BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

For use with Edexcel AS/A Level Psychology:

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THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Define the following:

CELL BODY

NUCLEUS

MITOCHONDRIA

DENDRITES

AXON

AXON HILLOCK

MYELIN SHEATH

NODES OF RANVIER

AXON TERMINALS

TERMINAL BUTTONS

VESICLES

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

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Label the

neuron

THE ACTION POTENTIAL

1. What is ‘the action potential’?

2. Describe how a message is carried by the neuron by action potential

SYNAPTIC TRAN

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION1. Where does the cell’s electrical impulse/action potential start?

2. What happens to the message once it reaches the terminal button?

3. What happens at the axon terminal?

4. The neuron sending the message is called…?

5. The neuron receiving the message is called…?

Fill in the gaps using the terms on p4Each neuron is responsible for producing a certain chemical or__________________________ and when the action potential reaches the axon terminal, _______________ channels will open - flooding the terminal button with ____________ _________. ______________ containing the ___________________substance will then be released and travel down to the outer membrane of the terminal button, where the casing of the _______________ will fuse with the _______________.This allows the ______________________ to be released from its ________________Into the _____________________ ________________.

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Calcium Calcium Ions

Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter Neurotransmitter

Vesicles Vesicles Vesicle

Synaptic gap/cleft

Membrane

1. What is the role of the postsynaptic neuron?

2. What happens to any neurotransmitter molecules that have not been absorbed?

3. What happens to the reabsorbed molecules?

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Label the diagram

Describe the functions of 4 common neurotransmitters:ACETYLCHOLINE

NORADRENALINE

DOPAMINE

SEROTONIN

What is the limbic system? (Write your answer in the oval)

EVALUATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND TRANSMISSION AT THE SYNAPSE

STRENGTHS

1. Jovanovic (2008) found evidence that synaptic transmission, involving neurotransmitters (serotonin), relates to mood, including depression. She looked at the serotonin system of women (serotonin levels are linked to depression more so in women than in men). One part of her

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study looked at women with pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) – a condition linked to low mood and depression - to see if they showed differences in their serotonin system when compared to a control group. Scanning was done for each group both before and after ovulation. She found that those without PMDD did show differences in their serotonin receptors, which suggests that synaptic receptors have a role in PMDD

2. Though some studies are done using animals, human brain scanning has increasingly been used in research – the strength of this approach is that humans are used, producing actual brain activity and brain structures at work. This method has scientific credibility. Reliability can be demonstrated, for example, as more than one person can analyse the scans to check the results.

Define the terms:

Scientific credibility

Reliability

What type of reliability is being discussed in 2) above?

WEAKNESSES

1. Allen and Stevens (1994) found that synaptic transmission regarding hippocampal neurons was very unreliable, with less than half the neurotransmitters arriving from the presynaptic neuron being picked up by the postsynaptic neuron. Some of this failure was due to issues with the release mechanism in low capacity synapses. This might not be evidence that synaptic transmission is not involved in messaging in the brain, it might just mean that it is not as straight forward as it might seem. However, this is perhaps evidence that there are many factors at work in synaptic transmission. Giving a process a name implies it works steadily and regularly all the time, which does not seem to be the case.

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2. Much of the evidence about synaptic transmission has come from studies using animals where lesions can be made (damaging parts of the brain to see what effects this has). It is hard to see that finding out how the brains of animals work can be generalised completely to human brains, as human brains, involving as they do consciousness and more emotional functioning, are different.

FIND OUT:What are the practical problems of using animals in research?

Essay: Evaluate the process of synaptic transmission as a means of passing messages in the brain (12 marks)

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THE EFFECT OF RECREATIONAL DRUGS ON THE TRANSMISSION PROCESS IN THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

1. Explain why recreational drugs are also known as psychoactive drugs.

2. What is the ‘reward pathway’ and how does this operate normally?

3. How do drugs affect the neural pathway?

Define the following terms:THE DOPAMINE SYSTEM

NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS

VENTRAL TEGMENTAL

EUPHORIA

DYSPHORIA

Most psychoactive drugs work on the dopamine system. Show how heroin changes the way neurotransmitters operate within the brain:

1. Explain how heroin increases the amount of dopamine.

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2. What does the brain do as a reaction to this sudden increase in dopamine?

