turkish grammar updated academic edition yÜksel gÖknel march 2013-signed

7/29/2019 TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION YKSEL GKNEL March 2013-signed

1/441

Yksel Gknel


2/441

TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION 2013

1


3/441


2

Ege Reklam Basm Sanatlar San.Tic. Ltd. Sti.Esatpasa Mahallesi Ziyapasa Caddesi No:4

34704 Atasehir / ISTANBUL

T. : +90 216 470 44 70

F.: +90 216 472 84 05

W. : www.egebasim.com.tr

2.Basm: stanbul / Ocak 2013


4/441


3

FOREWORD

The Turkish Grammar book that you have just started reading is quite different

from the grammar books that you read in schools. This kind of Grammar is known as

traditional grammar. The main difference of a traditional grammar and that of atransformational one is that the first one describes a natural language as a static

object, but the second one describes both the parts of the language engine and ho

it runs. This is like learning about a motionless car. There is something lacking in this

description. It is the dynamics of the parts of a car that runs a hundred and twenty

kilometers an hour.

Traditional grammars describe only the physical appearance of a language; the

do not mind what goes on behind the curtain. The mind of a human being works like

the engine of a sports car. It arranges and chooses words matching one another,transforms simple sentence units to use in different parts of sentences, and recollects

morphemes and phonemes to be produced by the human speech organs. All these

activities are simultaneously carried out by the human mind.

Another point that the traditional grammarians generally miss is that they write the

grammar of a certain language to teach it to those who have been learning it from the

time when they were born up to the time when they discover something called

grammar. This is like teaching a language to professional speakers.

Then, what is the use of a grammar? I believe most people were acquainted with

it when they started learning a foreign language. Therefore, a grammar written fo

those who are trying to learn a second language is very useful both in teaching an

learning a second language.

I started teaching English as a second language in 1952, a long time ago. Years

passed and one day I found myself as a postgraduate Fulbright student at the

University of Texas at Austin in 1960. Although I studied there for only a short period,

I learnt enough from Prof. Archibald A. Hill and Dr. De Camp to stimulate me to learn

more about Linguistics.

After I came back to Turkey, it was difficult to find books on linguistics in

booksellers in Istanbul. Thanks to The American Library in Istanbul, I was able to

borrow the books that attracted my attention.

In those books, I discovered Noam Chomsky, whose name I had notheard during my

stay in the U.S.A.

I must confess that I am indebted to the scholars and the library above in writing

this Turkish Grammar.

I am also grateful to my son Dr. zgr Gknel who encouraged me to write this

book and to Vivatinell Warwick U.K., which sponsored to publish it.YKSEL GKNEL


5/441


4


6/441


5

Those who want to read, download, and print this book free should write"TURKISH GRAMMAR UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION YKSEL GKNEL 2013"

in Google orYahoo browsers.


7/441


6


8/441


7

TURKISH GRAMMAR

UPDATED ACADEMIC EDITION

YKSEL GKNEL

Vivatinell Bilim-Kltr Yaynlar

2013

Grafik Tasarm Uygulamalar

Vivatinell PressSelami Burhan GKAY

letiim:

Vivatinell Cosmopharmaceutics

Fetih Mah. Tunca Sk. No:2 34704

Ataehir / stanbul / TRKYETel: +90 216 470 09 44

Faks: +90 216 470 09 48


9/441


8


10/441


9

CONTENTSForeword 3

Contents 9

Logical, Morphemic, and Oral Sequencing 15The Turkish Grammar 18

The Turkish Vowel and Consonant Harmony 19

The Vowel Harmony Sequence 19

The Consonant Harmony 21

Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 24

Derivational Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 25

Morphemes Attached to Nouns to Produce Nouns 25

Morphemes Attached to Nouns to Produce Adjectives 26Morphemes Attached to Adjectives to Produce Nouns 29

Morphemes Attached to Verbs to Produce Nouns 30

Morphemes Attached to Verbs to Produce Adjectives 34

Morphemes Attached to Nouns to Produce Verbs 35

Morphemes Attached to Adjectives to Produce Verbs 36

Inflectional Morphemes and Their Allomorphs 36

Nominal Phrases 39

Adverbs and Adverbials 42The Transformational Activity of the Logic 43

Form and Function in Languages 45

Using Adjectives as Adverbs 47

The Inflectional Morphemes 49

The Defining [] Morpheme and Its Allomorphs [i, , , u] 50The [LE], [LE.YIN] and [E], [DE], [DEN] Inflectional Morphemes 55

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la] 55

[LE.YIN]: 56

[E], [DE], [DEN] and [LE] Morphemes 56

[E] allomorphs: [e, a] 58

[DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta] 64

[DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan] 66

Possessor+ Possessed Noun Compounds (sim Tamlamalar) 68Definite Noun Compounds (Belirtili sim Tamlamalar) 68

Indefinite Noun Compounds (Belirtisiz sim Tamlamalar) 75

Noun Compounds Without Suffixes (Taksz Tamlamalar) 75

Noun + Infinitive Compounds (sim Mastar Tamlamalar) 77

Prepositions and Postpositions (Edatlar or lgeler) 78

Primary Stress, Secondary Stress, and Intonation 79


11/441


10

[E], [DE], [DEN] Morphemes + Postpositions 88

The Inflectional Morphemes Attached to Verbs 95

The Simple Present be 96

The Present Modals with Verb be 105

must be 105

cant be 107

may be 108

may not be 109

The Interrogative Sentences Whose answers are "Yes" or "No" 110

have to be, should be, ought to be, neednt be 112

have to be (zorundaym) 112

neednt be (gerek yok) 113

The Simple Past Verb be 114

Interrogative Words 117

[M] (Rumor, Inference) (sylenti, anlam karma) 121

The Future Form of be (will be) 123

there is, there are; have, (have got) 123

there used to be, there used to have 125

there must (may) be, there cant be, there is going to be 125

Imperatves and Wshes 125

Wsh 128

The Simple Present Tense (Geni Zaman) 130

The Verbs Ending with Vowels or Consonants 134

Some Nouns Used Together With et, `yap, ile to Produce Verbs 135

The Negative Form of The Simple Present Tense 137

The Simple Present Positive Question 139

The Simple Present Negative Question 140

The Question Words Used in the Simple Present Tense 142

The Present Continuous and the Present Perfect Continuous 144

The Verbs That Are Not Used in the Simple Present in Turkish 149

Turkish Verb Frames (Trkede Fiil atlar) 151

Transitive and Intransitive Verb Frames 151

Reflexive Verb Frames 151

The Passive Transformation of the Intransitive Verb Frames 153

Reciprocal Verb Frames (te Fiil atlar) 154

Both Transitively and Intransitively Used English Verbs 156

The Simple Past and the Present Perfect 162

Mili Past Tense (Rumor and Inference) (Mili Gemi) 170

The Simple Future and be going to 174


12/441


11

The Past Continuous Tense 177

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense 181

Was (were) going to 181

used to 182

The Rumor Forms of The Simple and The Continuous Tenses 184

The Past Perfect Tense 185

The Future Continuous Tense 186

The Future Perfect Tense 187

Infinitives (Mastarar) 188

The [mek, mak] Infinitives 188

The [me, ma] Infinitives 188

The [i, , , u] Infinitives 188

The [dik, dk,dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] Infinitives 188

Where and How the Infinitives Are Used 190

1.(a) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used as Subject 190

1.(b) The [mak, mak] Infinitives Used before Postpositions 190

1.(c) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used as Objects of iste 192

1.(d) The [mek, mak] Infinitives Used Attached to [DEN] Morph. 192

2.(a) The [me, ma] Infinitives Used Attached to Noun Compounds 193

2.(b) noun+infinitive-[], and V-[me-/y/i], V-[ma]-/y/] 195

2.(c) noun+infinitive-[e, a] 199

2.(d) noun+infinitive Compounds Followed by [den, dan] 199

3.(a) noun+infinitive-[], [E], [DE], [DEN] 200

4.(a) possessor noun+ V-[dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] 201

The Passive Infinitive 202

Modals 204

Present Modals 204

can, may [ebil, abil] 204

must [meli, mal] 208

have to (zorunda) 210

neednt (dont have to) 211

should (ought to) 212

Past Modals 214

Could 214

was (were) able to 215

would, could (polite request) 216

Perfect Modals 217

must have 217

cant (couldnt) have 219


13/441


12

should have (ought to have) 220

may have 221

might have 222

neednt have 222

didnt need to 223

Transformations (English) 224

The Nominalization of the Simple English Sentences 224

The Transformation of the Simple Sentences into Determiners 229

The Productivity of the Natural Languages 231

TheTransformed Simple Sentences Used as Adverbial Clauses 233

Turkish Sentence Nominalizations 235

Turkish Simple Sentence Nominalization 238

Transformed Nominal Phrases 239

The infinitives with [me, ma]: 240

The infinitives with [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk]: 241

Simple Sentence Nominalization 1: V - [DK] - [pers] - ([]) 241

The Simple Future Tense: V-[ecek, acak]-[pers]-[] 242

The Past Perfect: V-[mi, m, m, mu] + ol-[duk]-[pers]-[] 243

The Future Perfect V-[mi, m, m, mu] + ol-[duk]]-[pers]-[] 243

Simple Sentences with the Verb root ol (be) 243

Chain Noun Compounds 244

2. V- [DK]- [pers]-([]) 247

V-[M] + ol-[duk]-[pers]-([]) 250

Nominalized Sentences Containing question words 250

Turkish Determiner + Determined Compounds 253

Simple Sentences and Transformed Nominal Phrases 258

The Passive Transformation and the Passive Verb Frames 260

The Verb Frames 263

The Structural Composition of the Causative Verb Frames 264

A Short List of Verb Frames 265

The Order of Morphemes 271

Causative Verb Frame Examples 272

The Passive Causative 273

Syllabication 273

Dividing the Verb Compositions into Syllables 282

The Rumor Forms of the Simple Present, Continuous and Future Tenses 294

Negative Verb Compositions 297

Some Example Sentences of the Verb Frames 298

Adverbial Clauses (Postpositional Adverbial Phrases) 343


14/441


13

Time 343

before 343

after 348

when and while 349

while 352

as soon as 355

until 356

by and by the time 359

since 360

Cause or Reason 362

Contrast (Ramen) 364

Purpose 366

Place 370

Manner 371

as 371

as if (as though) 372

Result 374

so that such that 375

o kadar + adjective + noun-time + ki 376

too + adjective + to + V + iin and adjective + enough + to + Verb 376

Degree 378

Comparative Degree 378

Superlative Degree 380

Positive or Negative Equality 381

Parallel Proportion (Kout Uyum) 382

Wish 383

wish + would 383

wish + past subjunctive 384

wish + past perfect or perfect modal 385

Conditional Sentences 386

Present Real Supposition 386

Present Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition 389

Past Real Supposition 390

Past Unreal (contrary to fact) Supposition 391

Orders and Requests 393

Plain Orders and Requests 393

Polite Requests 394

Polite Refusals 395

Offers 395


15/441


14

{ V + [P] } 396

Question Tags ( deil mi?) 397So do I (Neither do I) 398

Conjunctions and Transitional Phrases 399

Intensifiers 406

Reported Speech 410

Roots, Stems and Verb Frames 411

Rational Sequencing 413

Morphemic Sequencing 421

The Inflectional Allomorphs Attached to Nouns and Nominal Phrases 421

The Inflectional Allomorphs Attached to Action Vebs 423

Dual InflectionalAllomorphs Attached to Verb Roots, Stems and Frames 424

The Inflectional Allomorphs Attached to "be" (ol) Verbs 425Modal Auxiliary Verbs 426

