer volume of fi re could help turn the tide of battle. As the war dragged on the guns grew ever larger.

18 MACHINE GUNSThe modern machine gun was developed at the end of the 19th century, becoming one of the defi ning weapons of World War 1. By 1914, the machine gun was ubiquitous and, with an average rate of fi re of 400-600 rounds a minute, one machine-gun crew could have the same eff ect as more than 80 rifl emen.

26 PISTOLS, REVOLVERS & RIFLESWhilst the typical bolt-action rifl e of the period was generally an accurate and reliable weapon, even in the hands of a well-trained soldier, it was no match for the machine gun.

34 TRENCH MORTARSAlthough considered to be virtually obsolete at the start of the confl ict, the upward trajectory of the mortar made it ideally suited to trench warfare and, by the end of the war, both sides were deploying heavy mortars fi ring projectiles weighing 150 lb (68kg) or more.

38 TANKSTanks made their fi rst appearance on the battlefi eld in 1916 but, the lack of a proper understanding of how these new weapons should be used, combined with mechanical unreliability, meant that their impact was not as great as had been hoped.

52 WHEELED ARMOURED VEHICLESEarly armoured cars consisted of little more than a truck or heavy motorcar chassis onto which was mounted a box-shaped body, often of boilerplate, and typically armed with a light machine gun. By 1914, such vehicles were being produced in Britain, France, Belgium and the USA.

56 LORRIES & MOTORCARSMotor lorries or trucks had started to have an impact on the civilian transport industry by the turn of the century and by 1914 had also become increasingly important in military service. All-wheel drive was in its infancy, but the use of standardised or subsidy vehicles was commonplace.

72 MOTORCYCLES & BICYCLESAlthough bicycle-mounted troops continued to play a role throughout the war, most European armies had been quick to embrace the motorcycle in the role of courier or despatch rider. Motorcycle combinations were also used to carry wounded, and as a mount for machine guns.

85 HAND GRENADES First seen during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, hand grenades proved themselves invaluable in the static trench warfare of the Western Front, with literally millions produced by the opposing nations.

86 TRACTORS & STEAM ENGINESThe typical petrol-engined truck of the period produced just 35-40bhp and, in order to haul the larger guns being developed, it was necessary to employ specialised wheeled and tracked machines. Steam traction engines were also common in specialised roles.

92 AMBULANCESDuring the confl ict, some 22 million men were wounded, and the steady stream of injured being evacuated from the front created a logistical nightmare for the medical services. Thousands of motorised ambulances were constructed; nevertheless, it was also necessary to carry the wounded in converted taxis, motorcycle combinations and horse-drawn vans.

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Mechanised Warfare Allied Vehicles and Weapons of World War I

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6ARTILLERYALThough WoRLD WAR I is seen as essentially static, with the great armies of the opposing powers dug into trenches facing one another across no-mans land, it actually began as a war of movement. In the early stages, light horse-drawn field artillery, that could keep pace with infantry, was seen as crucial to tactics and it was only later, when the armies dug-in, that the need for increasing firepower led to the development of ever-larger guns.

The best field gun of the period was probably the French 75mm, in which a hydraulic recoil system allowed the barrel to move independently of the carriage. A well-trained crew was able to achieve a rate of fire of 25 rounds a minute, although the projectile was too light and the trajectory too low to be effective against well-designed trenches. The British equivalent

was the quick-fire (QF) 18-pounder, which provided the backbone of the Royal Field Artillery. With a calibre of 84mm, it fired a heavier projectile than that of the French gun, but the rate of fire was rarely more than eight rounds a minute.

As the war became increasingly static, bigger and bigger guns were developed in an attempt at breaking through barbed wire and destroying trench and dugout systems. Britains largest field gun during the conflict was the very accurate 60-pounder (127mm calibre), whilst the French produced even bigger weapons, the largest having a calibre of 240mm. however, the short-barrelled howitzer, in which a heavier projectile was fired upwards in an arc, became more and more important, and the laying down of huge artillery barrages prior to an

infantry attack became standard practice. Even though many of these larger guns

were broken-down and transported in sections, the ever-increasing weight spelled the end of horse-drawn gun teams, and led to the development of specialised tractors.

Both the French and the British also operated huge railway-mounted artillery pieces, at first using redundant naval or coastal guns on flatbed rail cars, but eventually developing purpose-made railway guns, the calibre of the largest measuring some 18in. other specialised weapons were produced, including so-called mountain guns, in which the shell was fired in a plunging trajectory, as well as

anti-aircraft guns.

6

Introduced in 1905, the British 60-pounder, seen here at full recoil, had a range of 10,300 yards (3000m). With a total weight of up to 5 tons, it was the largest gun that could be described as a field piece. (Warehouse Collection)

ARTILLERY 7ARTILLERY 7

A gun team of the 322nd Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery manning a British 6in 26cwt breech-loading howitzer at Debeli, Carso in Italy during June 1917. The wheels of the gun have been fitted with girdles to help prevent the carriage wheels from sinking into soft ground. (RAHT)

88

Above: The US 155mm gun was a version of the French 155 GPF; the original M1917 variant was purchased from France, whilst the later, much modifi ed, M1918 was manufactured locally. Maximum range was 21,350 yards (19,500m), with a maximum rate of fi re of just two rounds per minute. (US Library of Congress)

ARTILLERY 9ARTILLERY 9

French 90mm field gun, designed by Colonel Charles Ragon de Bange and produced by Schneider-Creusot. Introduced in 1877, the gun was pretty much obsolete by 1914, but the availability of large stocks of ammunition meant that the 90mm de Bange, as it was described, remained in service. The lack of a recoil mechanism slowed the rate of fire. (National Library of France)

Designed by Colonel L J F Filloux, the 155mm canon de 155 grande puissance

filloux (GPF), Modle 1917 was the standard heavy field gun of the

French Army from 1917 until the outbreak of WW2. Maximum range was 21,325 yards (19,500m). It was also produced in the USA from 1917 under the designation 155mm gun

M1917 or M1918. (Les Meloures)

Dazzle-painted 26cwt (6in calibre) breech-loading (BL) howitzer of 285th Seige Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery at Wytschaete Hospice near Ypres. The gun was introduced in 1915, and incorporated an efficient hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism; a total of 3,633 were built and these guns fired a total of more than 22 million rounds on the Western Front. (RAHT)

1010

French 320mm sliding-recoil railway gun. This method of mounting heavy artillery was developed by the French, and was widely used on the Western Front, allowing the guns to be easily moved from one position to another. The major drawback was the limited ability to traverse to either side of the track. (US Library of Congress)

A staggering weight of ordnance was fi red on the Western Front. Inevitably, not all of the shells exploded, and this German soldier was photographed with an unexploded British 15in shell. For every square yard of territory along the Western Front, from the coast to the Swiss border, it has

been estimated that one ton of ordnance fell and, even to this day, Belgian and French farmers continue to expose unexploded shells when ploughing fi elds that were part of these former

battlegrounds. (Warehouse Collection)

ARTILLERY 11ARTILLERY 11British 12in railway gun. These guns were originally constructed for naval use, with a small number converted to railway mounts for use in France. Maximum range, with a 750 lb (340kg) shell, was 18.5 miles (30km). (Warehouse Collection)

12

Above: French Lahitolle 95mm field gun. Designed by Henri Pierre de Lahitolle in 1873, and constructed entirely from steel, the 95mm was one of the first French artillery pieces to be fitted with a screw breech, although the lack of a recoil mechanism reduced the rate of fire. The gun remained in service to the end of the war. (National Library of France)Left: This photograph, which was taken at Lydd in 1907, shows an elderly British 8in gun. It demonstrates the ever-present danger of the shell exploding prematurely in the barrel of the gun, usually as a result of dirt on the shell itself. (RAHT)

Men of the 154th Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery lined-up in front of Dora, a 9.2in breech-loading (BL) howitzer Mk II. The gun was trialled in July 1914 and the first example was in France by October of that year. The Mk II was redesigned to provide a range of 14,000 yards (12,800m) and the type remained in British service until the outbreak of WW2. (RAHT)

Seen in action in a Passchendaele or Ypres farmyard in September 1916, these British 26cwt (6in) howitzers are firing from a makeshift timber platform. The crew member on the extreme left holds the shell rammer. (RAHT)

A pair of British 8in howitzers with the distinctive twin buffer-recuperator cases above the barrel. Converted by Vickers-Armstrongs and based on 6in guns that were bored out to 7.2in, the new gun was accepted into service in February 1915 with the first example fired in anger in May of that same year. Maximum range was 10,500 yards (9,608m). (RAHT)