3. Explain how this then motivates the individual to take more heroin.

4. Explain physical dependence.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCESExplain why people who have overcome addiction will develop craving and will relapse when they return to places where they used to take drugs

Define the term:GABA

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Describe the Mode of Action for the following psychoactive drugs:ALCOHOL

OPIOIDS (HEROIN & MORPHINE

AMPHETAMINES (METHAMPHETAMINES)

COCAINE

NICOTINE

HOW DO THESE PROCESSES LEAD TO ADDICTION?1. When does withdrawal occur?

2. Explain tolerance.

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EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF RECREATIONAL DRUGS ON THE TRANSMISSION PROCESS IN THE CNS

STRENGTHS1. There is a lot of evidence that points in the same direction: from Olds

and Milner (1954) who fund a pleasure centre in the brain to Straiker and Mackie (2005), who used cultural hippocampal neurons from mice to study the effects of cannabis. Straiker et al (2012) used cultured hippocampal neurons from mice with human CBI receptors. The studies are detailed and thorough with crafted controls that give scientific credibility. Many studies link recreational drugs with creating excess dopamine to give a ‘high’ and the fact that study findings support one another suggest the findings are reliable.

2. There is credibility in suggesting that recreational drugs, first, create more dopamine in the reward system and to give please and, second, have a desensitising effect so there is addiction and tolerance. This credibility comes from observations of those who take recreational drugs, who at first experience gain great pleasure from the drug but who then (in general) become addicted and find they need more to experience the same effects. External information backs up the study of internal processes, suggesting reliability and perhaps some validity.

WEAKNESSES1. The brain is very complex in its working (we have only touched on the

biology involved). For example, there is more than one reward pathway in the reward system and more than one brain region involved, so having one explanation for the mode of action of a recreational drug seems rather simplistic. Cannabis, for example, limits activity in the hippocampus and other areas, although it stimulates dopamine in the synapse in the reward system. It is too simplistic to say cannabis inhibits or excites – you need to specify what area of the brain is being discussed. Neurotransmitter functioning (including chemicals like cannabis) is complex.

2. It is hard to study the mode of action of recreational drugs at the synapse. Brain scanning has helped but scans still cannot get to the level of synaptic transmission. For example, information about cannabis has focused on GABAergic and glutamatergic transmission because those are

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the two transmitters that are more easily studied using electrophysiological techniques (Pertwee, 2014).

3. Animal studies are used where lesioning and ablations can be carried out (if ethical procedures are followed) but there might be differences in the functioning of animal brains that mean the findings do not suit humans. A weakness is the difficulty in studying this area.

FIND OUTWhat are the ethics of using animals in psychological research?

ESSAYEvaluate what is known about the effect of recreational drugs on the transmission process in the brain (12 marks)

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BRAIN STRUCTUREDraw a time-line mapping early human understanding of the structure of the brain (Historical Overview)

Phineas Gage – write his story in the box:

Looking at wider issues and debates, what is a problem with case studies?

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Describe the case study of ‘Tan’

Where in the brain is Broca’s area?

Where in the brain is Wernick’s area? And what function is it involved in?

Define:LOBES

APHASIA

LESION STUDIES

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Label the diagram

Frontal lobe

Parietal lobe

Temporal lobe

Occipital Lobe

EXPLAINING AGGRESSION1. What part of the brain could be involved in aggression according to the Phineas

Gage case?

2. Why was it necessary to use non-human animals to study biological structures that underlie aggression?

Match the correct definition to the correct term:OFFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR Attacking another species to gain foodDEFENSIVE BEHAVIOUR Physically attack another animalPREDATORY BEHAVIOUR Shown in response to threat of attack

Lesions/stimulation to different areas of the brain has been shown to activate behaviour specifically with one type of aggression. Fill in the aggressive behaviours:

STIMULATION BEHAVIOURMEDIAL HYPOTHALAMUS

DORSAL HYPOTHALAMUS

LATERAL HYPOTHALAMUS

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE1. Explain why more control can be used when using non-human animals in lab expts.

2. What is meant by the term extraneous variables?

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BRAIN AREAS ASSOCIATED WITH AGGRESSIONFill in the boxes to show the four areas of the brain associated with aggression, describing the function of each:

ISSUES OF SOCIAL CONTROLExplain why a prefrontal lobotomy is not used today:

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Prefrontal Lobotomy is a procedure that was once used to reduce uncontrollably violent or emotional people. It

is a type of psychosurgery (surgery for psychological purpose that destroys brain tissue to change a person's behaviour) in which the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the parts of the brain that control emotions are

severed. The patient would be shocked into a coma then the surgeon would drive a big pick-like tool through the person's eye socket and then move it around to cut the

nerves.