Oral Harmonic Sequencing 428

Morphemic and Oral Sequences 431

Symbols and Abbreviations 434

References 435


16/441


15

LOGICAL, MORPHEMIC, AND ORAL SEQUENCING

Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker in their books assert that the human

mind has an inborn logical ability which seperates a body of thought (a

sentence) into two parts to produce sentences. A person thinks logically that

a sentence should be about something or someone, and uses them as

subjects, and uses all the information given about the subjects as predi-

cates.

Chomsky calls them Nominal Phrase and Verbal Phrase, in short "NP +

VP".Additionally, the predicate part (VP) is also logically seperated into two

parts as a verb, andan object 'V + NP'. These logical storages are empty

before one starts learning his/her native language. When someone starts

hearing the sounds of his language, he loads these sounds with meaning,

and inserts them into these empty logical storages. Arranging these storages

in a row is also learned while someone is being exposed to his native lan-

guage. Therefore the order of the logical storages change from language to

language. These logical storages and their learned order are called the logi-

cal sequence of a sentence. The so called storages are also flexible

enough to hold the shortest and the longest language units.

The word verb "V" covers a verb root, a verb stem, or a verb frame, and

all the inflectional suffixes attached to them such as "ed", "ing", "s", and

auxiliary verbs such as "must", "may", "might", "can", "could", etc. preceded

by them. The verbs together with these inflectional suffixes and auxiliary

verbs constitude a verb composition concept and called a verb "V".

All subjects and objects, whether long or short, are Nominal Phrases. If a

verb is intransitive, it does not need an object (NP), so the predicate part

has only a verb, and some adverbs or adverbials. The predicates that have

"be" verbs are also considered Verbal Phrases.

The sentences described above are of three kinds:

1. A subject, a transitive verb, and an object: Jack killed a mouse.

subj V obj (NP)

NP VP

2. A subject and an intransitive verb: Jack sleeps.

subj V

NP VP3. A subject and a "be" complement: Jack is brave.

subj V

NP VP


17/441


16

Although these logical storages are inborn, their sequencing is learned

through the experiences of an individual. Therefore, the sequencing of the

subject and predicate, and that of the subject, verb, and object change

from language to language. For instance in English:

I am coming.Subj (NP) pred (VP)

(There are no personal suffixes attached to verbs in English.)

In Turkish: Geliyor um (ge*li*yo*rum)V subj (NP)

In Turkish, a personal concept is expressed by a personal suffix either at-

tached to a verb at the end of a sentence, or expressed by both a pronoun in

the beginning and a suffix at the end of a sentence. Using personal suffixes

attached to the ends of the Turkish sentences (except the third person sin-

gular) is a grammatical necessity.

Furthermore, the subject, verb, and object sequence of the English lan-

guage differs in Turkish as subject (pronoun), object, verb, subject (suffix);

orobject, verb,subject (suffix):

English: We are picking flowers.

subj (pron) V objTurkish 1: Biz iek topuyor-uz. = We are picking flowers.

subj (pron) obj V-subj (suffix)

Turkish 2: iek topluyor-uz. = We are picking flowers.obj V-subj (suffix)

The reason why there may be two identical alternative sentences in Turkish

is that one should compulsorily use a personal suffix attached to the verb in

a sentence, but if he wants to emphasize the subject, he could also use a

pronoun in the beginning of a sentence as well as a personal suffix repre-

senting the pronoun at the end.

If we use a sentence without a personal suffix, the sentence becomes un-

grammatical although it is understandable:

*Ben yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor. (ungrammatical)(Ben) yarn Ankara'ya gidiyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.)*Ben sen-i seviyor. (ungrammatical)

(Ben) sen-i veviyor-um. (grammatical) (Ben could be ignored.)

As a general syllabication rule in Turkish, the single underlined conso-

nants of the words or allomorphs detach from their syllables, and attach to

the first vowels of the following morphemes as in the examples above. This


18/441


17

operation of the oral sequence of the Turkish language reorganizes the

morphemic sequence to produce harmonic syllable sequences. The lines put

under the consonants are not used in writing.

One could estimate that there exist empty inborn logical subject-predicate,and subject-verb-object storages in one's mind ready to be filled with the

learned sequences of phonemes and morphemes in a newborn baby. A

newborn baby hears the sounds of his/her native language, learns which

sounds convey which words and morphemes. He/she also hears the se-

quences ofsubject-predicate, and subject-verb-object, and the syllables

of his/her native language. All these sounds and information gather in its

memory, and are inserted into the inborn storages to produce sensible

sentences.

All human beings are born eager to learn. This is an inherent instinct in

everybody, which Steven Pinker calls it "Language Instinct". Children do not

know what a subject, or an object is, but as soon as they learn the

interrogative concepts who?, what?, when?, where?, why?, how?,etc., they start asking questions. In all languages, question words ask for the

essential parts of a sentence such as subject, object, and adverbs oftime, place, reason, etc. So, he logically knows that who and what asksfor the subject, and whom and what asks for the object, and he also

understands that all the answers to the questions who, and what aresubjects, and whom and what are the objects. For instance:

Jack found a watch.who what

Jacks sisterfound a watch.who what

The boy who was walking along the street found a watch.who what

The boy who was walking along the street found the watch that I lost.who what

Jack saw a rabbit in the garden yesterday.who what where when

The house that Jack built collapsed suddenly last night.what how when

Jack found a watch while he was walking down the streed.who what when

Jack passed his examination with difficulty because he was lazy.who what how why


19/441


18

Jack saw Mary among the crowd.who whom where

Jack bought some flowers for his mother.who what for whom

Jack was coming from school.who from where

The parts that are not underlined in the sentences above are verbs. If

someone wants to ask about these verbs he says, What did jack do?, andfor the underlined parts he says, From where was Jack coming?, Wherewas Jack coming from?, Whom did Jack see?, etc.

Consequently, it is possible to say that a person fills the subject and predi-

cate logical storages using interrogative instruments.

As in all natural languages, the Turkish language production system governs

three groups of sequences. The first sequence is the logical sequence

which governs the basic network of a sentence in which all sentences take

form.

The second sequence is the morphemic sequence which arranges the se-

quence of the morphemes in the Turkish words.

The third sequence is the oral orphonological sequence, which arrangesthe syllables and the overall harmony of the allomorphs in a sentence.

THE TURKISH GRAMMAR

After the above short survey of the universal Transformational Generative

Grammar (with some interpretations of my own), we can begin with the

sound system of The Turkish language.

Turkish has 29 letters in its alphabet. Some of these letters / o, u, a, /and /, , e, i /are vowels (nller), and the others / b, c, , d, f, g, , h, j, k, l,m, n, p, r, s, , t, v, y, z /are consonants (nszler).

All the letters above represent phonemes, that is why they are shown be-

tween / / signs. Phonemics is not interested in detailed phonetic differ-ences. Some of the vowels / , , / do not exist in English. They are pro-nounced: // as in English again; // as in German schn; and // as inGerman htte respectively.

Among the consonants, there are the / , , / phonemes, which are pro-nounced as chas in church, shas in fish; and to produce the //


20/441


19

phoneme, which does not exist in English, first produce /g/ phoneme, and

make it longer by letting your breath pass between your tongue and the hard

palate of your mouth while vibrating your vocal cords.

THE TURKISH VOWEL AND CONSONANT HARMONY

Turkish is said to be an agglutinative language, which means that suffixes

are attached to word roots or stems one following the other in a sequence to

arrange words. To understand how these suffix chains are arranged, one

should understand the vowel and consonant harmony rules of the Turkish

language before one begins to attach suffixes to roots or stems, and to the

suffixes following them.

THE VOWEL HARMONY SEQUENCE

A Turkish speaker follows two certain harmony chains to produce a vowel

harmony sequence:

1. The hard vowel harmony chain. 2. The thin vowel harmony chain.

1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain is o u a2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain is ei

In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and // never repeat themselves. The

other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow ()points to the vowel that will follow the previous one. The arrows (), pointingto both directions, show that /i/may follow /e/, or /e/ may follow /i/. In the

hard vowel harmony chain, /a/and // do the same. Furthermore, besides the

arrows, the letters r are put under repeatable vowels to complete ourdiagrams:

1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain: o ur arr2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain: r erir

As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the

words in the Turkish language follow eitherthe first orthe second harmony

sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these

sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the

vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build


21/441


20

up meaningless chains made up of only vowels following the two vowel

chains:

o*u*u*a**a*, o*a**a, **e*e*i, *e*i*e, "***", "o*a"

For instance:

kom*u*ya (o*u*a);kom*u*lar*dan (o*u*a*a);ge*le*cek*ler (e*e*e*e);o*lu*tur*duk*la*r*mz*dan (o*u*u*u*a***a); u*nu*ta*lm (u*u*a*);o*ku*la (o*u*a);ten*ce*re*ye (e*e*e*e);ka*a*ma*ya*cak (a*a*a*a*a)

One could make up Turkish meaningless vowel chains as many as one

wishes using the above vowel chains. I advise those who are interested in

learning Turkish to make up vowel chains like the chains above, and repeat

them loudly again and again. In doing so, they can memorize the Turkishvowel harmony sequences easily and soundly as they learn a piece of

music. When they repeat them, they may even feel and sound as if they

were speaking Turkish.