ARTILLERY 13

Produced by Vickers-Armstrongs, the British 12in siege howitzer entered service in August 1916, with a small number remaining in use into WW2. The photograph shows the Mk IV version of 1917, which had twin shell hoists and a powered rammer. (Warehouse Collection)

Above: Canadian Army 15in siege howitzer being loaded. Produced by Coventry Ordnance Works, and described as super heavy artillery, the gun was capable of firing a massive high-explosve shell, weighing 1,450 lb (660kg), over a distance of 10,795 yards (9,877m). A chain hoist was required to aid loading. (GWPDA)

Another view of the monstrous 15in siege howitzer, which was operated by Royal Marine Artillery detachments of the Naval Brigade. Although extremely effective in action, the size and weight of the weapon, which weighed 94 tons, made it very difficult to move. (GWPDA)

British 6in howitzer with an interesting camouflage paint scheme. To avoid observation by aircraft, camouflage was widely used on the Western Front to break-up the distinctive outline of the gun. (Warehouse Collection)

British 12in howitzer, produced by the Elswick Ordnance Company, on a railway mount. The gun has been traversed to one side to demonstrate its colossal length but, in practice, could only be fired 20 of the centre line on either side. (RAHT)

Photographed in 1918, Bunty was a 12in siege howitzer belonging to the 444th Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery. The Mk IV variant of this weapon, produced in 1917, had a longer barrel and was more powerful. (RAHT)

French soldiers manning a 155mm gun and spotting for aircraft. (US Library of Congress)

The British 4.7in quick-firing (QF) field gun, complete with artillery limber. Originally designed for the Boer War, and able to fire high-explosive (HE), shrapnel and gas rounds to a range of 10,000 yards (9,150m), the QF 4.7in remained in service well into 1916, with some seeing service during the Battles of the Somme. (RAHT)

14

The story goes that you can always identify an artilleryman by his deafness... in the days before health and safety became so pervasive, artillerymen had little more than their fi ngers or pieces of lint to protect their ears as the gun was fi red. (RAHT)

9.2in British breech-loading (BL) gun on a railway mount. The 9.2in BL gun had originally been designed for naval use, before being adapted for coastal defence; in 1915, surplus guns were adapted for railway mounting. In this adaptation of the railway mount, the gun is carried on a turntable, and the wagon is designed to be lowered for increased stability when fi ring. (RAHT)

ARTILLERY 15

16

Photographed on the Menin Road in September 1917, this heavy howitzer shows the typical two- or three-colour dazzle-pattern camoufl age. (RAHT)

French siege gun being towed by a Chtillon-Panhard four-wheel drive heavy artillery tractor. The tractor was fi tted with a front-mounted horizontal winch to assist in placing and extracting the gun. (Warehouse Collection)

The venerable British 8in howitzer was pressed into service again in 1939, albeit mounted on a pneumatic-tyred carriage. It was subsequently converted to 7.2in calibre to increase range and accuracy, and fi red a new design of shell. (RAWHS)

Described as a heavy mobile howitzer, the British 9.2in was produced by Coventry Ordnance Works, with the fi rst example delivered in 1913. It was designed to break down into several loads for easy transport. (Warehouse Collection)

ARTILLERY 17

Despite the enormous size of the larger howitzers of the period, it was necessary for a gun crew to be able to manhandle a wheeled gun into position in the event that the tractor suff ered a mechanical failure. Here, as part of their training, gun crews from 19th Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery pull 8in howitzers across Taunton gun park in May/June 1915. (RAHT)

Although the mechanisation of warfare had seen horse-drawn artillery start to decline, nevertheless, the horse continued to play an important role in providing mobility for fast-moving, fast-fi ring light guns. In Britain, the 13-pounder quick-fi ring (QF) gun, fi rst manufactured in 1905, was developed especially for use by the Royal Horse Artillery; there was also an 18-pounder variant for use by fi eld artillery units. The maximum range was 5,900 yards (5,400m) fi ring high explosive or shrapnel. (Warehouse Collection)

One of just two 14in railway-mounted howitzers. Produced by Vickers-Armstrongs in 1918, using a pair of guns originally intended for Japan, these 480-ton guns were operated by 471st Siege Battery, Royal Garrison Artillery. Named Scene Shifter and Boche Buster the guns were shipped to Calais in May 1918, along with 659 high-explosive (HE) 18in rounds. Maximum range was 34,600 yards (31,660m). (RAHT)

British 6in Mk VII guns photographed in the Middle East. Although it started life during the Boer War as a converted naval gun on a makeshift wooden carriage, the breech-loading (BL) 6in gun proved so successful that a steel box trail was constructed at the Royal Arsenal and, in this form, the gun survived to the end of the war. (RAHT)

Above: Belgian gunners manning a Krupp 75mm fi eld gun. Constructed entirely from steel, and rated as one of the best breech-loading designs of the period, 90mm and 75mm Krupp guns were used by many nations during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Finding themselves on the opposite side of the confl ict to the manufacturer, the Belgian Army tried, unsuccessfully, to adapt French 75mm ammunition for use in the Krupps gun. (Warehouse Collection)

18

MACHINE GUNSTHErE HAd bEEN ExpErIMENTS with multi-barrelled weapons offering a high cyclic rate of fire since the middle years of the 18th century. The belgian Montigny mitrailleuse, for example, was produced in both 25- and 37-barrel versions and was capable of firing up to 300 rounds a minute, whilst in its later versions, the American Gatling gun, with 10 rotating barrels, could fire up to 1,000 rounds a minute. Although these were not strictly machine guns by modern standards, since the barrels had to be manually rotated, nevertheless, the multi-barrelled weapons demonstrated the devastating effects of a hail of lead on advancing infantry.

It was Hiram Maxim who worked out how the mechanical recoil energy of firing

one round could be used to load and fire the next, and he patented an automatic loading system in 1882, producing the first practical weapon two years later. Other gun makers copied Maxims concept with varying degrees of success and reliability, but others, such as the French Hotchkiss gun, used the gases ejected by one round to load the next.

by 1914, the machine gun was ubiquitous and, with an average rate of fire of 400-600 rounds a minute, one machine-gun crew could have the same effect as more than 80 riflemen. Whilst the machine gun was responsible in large part, both for the stalemate that characterised the Western Front, and for the industrial-scale slaughter that occurred, it also created

logistical problems, with machine-gun teams requiring two or three men to fire the gun, and perhaps three or four more to carry the colossal amounts of ammunition that were required.

britains standard heavy machine gun was the 0.303in water-cooled Vickers, whilst the French favoured the 8mm Saint-Etienne or Hotchkiss, the US Army also deploying the latter, as well as the 0.30in browning.

Air-cooled light machine guns were also developed. At less than a quarter of the weight of the heavy weapons, these weapons could be hand-held whilst firing, enabling machine gunners to keep station with attacking infantrymen.

Designed by Colonel Isaac Newton Lewis and initially offered to the US Army, the eponymous Lewis light machine gun was produced in Belgium before production was transferred to the Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) in 1914. (Tank Museum)

MACHINE GUNS 2311

American infantrymen were often called Doughboys, but these men would have been nicknamed Shoshos, a name derived the French Chauchat 8mm light machine gun with which they are equipped. The poorly-designed Chauchat proved to be a less than reliable weapon. (Warehouse Collection)

Above: Men and machine gun cars of the 25th County of London Cyclist Battalion, London Regiment, with their Vickers heavy machine guns. The car nearest to the camera is a Unic. Based at home, the London Cyclist Battalion patrolled the coast of England to watch for a German invasion; in 1916, the Machine Gun Section of the Battalion was drafted to the Machine Gun Corps. (Warehouse Collection)

The Vickers heavy machine gun was a recoil-operated weapon, similar in design to the earlier Maxim, and designed to fire belt-fed ammunition at a maximum rate of 500 rounds a minute. Some guns had a fluted water jacket, others were plain, but the water would boil after around 3,000 rounds had been fired... some water could be saved if a hose was fitted to the condenser tube and placed into a half-filled can of water. The life of the interchangeable barrel was around 10,000 rounds. (Royal Armouries)

US infantrymen with the Hotchkiss Mk 1 0.303in light machine gun. The gun was also widely used as a light weapon for armoured vehicles, and remained in British service well into WW2. (Warehouse Collection)

Even in the trenches, normal life had to continue as much as possible. Here, one man enjoys his morning shave perched on the side of the trench, whilst his colleague scans the horizon with a Lewis gas-operated light machine gun. The Lewis was also much favoured as a weapon for aircraft use being clamped to the side of the cockpit and fired by the observer. (Tank Museum)

Above: Operated by recoil forces, the belt-fed Browning M1917 water-cooled heavy machine gun was mechanically straightforward, easy to operate and, above all, reliable. The maximum rate of fire of was 500-600 rounds a minute, using the US Armys 0.30in cartridge; maximum range was 2,750 yards (2,500m). (Royal Armouries)