EVALUATE BRAIN STRUCTURE AS THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF AGGRESSION pp164-5

From the diagram, explain how Bateson’sdecision cube is usedwhen using animals inresearch (this is not in your text book)

What is meant by the term reductionism?

Brain structure is ‘plastic’. As you know, the brain is not made of plastic…Neuroplasticity, or brain plasticity, refers to the brain's ability to CHANGE throughout life. The human brain has the amazing ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections between brain cells (neurons). From the text find evidence to demonstrate neuroplasticity.

Define the term ‘biological determinism’

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WHAT ARE THE STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES? pp164-5STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

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EVALUATION OF THE CLAIM THAT THERE ARE BRAIN STRUCTURES THAT RELATE TO AGGRESSION

STRENGTHS1. There is a lot of evidence from both animal and human studies that certain areas of

the brain are linked to aggression, such as the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system, perhaps in particular the amygdala. Animal studies show that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus gives an aggressive response (e.g. Andy and Velemati, 1978). Studies of humans show, for example, that there is a negative correlation between the volume of the amygdala and self-reported lifetime aggression (Swantje et al 2012)

What is meant by a ‘negative correlation’?

2. With the advent of scanning such as PET and fMRI scanning, which has more precision than earlier scanning techniques, more can be measured and studied. Brain structures can be isolated and measured either measuring glucose functioning as with PET scanning (e.g. Raine et al 1997) or measuring actual volume as with MRI scanning (e.g. Swantje et al 2012). Measurements are reliable and can be done by more than one person – this gives scientific credibility

Define PET and fMRI scanningPET fMRI

WEAKNESSES

1. Animal studies might have findings that cannot be generalised to humans because of differences between humans and animals. Animals do not have the same prefrontal cortex as humans – it is smaller, for example. There are other differences including the role of consciousness and planning (which the prefrontal cortex is involved with).

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2. Scanning is said to be reliable, however, validity is in question because the scan has to take place whilst someone is processing information in some way and this processing is likely to be an artificial task. People do not function normally in brain scanners. For example, Gorka et al (2013) asked people to look at angry, happy or fearful faces and tested their prefrontal cortex to amygdala connectivity under the influence of alcohol. This might not represent everyday functioning, such as how we make judgements and react to faces.

Define the term ‘validity’

Define the term ‘mundane realism’ and explain why scanning may not hold this

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Use different coloured pens to label areas of the brain that Raine et al (1997) found to be dysfunctional

and those areas that were not

THE ROLE OF EVOLUTION IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT What is Evolution?

1. Define the term evolution:

2. What is meant by natural selection?

3. What is meant by sexual selection?

4. Explain why evolution has been described as ‘a series of lucky accidents’

How does this explain behaviour?5. What does EEA stand for?

6. In EEA what determines a successful human?

7. Evolutionary theory is a ‘post hoc’ argument where the theory is developed to fit the facts. Explain how evolutionary psychologists have developed their theory

8. Give three examples of behaviours that can be explained within an evolutionary perspective

9. Give an example of a behavioural characteristic humans hold that is now maladaptive and shows that our genetic make-up has not been able to keep up with rapid environmental change

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How does this explain aggression?10. How is success measured in evolutionary terms?

11. Why were big, strong men favoured by successful women in EEA terms?

12. Explain why women are less physically aggressive than men according to EEA theory

13. What did Buss (1999) propose?

Evaluation14. What differences in brain structure could account for this theory?

15. What did Mazur (1983) show to support of the theory?

16. What is the problem with the EEA theory?

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FREUD’S PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATION OF AGGRESSION

1. According to Freud, Eros and Thanatos are two drives, two opposing forces that we are born with. Define each.

2. What is the role of the libido (not to be confused with the modern meaning of the word) i.e. how does it strive to keep us safe?

3. Define catharsis and what is its purpose?

4. This is the first part of our personality to take shape. Between what ages does this occur?

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Freud believed the mind to be like an iceberg. An iceberg has only the tip being on

show with the majority submerged. Similarly, we are only consciously aware of a very small amount of information at any one time; some of our memories we can access if we think about them i.e. the pre-conscious

(e.g. thinking about what you had for tea last night) but the vast amount of our memory is

inaccessible or unconscious

5. What is the ID?

6. The ID is innate. True or False?

7. Why is it named the ‘pleasure principle’?

8. The next part of personality to develop is the EGO; at what age does this develop?

9. What is the EGO driven by?

10. Explain why the EGO develops.

11. The SUPEREGO is the last part of personality to develop between what ages?

12. Why is the SUPEREGO called the ‘morality principle’?

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13. Explain how the EGO and SUPEREGO balance out the aggressive impulses of the ID.