As it has already been stated, borrowed words do not follow the vowel

harmony sequences, but the last syllables of such words are attached to

suffixes in accordance with the vowel and consonant harmony rules:

patates-ler-i (pa*ta*tes*le*ri) the potatoes; televizyon-u(te*le*viz*yo*nu) the television; mandalina-/y/ (man*da*li*na*y) the tangerine; sigara-/y/ (si*ga*ra*y) the cigarette.

The /y/ phonemes used above are glides (semivowels) (consonants)

inserted between two vowels to help them to pass the voice from one vowel

to the following one smoothly and harmoniously. They do not carry meaning.

One more thing to add to the explanation above is that the words that are

formed of two separate words do not follow the above vowel harmony se-quences:

kahverengi (kahve + rengi) brown; buzdolab (buz + dolab) refrige-rator; bilgisayar (bilgi + sayar) computer; tavanaras (tavan + aras)attic.

Besides the vowel harmony rules above, there are three more essential

vowel rules to consider:

1. The verbs ending with vowels drop these vowels when they attach to the

allomorphs of [.YOR]. These vowels are double underlined. Besides thedouble underlimed vowels, there are some consonants that are single un-


22/441


21

derlined which show that they detach from their syllables and attach to the

first vowels of the following allomorphs to produce new syllables.

Bekle-i.yor (bek*li*yor); bala-.yor (ba*l*yor); anla-.yor (an*l*yor);

gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor); oku-u.yor (o*ku*yor); atla-.yor (at*l*yor)ye-i.yor (yi*yor); gzle-.yor (gz*l*yor); gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor)

Gel-i.yor-um (ge*li*yo*rum); yz-.yor-uz (y*z*yo*ruz); i-er-im (i*e*rim); yaz-a.cak-m (ya*za*ca*m); yakalan-a.cak-z (ya*ka*la*-na*ca*z); gl-er-im (g*le*rim); kork-ar-z (kor*ka*rz)

2. When the last syllables of the nouns (including the infinitives), the verbs,

and the inflectional morphemes end with vowels, and the first vowels of the

following allomorphs start with the same vowels, these two vowels combine

and are articulated as a single vowel.For example, when the last vowel of

the word anne and the first vowel of the allomorph em happen to bearticulated together, they combine and are articulated as a single vowel:

anne-em (an*nem):

anne-en (an*nen); tarla-am (tar*lam); araba-an.z (a*ra*ba*nz);kafa-an (ka*fan); git-ti-in (git*tin); bekle-di-ik (bek*le*dik); gl-d-k (gl*dk); yakala-d-m (ya*ka*la*dm); git-me-em (git*mem);al-ma-am (a*l*mam); temizle-en-mek (te*miz*len*mek); Dinle-er

mi-sin? (din*ler / mi*sin); ol-sa-am (ol*sam), bil-se-em(bil*sem)

If the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of an allomorph happen to be

different, these two vowels are generally linked by the /y/ glides:

oku-ma-/y/z (o*ku*ma*yz); gel-me-/y/iz (gel*me*yiz); tava-/y/a (ta*va*ya);

THE CONSONANT HARMONY SEQUENCE

Consonants are grouped into two subdivisions:

voiced consonants: / b, c, d, g, , j, y, l, m, n, r, v, z /unvoiced consonants: / , f, k, p, s, , t /

The voiced consonants are the phonemes that are produced by vibrating

the vocal cords while the breath is passing through the throat. To under-

stand the voiced and unvoiced difference, first produce the /v/ phoneme,

which vibrates the vocal cords in your throat, and then, without changing the

position of your teeth and lips, produce the same sound without vibrating the

vocal cords to produce the unvoiced /f/ phoneme. In doing this, you feel no

vibration in your throat. The consonants that vibrate the vocal cords are

named voiced consonants; the unvoiced consonants do not vibrate


23/441


22

them. By the way, one should keep in mindthat all vowels and voiced con-

sonants vibrate the vocal cords.The vowels and the voiced consonants,

which vibrate the vocal cords, are called vocals. Only the unvoiced con-

sonants do not vibrate them. In Turkish, the voiced consonants are called

"yumuak (sedal) nszler", and the unvoiced consonants are called"sert nszler".

The /p/, //, /k/, /t/ unvoiced consonants change into their voiced counter-parts/b/, /c/, //, /d/ when they detach from their syllables and attach to thefirst vowels of the [i, , , u], or [e, a] allomorphs:

/p/ changes into /b/: kitap-, kitap-a (ki*ta*b, ki*ta*ba), sebep-i, sebep-e(se*be*bi, se*be*be), kebap-, kebap-a (ke*ba*b, ke*ba*ba), orap-,

orap-a (o*ra*b, o*ra*ba), dolap- (do*la*b, do*la*ba), arap-, arap-a(a*ra*b, a*ra*ba), hesap-, hesap-a (he*sa:*b, he*sa:*ba).

// changes into /c/: aa-, aa-a (a*a*c, a*a*ca), saya-, saya-a(sa*ya*c, sa*ya*ca), ama-, ama-a (a*ma*c, a*ma*ca), ayra-, ayra-a(ay*ra*c, ay*ra*ca), deme-i, deme-e (de*me*ci, de*me*ce).

/k/ changes into //: sokak-, sokak-a (so*ka*, so*ka*a), tabak-, tabak-a(ta*ba*, ta*ba*a), krek-i, krek-e (k*re*i, k*re*e), bebek-i, bebek-e(be*be*i, be*be*e), kpek-i, kpek-e (k*pe*i, k*pe*e), ayak-, ayak-a

(a*ya*, a*ya*a), bardak-, bardak-a (bar*da*, bar*da*a).

/t/ changes into /d/: adet-i, adet-e (a*de*di, a*de*de), kanat-, kanat-a (ka*-na*d, ka*na*da), umut-u, umut-a (u*mu:*du, u*mu:*da), yourt-u, yourt-a(yo*ur*du, yo*ur*da). As an exception: sepet-i, sepet-e (se*pe*ti, se*pe*-te), nbet-i, nbet-e (n*be*ti, n*be*te).

When the nouns or pronouns ending with /p, t, k, / consonants detach fromtheir syllables and attach to the first vowels of the [in, n, n, un] allomorphs,their last consonants /p, t, k, / change into their voiced counterparts/b, d, , c/ respectively.

kitap-n (ki*ta*bn), sebep-in (se*be*bin), kebap-n (ke*ba*bn), orap-n(o*ra*bn), aa-n (a*a*cn), ama-n (a*ma*cn), sokak-n (so*ka*n),krek-in (k*re*in), bebek-in (be*be*in), ayak-n (a*ya*n), kanat-n(ka*na*dn), yourt-un (yo*ur*dun).

Some /t/ phonemes, however, do not change:

hayat (ha*ya:*t), (ha*ya:*ta), (ha*ya:*tn); sanat (san*a*t), (san*a*ta),(san*a*tn); sfat (s*fa*t), (s*fa*ta), (s*fa*tn); saat (sa*a*ti), (sa*a*te),sa*a*tin); sepet (se*pe*ti), (se*pe*te), (se*pe*tin); glet (g*le*ti),(g*le*te), (g*le*tin); demet (de*me*ti), (de*me*te), (de*me*tin).


24/441


23

The monosyllabic noun roots ending with unvoiced consonants do not

change when they get the [], [E], [DE], [DEN] and the personalmorphemes:

ek (eki, eke, ekte, ekten, ekin); sap (sap, sapa, sapta, saptan, sapn); ip

(ipi, ipe, ipte, ipten, ipin);hap(hap, hapa, hapta, haptan, hapn);tp(tp,tpe, tpte, tpten, tpn);top (topu, topa, topta, toptan, topun);sa(sa,saa, sata, atan, san); i (ii, ie, ite, iten, iin); g (g, ge,gte, gten, gn); ma (ma, maa, mata, matan, man); kk(kk, kke, kkte, kkten, kkn);ok (oku, oka, okta, oktan, okun ),yk(yk, yke, ykte, ykten, ykn);krk (krk, krke, krkte,krkn);Trk(Trk, Trke, Trkte, Trkten, Trkn);at (at, ata, atta, attan,atn); et(eti,ete, ette, etten, etin);st(st, ste, stte, stten, stn);ot (otu, ota,otta, ottan, otun); kart(kart, karta, kartta, karttan, kartn).

However, the final consonants of some monosyllabic nouns do change

when they are attached only to [i, , , u], [e, a] and [in, n, n, un] allo-morphs. They do not change when they are attached to the allomorphs of

the morphemes of [DE] and [DEN]:

but(budu, buda, budun, butta, buttan); dip (dibi, dibe, dibin, dipte, dipten);

ok (ou, oa, oun, okta, oktan); gk (g, ge, gn, gkte,gkten); kap (kab, kaba,kabn, kapta, kaptan); u (ucu, uca, ucun, uta,

utan); yurt (yurdu, yurda, yurdun, yurtta, yurttan); kurt (kurdu, kurda,kurdun, kurtta, kurttan); tat (tad, tada, tadn, tatta, tattan).

When [] or [E] morphemes come after the nouns ending with vowels, the /y/linking semivowels (glides) are inserted between these two vowels to pro-

vide a harmonious link:

Testi (tes*ti*/y/i, tes*ti*/y/e);araba (a*ra*ba*/y/, a*ra*ba*/y/a);tarla (tar*-la*/y/, tar*la*/y/a); salata (sa*la*ta*/y/, sa*la*ta*/y/a); mart (mar*t*/y/,mar*t*/y/a); tava (ta*va*/y/, ta*va*/y/a); teneke (te*ne*ke*/y/I, te*ne*ke-*/y/e); makara (ma*ka*ra*/y/, ma*ka*ra*/y/a); kundura (kun*du*ra*/y/,kun*du*ra*/y/a); kafa (ka*fa*/y/, ka*fa*/y/a); su (su*/y/u, su*/y/a).