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The Hotchkiss Mk 1 M1909 light machine gun was based on the French Benet-Mercie design. It was built in both France and Britain, in the former case firing the French 8mm Lebel cartridge, whilst in the case of guns used in Britain, adapted for the standard British 0.303in round. The gun was gas operated, and fired 30 rounds from a strip magazine at a rate of 500 rounds per minute.

design. It was built in both France and Britain, in the former case firing the French 8mm Lebel cartridge, whilst in the case of guns used in Britain, adapted for the standard British 0.303in round. The gun was gas operated, and fired 30 rounds from a strip magazine at a rate of 500 rounds per minute. (Royal Armouries)

24

Above: The Hotchkiss Modle 1914 gas-operated heavy machine gun was used in large numbers by the French Army throughout the conflict. The maximum rate of fire was 500 rounds per minute from a strip magazine; the design of the breech, which included five cooling discs, helped to ensure that the gun did not overheat during continuous firing. The weapon was also used by the US Army in France from 1918. (Royal Armouries) Left: The Saint-Etienne Modle 1907 was a heavy gas-operated air-cooled machine gun firing the standard French 8mm Lebel rifle round at a cyclic rate of 400-500 rounds a minute, from a 30-round strip magazine. Although similar in design to the Hotchkiss, the gas recoil mechanism on the Saint-Etienne was considerably more complex, and hence less reliable. (Royal Armouries)

The Browning M1917 heavy machine gun was designed by the American industrialist Valmore Allen Browning, who is seen here demonstrating the weapon. Although generally water-cooled, an air-cooled version was also produced for use in aircraft and armoured fighting vehicles. The gun remained in US Army service into the early 1960s. (Warehouse Collection)

Above: Never really successful due to its flimsy construction, the Chauchat Modle 1915 was, nevertheless, used by both French and US forces. The automatic action was achieved by allowing both the barrel and bolt to recoil together, and the maximum rate of fire was 250 rounds per minute, using the 8mm Lebel round, but the resulting vibration made it difficult to keep the gun on target. The semi-circular magazine held 20 rounds. (Royal Armouries)

Although classified as a light machine gun, the gas-operated 0.30in calibre Browning automatic rifle (BAR) was both light in weight and easy to handle and could be used for the same role as a standard rifle. The gun was first demonstrated in February 1917, with production getting underway in early 1918. (Royal Armouries)

As with this British Vickers machine gun, most such weapons could be fired from a heavy tripod, with the gunner in a seated position, which must have quickly become tiring as well as leaving the man feeling somewhat exposed. Note the second man, whose role it is to ensure that the belt feeds smoothly into the gun; the gun crew consisted of a total of six to eight men, with the others responsible for carrying the gun, ammunition and spare parts. (Tank Museum)

MACHINE GUNS 25

Using a 47-round drum magazine, the Lewis light machine gun had a maximum cyclic rate of 550 rounds per minute, with spent gases used to operate the mechanism. The barrel was air-cooled by means of radial fi ns enclosed by a lightweight steel protective casing. The gun was constructed in Britain by Birmingham Small Arms (BSA) and Savage Arms throughout the confl ict, the former chambered for 0.303in British rounds, the latter for Springfi eld 30-06 cartridges, which, inevitably, resulted in logistical problems. (Royal Armouries)

French troops struggling to position the 57 lb (26kg) weight of the Saint-Etienne Modle 1907 heavy machine gun into its tripod. The gun was designed by an Austrian, Baron von Odolek, and was manufactured by the French Hotchkiss company, with some 40,000 examples produced between 1908 and late 1917. (US Library of Congress)

Photographed in a front-line trench in the Balkans, these two, rather solemn looking, British infantrymen are armed with a Lewis light machine gun. The man furthest from the camera is using a periscope to look over the trench wall. Although designed only to fi re on automatic, with care, it was possible to fi re two closely-spaced shots by gently squeezing the trigger. (Royal Armouries)

US infantrymen fi ring the M1918 Browning automatic rifl e (BAR) during a demonstration at the fi ring ranges at Congress Heights, Washington. The BAR was a lightweight gas-operated machine gun capable of fi ring 350 rounds per minute from a 20-round magazine. The weapon was very successful, and was used by most of the Allies. (Warehouse Collection)

Vickers machine gun crew wearing typical gas masks of the period; the mask includes a rubber-tipped tube that is held between the teeth, and which allows the wearer to breathe out. Both sides used chemical agents during the confl ict, with the German Army fi rst using gas at Neuve Chapelle in October 1914. The gas was either included in artillery shells or released in vapour form from canisters, and types of agent used included tear gas, chlorine, mustard gas, and phosgene. (Warehouse Collection)

26

PISTOLS, REVOLVERS & RIFLESBOLT-acTIOn RIFLES wERE PROducEd in their millions during the conflict, and virtually every fighting man was trained to use such a weapon, being expected to keep it close at all times and to maintain it in serviceable condition. Sidearms, in the form of pistols and revolvers, were carried by every officer, as well as by military police, airmen, tank crews and tunnellers. The uS army also favoured the use of a pump-action shotgun in some situations, particularly in what was described as trench clearing.

Relatively long-barrelled, the typical rifle of the period had a detachable magazine holding around eight to 10 shots. There were distinct similarities in design between the weapons of the various combatants, although different calibres were used, with

the British and americans favouring 0.303in and 0.30in, respectively, and the French opting for 8mm. a simple aperture sight permitted accurate fire on targets out to about 600 yards (550m), although the theoretical maximum range of most weapons was generally more like 2,800 yards (2,560m); special sniper weapons were produced that were fitted with telescopic sights. Loading was achieved by a pull-type bolt action and, whilst most armies would classify a rate of eight to 12 rounds a minute as rapid fire, the design of the British short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE) of the period allowed a well-trained rifleman to achieve up to 15 rounds a minute.

despite being rarely used in actual combat, most rifles were also designed to

mount a detachable bayonet for use in close-quarters fighting.

although lacking the accuracy of the rifle, and often susceptible to jamming when exposed to mud and dirt, pistols and revolvers were effective in confined spaces. Typical of these was the standard British service revolver of the conflict, the webley Mk V or Mk VI, an 0.455in calibre weapon with a chamber holding six rounds. The French, similarly, favoured a revolver, in this case the 8mm Saint-Etienne Modle 1892, whilst the uS army opted for the self-loading colt M1911 semi-automatic pistol, which featured a seven-round magazine slotted into the grip. The colt was also re-chambered for an 0.455in round, and was used by the British services.

Chambered for an 0.455in round, and described as Pistol, revolver, number I, Mk VI, the Webley & Scott Mk VI was the companys last standard service weapon for the British Army. The design originated with the Mk I of 1887, with the Mk VI introduced in 1915. The drawing shows the general arrangement and construction of the weapon, with an inset detail showing the sighting method for a 2in (51mm) bulls-eye at 20 yards (18m) range. (Royal Armouries)

PISTOLS, REVOLVERS & RIFLES 27

Additional detail for the barrel for the Webley Pistol, revolver, number I, Mk VI. Thousands of these guns were produced, and the gun provided sterling service throughout the war, officially ending its career in 1935, when it was replaced by a similar 0.38in pistol manufactured by Enfield. It is interesting to note that, although the gun was officially withdrawn in 1939 and declared obsolete in 1944, the drawings were maintained by the Small Arms Inspectorate Department (SAID) until 1947-48, apparently for the Royal Artillery. (Royal Armouries)

Above: Firing the standard 8mm Lebel rifle round, the French bolt-action Berthier Modle 1916 was a modification of the Berthier Modle 1890 cavalry rifle on which the original three-round magazine had been replaced by a five-round design. After the war, the gun was redesigned to accept a 7.5mm rimless cartridge. (Royal Armouries)

Above: The 0.45in calibre Smith & Wesson M1917 service revolver was a simple, robust weapon that was widely used by the US Army from 1917 onwards. Although it was deliberately designed to fire the same type of rimless ammunition as the standard issue Colt of the period, a version was also manufactured for the British Army firing 0.455in rounds. (Royal Armouries)

Above: Introduced in 1915, the Webley & Scott Mk VI revolver was used by British troops throughout the conflict. Firing six 0.455in rounds, the gun was sufficiently reliable to withstand the inevitable mud and dust of the trenches; there was even a short bayonet available, as well as a clip-on butt. (RAMA)

28

The standard US Army rifl e was the Springfi eld M1903, a typical Mauser style bolt-action weapon fi ring fi ve rounds of 0.30in calibre ammunition from a box magazine. It was introduced into service in 1906 and, despite the small magazine, proved popular and reliable. (Warehouse Collection)

