Turkey 1

Turkey

Republic of TurkeyTürkiye Cumhuriyeti

Anthem: İstiklâl MarşıIndependence March

Location of Turkey

Capital Ankara39°55′N 32°50′E

Largest city Istanbul

Official language(s) Turkish

Ethnic groups (2007, 2008) 70–76% Turks[1] [2] [3]

16–18% Kurds+Zazas,[1][2]

8–12% others[1] [2]

Demonym Turkish

Government Parliamentary republic

 -  Founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

 -  President Abdullah Gül

 -  Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan

 -  Speaker of the Parliament Cemil Çiçek

 -  President of the Constitutional Court Haşim Kılıç

Legislature Grand National Assembly

Succession to the Ottoman Empire

 -  Treaty of Lausanne July 24, 1923 

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 -  Declaration of Republic October 29, 1923 

Area

 -  Total 783562 km2 (37th)302535 sq mi

 -  Water (%) 1.3

Population

 -  2010 estimate 73,722,988 [4]  (18th)

 -  2000 census 67,803,927 [5]

 -  Density 94.1/km2 (108th)239.8/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2010 estimate

 -  Total $1.116 trillion[6]  (15th)

 -  Per capita $13,464[7]

GDP (nominal) 2010 estimate

 -  Total $735.264 billion[6]  (17th)

 -  Per capita $10,399[7]

Gini (2005) 38 

HDI (2010) 0.679[8]  (high) (85th)

Currency Turkish lira[9] (TRY)

Time zone EET (UTC+2)

 -  Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)

Date formats dd/mm/yyyy (AD)

Drives on the right

ISO 3166 code TR

Internet TLD .tr

Calling code 90

Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyeti), is a Eurasiancountry located 97% in Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and 3% in East Thrace in Europe. Turkey isbordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia,Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The MediterraneanSea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara,the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between EastThrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.[10] Turkey's location at the crossroads of Europe and Asiamakes it a country of significant geostrategic importance.[11] [12]

Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims.[13] Thecountry's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, whocomprise 18% of the population.[14]

Turks began migrating into the area now called Turkey (derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, i.e. "Land of the Turks") in the 11th century. The process was greatly accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the Byzantine Empire at

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the Battle of Manzikert.[15] Several small beyliks and the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the MongolEmpire's invasion. Starting from the 13th century, the Ottoman beylik united Anatolia and created an empireencompassing much of Southeastern Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. After the Ottoman Empire collapsedfollowing its defeat in World War I, parts of it were occupied by the victorious Allies. A cadre of young militaryofficers, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues, organized a successful resistance to the Allies; in 1923,they would establish the modern Republic of Turkey with Atatürk as its first president.Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, constitutional republic with an ancient cultural heritage. Turkey has becomeincreasingly integrated with the West through membership in organizations such as the Council of Europe, NATO,OECD, OSCE and the G-20 major economies. Turkey began full membership negotiations with the European Unionin 2005, having been an associate member of the European Economic Community since 1963 and having reached acustoms union agreement in 1995. Turkey has also fostered close cultural, political, economic and industrialrelations with the Middle East, the Turkic states of Central Asia and the African countries through membership inorganizations such as the Turkic Council, Joint Administration of Turkic Arts and Culture, Organisation of theIslamic Conference and the Economic Cooperation Organization. Given its strategic location, large economy andmilitary strength, Turkey is a major regional power.[16]

EtymologyThe name of Turkey, Türkiye in the Turkish language, can be divided into two components: the ethnonym Türk andthe abstract suffix –iye meaning "owner", "land of" or "related to" (derived from the Arabic suffix –iyya, which issimilar to the Greek and Latin suffixes –ia). The first recorded use of the term "Türk" or "Türük" as an autonym iscontained in the Orkhon inscriptions of the Göktürks (Celestial Turks) of Central Asia (c. 8th century CE). Tu–kinhas been attested as early as 177 BCE as a name given by the Chinese to the people living south of the AltayMountains of Central Asia. The English word "Turkey" is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia (c. 1369).[17]

The Greek cognate of this name, Tourkia, was originally used by the Byzantines to describe medieval Hungary[18]

[19] [20] (as the Hungarians and Turks have ancestral links) but they later began using this name to define theSeljuk-controlled parts of Anatolia in the centuries that followed the Battle of Manzikert in 1071.

History

AntiquityThe Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest continuously inhabited regions inthe world. The earliest Neolithic settlements such as Çatalhöyük (Pottery Neolithic), Çayönü (Pre-Pottery NeolithicA to Pottery Neolithic), Nevalı Çori (Pre-Pottery Neolithic B), Hacılar (Pottery Neolithic), Göbekli Tepe(Pre-Pottery Neolithic A) and Mersin are considered to be among the earliest human settlements in the world.[21]

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Portion of the legendary walls of Troy (VII),identified as the site of the Trojan War (ca. 1200

BCE.)