When the nouns ending with vowels are attached to the possessor per-

sonal allomorphs of [N], [in, n, n, un], which are used in the possessorparts of the noun compounds, the /n/ glides are inserted between the two

vowelssuch as:

araba-/n/n (a*ra*ba*nn)testi-/n/in (tes*ti*nin)

ordu-/n/un (or*du*nun)

yk-/n/n (y*k*nn)


25/441


24

sergi-/n/in (ser*gi*nin)

kafa-/n/n (ka*fa*nn)makara-/n/n (ma*ka*ra*nn)mart-/n/n (mar*t*nn)

However, when pronouns are used in the possessor position, they are

suffixed with the [im, in, un, im, in, n] allomorphs:

ben-im (be*nim), sen-in (se*nin), o/n/-un (o*/n/un), biz-im (bi*zim), siz-in (si*zin), o/n/-lar-n (o/n/*la*rn)

Note: The single underlined consonants in the examples above show theconsonants that detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels ofthe following allomorphs while the syllabication process is going on.

Exception: su (su*/y/un). Example: (a*ra*ba*/n/n / h*z),(su*/y/un / h*z)

MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful language units in lan-

guages. For instance, the word um*brel*la has three syllables. None ofthese three syllables are significant units on their own; they have sense only

when they are heard or articulated together. So, these three syllables form

a single shortest meaningful unit together, and consequently, umbrella is

both a morpheme and a word. Such words are called free morphemes.

However, although the suffixes are also the smallest meaningful units, they

do not convey any sense unless they are attached to roots or stems. Such

morphemes are called bound morphemes.

All the words have roots orstems like open, soft-en, clean, beauty,success, book, etc. Some morphemes (suffixes or prefixes) are attachedto these roots orstems. For instance, open-ed, clean-ed, success-ful,

beauti-ful, "whiten-ed" teach-er, ir-respons-ible, un-count-able, un-necessari-ly, go-ing, etc. Look at page 409 for roots, stems and verbframes.

As one could see, there are two kinds of suffxes and prefixes in the givenexamples above. Some of these morphemes change the meaning and the

part ofspeech they belong with when they are attached to different roots or

stems.Some others, however, add certain inflectional meanings to verb

and noun roots or stems such as tense, voice, person, mood, number,

direction or state without changing theirroot orstem meanings.

A morpheme that changes the meaning of a root or stem is called a

derivational morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not change


26/441


25

the meaning of a root or stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (ekimeki). Both the derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound

morphemes.

Some bound morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciationvariants that bear the same meaning as the morphemes. For instance, in

English, when the plural [S]morpheme is attached to the noun book, it ispronounced as /s/; in boy-s as/z/; and in box-es as /iz/. As they are thedifferent pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named

as the allomorphs of the morpheme [S].

There are a lot more allomorphs in Turkish than there are in English. This

is because bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant

changes according to the vowel and consonant rules of the Turkish lan-guage when they are attached to roots or stems and to one another, and this

process causes different allomorphs to arise. All the allomorphs of a certain

morpheme carry the same meaning vocalizing differently, and therefore they

do not change the meaning of the morphemes because The Turkish sound

system functions independently of the Turkish morphemic system.

THE DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Anlaml Yapm Ekleri Ve Onlarn Altbiimbirimleri

Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the

lexical meaning orthe part of speech of a word used in a sentence:

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS TO PRODUCE NOUNS

[C] allomorphs: [ci, c, c, cu, i, , , u]

When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels or voiced consonants) are at-

tached to the morpheme [C], the /i/ vowel in this morpheme changes into /i,, , u/ in accordance with the vowel harmony rules. However, if a noun endswith an unvoiced consonant, the /c/ voiced consonants also change into the

// unvoiced consonants in agreement with the consonant harmony rules:

peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-c (postman), zm-c (grapes seller), tur-u-cu (pickles seller), sepet-i (basket maker),balk- (fisherman),st-(milkman), ok-u (archer), a-(cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci (cof-fee seller), saat-i (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-c (furniture seller), ka-ak- (smuggler), musluk-u (plumber), yaban-c (foreigner), iek-i(florist), yol-cu (traveler), sanat- (artist), gz-c (watch, watchman), sz-c (spokesman), politika-c (politician), milliyet-i (nationalist), di-i (den-tist), kira-c (tenant), ark-c (singer), brek-i (someone who sells pies),boya-c (painter), demir-ci (blacksmith), halter-ci (weight lifter).


27/441


26

[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk]

meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept),kitap-lk (bookcase), gz-lk (eye-glasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), az-lk (cigarette

holder), kulak-lk (headphones), aydan-lk (tea pot), mezar-lk (grave-yard),eker-lik (a bowl in which candies are kept), okevli-lik (polygamy),tuz-luk (saltshaker), ocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lk (farce, foolery),soytar-lk (clowning), dost-luk (friendship), dman-lk (enmity), gece-lik(pajamas, nightgown), n-lk (apron), gven-lik (safety), anne-lik (moth-erhood), evlat-lk (adopted child), kahraman-lk (heroism).

[C-LK]allomorphs: [ci.lik, c.lk, c.lk, cu.luk, i.lik, .lk, .lk, u.luk]

av-c.lk (hunting), meyve-ci.lik (selling fruit),n-c.lk (leadership), yol-cu-luk (traveling), a-.lk (cooking), fal-c.lk (fortune telling), tefe-ci.lik(usury),iek-i.lik (selling flowers),if-i.lik(farming), hava-c.lk (aviation),balk-.lk (fishing), kaak-.lk (smuggling), p-.lk (scavenge)

[CK] allomorphs: [cik, ck,ck, cuk, ik, k, k, uk] (diminutive)

ev-cik (small house), kap-ck(small door), kpr-ck (small bridge),kutu-

cuk (small box),eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree),kadn-ck(little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby).

[CE.IZ] allomorphs: [ce.iz, ca.z, e.iz, a.z] (innocence)

kedi-ceiz (innocent cat), kz-caz (innocent girl), hayvan-caz (inno-cent animal), kpek-eiz(innocent dog), ku-az (innocent bird).

[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a]

ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e(Turkish), Rus-a (Rus-sian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese),Arap-a (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian),Rum-ca (Greek).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES

[CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul]

ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)

[L] allomorphs: [li, l, l, lu]


28/441


27

ev-li (married),ocuk-lu (with children),emsiye-li (with an umbrella),bah-e-li ev (house with a garden), iyah ceket-li adam (the man in a blackcoat),krmz-l kadn (the woman in red),grg-l (having good manners,polite),iek-li aa (a tree in blossom), yamur-lu (rainy),kar-l (snowy),

sis-li (foggy, misty),gne-li (sunny),bulut-lu (cloudy),tuz-lu (salty),at-l(man on horseback), istek-li (willing),becerik-li (skillful), amur-lu (muddy),hesap-l (economical), sayg-l (respectful), su-lu (criminal), hata:-l(faulty), tat-l (sweet),mayo-lu (in a bathing suit),st-l (with milk, milky),paha-l (expensive), ta kafa-l (stone headed), Adana-l (from Adana),srek-li (continuous),hiddet-li (outrageous), kl-l (hairy),bilin-li (inten-tional, conscious),zarar-l (harmful),tehlike-li (dangerous),phe-li (suspi-cious, suspect), yer-li (native),iki bacak-l (two legged),kanat-l (winged),

kayg-l (anxious),umut-lu (hopeful),gerek-li (necessary),yetenek-li (tal-ented), bam-l (addicted, dependent), silah-l (armed), renk-li (colored),kr-l (profitable),zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), nee-li (joyful),kusur-lu (faulty), grlt-l (noisy), deer-li (precious), gerek-li (neces-sary), dnce-li (thoughtful),yrek-li (brave),ayrnt-l (detailed, in detail),sorum-lu (responsible), mantk-l (rational),g-l (strong),rt-l (cov-ered),his-li (sensitive),hrs-l (ambitious),hz-l (fast),tertip-li (tidy),tuz-lu(salty), buz-lu (icy), amur-lu (muddy), kir-li (dirty), pasak-l (untidy),kor-ku-lu (frightening, scary), hak-l (right, fair), kast-l (intentional), hesap-l

(economical), meme-li (mammal), tecrbe-li, deneyim-li (experienced),falso-lu (erroneous), kasvet-li (gloomy, doleful), kuku-lu (dubious, sus-picious), onur-lu, gurur-lu (proud), dayank-l (durable), dikkat-li (care-ful), becerik-li (skillful), yama-l (patchy), dokunak-l (pungent), grev-li(on duty), yarar-l (useful), karar-l (firm, determined), grkem-li (magnif-icent), atafat-l (pompous), akl-l (intelligent), rahmet-li (deceased), ya-l(aged) dert-li (in trouble, miserable), eker-li (sweet), su-lu (saucy), fayda-l (useful), gizem-li (mysterious), korku-lu (frightening, horrifying), duygu-lu(emotional, sensitive), heyecan-l (exciting, nervous), tertip-li (tidy), ilerigr-l (foreseeing), huzur-lu (peaceful), keyif-li (cheerful), yetki-li (au-thorized), balant-l (related, agglutinative), boya-l (painted), cila-l (ci*-l:*l) (finished, varnished), cilt-li (hardback), yay-l (with springs), ayrnt-l(detailed, in detail), l-l (restrained), g-l (strong), tr-l tr-l (allsorts of), besbel-li (obvious), isabet-li (i*sa:*bet*li) (right, to the purpose),

geer-li (valid), baar-l (successful), inan-l (believer), diren-li (resis-tive), kant-l (proven, supported by evidence), yn-l (woollen), pamuk-lu(cotton), ate-li (fiery, zealous), izgi-li (lined, striped), yldz-l (starry, star-

lit), boya-l (painted), kyma-l brek (mince pie), gne-li (sunny), toz-lu(dusty), aa-l (wooded), iek-li (flowered), desen-li (patterned, figured),yaldz-l (gilded), ss-l (ornamented), kymet-li (precious, valuable), kuy-


29/441


28

ruk-lu (tailed), zahmet-li (difficult, hard), temkin-li (cautious).