14. What activities are cathartic according to psychodynamic theory?

EVALUATION OF THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH TO AGGRESSIONStrengths

Freud generated his theory from in-depth case studies in which he looked at many aspects of a person’s background and mental state. His theory was built from valid data and I focused on the dreams and problems of each individual

WeaknessesExplain why the use of the case study method is not scientific

Explain why the use of concepts such as the id are not measureable and lack scientific credibility

26Define scientific

credibility

COMPARING BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES OF AGGRESSION (including nature-nurture)

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

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THE ROLE OF HORMONES TO EXPLAIN AGGRESSION

1. What are hormones?

2. How are hormones carried around the body?

3. Compare hormonal function to that of neurotransmitters.

4. What produces and secretes hormones?

5. Define the endocrine System.

6. What is an androgen?

7. Define testosterone.

8. What occurs following antenatal exposure to testosterone?

9. What happens as a result of testosterone soon after birth within a critical period?

10. What did Motelica-Heino et al (1993) find from their lab expt on rodents?

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Label the diagram

11. What conclusion did Edwards (1968) support?

12. Why is the argument that testosterone influences aggressive behaviour by effecting changes in neurotransmitters, complex?

13. What did D’Andrarde (1966) find to support the link between testosterone and aggression?

14. Mazur (1983) also found support. What was this?

15. What are the problems with correlational studies such as those by Mazur?

16. Hawke (1951) found more convincing evidence. What was this?

17. Why do such studies as above lack scientific rigour?

EVALUATIONSTRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

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WHAT EXPLANATION?

1. Has research evidence showing murderers have lower activity in the prefrontal cortex

2. Believes there are two innate drives that motivate all behaviour

3. States that antenatal exposure to testosterone has an organising effect on the developing brain, leading to increased spatial ability and (arguably) competitive aggression

4. Argues that behaviours, such as aggression, are expressed at an early age due to an underdeveloped ego

5. Argues that successful females chose mates who were big, strong, provided protection, were good hunters and who were prepared to attack other humans for scarce resources

6. Is based, in part, on human case studies and animal lesioning studies as well as natural experiments with humans participants

7. Argues watching violence will decrease violent tendencies in the viewer

8. Has supporting evidence from studies of castrated rats

9. Believes females are less physically aggressive than men due to time spent being pregnant, breastfeeding and looking after small, vulnerable children

10. Believes the biological basis for aggression is consistent with the genetic explanation due to our genetic blueprint that builds us physically

11. Is a ‘post-hoc’ argument

12. Has supporting research evidence that found injecting female neonate rodents with testosterone made them act more aggressively

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METHODS1. Define the term correlation.

2. What is a positive correlation?

3. What is a negative correlation?

4. Describe in writing ‘no correlation’.

5. If I were conducting a correlation that gained ordinal data, what stats test would I use

Evaluate the use of the correlation as a research methodSTRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

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METHODS

1. Define the term correlation.

2. What is a positive correlation?

3. What is a negative correlation?

4. Describe in writing ‘no correlation’.

5. If I were conducting a correlation that gained ordinal data, what stats test would I use?

Evaluate the use of the correlation as a research method

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES

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BRAIN-SCANNING TECHNIQUES

Name the three brain-scanning techniques and describe the function of each.

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1. What did Raine et al (1997) find using PET scans?

2. Montag et al (2011) used fMRI scans to find what in the brains of violent video gamers?

3. Looking back over the descriptions of the brain-scanning techniques, evaluate their use for studying aggressive behaviour in humans.

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TWIN STUDIES1. Why study MZ twins?

2. What is meant by concordance rate?

3. What did Gottesman and Shields (1966) find?

4. What did they conclude?

5. What is a problem with twin studies?

6. What did Coccaro et al (1997) find?

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ADOPTION STUDIES

1. Why is the method of adoption studies the best way to study twins?

2. If the adoptee’s behaviour was more similar to that of its adoptive parents what would be assumed?

3. Outline Cadoret and Stewart’s (1991) study.

4. What did they find?

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EVALUATION OF TWIN AND ADOPTION STUDIES

Outline the problems of using twin and adoption studies:TWIN STUDIES BOTH ADOPTION STUDIES

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CLASSIC STUDY - RAINE ET AL (1997)

This classic study looked at people charged with murder and pleading not guilty by reason of insanity to see if there were brain differences that might link to their aggression. Rain et al (1997) used PET scanning to look for differences in rain functioning between murderers who pleaded not guilty by means of insanity (NGRI) and a control group. This study is useful not only as a study looking at brain structure and functioning in relation to aggression, which suits the content required in the topic area, but also because it is an example of brain scanning a method you need to know about for your exam.