Cut-away view showing the bolt action (uncocked) and 10-round box magazine of the short magazine Lee Enfi eld (SMLE). The push and rotate bolt action is typical of rifl es of the period. (Warehouse Collection)

PISTOLS, REVOLVERS & RIFLES 29

Photographs of fighting men that were intended for domestic consumption rarely showed the awful reality of life at the front line and this postcard style view is no exception. The two smiling men on the left are cleaning their bayonets, whilst the man in the entrance to the tent and the man at the right-hand end are holding the British Armys standard short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE) Mk III rifles. (Warehouse Collection)

Short magazine Lee Enfield with the bolt pulled back ready for loading. The cartidge is dropped into place, and then pushed forward into the firing position, and locked in place, by the action of the bolt. (Warehouse Collection)

30

Above: Designed originally for target shooting, the Canadian Ross Mk III rifle featured an unusual straight-pull bolt action, the design of which, unfortunately, led to unreliability in the mud of the trenches. Firing 0.303in rounds from a five-round box magazine, the rifle was issued to men of the Canadian Army from 1914 but it was eventually replaced by the more reliable short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE). (Royal Armouries)

Right: Designed to fire 9mm Browning long cartridge ammunition, held in a seven-round box magazine, the Webley & Scott Model 1909 semi-automatic pistol is a good example of the type of civilian weapon that might have been purchased privately and found its way to the trenches. The gun was submitted to the War Office for trials, but was not officially purchased; production ceased in 1914 but the gun evolved into the Webley 0.455in semi-automatic pistol that was adopted as standard by the Royal Navy. (Royal Armouries)

Right: Colts M1909 new service revolver was produced for the British Army to accept an Eley 0.455in cartridge rather than the standard 0.45in round; the barrel bears the legend NEW SERVICE .455 ELEY. As well as being widely used by the US Army, the weapon was popular with British officers, and around 60,000 of these guns were supplied to British Empire and Canadian forces. The basic design of the new service revolver remained in production from 1898 to 1940. (Royal Armouries)

Above: Colt M1905 self-loading pistol designed for 0.45in rimless smokeless cartridges. Firing seven rounds from a box magazine, the M1905 was similar to original M1902, but as well as being chambered for an 0.45in round rather than the original 0.38in, had a barrel length of 4.875in (124mm). (Royal Armouries)

Above: The US Army favoured shotguns for close-quarters trench-clearing work and, for this reason, this pump-action Winchester model 1897, designed by John Browning, was often described simply as the trench gun. Firing 12-gauge cartridges from a five-cartridge tubular chamber, military versions included a perforated steel heat shield over the barrel to prevent the user coming into contact with an over-heated barrel, and a bayonet lug to accept the US Armys M1917 bayonet. (Royal Armouries

PISTOLS, REVOLVERS & RIFLES 31

Although clearly posed, this trench photograph shows men of The Kings Liverpool Regiment with their short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE) rifles and a Lewis light machine gun. Note the bayonet scabbards worn by two of the men. (Warehouse Collection)

Right: Saint-Etienne Chamelot-Delvigne ordnance revolver Modle 1873. Firing 11mm rounds at a maximum rate of 20-30 rounds a minute, it was the first double-action revolver used by the French Army. Almost 350,000 examples were manufactured before production ceased in 1887, but it remained in widespread use throughout the war, being also adopted by the Belgian Army. (Royal Armouries)

Left: Although more usually associated with the German Army, the Mauser M96 self-loading pistol was also used by the Belgian Army. Designed for use with 7.63mm ammunition, the gun was also rechambered for a 9mm Parabellum cartridge, with examples that had been converted marked with a large red 9 on the butt stock. A clip-on shoulder stock/holster was available that allowed the gun to be handled like a rifle making the weapon ideal for trench clearing. (Royal Armouries)

32

Young soldier of the Kings Own Scottish Borderers standing nervously at ease with his 0.303in short magazine Lee Enfield (SMLE) with bayonet fixed; the 18in long sword bayonet was designed to allow the SMLE to be used in close quarters trench fighting, although, in truth, bayonets were rarely used, and bayonet wounds accounted for less than 1% of British Army injuries during the conflict. (Warehouse Collection)

3434

Huge pile of British 2in medium mortars, without their launch sticks, photographed on the Somme during 1916. Nicknamed the toff ee apple or plum pudding mortar, the projectile weighed 105 lb (47.75kg) and was launched by inserting the 22in (560mm) long stick into the fi ring tube. A crew of fi ve was required, but clearly the situation photographed here does not call for any urgency because the soldiers are playing cards on a copy of The Daily Mail newspaper! (Warehouse Collection)

MORTARS 35

TRENCH MORTARSIN 1914, THE SHORTBARRELLED mortar was seen as obsolete, and was deployed only by the Germans, who described them as Minewerfer. However, despite the weapons low velocity and relatively short range, the typical high trajectory of the projectile, plus its ability to deliver high explosive, shrapnel, smoke and gas, meant that it was very eff ective against trench positions. Better still, it could be fi red from within the safety of the attackers trench, and, from 1915 onwards, both sides started to develop diff erent types of mortar, eventually producing light, medium and heavy types.

Mortars were commonly deployed against enemy trenches positions, machine-gun posts, or suspected sniper nests, but a serious disadvantage was the fact that the fi ring position was easily detected. This meant that any mortar position would tend to come under enemy artillery fi re, and, for this reason, mortars were very unpopular when sited in infantry trenches.

Caught napping by the need for mortars, the British Army initially got hold of a number of ancient century-old Napoleonic mortars fi ring spherical projectiles using black powder charges. New designs started

to appear in 1915 and, by the following year, the standard British light mortar was the 3in Stokes, which could be operated at a rate of 25-30 rounds a minute, fi ring a rocket-shaped projectile. Subsequent developments saw the appearance of 4in and 6in calibre versions. A heavy mortar was produced that fi red a projectile weighing 150 lb (68kg) to a distance of 1,000 yards (915m). The Vickers 2in toff ee apple or plum pudding mortar consisted of a solid shaft on which was mounted a spherical bomb designed to land on its nose and explode on impact, whilst the 9.45in muzzle-loading mortar, which became the standard British heavy mortar from Autumn 1916 onwards, was nicknamed the fl ying pig or the blind pig.

Meanwhile, the French produced a range of mortars with calibres from 50mm up to 280mm, including pneumatic types. The 240mm trench mortar, for example, was developed by the French company Batignolles and fi rst saw action in 1915. It was produced in both long- and short-barrelled form, the former fi ring a 192 lb (87kg) bomb to a range of 1,125 yards (1,030m); this version was also copied by the US Army.

The 9.45in fl ying pig or blind pig was a British muzzle-loading heavy mortar used from Autumn 1916 onwards. Based on the French Mortier de 240mm, produced by the Dumezil-Batignolles Company, it was manufactured in Britain under licence. Unlike most mortars, which were operated by Sappers, the fl ying pig was fi red by Royal Garrison Artillery (RGA) crews. (GWPDA)

Period postcard showing Australian crews fi ring the French Batignolles 240mm heavy mortar. For transport, the weapon was dismantled and carried in separate loads, consisting of the barrel, base, loading chute, and carriage; the ammunition was carried separately. (Warehouse Collection)

36

The Newton 6in mortar was the standard British weapon of this type from 1917 onwards. It consisted of a 57in (1,448mm) long smooth-bore steel barrel with a firing pin at the closed base, onto which the mortar was dropped; the barrel was held in position by steel tension wires that also allowed the weapon to be aimed. The 52 lb (23.5kg) high-explosive (HE) charge was filled with Amatol, Ammonal or Sabulite and had a range of just under 2,000 yards (1,830m). (Warehouse Collection)

The French 280mm breech-loading heavy mortar was a siege howitzer built by the Schneider company and was used both by France and Imperial Russia. A crew of 12 men was required to manoeuvre the 450 lb (250kg) shells onto a rail-mounted ammunition trolley using the on-board crane; lowering the barrel permitted the trolley to be presented to the breech for reloading. A pit, dug under the breech, allowed the barrel to reach a maximum 60 elevation, whilst the carriage allowed 20 of traverse either side of the centre-line. Recoil forces were controlled by hydro-pneumatic cylinders. (Warehouse Collection)

French soldiers man-handling rounds for the 58mm mortar. The rounds were fired from a short adjustable barrel mounted on a heavy baseplate. The fact that these rounds are fitted with six fins indicates that they are either the light LS round, containing 12 lb (5.53kg) of explosive, or the heavy DS round, which held 22 lb (10kg) of explosive; there was also a medium ALS round which had three fins and held 14 lb (6.4kg) of explosive. (Warehouse Collection)