[SZ] allomorphs: [siz, sz, sz, suz]

korku-suz (fearless), istek-siz (unwilling), yamur-suz (rainless), aa-sz (treeless), defo-suz (flawless), uyku-suz (sleepless), bilin-siz(unconscious), karar-sz (hesitant), sorum-suz (irresponsible), dikkat-siz(careless),ama-sz (aimless),kalp-siz (heartless), yrek-siz (timid), nee-siz (ne*e*siz)(sad), mit-siz, umut-suz (desperate, hopeless), taban-sz(timid), sayg-sz (disrespectful), mantk-sz (irrational), temel-siz (unsound,baseless), renk-siz (colorless), gerek-siz (unnecessary), bam-sz (inde-pendent), perva:-sz (reckless), kafa-sz (stupid), sevgi-siz (loveless),

terbiye-siz (impolite, rude), grg-sz (impolite), becerik-siz (incompe-tent),imkn-sz (impossible), deer-siz (worthless), ses-siz (silent),eker-siz (without sugar), gerek-siz (unnecessary), dnce-siz (thoughtless),sorum-suz (irresponsible), mesnet-siz (baseless), tasa-sz (carefree),ahlk-sz (immoral), yz-sz (impudent), huy-suz (perverse), akl-sz(foolish), dayanak-sz (baseless), dayank-sz (not durable), duygu-suz(senseless), kusur-suz (faultless), ta:lih-siz (unfortunate), kymet-siz(worthless), tehlike-siz (safe), tat-sz (tasteless), haya-sz (shameless,impudent), tertip-siz (untidy), yarar-sz (useless), tutar-sz. (inconsistent),

ama-sz (aim-less), deer-siz (worthless), zarar-sz (harmless), koku-suz(odorless), neden-siz (causeless), acma-sz (merciless), taraf-sz (impar-tial), yetenek-siz (incompetent), su-suz (innocent), denge-siz (unbal-anced), keyif-siz (low-spirited), kayg-sz (indifferent), tasa-sz (carefree),deneyim-siz (inexperienced), kuku-suz (without doubt), uygun-suz(inappropriate), surat-sz (sour faced), denge-siz (unbalanced), kontrol-suz (uncontrolled), kymet-siz (worthless), anlam-sz (insignificant, non-sense), eitim-siz (uneducated), bilgi-siz (ignorant), inan-sz (faithless),

huzur-suz (fidgety), annes-siz (motherless),leke-siz (stainless), kayg-sz(without anxiety), denge-siz (unbalanced), uyum-suz (unharmonious).

[SEL]allomorphs: [sel, sal]

bilim-sel (scientific),evren-sel (universal), deney-sel (experimental, empir-

ical), yzey-sel (superficial), duygu-sal (emotional, sensational), sanat-sal(artistic), yap-sal (structural), gelenek-sel (traditional), dn-sel (mental),tarih-sel (historical), tarih (historic), kavram-sal (conceptual), kimya-sal(chemical), fizik-sel (physical), ant-sal (monumental), yaam-sal (vital),din-sel (religious), ulus-sal (u*lu*sal) (national),evre-sel (environmental),

kalt-sal (hereditary), onur-sal (honorary), bitki-sel (herbal), hayvan-sal


30/441


29

(zoological), tarm-sal (agricultural), us-sal (us*sal) (mental, rational),tanr-sal (divine, celestial), yrnge-sel (orbital),kurum-sal (institutional,corpo-rate), kamu-sal (public), kre-sel (global, spherical), kr-sal (rural),rgt-sel (organizational), toplum-sal (social, common), belge-sel (do-

cumental), kurgu-sal (fictional), ruh-sal (psychological), beden-sel (cor-poral), birey-sel (individual), alg-sal (perceptual), say-sal (numerical,digital), simge-sel (symbolic).

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES TO PRODUCE NOUNS

[LK]allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk]

iyi-lik (favor), scak-lk (temperature), zgr-lk (freedom), uzun-luk(length), geni-lik (width), gzel-lik (beauty), irkin-lik (ugliness), drst-lk (honesty), aptal-lk (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage),baya-lk (meanness), iyimser-lik (optimism), ktmser-lik (pessimism),uak-lk (servitude), yalnz-lk (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality),kahraman-lk (heroism), vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lk (rudeness),duygusal-lk (sensitivity), dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), ret-ken-lik (productivity),kresel-lik (globalism),aalk kompleksi (inferioritycomplex), arsz-lk (impudence), geveze-lik (chattering), dncesiz-lik

(inconsiderateness), mutsuz-luk (unhappiness),a-lk (hunger, starvation),g-lk (difficulty), saydam-lk (transparency), utanga-lk (shyness),uzak-lk (distance),yakn-lk (closeness, sympathy), kstah-lk (insolence),kurak-lk (drought),rkek-lik (shyness), sersem-lik (dizziness), hovarda-lk (debauchery), alkan-lk (addiction), yksek-lik (height), derin-lik(depth), krmz-lk (redness), kt-lk (wickedness, evil), kurnaz-lk(craftiness), drst-lk (honesty), karamsar-lk (moodiness), kolay-lk(ease, facility), tembel-lik (lazyness), kira-lk (ki*ra:*lk) (to let, for

hire)zel-lik (speciality), zgn-lk (originality, genuineness), kararsz-lk(hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance),srekli-lik (continuity), kararl-lk (determination, avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik)(idleness), yzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kt-lk (famine),sarknt-lk (molestation), kibar-lk (kindness, politeness), dayankl-lk(durability), bo-luk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence),yal-lk (agedness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk(irresponsibility), gayretke-lik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lk (callousness),

tutarsz-lk (inconsistency), deli-lik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik)

(ignorance), benzer-lik(resemblance), karamsar-lk (moodiness), gzel-lik(beauty), kzgn-lk (anger), bak-lk (immunity), dman-lk (enmity,hostility), budala-lk, ahmak-lk(stupidity, idiocy)


31/441


30

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS TO PRODUCE NOUNS

In agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system, the last

consonants of the last syllables of the verbs detach from their syllables,

and attach to the first vowels of the following derivational allomorphs whileforming new syllables. These consonants are single underlined:

[]allomorphs: [i, , , u]

diz-i (di*zi)(string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz- (ya*z)(script, text), l-(l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense),gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k)(jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t)(scales),art- (ar*t)

(plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru)(question), rt- (r*t)(any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework),yet-i(ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l),(corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma,perfume), bl- (b*l)(slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), gldr- (comedy)do-u (do*u) (east), bat- (ba*t) (west), arp- (cross, times), bl- (b*l)

[M]allomorphs: [im, m, m, um, em, am]

se-im (se*im) (election), al-m (a*lm)(purchase),l-m (*lm)(death),yk-m (y*km) (disaster, demolition), yut-um (yu*dum) (gulp), ek-im(e*kim) (October), ak-m (a*km) (current),ret-im (*re*tim) (production),geli-im (ge*li*im) (improvement), kar-m (ka*r*m) (mixture),dn-m (d*n*m) (transformation), ek-im (e*kim) (attraction), geril-im(ge*ri*lim) (tension), tasar-m (ta*sa*rm) (plan, design), kavra-am (kav-*ram) (concept), denkle-em(denk*lem)(equation), ekle-em(ek*lem) (joint),

tket-im (t*ke*tim) (consumption), yakla-m (yak*la*m) (approach),benze-im (ben*ze*im) (similarity, resemblance), ileti-im (i*le*ti*im)

(communication), bili-im (bi*li*im) (informatics), de/y/-im (de*yim)(expression, idiom), say-m (sa*ym) (census), giy-im (gi*yim) (clothing),z-m (*zm) (solution),ky-m (k*ym) (massacre),al-m (a**lm)(expansion),yatr-m (ya*t*rm) (investment),al-m, sat-m (a*lm,sa*tm)(buying and selling, trade, commerce),giy-im (gi*yim) (attire),salk-m (sal*-km) (bunch), bir salkm zm (a bunch of grapes), uy-um (u*yum) (ac-cordance). dn-em (d*nem) (period), yaa-am (ya*am) (life), anla-am(an*lam) (meaning), devin-im (de*vi*nim) (movement), dene-/y/im (de*ne*-

yim) (experience), gzle-em (gz*lem) (observation), syle-em (sy*lem)(expression), ge-im (ge*im) (living), iz-im (i*zim) (drawing, design),al-m (a*lm) (feint), al-m (a*lm) (purchase), sr-m (sale), yatr-m(ya*t*rm) (investment), yalt-m (ya*l*tm)(insulation).


32/441


31

When the identical vowels written in bold face follow one another, they

combine and are pronounced as single vowels; and the single underlined

consonants detach from their syllables, and attach to the first vowels of the

following allomorphs in agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish

sound system.

[K]allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk, ek, ak]

del-ik (de*lik) (hole),art-k (ar*tk) (left over), ksr-k (k*s*rk) (coughtkr-k (t*k*rk) (spit, saliva), aksr-k (ak*s*rk) (sneeze), bula-k(bu*la*k) (dirty dishes), kayna-ak (kay*nak) (source, spring, origin), belle-ek (bel*lek) (memory), tara-ak(ta*rak) (comb), yama-ak(ya*mak) (appren-

tice), de-ek (d*ek) (mattress), kapa-ak (ka*pak) (lid), e-ik (e*ik)

(threshold), dene-ek (de*nek) (experimental subject, object, or animal),tekerle-ek (te*ker*lek) (wheel), kay-k (ka*yk) (boat), bat-k (ba*tk)(submerged), iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), atla-ak (at*lak) (crack)

[EK] allomorphs: [ek, ak]

Tapn-ak (ta*p*nak) (temple), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski), sa-ak (sa*ak)(fringe), u-ak (u*ak) (airplane), yat-ak (ya*tak) (bed), ka-ak (ka*ak)(escaped), dayan-ak (da*ya*nak) (support), kes-ek (ke*sek) (a lump of

earth), l-ek (l*ek) (scale), ben-ek (be*nek) (spot), dn-ek (d*nek)(someone whom you cannot trust, incredulous), yan-ak (ya*nak) (cheek),

dzen-ek (d*ze*nek) (mechanism), geve-ek (loose), kayna-ak (source)

[G]allomorphs: [gi, g, g, gu, ki, k, k, ku]

sev-gi (love, affection); al-g (music instrument); sr-g (bolt); sor-gu(interrogation); bas-k (pressure); as-k (hanger); r-g (knitting); gr-g(good manners); dol-gu (filling); ver-gi (tax); et-ki(impression);sar-g (ban-

dage); ser-gi (exhibition); ez-gi (melody); say-g (respect); yanl-g (mis-take); vur-gu (accent, stress);kur-gu (abstract thought, speculation);yer-gi

(satire); der-gi (periodical, magazine); yar-g (judgment); yaz-g (fate,destiny); ol-gu (fact);duy-gu (sensation); i-ki (alcoholic beverage, drink);at-k (scarf); et-ki (impression, stimulus);kat-k (aid, help, additive);gr-g(experience, good manners); kork-ku (fright) (The double underlined "k"

drops.); yet-ki (authority); co-ku (excitement); tep-ki (response,reaction); al-g (perception); sal-g (secretion); kes-ki (chisel); tut-ku

(ambition, passion); sez-gi (intuition); iz-gi (line); diz-gi (composition,string);bit-ki (plant); bul-gu (discovery, finding).