AIMSThe study aims to show that the brains of murderers who pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity were different from the brains of non-murderers. Raine et al investigated whether brain dysfunction predisposed people to violent behaviour. Their specific hypotheses were that individuals who showed serious violence would have dysfunction in specific areas of the brain but not in other specific areas

The areas they thought would show dysfunction were thePre-frontal cortexAngular gyrusAmygdalaHippocampusThalamusCorpus callosum

The areas they thought would not show dysfunction were the Caudate PutamenGlobus pallidusMidbrain or cerebellum

Their aim was to use PET scanning so they could study localised areas in the brain to check for dysfunction in those areas. They used a matched control group so that they could compare those areas in violent individuals with those areas in matched non-violent individuals.

BACKGROUNDRaine et al (1997) suggest

Damage to the prefrontal cortex is thought to give aggression from the case study of Phineas Gage

The way the two hemispheres work together may be abnormal There might be issues with the corpus callosum that links the two hemispheres There could be a dysfunction in the angular gyrus Animals studies show the limbic system affect whether there is aggressive behaviour or not From cat studies, the thalamus might be linked to aggression Frontal brain regions and the temporal cortex are thought to be linked to violent behaviour

Raine et al (1997) point out limitations of their study in that the findings from animal studies may not be linked to the idea that violent offenders have brain dysfunction in the area found in animals linked to aggression [probably due to the limitations of extrapolating findings from animal studies to humans due to the practical problems involved, e.g. the brains of animals and humans are different]

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Other limitations regard small sample sizes involved in brain scanning studies of particular types of people and that the IV is naturally occurring and so random allocation to experimental and control groups is not possible

A preliminary study of 22 NGRI and 22 normal Ps gave some support for prefrontal dysfunction in the murderers (Raine et al, 1994)

READ PP183 – 4 TEXT BOOK AND ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

PARTICIPANTS1. Identify the experimental group and the control group stating the number of Ps in each

group and indicating gender

EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLTOTAL NUMBERMALESFEMALESCHARACTERISTICS

2. Explain how the Ps from each group were matched. What type of participant (experimental) design is this?

PROCEDURE3. Describe the procedure, e.g. exactly what the Ps had to do and what was done to them

RESULTS4. What was the key finding?

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5. Fill out the following tableSPECIFICALLY, COMPARED TO THE CONTROL GROUP MURDERS SHOWED

IN SUBCORTICAL AREAS, MURDERERS ALSO SHOWED

6. State the conclusion of the study

EVALUATION (BY THE RESEARCHERS) FACTORS THAT MIGHT HAVE AFFECTED THE CONCLUSIONSSTRENGTHS WEAKNESSES41 is a reasonably good sample size for PET scanning (a lot bigger than other studies)

The images produced by PET scanning at the time of the study are not particularly clear and the measuring had limitations

The strengths of the effects were large enough to draw fairly firm conclusions

Findings only apply to one group of murderers pleading not guilty by reason of insanity, not to all violence

All but one of the areas that they thought would be important gave significant results (lateral temporal lobe glucose metabolism – there was no significant difference between murderers and non-murderers) so the findings of earlier studies are supported

The findings do not say that violence is just biological. Social, psychological, cultural and situational factors are all likely to play a part in violence

Areas they thought would not be important rom earlier research were not important

The study does not give the causes of the brain dysfunction such as genes or the environment

The groups were well matched. Confounding variables were ruled out (e.g. age, schizophrenia, handedness, ethnicity, history of head injury)One trend was noted: murderers with a history of head injury had reduced glucose metabolism in the corpus callosum (head injury may have damaged this)

The findings cannot be generalised to all murderers

All Ps could do the tasks, so there did not seem to be differences in attention. However, IQ was not measured. Low IQ should have given higher cerebral glucose metabolism. The murderers had lower cerebral metabolism so reduced IQ does not seem to account for the differences

The control group did not include non-violent criminals so it was not possible to link the brain differences with violence

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7. What is meant by the term ‘confounding variables’?