MORTARS 37

Designed by the Paris-based Batignolles company and introduced in 1915, the French 240mm mortar was produced in both long- and short-barrelled versions, firing a 180 lb (81kg) high-explosive charge. A well-trained crew of seven could fire one round every six minutes. The photograph shows the weapon in use with the US Army. (Warehouse Collection)

Designed by Captain William Howard Livens, of the Royal Engineers in 1916, the Livens projector was a mortar-like chemical weapon that lobbed large drums filled with 30 lb (13.6kg) of either toxic gas, such as phosgene, or inflammable liquid, a distance of around 1,650 yards (1,000kg). Around 140,000 of these weapons were constructed during the war and were used by both British and US forces. (Warehouse Collection)

Period picture postcard showing the eight-man crew of the Belgian 222mm mortar in action in Flanders. (Warehouse Collection)

486th Company, Army Service Corps photographed with a 3in Stokes mortar in Salonika in 1915. (RAHT)

Although their first appearance apparently struck terror into the enemy, unfortunately, the British tanks were far from unstoppable, and did not bring about the hoped-for break-through. This Mk V male appears undamaged, but has clearly come to grief in a trench where it, and the cameraman, have become an object of curiosity for the gathered infantrymen. (Warehouse Collection)

Its difficult to work out what is going on here but, presumably, it is some sort of exercise. The tank is a Mk V* female, effectively a Mk V that has been lengthened by having additional panels inserted between the sponson and the transmission to improve trench-crossing ability. The US Army 301st Tank Battalion, who were under British control, deployed these tanks in France in 1918. The standard complement of weapons was seven Hotchkiss machine guns. (Warehouse Collection)

42

TANKSAlThough TANKS did NoT make their first appearance on the battlefield until 1916, experiments into producing iron-clad landships had been going on since the turn of the century. improvised armoured cars had started to appear during the early stages of the war, with boilerplate providing a measure of protection against small arms and machine-gun fire, but their usefulness was hampered by a lack of mobility. Winston Churchill, then First lord of the Admiralty, established the landship Committee to investigate the development of a viable cross-country armoured vehicle.

during october 1914, a specification for the first tanks was finalised the name resulting from the cover story that these were water carriers for Mesopotamia and, in

September 1915, William Foster & Company constructed what became known as little Willie. Consisting of a box-like hull, which was capable of mounting guns, the machine was propelled by the continuous caterpillar crawler track devised by the American Benjamin holt. By the beginning of 1916, little Willie had been followed by a second prototype, Mother or Big Willie, and Fosters were contracted to build 25 production examples of the tank, Mk i.

Tanks saw their first, not entirely successful, action on the Somme battlefield on 15 September 1916. The design evolved rapidly and, by 1918, the Mk V had appeared, the first tank capable of being driven by one man. during the same year, the much improved Mk Viii was being constructed to a

standardised design in Britain and the uSA. lighter and faster medium tanks had

started to appear at the beginning of 1917, and the first of these, the twin-engined medium, Mk A or Whippet went into action in March 1918. This was followed by the Mk B, and then the Mk C, or hornet, of 1917, which remained in British service until about 1923.

The French produced their first tanks, the Schneider Char dAssaut 1 (CA 1) and the Char St Chamond during 1916, although the most significant French tank design of the war was the Renault Char Canon FT-17, being the first machine to incorporate a revolving turret and track suspension. This design was also adopted by the uS Army as the M1917.

Although it is the British who are generally credited with inventing the tank, it would be more accurate to say that, by fitting the main gun in a rotating turret, it was Renault who came up with the idea of the modern tank. Designed in 1916, the Renault FT-17 consisted of a tapered armoured box, of riveted construction, with a four-cylinder petrol engine mounted in the rear; the rotating turret could be traversed manually through a full 360 and carried a 7.92mm Hotchkiss machine gun. The tank, which was operated by a crew of two, proved to have excellent cross-country abilities. (Warehouse Collection)

tanks 43

The worlds first tracked and armoured vehicle was designed by Lieutenant W G Wilson of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) and William Tritton of William Foster & Company. It consisted of a Daimler six-cylinder engine and transmission, mounted in what was little more than a riveted steel box, riding on un-sprung Bullock Creeping Grip tracks imported from the USA. The tracks proved to be unsatisfactory and the machine was eventually rebuilt in the form dubbed Little Willie, with new tracks designed by William Tritton. The turret was a dummy and there were no armaments, but Little Willie was the progenitor of the British heavy tank. (Warehouse Collection)

British heavy tanks Mks I to IV were powered by the same type of Daimler six-cylinder sleeve-valve petrol engine that had been used in the Foster-Daimler heavy artillery tractor, producing 105bhp at a maximum speed of 1,000rpm. The engine was coupled to a two-speed gearbox, and differential, derived from the same source. (Warehouse Collection)

44

Above: Following the entry of the USA into the war in 1917, there was much discussion regarding the possibilities of joint production of tanks. The engines and transmission were to come from the USA, with Britain supplying the hull and weapons. Assembly was intended to take place in France, and a total of 1,500 were to be built during 1918. The first example was constructed in Britain in July 1918 and shipped to the USA to have the engine and transmission fitted. The vehicle was described as the Liberty tank, and was designated Mk VIII... the extended length was designed to improve trench-crossing performance to 15ft (4.6m). (Warehouse Collection) Left: View inside the left-hand sponson of a British Mk V tank showing the breech of the 6-pounder gun. Conditions inside the tank were generally appalling, with a mixture of fumes from the guns, and from the exhaust and fuel systems, combining with a background of heat and mechanical clatter. To protect against bullet splash, crews wore masks of leather and chain-mail. (Warehouse Collection)

Just 107 Mk VIII Liberty tanks were built during 1918 and, after the Armistice all outstanding orders for tanks were cancelled and production ceased. These Mk VIIIs are parked-up awaiting the scrapmans torch. (Warehouse Collection)

British heavy tank being used as an artillery tractor in heavy mud. (Warehouse Collection)

Mk I female tank, complete with the rear stabiliser wheels that were supposed to aid trench crossing. Of the first 100 ordered, 25 were constructed by William Foster, with the remainder coming from the Metropolitan Carriage, Wagon and Finance Company of Wednesbury. The Heavy Section, Machine Gun Corps was established to operate the tanks, which saw their first action on the Somme on 15 September 1916, when this tank was photographed. (Warehouse Collection)

tanks 45

The French Schneider Char dAssaut 1 (CA1) was described as an assault tank, and was armed with one 75mm gun in a side mount, and two 8mm machine guns. The vehicle was powered by a Schneider petrol engine, and driven via coil-sprung Holt type tracks, with steering effected by clutches and brakes on the half-shafts. The maximum 11.5mm thick armour was easily penetrated by German tungsten-carbide cored K rounds and, despite remaining in service throughout the conflict, the vehicle was never considered a success. (Warehouse Collection)

Renault FT-17 tanks being used in the engineers role. The tank to the right has been fitted with a simple jib and is being used to remove or replace a power pack and transmission. The photograph dates from the post-war period and it is not known whether FT-17s were used in this way during the conflict. (Warehouse Collection)

After the battle! This disabled British heavy tank has clearly been captured and operated by the German Army, and has subsequently been knocked-out by its former owners. The

photograph was taken in the 1920s. (Warehouse Collection)

Battle-scarred British heavy tank that has come under shell fire, probably as a result of becoming entangled in barbed wire. (Warehouse Collection)

It is not clear whether this is a wooden mock-up constructed to assist the design process, or whether it is a decoy tank designed to fool the enemy into believing that more tanks were available than was really the case. Dummies were certainly deployed during the conflict, although they were more frequently constructed from wood and hessian, but the fact that the photograph, which is dated December 1918, is rubber stamped with the legend Army Camouflage Officer, First Army would suggest that it is a decoy. (Warehouse Collection)

46

Left: The US-built Ford 3-ton M1918 tank was based on the Renault FT-17. This example has failed to climb a bank, but the view shows the skids at the rear that were designed to improve trench-crossing performance. Operated by a crew of two, and powered by a pair of Model T engines that allowed the vehicle to achieve a top speed of 8mph (13km/h), it was planned that 15,000 would be constructed, but the contract was cancelled after the Armistice, with just 15 built. The only weapon was an 0.30in machine gun. (Warehouse Collection)

Above: This restored Renault FT-17, lacking its armament, is an exhibit at the French Muse des Blinds (www.museedesblindes.fr) at Saumur in the Loire Valley. (Warehouse Collection)

Below: Cut-away view of the Mk VIII Liberty tank showing the fighting compartment towards the front and the rear-mounted Ricardo (or Liberty) petrol engine and transmission. Note the intermediate drive to the rear sprockets by means of roller chains. (Warehouse Collection)