[E]allomorphs: [e, a]


33/441


32

sr-e (s*re) (process, procedure), tk-a (t*ka) (plug, wag, stoppage),

deme-e (de*me) (statement), sark-a (sar*ka) (pendulum), ayr-a(ay*ra) (bracket)

[EY]allomorphs: [ey, ay]

dene-ey (de*ney) (experiment), yap-ay (ya*pay) (artificial), ol-ay (o*lay)

(event), d-ey (d*ey) (vertical), yat-ay (ya*tay) (horizontal), yz-ey(y*zey) (surface), uza-ay (u*zay) (space).

[.C]allomorphs: [i.ci, .c, .c, u.cu]

Dinle-/y/i.ci (din*le*yi*ci) (listener), sat-.c (sa*t*c) (seller), yz-.c(y*z*c) (swimmer), ko-u.cu (ko*u*cu) (runner), bl-.c (b*l*c)

(separatist), tara-/y/.c (ta*ra*y*c) (scanner), al-.c (a*l*c) (receiver),bak-.c (ba*k*c) (companion), bebek bakcs (baby sitter), tut-u.cu(tu*tu*cu) (conservative), kal-.c (ka*l*c) (lasting, durable) (adj), yaz-.c(ya*z*c) (printer), doyur-u.cu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfactory) (adj), inandr-.c(i*nan*d*r*c) (persuasive) (adj), ldr-.c (l*d*r*c) (adj) (deadly,fatal). If a verb ends with vowel, and the allomorph starts with a different

vowel, the /y/ glide is inserted between these vowels by the oral sequence.

[E.CEK]allomorphs: [e.cek, a.cak]

sil-e.cek (si*le*cek) (wiper), gel-e.cek (ge*le*cek) (future), a-a.cak(a*a*cak) (opener), ek-e.cek (e*ke*cek) (shoehorn), yak-a.cak(ya*ka*cak) (fuel).

[MEK] allomorphs: [mek, mak]

ye-mek (meal), ak-mak (lighter), ek-mek (bread), kay-mak (cream)

[ME]allomorphs: [me, ma]

dondur-ma (ice cream), dol-ma (green peppers, eggplants or marrows

stuffed with mince, rice, etc.), kavur-ma (fried pieces of meat), hala-ma(boiled meat), dene-me (essay), dv-me (tattoo), as-ma (vine), kaz-ma(pickax), aydnlan-ma (enlightenment).ky-ma (ky*ma) (minced meat), in-me (in*me) (stroke), bas-ma (bas*ma) (printed cloth), yz-me (yz*me)


kes-ik (ke*sik) (cut), k-k (*kk) (dislocated joint), yar-k (ya*rk) (slash),iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), r-k (*rk) (decay), sar-k (sa*rk) (turban),kaz-k (ka*zk) (stake, unreasonably expensive), yrt-k (yr*tk) (tear), del-


34/441


33

ik (de*lik) (hole) ele-ek (e*lek) (sieve), ada-ak (a*dak) (oblation), kay-ak

(ka*yak) (ski).

[CE]allomorphs: [ce, ca]

dn-ce (d*n*ce) (thought),elen-ce (e*len*ce) (entertainment), bil-me-ce (bil*me*ce) (riddle, word puzzle),dzme-ce (dz*me*ce) (lie, fake),ekme-ce (ek*me*ce) (drawer), glme-ce (gl*me*ce) (comedy)

[N.T] allomorphs: [in.ti, n.t, n.t, un.tu, en.ti, an.t]

ak-n.t (a*kn*t) (current), al-n.t (a*ln*t) (quotation), bala-an.t (ba*-lan*t) (connection, link), bekle-en.ti (bek*len*ti) (expectation), bula-an.t

(bu*lan*t) (qualm), bul-un.tu (bu*lun*tu), (antique), arp-n.t (ar*pn*t)(palpitation), k-n.t (*kn*t) (bulge) k-n.t (*kn*t) (collapse),dk-n.t (d*kn*t) (rubbish, rash), ekle-en.ti (ek*len*ti) (addition), es-in.ti (e*sin*ti) (breeze), gez-in.ti (ge*zin*ti) (tour, walk), gir-in.ti (gi*rin*ti)

(dent), gr-n.t (g*rn*t) (image), il-in.ti (i*lin*ti) (relation), kal-n.t (ka*-ln*t) (remnant), ka-n.t (ka*n*t) (itching), kaz-n.t (ka*zn*t) (scrap-ings), kes-in.ti (ke*sin*ti) (subtraction, stoppage, interruption), kr-n.t(k*rn*t) (crumb), kur-un.tu (ku*run*tu) (unfounded suspicion), rastla-an.t(ras*lan*t) (coincidence), salla-an.t (sal*lan*t) (quake), sk-n.t (s*kn*t)

(boredom), sz-n.t (s*zn*t) (leakage), tak-n.t (ta*kn*t) (fixation,obsession), syle-en.ti(sy*len*ti) (rumor), topla-an.t (top*lan*t) (meeting),sapla-an.t (sap*lan*t) (obsession), bala-an.t (connection, link).

[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]

ak- (a*k) (fluency), al- ver-i (a*l / ve*ri) (shopping), anla-/y/(an*la*y) (understanding, sympathy), bak- (ba*k) (look, looking) , at-(a*t), (gunfire, throw, round), bekle-/y/i (bek*le*yi) (waiting), benze-

/y/i (ben*ze*yi) (resemblance), bul-u (bu*lu) (discovery), k- (*k)(exit, outlet), k- (*k) (collapse, fall), davran- (dav*ra*n) (be-havior), diren-i (di*re*ni) (resistance, disobedience), diril-i (di*ri*li)(resurrection, revival), dizil-i (di*zi*li) (sequence), dokun-u (do*ku*nu)(touch), dn- (d*n) (return), dur-u (du*ru) (position), d-(d*) (decline, downfall), gel-i (ge*li) (arrival, coming), gir-i (gi*ri)(entry, entrance), git-i (gi*di) (going, departure), grn- (g*r*n)(appearance), gr- (g*r) (view, opinion), gr- birlii (g*r /bir*li*i) (agreement, consensus), haykr- (hay*k*r) (scream), ka-(ka*) escape, kapan- (ka*pa*n) (closing, closure), kurtul-u(kur*tu*lu) (liberation), kurul-u (ku*ru*lu) (foundation), sat- (sa*t)(sale), sr- (s*r) (drive, driving), tken-i (t*ke*ni) (exhaustion),


35/441


34

yakar- (ya*ka*r) (appeal), yalvar- (yal*va*r) (beseeching), yksel-i (yk*se*li) (rise, growth), yr-/y/ (y*r*y) (walk)

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS TO PRODUCE ADJECTIVES

[.C] allomorphs: [i.ci, .c, .c, u.cu]

del-i.ci (de*li*ci) (piercing), kal-.c (ka*l*c) (lasting), sars-.c (sar*s*c)(shocking), yarat-.c (ya*ra*t*c) (creative), bula-.c (bu*la**c) (con-tagious), art-.c (a*r*t*c) (confusing), yak-.c (ya*k*c) (burning),t-.c (**t*c) (grinding), tazele-/y/i.ci (ta*ze*le*yi*ci) (refreshing),it-i.ci (i*ti*ci) (repulsive),aldat-.c (al*da*t*c) (deceptive),z-.c (*z*-c) (saddening), doyur-u.cu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfying),ge-ici (ge*i*ci)(temporary), ez-i.ci ounluk (overwhelming majority), sk-.c (s*k*c)(boring), yk-.c (y*k*c) (destructive, devastating), koru-/y/u.cu (ko*ru*-yu*cu) (protective), kr-.c (k*r*c) (injurious, unkind), yan-.c (ya*n*c)(inflammable), z-.c (painful).


a-k (a*k) (open), kr-k (k*rk) (broken), bat-k (ba*tk)(sunken), g-k(g*k) (collapsed), del-ik (de*lik)(pierced, hole), ez-ik (e*zik) (mashed),e-ik (e*ik) (bent), r-k (*rk) (decayed), art-k (ar*tk) (left over),ka-k (ka*k) (silly), atla-ak (at*lak) (crack), ka-ak (ka*ak) (escaped)ek-ik (e*kik)(slanting), k-k (*kk) (dislocated), rk-ek (r*kek) (timid,shy), kork-ak (kor*kak) (coward(ly), geve-ek(gev*ek) (loose)

Note: The last syllables are stressed.

[KN]allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]

se-kin(se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn(astonished),

ili-kin(concerning,connected), sus-kun(silent), pi-kin(well done, impu-dent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce),dz-gn (smooth),ol-gun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin(discour-aged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack(noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stag-nant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original), say-gn (honorable), yay-gn(common, widespread), kz-gn (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suit-able, convenient), z-gn (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kn (inclined to do)

[R]allomorphs: [er, ar]

al-ar saat (a*lar) (alarm clock), ak-ar su (running water), gl-er yz(smiling face), ko-ar adm (running pace), uyu-urgez-er(sleep walker).


36/441


35

[EN]allomorphs: [en, an]

ko-an (ko*an) (running), sol-an (so*lan) (fading), al-an (a*l*an)(working), yr-/y/en (y*r*yen)(walking), konu-an (ko*nu*an) (talking),

dilimle-/y/en (di*lim*le*yen) (slicing), kes-en (ke*sen) (cutting), p-en(*p*en) (kissing), bekle-/y/en (bek*le*yen) (waiting), art-an (ar*tan)(increasing), geli-en (ge*li*en) (developing), dn-en (d*nen) (turning,circling), glmse-/y/en (g*lm*se*yen) (smiling), bala-/y/an (ba*la*-yan) (tying, connecting), bitme-/y/en (bit*me*yen) (unending)

Note:The morpheme above and its allomorphs are also used in transform-

ing simple sentences intodeterminer+noun compounds. Therefore, theyare also inflectional suffixes.