The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic and continued into theIron Age. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spokenIndo-European, Semitic and Kartvelian languages, as well as manylanguages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of theIndo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars haveproposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which theIndo-European languages radiated.[22] The Hattians were an ancientpeople who inhabited the southeastern part of Anatolia, noted at leastas early as ca. 2300. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia andgradually absorbed Hattians ca. 2000–1700 BC. The first major empirein the area was founded by the Hittites, from the eighteenth through the13th century BC. The Assyrians colonized parts of southeastern

Turkey as far back as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC, when the Assyrian Empire was conquered by the Chaldeandynasty in Babylon.[23] [24] Following the Hittite collapse, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achievedascendancy until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC.[25] The most powerful ofPhrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia. The Lydians and Lycians spoke languages that werefundamentally Indo-European, but both languages had acquired non-Indo-European elements prior to the Hittite andHellenistic periods.

The Celsus Library in Ephesus, dating from 135AD.

Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled byAeolian and Ionian Greeks. Numerous important cities were foundedby these colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Smyrna (modern Izmir),and Byzantium (later Constantinople and Istanbul). The first stateestablished in Anatolia that was called Armenia by neighboringpeoples (Hecataeus of Miletus and Behistun Inscription) was the stateof the Armenian Orontid dynasty. Anatolia was conquered by thePersian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th and 5th centuries BC andlater fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC.[26] Anatolia wassubsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms(including Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamum, and Pontus), all of whichhad succumbed to the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[27]

Arsacid Armenia, the first state to accept Christianity as official religion had lands in Anatolia.

In 324, the Roman emperor Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire, renaming itNew Rome (later Constantinople and Istanbul). After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, it became the capital ofthe Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire).[28]

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Turks and the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (ca. 1680.)

The House of Seljuk was a branch of theKınık Oğuz Turks who resided on theperiphery of the Muslim world, north of theCaspian and Aral Seas in the YabghuKhaganate of the Oğuz confederacy[29] inthe 10th century. In the 11th century, theSeljuks started migrating from theirancestral homelands towards the easternregions of Anatolia, which eventuallybecame the new homeland of Oghuz Turkictribes following the Battle of Manzikert in1071.

The victory of the Seljuks gave rise to theAnatolian Seljuk Sultanate; whichdeveloped as a separate branch of the largerSeljuk Empire that covered parts of CentralAsia, Iran, Anatolia and Southwest Asia.[30]

In 1243, the Seljuk armies were defeated bythe Mongols, causing the Seljuk empire'spower to slowly disintegrate. In its wake, one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would, over the next200 years, evolve into the Ottoman Empire, expanding throughout Anatolia, the Balkans and the Levant.[31] In 1453,the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople.

The Selimiye Mosque in Edirne is one of themost famous architectural legacies of the

Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17thcenturies, particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent.The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in itssteady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and thesouthern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[12] At sea, theempire contended with the Holy Leagues, composed of HabsburgSpain, the Republic of Venice and the Knights of St. John, for controlof the Mediterranean. In the Indian Ocean, the Ottoman navyfrequently confronted Portuguese fleets in order to defend itstraditional monopoly over the maritime trade routes between East Asiaand Western Europe; these routes faced new competition with thePortuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488. In addition,

the Ottomans were occasionally at war with Persia over territorial disputes or caused by religious differencesbetween 16th and 18th centuries.[32]

During nearly two centuries of decline, the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power, and wealth. Itentered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, an estimated 1.5million Armenians were deported and exterminated in the Armenian Genocide.[33] [34] The Turkish governmentdenies that there was an Armenian genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocated from the eastern warzone.[35] Large scale massacres were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Greeksand Assyrians.[36] [37] [38] Following the Armistice of Mudros on October 30, 1918, the victorious Allied Powerspartitioned the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[31]

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Republic era

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and firstPresident of the Republic of Turkey.

The Occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna by the Allies in the aftermathof World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish nationalmovement.[12] Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a militarycommander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, theTurkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the termsof the Treaty of Sèvres.[11]

By September 18, 1922, the occupying armies were expelled, and the newTurkish state was established. On November 1, the newly founded parliamentformally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of Ottoman rule. TheTreaty of Lausanne of July 24, 1923, led to the international recognition ofthe sovereignty of the newly formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successorstate of the Ottoman Empire, and the republic was officially proclaimed onOctober 29, 1923, in the new capital of Ankara.[12]

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President of Turkey andsubsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of founding a new secular republic from the remnants ofits Ottoman past.[12] According to the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish parliament presented Mustafa Kemal withthe honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father of the Turks) in 1934.[11]

Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the SecondCairo Conference which was held between

December 4–6, 1943.

Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II but entered onthe side of the Allies on February 23, 1945, as a ceremonial gestureand in 1945 became a charter member of the United Nations.[39]

Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communistrebellion, along with demands by the Soviet Union for military basesin the Turkish Straits, prompted the United States to declare theTruman Doctrine in 1947. The doctrine enunciated Americanintentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece, and resultedin large-scale U.S. military and economic support.[40]

After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War,Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Sovietexpansion into the Mediterranean. Following a decade of

intercommunal violence on the island of Cyprus and the Greek military coup of July 1974, overthrowing PresidentMakarios and installing Nikos Sampson as dictator, Turkey invaded the Republic of Cyprus in 1974. Nine years laterthe Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus which is only recognised by Turkey was established.[41]

The single-party period ended in 1945. It was followed by a tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy over thenext few decades, which was interrupted by military coups d'état in 1960, 1971, 1980 and 1997.[42] In 1984, the PKKbegan an insurgency against the Turkish government; the conflict, which has claimed over 40,000 lives, continuestoday.[43] Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s, the country has enjoyed strongereconomic growth and greater political stability.[44]

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Politics

The Grand Chamber of the GrandNational Assembly of Turkey in

Ankara.

Turkey is a parliamentary representative democracy. Since its foundation as arepublic in 1923, Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism.[45]

Turkey's constitution governs the legal framework of the country. It sets out themain principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralizedstate.

The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonialrole. The president is elected for a five-year term by direct elections. AbdullahGül was elected as president on August 28, 2007, by a popular parliament roundof votes, succeeding Ahmet Necdet Sezer.[46]

Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministerswhich make up the government, while the legislative power is vested in theunicameral parliament, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The judiciary isindependent of the executive and the legislature, and the Constitutional Court ischarged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution.The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases, and the High Court of Appeals for allothers.[47]

The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often thehead of the party having the most seats in parliament. The current prime minister is the former mayor of İstanbul,Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, whose conservative AK party won an absolute majority of parliamentary seats in the 2002general elections, organized in the aftermath of the economic crisis of 2001, with 34% of the suffrage.[48]

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has beenelected three times as Prime

Minister: In 2002 (with 34% of thevotes), in 2007 (with 47%) and in

2011 (with 49%.)

In the 2007 general elections, the AKP received 46.6% of the votes and coulddefend its majority in parliament.[49] Although the ministers do not have to bemembers of the parliament, ministers with parliament membership are commonin Turkish politics. In 2007, a series of events regarding state secularism and therole of the judiciary in the legislature has occurred. These included thecontroversial presidential election of Abdullah Gül, who in the past had beeninvolved with Islamist parties;[50] and the government's proposal to lift theheadscarf ban in universities, which was annulled by the Constitutional Court,leading to a fine and a near ban of the ruling party.[51]

Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since1933, and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right tovote. As of 2004, there were 50 registered political parties in the country.[52] TheConstitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that itdeems anti-secular or separatist, or ban their existence altogether.[53] [54]

There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four-year term by aparty-list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts whichrepresent the 81 administrative provinces of Turkey (İstanbul is divided into

three electoral districts, whereas Ankara and İzmir are divided into two each because of their large populations). Toavoid a hung parliament and its excessive political fragmentation, only parties winning at least 10% of the votes castin a national parliamentary election gain the right to representation in the parliament.[52] Because of this threshold, inthe 2007 elections only three parties formally entered the parliament (compared to two in 2002).[55] [56]

Human rights in Turkey have been the subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Between 1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1,600 judgements against Turkey for human rights

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violations, particularly the right to life and freedom from torture. Other issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rightsand press freedom have also attracted controversy. Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significantobstacle to future membership of the EU.[57] The Turkish Journalists Association says that 58 of the country'sjournalists have been imprisoned. A U.S. State Department spokesman, Philip Crowley, said that the United Stateshad "broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey."[58]

Foreign relations

Turkey began full membership negotiations withthe European Union in 2005, having been an

associate member of the EEC since 1963.

Turkey is a founding member of the OECD andthe G-20 major economies.

Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945), the OECD(1961), the OIC (1969), the OSCE (1973), the ECO (1985), the BSEC(1992) and the G-20 major economies (1999). On October 17, 2008,Turkey was elected as a non-permanent member of the United NationsSecurity Council.[59] Turkey's membership of the council effectivelybegan on January 1, 2009.[59] Turkey had previously been a member ofthe U.N. Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955 and 1961.[59]

In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europehave always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkeybecame a founding member of the Council of Europe in 1949, appliedfor associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of the EuropeanUnion) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. Afterdecades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for full membershipof the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the WesternEuropean Union in 1992, reached a Customs Union agreement with theEU in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EUsince 2005.[60]

Since 1974 Turkey has not recognized the (essentially Greek Cypriot)Republic of Cyprus as the sole authority on the island, but insteadsupports the Turkish Cypriot community in the form of the de factoTurkish Republic of Northern Cyprus which is recognized only by Turkey.[61]

The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign relations has been its ties with the United States. Based on the commonthreat posed by the Soviet Union, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with Washingtonthroughout the Cold War. In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards itsproximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans. In return, Turkey has benefited from the United States'political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the EuropeanUnion.