Excellent side elevation of the Renault FT-17, showing the riveted construction and the compact size of the vehicle. Note the coil-spring suspension, the trench-crossing skids and the small rounded turret with its distinctive domed top. (Warehouse Collection)

TANKS 47

Alongside the Schneider Char dAssaut 1 (CA1), the French Army had a second assault tank, this time constructed by St Chamond. Like the Schneider, the St Chamond tank ran on modified Holt sprung tracks, but the Panhard petrol engine was coupled to an electrical generator that, in turn, powered an electric motor for each drive sprocket. The main gun was a 75mm canon in a fixed mount, together with four 8mm Hotchkiss machine guns. Operated by an eight-man crew, the first examples were delivered in 1916, but it quickly became clear that the design was deeply flawed. (Warehouse Collection)

Front view of the French St Chamond assault tank showing the fixed main gun, and the machine gun in the pointed nose of the vehicle. Three more Hotchkiss 8mm machine guns were carried, one each side, and one at the rear. (GWPDA)

In April 1916, the Metropolitan Carriage, Wagon and Finance Company produced a prototype for what was described as gun carrier, Mk I or what these days would be called a self-propelled gun. Armed with a 60-pounder gun or 6in howitzer, the design was based on the running gear of the heavy tank, Mk I. Out of a production total of 50, some 48 were sent to France in July 1917 where their mobility apparently caused some confusion with the enemy in what was essentially a static artillery campaign. (Warehouse Collection)

The diminutive size of the Renault FT-17 is apparent in this picture postcard view which shows the tank advancing at walking pace. Top speed of the Renault was almost 5mph (7.7km/h). and the range, on hard surfaces, was 21 miles (35km). The tail skids, clearly visible at the rear, were removable. (Warehouse Collection)

Below: Renault FT-17 cresting a rise. With a combat weight of just 15,000 lb (6,800kg), the FT-17 offered excellent cross-country performance and was capable of tackling gradients of 50%, but, like most tanks, the floor, which was only 6mm thick, was the most vulnerable area. (Warehouse Collection)

French Renault FT-17 tanks parading down the Champs Elysees on Bastille Day, 14 July 1919. (Warehouse Collection)

48

Right: In March 1917, five British Mk II heavy tanks were used as development mules to try out various transmission systems. Eschewing the standard transmission and chain drive, the engine of the tank shown here drives the tracks through a Williams-Janney hydraulic system, using pumps with adjustable swash plates to alter the speed. Three radiators were required, one from a Ford Model T, together with a pair from Daimler, to maintain the transmission oil at a reasonable temperature. (Warehouse Collection)

So-called trophy tanks photographed during the Russian Civil War in 1920 when the reds (Bolsheviks) were struggling with the whites (anti-Bolsheviks). The vehicle nearest the camera appears to be a British heavy tank, Mk V, female. (Warehouse Collection)

Left: Tanks captured the imagination of the public wherever they appeared and many were used as means of encouraging the public to make donations to the war effort. This example, a British Mk IV male, is attracting a lot of curious attention. (Warehouse Collection)

tanks 49

The bicycle in the background would suggest that this is a post-war picture, but it does show how the rear skid of the Renault FT-17 supports the tank when crossing trenches and ditches. (Warehouse Collection)

Very few tanks of the period have survived... this Renault FT-17, which remains in running condition, was photographed at a French vintage vehicle show in 2002. (Warehouse Collection)

The US Army copied the Renault FT-17, fitting a Buda engine, and dubbing the result 6-ton tank, M1917. It was planned that 4,400 examples would be constructed, but, by November 1918, just 64 had been completed, with only 10 sent to Europe. Just 1,100 or so were eventually constructed. The tracks were modified in 1931 and a new engine fitted, changing the designation to M1917A1. This fiercely-burning example was photgraphed as late as 1941, demonstrating the effects of the Molotov cocktail at Atlanta, Georgia. (Warehouse Collection)

Picture postcard view of a British heavy tank, Mk I, male. Although some details are incorrect, the artist has clearly shown the steel tail wheels that were intended to improve the trench-crossing abilities of the vehicle, but which were found to be easily damaged or clogged with the inevitable mud. (Warehouse Collection)

50

Although it was operated by a crew of eight, the tank, Mark V was the fi rst heavy tank that could be driven by one man. The tank saw its fi rst action at Hamel in France in July 1918. Weighing in at 29 tons, it was powered by a 150bhp Ricardo six-cylinder petrol engine driving through a Wilson epicyclic gearbox, and was armed with two 6-pounder guns in side sponsons, with four 0.303in Hotchkiss machine guns. A total of 400 were constructed, 200 in the male confi guration as seen here, and 200 female, lacking the 6-pounder guns. This particular example was acquired by the Tank Museum at Bovington (www.tankmuseum.org) in 1949, and remains in running order, though in deference to its age it is seldom exercised. (Warehouse Collection)

TANKS 51

52

WHEELED ARMOURED VEHICLESIn JUnE 1899, FREDERICk R Simms, in conjunction with Vickers & Maxim, mounted a machine gun behind an armoured shield on a quadricycle, dubbing this the motor scout. In so doing, Simms established the three basic tenets which remain the fundamental basis of armoured-vehicle design firepower, mobility and protection.

In April 1902, Simms demonstrated a larger armoured car, dubbed the motor war car, with Maxim machine guns in revolving turrets... but kitchener dismissed the machine as a pretty toy. In the USA, Major R P Davidson designed a tricycle armed with Colt machine guns. The vehicle was later rebuilt with four wheels, and the Commanding General of the US Army recommended that five cavalry regiments be converted to armoured cars. At the 1903 Paris Salon dAutomobile, the

French company, Socit Charron-Giardot et Voigt (CGV) demonstrated a semi-armoured vehicle, mounting a machine gun in a circular armour-plated structure. This was followed by a fully-armoured machine with a rotating turret.

By 1914, wheeled armoured vehicles, typically armed with a 0.303in Vickers machine gun in a rotating turret, were being produced in Britain by AEC, Austin, Lanchester, Rolls-Royce, Sheffield-Simplex, and Wolseley. The Royal navy used armoured cars of the Royal naval Air Squadron (RnAS) to patrol air bases. In France, Laffly, Peugeot, and Renault built similar vehicles, whilst, in Belgium, makeshift armoured cars were constructed by adapting Minerva touring motorcars. By 1918, the Canadians, who had constructed a partially-armoured scout car before the war, had taken

delivery of 20 Autocar-based machine-gun cars.

These early vehicles were little more than heavy motorcar or light truck chassis onto which had been mounted a turreted armoured body. Most were underpowered and unstable, with limited off-road performance. The thin armour provided protection only from small arms and rifle fire, whilst the method of bolting or riveting the plates of the hull together resulted in susceptibilty to large-calibre or armour-piercing weapons. Even where bullets failed to penetrate, the crew were still subject to the hazards of bullet splash, with molten lead finding its way through gaps, burning exposed skin and damaging eyes.

It would be fair to say that most early armoured cars were scarcely satisfactory.

In 1914, Auto-Carrier, better known as AC, constructed this small armoured vehicle, mounting a machine gun in a very large open-topped turret; the exposed artillery wheels would have made the vehicle extremely vulnerable. It established the basic design for armoured cars of the period and was trialled by the British War Department, but there was no series production. (Warehouse Collection)

Armoured cArs 53

Five Wolseley Type CP armoured vehicles of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) photographed outside Wolseleys Birmingham factory in May 1918. Originally dating from 1915, and bodied by Vickers, these vehicles were built in several configurations, including a number equipped as anti-aircraft vehicles for the Russian Government, on either Wolseley chassis, or on Peerless and Pierce-Arrow chassis imported from the USA. (Warehouse Collection)

Improvised armoured car of the Belgian Army dating from 1914. The vehicle is constructed on the chassis of a Minerva heavy motorcar, and mounts a Hotchkiss 8mm machine gun on a pedestal at the rear. Similar vehicles were also constructed by the Belgian companies SAVA and Mors. (Warehouse Collection)

54

Dating from 1917, this Peugeot armoured car has been fitted with a crude armoured cab, which includes a roof, and mounts a Hotchkiss 8mm machine gun behind a wedge-shaped shield at the rear. (Warehouse Collection)

French anti-aircraft vehicle, consisting of a Renault heavy motorcar mounting a 37mm gun behind a full-width armoured

shield at the rear. (Warehouse Collection)

Between 1914 and 1918, Austin built almost 500 armoured cars on a modified version of their Colonial heavy-duty 30hp chassis; many went to Russia until the revolution of 1917. There were various patterns, but all featured distinctive twin circular turrets, mounted on projecting sponsons, and were armed with machine guns. Duplicate steering controls were provided at the rear. (Warehouse Collection)