[M] allomorphs: [mi, m, m, mu]

sol-mu (faded), dei-mi (changed), kar-m (mixed), beyazla-m(whitened), balan-m (tied, connected), ertelen-mi (postponed), kzartl-m (fried), tasarlan-m (planned), ykan-m (washed), gelitiril-mi(improved), dm-len-mi (knotted), aydnlan-m (enlightened), zorlan-m (forced), boan-m (divorced), unutul-mu (forgotten), rl-m(knitted), kzar-m (fried, reddened), retil-mi (produced), bayl-m,(fainted), unutulma-m (unforgotten), kayna-m (boiled), don-mu (fro-zen), geli-mi (developed), dei-mi (modified), koku-mu (foul).

Note: The allomorphs of the morpheme [MI] are stressed. This morphemeis also used as an inflectional morpheme.

[SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal]

gr-sel (visual),uy-sal (complaisant),dn-sel (mental), iit-sel (audial)

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS TO PRODUCE VERBS

[LE]allomorphs: [le, la]

el-le (el*le) (touch), ba-la (ba*la) (tie), ba-la (ba*la) (bein, start), te-ker-le (te*ker*le)(roll), gz-le (gz*le) (observe), kutu-la (ku*tu*la)(put inboxes), damga-la (dam*ga*la)(stamp), tuz-la (tuz*la)(salt), leke-le (le*ke*-

le)(stain), tekme-le (tek*me*le)(kick), sr-g-le (sr*g*le) (bolt), dzen-le(d*zen*le) (arrange), ya-la (ya*la) (lubricate, oil), ta-la (ta*la) (throwstones),yel-le (yel*le) (fan),denge-le (den*ge*le) (balance), sergi-le (ser*-

gi*le) (exhibit),ba-la (forgive),su-la (water),kak-la (spoon into greed-ily), kazk-la (cheat), yarg-la (judge), kalbur-la (sift), ila-la (apply pesti-cide), ak-la (acquit), kstek-le (hamper), bes-le (feed), alg-la (detect),fra-la (brush up), orta-la (centre), ezber-le (memorize), uygu-la (apply),


37/441


36

ar-la (show hospitality), av-la (hunt), ba-la (tie, connect), su-la (con-demn), yol-la (send), ate-le (fire), belge-le (certify), kilit-le (lock), ter-le(perspire), imdik-le (pinch), gz-le (observe), fi-le (blacklist someone), i-le (work), aba-la (strive). ek-le (add), yk-le (load), iz-le (follow), giz-le

(hide), ezber-le (memorize), mhr-le (seal), yarg-la (judge), sra-la (put inorder), gr-le (thunder, roll), n-la (ring), ot-la (graze), kol-la (watch, pro-tect), sol-la (overtake), oy-la (vote), omuz-la (shoulder), hiza-la (hi*za:*la)

(align), para-la (tear up), gaga-la (peck), dz-le (flatten), giz-le (hide)

MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES TO PRODUCE VERBS

[R] allomorphs: [ir, r, er, ar]

deli-ir (de*lir) (get mad), sar-ar(sa*rar)(turn yellow), kara-ar (ka*rar)(blacken, darken, or get dark), mor-ar (mo*rar) (get, turn purple)

[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]

gzel-le (get beautiful),sk-la (get oftener, get tighter),ar-la (get heav-ier), sar-la (get deaf), derin-le (deepen, get deeper), kaba-la (getruder), yeil-le, yeil-len (turn green).Some adjectives like krmz maybe eitherkrmz-la orkzar (get or turn red).Ksa becomes ksal(get shorter).Uzun becomes uza (get longer).

Examples:Gnler ksalyor. Days are getting shorter.Gnler uzuyor. (*notuzayor) Days are getting longer.

In Turkish, makesomething + adjective "Make it shorter." is expressed inan adjective + morpheme mixture which is too long to analyze in detail.

Some examples may explain them easily:

Uzun uzat (u*zat) Onu uzat. (Make it longer.); ksaksalt (k*salt)

Onu ksalt. (Make it shorter.); bykbyt (b*yt) Onu byt. (Makeit larger.);Kkklt (k*lt) Onu klt. (Make it smaller.); karakarart (ka*rart) Onu karart. (Make it darker.);derinderinletir (de*rin*-le*tir) Onu derinletir. (Make it deeper.)

I made him work, I had him work, I had the work done and I gothim to do the work types of sentences will be explained in the followingchapters.

THE INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS

Inflectional morphemes and their allomorphs are the suffixes in Turkish at-

tached to nouns, pronouns, nominal phrases, verbs, and verb frames


38/441


37

signalling change in such grammatical functions as tense, voice, mood,

person, number, etc.

The inflectional morphemes that are attached to nouns, pronouns, and

nominal phrases are the following:

[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]

1. These allomorphs are attached to the pronouns, common nouns, proper

nouns, and nominal phrases when they are used as objects in senteces:

O ben-i gr-d. O sen-i gr-d. O o-/n/u gr-d. O biz-i gr-d.obj obj obj obj

O siz-i gr-d. O o/n/-lar-gr-d.obj obj

In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them.obj obj obj obj obj

Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i",

"sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" detach from their syllables and attach to thefirst vowels of the following morphemes in speech such as (be*ni), (se*ni),

(bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*r). The /n/ consonant in (o*/n/u) is a glide produced bythe oral system of the Turkish language to maintain the harmonic sequence

of the language.

The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by

one of the "i, , , u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowelharmony rules when they are used as objects:

AhmetAye-/y/i gr-d. Fatma Hasan- bul-du. retmenAhmet-i yakala-d.object object object

In English: Ahmet sawAye. Fatma found Hasan. The teachercaught Ahmet.object object object

Note: The /y/ glide (semivowel), which is a product of the Turkish sound sys-tem, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious linkage.

As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is

used in the object position in a sentence, one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs iscompulsorily attached to them. If the common nouns are not definite, they

may be preceded by some indefinite determiners as the ones in English:

Ahmet Hasan-grd. Ahmet ben-i grd. Ahmet tavan-grd.definite obj definite obj definite obj

Ahmet saw Hasan. Ahmet saw me. Ahmet saw the rabbit.,definite obj definite obj definite obj

Ahmet (bir) araba ald. Ahmet kitap okuyor.indefinite obj indefinite obj


39/441


38

Ahmet bought a car. Ahmet is reading a book.indefinite obj indefinite obj

Ahmet kitap okumaz. Ahmet does not read books.any book any books

indefinite obj indefinite obj

[E] allomorphs: [e, a]

When these allomorphs attach to nouns, pronouns, or nominal phrases (no-

minals), they signify the direction of an action, and change these nominals

into adverbial phrases. These adverbial phrases are generally called adver-

bials. For instance:

Aye mart-lar-a bakyor. Aye is looking at the seagulls.adverbial prepositional phrase

adverbial

Biz deniz-e bakyoruz. We are looking at the sea.adverbial adverbial

Fatma biz-e bakyor. Fatma is looking at us.adverbial adverbial

[DE] allomorphs: [de, da, te, ta]

These allomorphs signify the place, the state of a pronoun, or a noun bychanging their function into an adverbial:

Ahmet ev-de. Ahmet is at home. Postac kap-da.The postman is at the door.adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial

Aye masa-da otur-u.yorAye is sitting at the table. Her ey aklm-da.adverbial adverbial adverbial

Evrything is in my mind. Jane mutfak-ta. Jane is in the kitchen.adverbial adverbial adverbial

Kitap-n ben-de. Your book is with me. Onun ba- dert-te. He is in trouble.adverbial adverbial adverbial adverbial

When the [de, da, te, ta] suffixes attach to nouns, pronouns or nominal

phrases they function as adverbials in sentences. The same adverbials in

English are structurally prepositionai phrases functioning as adverbials.

[DEN] allomorphs: [den, dan, ten, tan]

When one of the allomorphs of the [DEN] morpheme is attached to a noun, a

pronoun or a nominal phrases, it signifies the starting point of an action, and

changes the function of the nominal into an adverbial:

Aye okul-dan geliyor.Aye is coming from school.adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial


40/441


39

retmen pencere-den bakyor. The teacher is looking out of the window.adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial

Ahmet Amerika-dan dnd. Ahmet came back from The U.S.A..adverbial (prep phrs) adverbial

On-dan yirmi-/y/e kadar say. Count from ten to twenty.

adverbial adverbial postp adverbial adverbial

NOMINAL PHRASES

It is considered that the mind has a logical system which manages three ra-

tional storages to fill to produce a sentence. These storeges are out of order

before someone is born. When he begins learning his native language,

these orderless storages are arranged in a sequence according to one's

native language. For an English speaking person his logical sequence is

"subject + verb + object", but for a Turkish spaking person this sequence is

"(subject) + object + verb-personal suffix". For instance:

English sequence: I love you.

subj verb object

Turkish sequence: (Ben) sen-i seviyor-um.

subj objectverb+personal suffix

In Turkish, using "ben", "sen", "o", "biz", "siz", "onlar" pronouns at the

beginning of a sentence is optional. These pronouns are only used when

they are stressed. However, using the personal suffixes representing these

pronouns at the ends of the sentences is a grammatical rule. Therefore,

these pronouns are showed in parentheses.

However, although the third person singular has the pronoun "o", which

means "he", "she", or "it", the sentences containing this pronoun does not

need a personal suffix representing "o" pronoun. A sentence without a

personal suffix at the end of a sentence means that the sentence is the third

person singular. For instance the followig two Turkish sentences are iden-

tical:

(O) sen-i seviyor. He, she, or it loves you.

Sen-i seviyor. He, she, or it loves you.

Although the sentenes given above are all simple sentences, the human

mind uses the same flexible subject, verb, object storages to produce all

the sentences in a language whether they are long or short.

1a: All pronouns can be used as subjects such as: "ben", "sen", "o", "biz",

"siz", "o/n/-lar". (I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they)


41/441


40

1b: All pronouns can be used as objects such as "ben-i", "sen-i", "o-/n/u",

"biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" (me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them)

2a: All proper nouns can be used as subjects such as: Ahmet, Hasan,

Jack, Aye, Mary. (English: (Ahmet, Hasan, Jack,Aye, Mary.)2b: All proper nouns can be used as objects such as: Ahmet-i, Hasan-,Jak-i, Aye-/y/i, Mary-/y/i. (English: Ahmet, Hasan, Jack, Aye, Mary.):

Ahmet Hasan- grd. Ahmet saw Hasan. Hasan Ahmet-i buldu. Hasanfound Ahmet.