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Label the diagram

Read p185 text book and answer the following questions:

1. What is meant by ‘socially sensitive research’?

2. Explain two ways why this research was socially sensitive

3. What were Raine et al’s comments on this criticism?

4. Explain the experimental features of Raine et al (1997) (4 marks)

5. Explain three parts of the brain that were affected in the study and how they were affected

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CONTEMPORARY STUDY

EXAMINING GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON SOCIAL AGGRESSION: A STUDY OF 6-YEAR-OLD TWINS (BRENDGEN ET AL, 2005)

Background Interested in the origins of social aggression Social aggression = characterised by socially manipulative behaviour

- Ignoring others- Spreading rumours- Making threats to withdraw friendship

Social aggression can be overtly or covertly expressed

Aims1) To see if social aggression could be caused by genes or the environment2) To see if social aggression shared the same cause as physical aggression3) To see I on type of aggression leads to another type

Procedure Pairs of twins recruited from Quebec Newborn Twin Study (QNTS) Born between Nov 1995 and July 1998 322 pairs twins at start of study Complete data at all stages were collected on 234 twin pairs

MZ males = 44 MZ females = 50DZ males = 41 DZ females = 32

DZ mixed sex = 67 Longitudinal Study – correlational design Two ratings of each twin’s behaviour (by 1. Teacher & 2. Classmates) was gathered at: 5, 18, 30, 48, 60 months & at 6 yrs Data gathered at 6 yrs was focus of the study Ratings were given in Spring term to ensure twins were well known Each twin was given a social & physical score from the teachers’ ratings They were also given a social & physical score from their peers if they had been selected

Teacher Ratings Based on agreement with statements taken from items on the Preschool Social Behaviour

Scale (PSBS-T by Crick et al, 1997) & the Direct & Indirect Aggression Scales (Bjorkvist et al, 1992), eg:

Social aggression = To what extent does the child try to make others dislike a child Physical aggression = To what extent does the child get into fights The scores given by teachers for each statement was done on a 3-point scale 0 = never; 1 = sometimes; 2 = often

Peer Ratings Each child in the twins’ classes were given a booklet containing photos of every child in the

class Each child asked to circle 3 pictures of children they thought matched 4 different

behavioural descriptions. For example: Social Aggression = Tells others not to play with a child Physical aggression = Gets into fights

Results There was a much higher correlation between teacher & peer ratings of MZ twin pairs

on physical aggression than between same-sex DZ twin pairs Scores for social aggression roughly equally correlated MZ & DZ twin pairs

AIM 1

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AIM 2

AIM3

Conclusion There seems to be a strong genetic component to physical aggression but not social

aggression (which is more likely due to environmental effects) Children who were physically aggressive were also more likely to display social aggression,

probably because of an interaction between genes and environment As children grow they tend to become more socially aggressive because of social

conventions on physical violence and developing different ways to express themselves

STRENGTHS WEAKNESSESValid: gained different scores from 2 sources (teachers/peers) – to highlight or eliminate any bias

Generalisation: Small sample sizes makes generalisation to whole population difficult (obtained due to difficulty of asking 6-yr-old peers to provide a rating before they could read or write, researchers had to record data with each child individually. This made it a time-consuming process)

Valid: teachers/peers ratings were in good agreement, so lacks bias

Generalisation: Many extraneous variables in the lives of the twins that were not controlled. Researchers justified this criticism by saying the costs in time & effort with individually measuring the twins’ behaviour across 409 different classrooms meant that selecting an assessment of moderating factors would have been extremely difficult

Application: Findings have potential to be used to prevent the development of social aggression ie if children are showing physical aggressive tendencies then dealing with this may prevent them later expressing this aggression socially. Early intervention before behaviour becomes a habit is much better than trying to change a child’s behaviour when they are older

Generalisation: Specific age group, therefore, difficult to assume that aggression in other age groups has a similar cause. Eg physical aggression reduces as children start school (Nagin & Tremblay, 2001); social aggression doesn’t fully develop until the age of 8 yrs (Bjorkvist et al, 1992).

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Good internal consistency (reliability) e.g. agreement within and between teacher and peer ratings

Self-report ratings may not match reality, e.g. teachers may unknowingly have stereotyped the twins (if one is physically aggressive then so is the other) and peers might remember one aggressive act rom one child more than another. Therefore the study may not have construct validity i.e. construct validity refers to the ability of a measurement tool (e.g., a survey, test, etc) to actually measure the psychological concept being studied. In other words, does it properly measure what it's supposed to measure?