Armoured cArs 55

The best-known wheeled armoured vehicle of the period is probably the Rolls-Royce armoured car 1914 pattern. It was based on the companys Silver Ghost chassis riding on twin rear wheels to support the increased weight, and to which was fitted an armoured body with a single circular turret with bevelled sides, mounting a Vickers machine gun. The first three examples were delivered on 3 December 1914, with a total of 120 eventually constructed. Six RNAS squadrons were formed with 12 vehicles each; of these, one went to France, one to Africa and two to Gallipoli; most ended up in the Middle East. A modernised design, known as the 1920 pattern, was produced after the war. (Warehouse Collection)

Taken from a period postcard, the caption declares that these French Fusiliers Marins are conveying an armoured car (of unknown manufacture) across the Yser Canal using a makeshift raft, which has been constructed using wine barrels. The Battle of the Yser, which was fought in October 1914, was crucial in halting the German advance into Belgium, and was, at least partly, responsible for the establishment of static trench warfare along the Western Front. During the battle, a brigade of Fusiliers Marins was sent to cover the retreat from Antwerp, thus allowing the Belgian Army to face the Germans at Yser, between Nieuport and Dixmude. (Warehouse Collection)

Leyland S3 heavy armoured car consisting of a truck chassis on which was mounted a Beardmore armoured hull, with a maximum thickness of 7mm. A medium machine gun was carried in the 10-sided turret, with a second, similar, gun at the rear of the fighting compartment. Four of these vehicles were constructed in 1915/16 for use in East Africa, one example was subsequently fitted with flanged railway wheels. (Warehouse Collection)

Constructed on a US Autocar 2-ton truck chassis, and dating from 1915, this open-topped armoured vehicle was intended for use by a motorised machine-gun squad and saw action in France with the Canadian Army. Some 40 examples of a similar armoured truck, but with a tall circular turret, were constructed on a US Jefferey Quad chassis and were shipped to Britain in 1916, but were not used operationally. (GWPDA)

56

LORRIES & MOTORCARSThE wORLdS fIRST pETROL-pOwEREd motor lorry was the daimler phoenix, rated at 1.5 tons and manufactured by the German company daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft in 1896, with the British Thornycroft company producing a practical steam-powered 1-ton van in the same year. Two years later, Alexander winton, a Scottish migr, constructed what is considered to be the first US-built truck, a 1-ton forward-control delivery vehicle. within a few years, there were truck manufacturers across Europe and the USA, with haulage companies springing up everywhere, keen to exploit the advantages of the rapid development of the truck. however, for the most part, the military authorities had remained cautious, preferring to rely on draft horses.

Germany, however, had been quick to see the military advantages of the motor vehicle, with a daimler truck making its debut in 1898, and france was not far behind, with the first trucks featuring in military manoeuvres from 1900. The British Army began trials of self-propelled vehicles in 1901, and the first Motor Transport Company was established at woolwich in 1903, whilst, in the USA, motor vehicles had started to enter military service from about 1904 or 1905.

It wasnt until 1911, that the British Secretary of State for war announced that he was considering the replacement of horses by trucks on a large scale. following government-sponsored trials, it was decided to standardise on 1-5- and 3-ton petrol-driven vehicles, and a

scheme was established which subsidised the owners of suitable trucks who were prepared to make these available to the government in the event of war. when the British Expeditionary force (BEf) went to france in 1914, most of the trucks were of these subsidy designs. Similar schemes were also established in Austria, france, and Germany.

during the war years, truck production in Britain and france was never sufficient to accommodate the demands of the military, and thousands of vehicles were also imported from the USA. following the Armistice, surplus trucks were released onto the civilian market much to the annoyance of the truck manufacturers, who saw their markets collapse.

German-built Daimler Marienfelde truck of the Belgian Army being loaded with a cast barrel for a fortress gun. Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft took over Motorfahrzeug und Motorenfabrik Berlin, located in Berlin-Marienfelde in 1901, and continued to use the factory to build trucks until 1914. (Warehouse Collection)

57

3-ton Renault 16CV cargo truck of the French Army. About 1,000 of these vehicles were manufactured between 1914 and 1919. The same chassis was also used as the basis for vehicles for various other roles including an ambulance and a searchlight truck. (Warehouse Collection)

US Army Locomobile Model 48 staff car as used in France after the Armistice. Introduced in 1919, the fast and powerful Model 48 had a six-cylinder engine, producing 49bhp from 8,603cc, that was capable of propelling the heavy motorcar at 80mph (130km/h). In its standard civilian form, seen here, the Model 48 cost a massive $7,900; a special heavy-duty version was also produced especially for the military, with dual rear tyres and a V-shaped windscreen. (Warehouse Collection)

US Army White 3-ton cargo truck passing a French artillery train on the Somme. Based in Cleveland, Ohio, the White Motor Company was one of the largest suppliers to the US Army during the war, and the companys 3-tonner was powered by the well-proven 6,554cc four-cylinder engine. (Warehouse Collection)

A convoy of British Army trucks on the move in northern France in November 1916. The trucks nearest the camera are American 3-ton Pierce-Arrows, of which some 1,700 were in service in 1918. (Warehouse Collection)

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Line-up of brand-new Karrier WDS 3-ton subsidy A general service trucks outside the Clayton Standard Works at Huddersfield. Like other subsidy trucks, the Karrier lacked any hint of creature comforts for the crew, but at least there were doors. The engine was a four-cylinder unit producing 40bhp. (Warehouse Collection)

58

Above: Both the British and French Armies used civilian buses as troop-carrying vehicles. With their distinctive circular radiator grilles and elevated driving position, where the driver is seated over the engine, there is no mistaking these De Dion-Bouton buses. (Warehouse Collection)

Right: US Army Standard B 3-5 ton Liberty truck. An early exercise in standardisation and co-operation between different manufacturers, the truck was built by 15 different manufacturers. All were fitted with the same design of 6,965cc four-cylinder engine producing 52bhp, that was manufactured by Continental, Hinkley, Waukesha and Wisconsin. (David Doyle)

Daimler 3-ton general service (GS) truck destined for War Department

service. Like all Daimlers of the period, the truck was powered by

the companys licence-built Knight sleeve-valve engine. (Warehouse

Collection)

63motor cars and lorries

Theres nothing new under the sun. This General Vehicle battery-powered truck, dating from around 1916, was at work in eight navy yards and various arsenals across the USA, where fire and explosion were very real risks. Carrying capacity was in the order of 5 tons, with a top speed of 7mph (12km/h), and a range of 35 miles. (Warehouse Collection)

The Riker name was used by the American Locomobile company for the trucks that were built over a five-year period between 1916 and 1921. A total of 1,690 examples of this 3.5-ton Model B were constructed during 1917 and 1918, with examples supplied to both the British and US Armies. The engine was a 5,557cc four-cylinder unit producing 30bhp. (Warehouse Collection)

Renault 7-ton truck of the French Army. Note the heavy cast wheels, and the companys distinctive coal-scuttle bonnet with the radiator behind it. (Warehouse Collection)

Although military radio communications were in their infancy, nevertheless, the War Department asked Daimler to construct this Marconi radio van on their 20hp chassis. (Warehouse Collection)

Packard supplied 4,856 of these 3-ton Model 36 trucks to the US and Allied Armies during 1917 and 1918; this example is assigned to Number 732 Aviation Section of the US Signal Corps. The four-cylinder Packard engine produced 32.5bhp from 5,719cc and drove the rear wheels through a four-speed gearbox and worm-drive axle. (Warehouse Collection)

64

Leylands S4X3 and S4X4 3-ton subsidy A truck was generally known as the RAF Leyland, presumably because that is where most examples were destined, and around 6,000 examples were constructed between 1914 and 1918. According to the stencilled legend, the enormous wooden crate on this flat-bed variant is destined for the RAF Aircraft Depot. (Warehouse Collection)

This 3,620cc four-cylinder Austin engine is typical of truck engines of the period, with cylinders cast as individual units and assembled onto a separate crankcase which includes inspection covers to access the bearings; there is no removable cylinder head. The use of a separate gearbox and cone clutch allows the flywheel to be placed at the front rather than in the more normal position at the rear. (Warehouse Collection)

motor cars and lorries 65

Amongst the lesser-known British truck makers is the Scottish Commercial Cars Company, also trading as Caledon Motors Limited, of Glasgow. Established in 1915, the company supplied examples of this compact 3-ton general service (GS) truck to the War Department. (Warehouse Collection)

Although the US Army used a Pierce-Arrow 2-ton cargo truck, the heavier 3-ton model shown here was supplied to both the British and the French Armies. Based in Cleveland, Ohio, the Pierce-Arrow Motor Car Company was established in 1911 and finally closed its doors in 1934. (Warehouse Collection)