3a:All common nouns can be used as subjects such as:

Turkish: Zilalyor.Martlaruuyor. Gnedou-dan doar. Polishrsz-yakalad. English: The bell is ringing. The seagulls are flying. The sunrises in the east. The police caught the thief.

As it is seen, when the common nouns are used as subjests in Turkish,

they are considered defined and used without definite articles. In English,

however, they are all used with the definite article "the".

If indefinite nouns are used as subjects, or objects, they are used like

indefinite nouns in English:.

'Biradam sen-i kap-da bekliyor. Aman is waiting for you at the door.Bazkularsonbahar-da gney-e g ederler.Somebirds migrate to southin autumn.

Bahede bir saat buldum. I found a watch in the garden.Aye birkompozisyonyazyor. Ay is writing a composition.

All infinitives, which are nominals, are of four kinds:

4a: The verbs that are suffixed by [mek, mak] allomorphs.4b: The verbs that are suffixed by [me, ma] allomorphs.4c: The verbs that are suffixed by [i, , , u, e, a] allomorphs.4d:The verbs that are suffxed by [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk].

4aa: The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used as subjects in the sentences

using "be" (is, are, was were, etc) verbs:

Bekle-mek skcdr. Waiting is boring, Yr-mek salkldr. Walking ishealthful. Btn gn televizyon izle-mek zaman kaybdr. Watching tele-

vision all day long is a vaste of time.

4ab: The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used as the objects of the verb"iste":


42/441


41

Jack Trke ren-mek istiyor. Jack wants to learn Turkish.Fatma balk kzart-mak istemiyor. Fatma doesn't want to fry fish.Uyu-mak istiyorum. I want to sleep.

4ac: The [mek, mak] infinitives can be used before the postposition "iin":Herkes ben-i gr-mek iin ayaa kalkt. Everybody stood up to see me.retmen ben-i daha iyi gr-mek iingzlklerini takt. The teacher put onher glasses to see me better. Bir spor araba al-mak iin para biriktiriyor.She is saving money to buy a sports car. Sen-i ikna et-mek iin ne yapma-lym? What should I do to convince you?

4ba: The [me, ma] infinitives can be used in noun compounds as subjects:

Mary-/n/in ala-ma-/s/ hepimiz-i zd. Mary's crying made us sorry.(noun compound) subj (NP) obj (NP) verbsubject (NP) predicate (VP)

Ahmet'in okul-a ge gel-me-/s/i retmen-i kzdrd.(noun compound) subject (NP) object (NP) verb

subject (NP) predicate (VP)

Ahmet's coming to school late made the teacher angry.

4bb: The [me, me] infinitives can be used in noun compounds as objects:

(Ben-im) baba-am (ben-im) futbol oyna-ma-am- istemiyor.(noun compound) subj (nound compound-) object |

NP NP verb

VP

Definite noun compounds in Turkish are suffixed by possessor personal

allomorphs both at the possessor and the possessed parts of a noun

compound. As these two possessor personal allomorphs bear the same

meaning, the possessor pronouns in the possessor parts of a noun com-

pound could be ignored because the allomorphs attached to the possessedparts bear the same meaning as the allomorphs attached to the possessor

parts of a compound. Namely, "baba-am" means, "ben-im baba-am", and

"futbol oyna-ma-am" means, "ben-im futbol oyna-ma-am". The sentence

above is generally said and written as follows:

Baba-am futbol oynama-am- istemiyor.noun comp subj noun compound obj |

NP NP verb

VP

(Biz) ma-n bit-me-/s/i-/n/i bekledik. We waited until the match ended.subj (noun compound) obj-/n/i verb

NP VP


43/441


42

4ca: The [i, , , u, es, a] infinitives can be used in noun compounsin a limited number in certain expressions:

(Ben-im) dn--m muhteem olacak. My return will be spectacular.noun compound (subj) adjective verb (be)

subject (NP) predicate (VP)

Oyuncular ma-n bit-i dd-/n/ bekledi.subject noun compound-/n/ |

NP object (NP) verb

(predicate) VP

The players waited until the final whistle of the match.

4da: The [dik, dk, dk, duk, tik, tk, tk, tuk] infinitives can be used in

noun compounds:

"(ben-im) git-tik-im", "(sen-in) git-tik-in", "(o-/n/un) git-tik-i", "(biz-im git-tik-

im.iz", "(siz-in) git-tik-in.iz", "o/n/-lar-n git-tik-i". (be*nim / git*ti*im), (se*nin /git*ti*in), (o*nun / git*ti*i), "(ben-im) gr-dk-m", "(sen-in) gr-dk-n"."(biz-im / gr-dk-m.z)", etc.

The noun compounds above can be used as objects:

(Ben) (o-/n/un) iit-tik-i-/n/i sanmyorum. I don't think that he heard.subj noun compound-i-/n/i |

NP (object) NP verb

(predicate ) VP

The same noun compounds can also be used as determiners:

Ben-im gr-dk-m araba beyazd. The car that I saw was white.(noun compound) noun | determined determiner verb

determiner determined | subject predicate

subject predicate NP VP

NP VP

Detailed examples are given in the transformational section.

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS

A number of adverbs and adverbials may additionally take place in a logical

simple sentence. These adverbs or adverbials give further information about

the time, pleace, reason, manner, frequency, purpose, etc. of an action or

being. For instance:

Ahmet her zaman okul-a ge gelir, Ahmet always comes to school late.subj adverbial adverbial adverb verb subj adverb verb adverbial adv

NP (predicate) VP NP (predicate) VP


44/441


43

Kzlar snf-a nee-/y/le girdi. The girls entered the class cheerfully.subj adverbial adverbial verb subj verb object adverbial

NP (predicate) VP NP (predicate) VP

Fatma kap-/y/ a-n.ca bir iskelet grd.subj obj of "a" adverbial | |NP adverbial of time obj of "gr" verb

VP

Fatma saw a skeleton when she opened the door.subj verb object adverbial clause of time

NP (predicate) VP

THE TRANSFORMATIONAL ACTIVITY OF THE LOGIC

The human mind can logically transform a simple sentence into a learned

nominal phrase, an adverbial phrase orclause in order to insert them in

the "subject + predicate", or"subject + verb + object" storages in which

all sentences take form.

Thought and language are mental faculties that are independent of one an-

other, but they act interdependently. One stores morphemes, which are the

only language units loaded with meaning, into his memory out of sequence.

However, when the time comes to produce a sentence, the mind searches

through its memory to find the mostsuitable morphemes matching his setsof thought, and organizes them in a sequence

He divides his thought into two logical parts called subject and predicate

(Nominal Phrase "NP", and Verbal Phrase "VP"). To understand how these

two logical parts are expressed in sign language, let us take an imaginary

journey to the long past to fancy how our ancestors used "NP + VP" basic

sentence producing device.

As human beings did not know how to communicate in words on those days,

perhaps one of them pointed to some birds, and imitated a bird fluttering its

wings trying to mean "Birds fly" or "The birds are flying"

In the above imaginary sentences, there are two main parts,"birds", and "fly"

(subject and predicate), which Chomsky calls them "NP + VP". From then

on, throughout centuries, human beings have been busy inserting what they

want to say into these two basic sentence components.

The human intellect is so sklllful that it can logically transform simple

sentences into learned nominal phrases to fit them into the "NP" segment

of the "NP + VP" sentence-prodcing pattern. It manages this activity in such

a way that although their forms are transformed into different structures,


45/441


44

these structures stay loaded with the same meaning in different inflectional

(grammatical) patterns. Consider the following:.

1. The birds were flying. the birds that were flying

NP VP NP2. The birds were flying. thatthe birds were flying

NP VP NP

3. Birds eat insects. the birds that eat insectsNP VP NP.

4. Birds eat insects. that birds eat insectsNP VP NP

5. Birds eat insects. the insects that the birds eatNP VP NP

6. Roses are beautiful. the roses that are beautiful the beautiful rosesNP VP NP

7. Roses are beautiful. that roses are beautifulNP VP NP

The human mind can insert the nominalized phrases above into the "NP"

segment of the phrase structure rules. The "VP" segment contains either an

intransitive verb "Vi", which does not need an object, or a transitive verb "Vt"

that needs a "NP" (an object). Therefore, a "NP + VP" base sentence pro-

ducing logical pattern may be rewritten either as "NP + Vi" or "NP + Vt + NP"

for an English speaking person. However, a person speaking Turkish uses a

different sequence "NP + NP + Vt" in the "VP" segment of the "NP + VP"

basic sentence-producing pattern. Moreover, adverbs and adverbials should

also be included in a Verbal Phrase (predicate) because their function is to

add some significant concepts to verbs.

The following example sentences show how transformed nominalized sen-

tences above are used as nominal phrases in the "NP + VP" logical pattern:

1. I saw the birds that were flying above my headNP V NP adverbial

VP

2. My boss said that the birds were flying in my head.NP V NP adverbial

VP

3. The birds that eat insects are useful.NP VP

4. Everybody knows that birds eat insects.

NP V NPVP

5. The insects that the birds eat are harmful.NP VP


46/441


45

6. The roases that are beautiful smell sweet.NP VP

The beautiful roses smell sweet.NP VP

7. Everybody thinks that roses are beautiful.NP V NP

In general, as soon as thought is materialized in morphemes in a language,

they are seperated into words, and placed into the linear logical phrase

structure sequence. While this process is going on, the phonological rules of

the language simultaneously divide the words into syllables and harmonzethem in agreement with the general sound system of the language.

The logical, morphemic, and oral (phonological) sequences behave inde-

pendantly of one another in coordination to produce sentences.

A morpheme that changes the meaning of a root or stem is called a deriva-

tional morpheme (yapm eki); the other one, which does not change themeaning of a stem, is called an inflectional morpheme (ekim eki). Boththe derivational and inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes.

Some morphemes (suffixes in Turkish) have different pronunciation variants

that bear the same meaning as their morphemes. For instance, in English,

when the plural [S] morpheme is attached to the noun book, it is pro-nounced as /s/; in boy-s as/z/; and in box-es as /iz/. As they are the dif-ferent pronunciation variants of the same morpheme [S], they are named as

the allomorphs of the morpheme [S].

Turkish sound system produce a lot more morphemes than English. This is

because bound morphemes go through some vowel and consonant

turkish grammar updated academic edition yÜksel gÖknel march 2013-signed

Documents