Objectivity not subjectivity from 94% DNA agreement when deciding on MZ or DZ categoriesNo ethical problems, consent gained and approval gained for questions used

QUESTIONS

1. In the following table, note ‘yes’ to the statements that correctly identify conclusions of Brendgen et al (2005) and ‘no’ to the incorrect statements:

STATEMENT CORRECTChildren who show physical aggression rarely show social aggressionA child who shows physical aggression when young is likely to move to social aggression as they matureSocial aggression can replace physical aggression because it is more subtle and less likely to be punished as less overtly disapproved of by society and parentsPhysical aggression is mostly down to environmental factorsAbout 50 to 60% of physical aggression is geneticPhysical aggression in a child predicts social aggression, so is best reduced as much as possible

2. Explain how Brendgen et al (2005) conducted their study so that they could investigate their study to find out how far genes and the

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environment explain social and physical aggression in children (6 marks)

3. Scientific credibility is found when a study has the features of science so that knowledge can be accepted by others and a body of knowledge can be built. To claim credibility you would need to show that your results are valid, reliable and generalisable. Evaluate Brendgen et al’s (2005) study in relation to its credibility (6 marks)

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY – KEY QUESTION

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WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIETY IF AGGRESSION IS FOUND TO BE CAUSED BY NATURE NOT

NURTURE?Aggression in humans might come from their nature or their nurture. They may act aggressively from some biological cause or they may act aggressively in response to something in their environment.

It might be said that, if a behaviour is caused by environmental factors, which is nurture, then someone can choose not to behave in that way. They can perhaps choose to avoid environments that are likely to trigger aggressive behaviour, for example, or they can choose to act differently, such as by retraining to react differently to certain cues.

It could be said, however, that if a behaviour comes from someone’s nature, there is not such an element of choice. We cannot help our biology and perhaps should not be blamed for behaviour stemming from our biology.

Another way of looking at the issue of blame for aggression is that aggression does come from nature but that people have learned control, so they can be blamed for not being in control rather than for the innate aggression.

The implication is that, if we should not be blamed if aggression comes from our nature, then using imprisonment to prevent aggression might not be ethical. If imprisonment is a punishment, the question for society is whether someone should be punished for something they cannot help doing. This is a moral issue for society.

Anxiety and depression get attention from society and are treated, whereas anger and aggression are punished. Yet it could be argued that all are linked to emotions and if one sort of emotion is treated and brings sympathy from society but another sort of emotion leads to blame, this seems unfair of society.

ACTIVITYUse your text book/notes to apply concepts, ideas, theory, research from Biological Psychology to the above key question.

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY – PRACTICAL WRITE UP

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CORRELATION BETWEEN SELF-REPORTED STRESSFUL LIFE EVENTS AND SELF-REPORT RATINGS OF AGGRESSION

Background ResearchA study (2014) using mice showed biological effects of early stress. When some mice were then given a rest period, the biological effects of stress reduced, as did their levels of aggression. However, it was observed that in some mice, the early effects of stress did seem to have led to more aggression later in their life cycle

Another study using rats (2004) detected a ‘fast positive feedback loop’ between a ‘hormonal stress response’ and aggression. Experiments gave electric stimulation to the brain area for aggression and found a stress response in the form of blood levels of a hormone

Research QuestionDo people who report more stressful life events in the last 12 months report themselves as responding more aggressively in situations?

Alternative HypothesisThere is a positive relationship between self-reported amount of stress events (over the last 12 months) and self-reported aggressive tendencies (one-tailed or directional hypothesis)

Null HypothesisThere is no relationship between self-reported amount of stress events (over the last 12 months) and self-reported aggressive tendencies, any difference is due to chance or some other variable

DesignCorrelational study measuring the relationship between two variables, self-reported stressful life events and self-reported ratings of aggression

Two questionnaires were used, one asking about an individual’s stressful life events, the second asking about an individual’s rating of their own aggression. The questionnaires were taken from Brain (2015) Edexcel for A Level Book 1, p446

Probability was set at p=0.05

ParticipantsSampling technique usedNumber of PsGenderAge rangeGeographical location

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ProcedureWrite exactly how the correlation was conducted e.g. How you approached the Ps and where they were tested e.g. individually or as a group, plus the situation in which they were tested e.g. in a quiet room, in the library etcWrite up the standardised instructions and the debrief

ResultsWrite what was found and presentDescriptive stats e.g. Table of results and Scattergraph