Impressive line-up of Caledon 4-ton cargo trucks destined for the Russian Imperial Army. (Warehouse Collection)

British Daimler TR 20hp staff limousine. During the conflict, the British Army used around 160 different makes of motorcar, with the Daimler being the most numerous. (Warehouse Collection)

66

Designed, and originally manufactured, by the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company of Clintonville, Ohio, better known as FWD, the Model B was one of only a handful of all-wheel drive trucks produced during the conflict. Introduced in 1912, thousands were built for the US Army by FWD, Kissel, Mitchell and Premier, with Peerless also building 500 under licence in 1916 for Britain. The engine was a four-cylinder Wisconsin unit, placed under the cab. (Warehouse Collection)

Renault staff limousine as used by Marshall Joffre. Smaller Renault motorcars were also used to move troops, including some 600 Paris taxi cabs that were pressed into service as troop carriers in 1914. (Warehouse Collection)

The majority of the 9,362 examples of the US Armys 3-5 ton Standard B truck were manufactured by Gramm-Bernstein, Pierce-Arrow and Selden; other manufacturers included Bethlehem, Brockway, Diamond T, Garford, Indiana, Kelly-Springfield, Service, Sterling and the US Motor Truck Company; with a total of just five trucks, the smallest contributor was Packard. All of the trucks were identified simply with USA cast into the radiator tank. (David Doyle)

Petrol-electric searchlight truck of unknown make. The beam from the searchlight had a range of 12-15 miles (20-25km). (Warehouse Collection)

Thornycroft 2-ton X-Type standard cargo truck of the India Office. A total of 101 of these vehicles, with the companys 6.5-litre M4 engine, were built between 1915 and 1918, with a further batch produced after the war. (Warehouse Collection)

motor cars and lorries 67

The AEC Y-Type was one of the best British 3-ton trucks of the period and was used by both British and US forces; some 5,820 were still in service at the end of the war. The 7,720cc four-cylinder Tyler engine produced 50bhp, and drove the rear wheels through a four-speed gearbox and worm-drive axle. Three variants were produced, designated YA, YB and YC, with detail differences between them. (Warehouse Collection)

Dated October 1916, this photograph shows a line-up of new Guy 2-ton trucks destined for Russia. The Russians had no truck industry at this time and relied entirely on imported vehicles for their military transport needs. (Warehouse Collection)

Aircraft refuelling tanker constructed on the RAF Leyland 3-ton subsidy A chassis. Introduced in 1912, the type became the standard military truck in this weight category. Leyland constructed a total of 5,932 vehicles for the British forces during the conflict, employing more than 3,000 people. (Warehouse Collection)

68

Halleys Industrial Motors were based at Yoker in Glasgow, and their 3.5-ton Type B3 was supplied to the War Department in large numbers. The photograph was taken in France, where the truck had won some sort of unofficial competition based on length of service, number of breakdowns, and volume of repairs. (Warehouse Collection)

Line-up of ex-works 3-ton general service (GS) cargo trucks built by the respected British company, D Napier & Son of Acton Vale. Napiers constructed both 2- and 3-ton trucks during the war, calling a halt on this after the Armistice. (Warehouse Collection)

motor cars and lorries 69

How many men can stand on the cab of a Halley truck? It is not clear which model is shown here, but Halley provided three different chassis to the War Department: the 3-ton Type B3, with a 6,206cc engine producing 35bhp; the 4-ton G1, with a 45bhp engine of 8,361cc; and the 6-ton G3, using the same power unit as the G1. (Warehouse Collection)

American White 0.75-ton light truck chassis to which the US Army has fitted an anti-aircraft gun. Power came from a White four-cylinder engine of 3,705cc, producing 22.5bhp. (Warehouse Collection)

The US Armys 3-5 ton Standard B truck remained in service well into the 1920s, with many being retro-fitted with pneumatic tyres. This photograph, which was taken in 1928, shows a Standard B truck that has been fitted with a horsebox or perhaps an office body. (Warehouse Collection)

70

Alongside the FWD 4x4 truck, the US Army also operated the 2-ton Jefferey Quad, which offered four-wheel steering, four-wheel drive... and four wheel brakes. Powered by a Buda four-cylinder engine, the first example, seen here, was supplied to the US Quartermaster Corps in 1913 and some 5,500 were built for the US Army during 1913 and 1914. A double-ended version, with controls front and rear was also constructed in 1915, and in 1917 production passed to Nash. Examples were also built by Hudson, National and Paige. (Warehouse Collection)

Originally produced by Clayton & Company (Huddersfield) Limited in 1904, the Karrier 4-ton Model WDS, powered by a 7,702cc four-cylinder engine was accepted under the Subsidy A scheme in 1913, rated at 3 tons. More than 2,000 Karrier trucks were supplied to the War Department between 1914 and 1918. Karrier Motors Limited was created in 1920. (Warehouse Collection)

Halley Type G1 chain-drive trucks ready for delivery to the War Department. The company made its first petrol-engined truck in 1901 and finally closed down in 1935. (Warehouse Collection)

The original caption to this picture, which shows a pair of Daimler CC 3-ton general service (GS) cargo trucks, claimed that the photograph was taken in Ostend in 1914... the presence of The Windsor Castle Hotel in the background suggests that it was somewhat closer to home. (Warehouse Collection)

RAF Leyland equipped with a communications body; note the petrol-electric generator set and the seated operator wearing headphones and hunched over a Morse key. The legend on the cab side reads Mesopotamia which may be a clue as to where this photograph was taken. (Warehouse Collection)

MOTOR CARS AND LORRIES 71

The concept of protecting vehicle electrical and mechanical systems in such a way as to allow wading was some way into the future. Nevertheless, it was still possible to ford shallow streams providing some caution was exercised as this India pattern 2-ton Thornycroft X-Type shows. (Warehouse Collection)

Despite often all-too-clear maximum loading instructions stencilled onto the bodies, over-loading was very common, leading to rapid wear of the engine and transmission components and even spring and chassis failure. This US Army truck, of unknown manufacture, is being piled high with sacks from a railway wagon. (David Doyle)

American Peerless Model TC-3 of the British Army, with a simple wooden cargo body constructed by J G Brill; similar vehicles were also used by the US Army. The engine was a Peerless four-cylinder unit of 6,751cc, producing 32.5bhp, and driving through a four-speed transmission. Peerless ended truck production in 1918. (Warehouse Collection)

Although this Garford logging truck is clearly in civilian service, similar forward-control, or cab over engine (COE) vehicles were supplied to the US Army both before and during the war. Rated at 5 tons, the truck is powered by a mid-mounted Garford four-cylinder petrol engine of 6,342cc, driving the rear wheels via a four-speed transmission and heavy-duty chain. The distinctive appearance of the cab led to these trucks being dubbed Roman chariots. (Warehouse Collection)

After the Armistice, the British Army made thousands of surplus trucks available to civilians. Although this, in no small part, was responsible for the creation of many small transport companies, the eff ect on the commercial vehicle industry was generally catastrophic with sales of new trucks, in some cases, falling to nearly nothing. The vehicle shown is an RAF-type Leyland. (Warehouse Collection)

72

MOTORCYCLES & BICYCLES ThE wORLdS fIRST COMMERCIaL motorcycle was produced by hildebrand & wolfmller in Germany in 1894. Capable of 25mph (40km/h), it was a 1.5-litre twin-cylinder machine, using a rubber belt drive. Only a few hundred were built and it was not a commercial success. five or six years later years later, Vickers & Maxim had demonstrated their motorised quadricycle carrying a crew of two, and armed with a Maxim machine gun. None was purchased, but conventional motorcycles followed soon after, and, by the time the opposing armies faced each other across the flat lands that lay between france and Belgium, the military motorcycle had become more commonplace than the humble bicycle.

Many soldiers had ridden such machines in civilian life and it was clear

that the motorcycle would replace the horse in the military world in the same way that it been replacing the horse elsewhere. Indeed, in many situations, the motorcycle appeared to offer the most effective means of transporting messages. for example, although reliance on pigeons continued, the British Signals Corps adopted motorcycles in place of horses for despatch riders. Baskets for carrier pigeons were sometimes attached to the motorcycles, allowing the birds to be brought closer to the front to reduce the transit time for the message.

frequently, motorcycles were the only vehicles able to negotiate the terrible ground conditions behind the front lines, and sidecar outfits were adapted to provide a means of evacuating the wounded to the casualty clearing stations.

a sidecar outfit also provided a flexible form of transport, allowing light equipment and ammunition to be brought up to the front line across ground which heavier transport was unable to negotiate, as well as allowing the mobilisation of machine guns. Both sides experimented with machine-gun sidecars, usually with some sort of simple armoured screen for the gunner. although there was no prospect of firing accurately on the mov