Inferential stats e.g. the stats test used and reasons for using this particular test, whether or not the null hypothesis was rejected (and hence whether or not the result was significant)

ConclusionState the conclusion of your results

DiscussionEvaluate your research in terms of ReliabilityValidityGeneralisabilityEthics

Chose one major limitation of your research and state what it is

State how you would improve this limitation if you were to conduct the study again

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ISSUES AND DEBATES – BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

ETHICS

REDUCTIONISM

SOCIALLY SENSITIVE RESEARCH

THE USE OF PYSCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE IN SOCIETY

PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

HOW OUR PSYCHOLOGICAL UNDERSTANDING HAS CHANGED OVER TIME

NATURE NURTURE DEBATE

SOCIAL CONTROL

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF RESEARCH

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ACTIVITYIn pairs, take one issue and apply it to content, studies and/or methods in Biological psychology

WHAT WE HAVE COVERED IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND HOW IT WORKS AND EVALUATION

THE EFFECT OF RECREATIONAL DRUGS ON THE TRANSMISSION PROCESS IN THE CNS AND EVALUATIONEXPLANATIONS OF AGGRESSION

BRAIN STRUCTURE AND EVALUATION

EVOLUTION AND EVALUATION

PSYCHODYNAMIC AND EVALUATION

HORMONES AND EVALUATION

COMPARING BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONSMETHODS

CORRELATIONAL STUDIES AND EVALUTION

USE OF SPEARMANS RHO

SCANNING TECHNIQUES AND EVALUATION

TWIN AND ADOPTION STUDIES AND EVALUATIONCLASSIC STUDY

RAINE ET AL (1997) AND EVALUATIONCONTEMPORARY STUDY

BRENDGEN ET AL (2005)KEY QUESTION

WHAT IS THE IMPLICATION FOR SOCIETY IF AGGRESSION IS FOUND TO BE CAUSED BY NATURE AND NOT NURTURE?PRACTICAL

CORRELATION BETWEEN SELF-REPORTED STRESS AND SELF-REPORTED AGGRESSION

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POSSIBLE EXAM QUESTIONS1) Evaluate Brendgen et al (2005) study in relation to its scientific credibility (10 marks)2) Evaluate Raine et al (1997) study in terms of the method used (brain scanning) and in terms

of how the findings are supported by other studies (12 marks)3) Explain Freud’s theory of personality (8 marks)4) To what extent does catharsis work? (6 marks)5) Compare Freud’s psychodynamic ideas about aggression with biological explanations for

aggression (18 marks)6) Explain the role of hormones in human behaviour (8 marks)7) Evaluate the role of hormones in aggression (12 marks)8) To what extent can the role of natural selection explain human aggression (12 marks)9) Explain two brain areas according to how they might be linked to aggression (8 marks)10) Evaluate the claim that it is brain structure that gives aggression in someone (12 marks)11) Explain the mode of action of two recreational drugs at the synapse of the brain (6 marks)12) Evaluate what is known about the effect of recreational drugs on the transmission process in

the brain (12 marks)13) Using a diagram in your answer, explain the structure of the neuron in the brain (6 marks)14) Using a diagram in your answer, explain how synaptic transmission takes place (8 marks)15) Evaluate the process of synaptic transmission as a means of passing messages in the brain

(12 marks)16) Describe what is meant by biological psychology, giving at least three features of this topic

area in your answer (6 marks)17) Describe what is meant by hormones and genes (4 marks)18) When explaining biological factors, hormones play the most important role in explaining

human aggression, however, they have little role to play in Social Learning Theory. To what extent do you agree with this statement? (12 marks)

19) PET scans are often used to produce detailed 3D images of the brain.(a) Describe PET as a brain scanning technique (3 marks)(b) Raine et al (1997) used PET scans as part of their procedure. Give one aim of Raine et al

(1997) study (1 mark)(c) Give one conclusion of Raine et al (1997) (1 mark)(d) Explain two strengths of the methodology of Raine et al (1997) study (4 marks)

20) Evaluate the use of biological and psychodynamic explanations of human behaviour (8 marks)

21) Evaluate the process of synaptic transmission as a means of passing messages in the brain (12 marks)

22) Biological psychology offers ideas and theories of how the rain and body works in areas relating to psychology, such as synaptic transmission, hormones, evolution and brain structure. Choosing any key question for society, discuss how at least one of these ideas/theories can be used when discussing it, either to help with the key question, to explain the key question or to both explain and help (16 marks)

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