The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural andlinguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia,[62] thusenabling the completion of a multi-billion-dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port ofCeyhan in Turkey. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become anenergy conduit to the West. However, Turkey's border with Armenia, a state in the Caucasus, remains closedfollowing its occupation of Azeri territory during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.[63]

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Military

Turkey joined NATO in 1952

The Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Army, the Navy and the AirForce. The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard operate as parts of theMinistry of Internal Affairs in peacetime, although they aresubordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively inwartime, during which they have both internal law enforcement andmilitary functions.[64]

The Turkish Armed Forces is the second largest standing armed forcein NATO, after the U.S. Armed Forces, with a combined strength ofjust over a million uniformed personnel serving in its five branches.[65]

Turkey is considered to be the strongest military power of the MiddleEast region besides Israel.[16]

Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from threeweeks to fifteen months, dependent on education and job location.[66] Turkey does not recognise conscientiousobjection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[67]

Boeing 737 AEW&C MESA Peace Eagle of theTurkish Air Force.

Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of thenuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium,Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands.[68] A total of 90 B61 nuclearbombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated foruse by the Turkish Air Force.[69]

In 1998, Turkey announced a program of modernization worth US$160billion over a twenty year period in various projects including tanks,fighter jets, helicopters, submarines, warships and assault rifles.[70]

Turkey is a Level 3 contributor to the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF)program.[71]

Four MEKO 200 TN type frigates of the TurkishNavy in formation.

Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under theUnited Nations and NATO since 1950, including peacekeepingmissions in Somalia and former Yugoslavia, and support to coalitionforces in the First Gulf War. Turkey maintains 36,000 troops innorthern Cyprus; their presence is supported and approved by the defacto local government, but the Republic of Cyprus and theinternational community regard it as an illegal occupation force, and itspresence has also been denounced in several United Nations SecurityCouncil resolutions.[72] Turkey has had troops deployed in Afghanistanas part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized,NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force (ISAF)since 2001.[65] [73] In 2006, the Turkish parliament deployed a peacekeeping force of Navy patrol vessels and around700 ground troops as part of an expanded United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) in the wake of theIsraeli-Lebanon conflict.[74]

The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the president and is responsible to the prime minister. The Council ofMinisters is responsible to parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armedforces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces toforeign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the parliament.[64] Theactual commander of the armed forces is the Chief of the General Staff General Işık Koşaner since August 30,2010.[75]

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Administrative divisions

Ankara Kırklareli

Edirne Tekirdağ

Çanakkale Balıkesir

Bursa Yalova Istanbul Kocaeli Sakarya Düzce

Zonguldak Bolu

Bilecik Eskişehir Kütahya Manisa İzmir Aydın Muğla Denizli Burdur Uşak Afyon Isparta

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Antalya Konya Mersin

Karaman Aksaray Kırşehir Kırıkkale Çankırı Karabük Bartın

Kastamonu Sinop Çorum Yozgat

Nevşehir Niğde Adana Hatay

Osmaniye K. Maraş Kayseri Sivas Tokat

Amasya Samsun

Ordu Giresun Erzincan Malatya

Gaziantep Kilis

Şanlıurfa Adıyaman

Gümüşhane Trabzon

Rize Bayburt Erzurum Artvin

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Ardahan Kars Ağrı Iğdır

Tunceli Elâzığ

Diyarbakır Mardin Batman

Siirt Şırnak Bitlis

Bingöl Muş Van

Hakkâri The capital city of Turkey is Ankara. The territory of Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrativepurposes. The provinces are organized into 7 regions for census purposes; however, they do not represent anadministrative structure. Each province is divided into districts, for a total of 923 districts.Provinces usually bear the same name as their provincial capitals, also called the central district; exceptions to thiscustom are the provinces of Hatay (capital: Antakya), Kocaeli (capital: İzmit) and Sakarya (capital: Adapazarı).Provinces with the largest populations are Istanbul (13 million), Ankara (5 million), İzmir (4 million), Bursa (3million) and Adana (2 million).The biggest city and the pre-Republican capital Istanbul is the financial, economic and cultural heart of thecountry.[76] An estimated 75.5% of Turkey's population live in urban centers.[77] In all, 19 provinces havepopulations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 20 provinces have populations between 1 million and 500,000inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000.

Geography

Bosphorus Bridge in Istanbul, connecting Europe (left) and Asia (right.)

Turkey is a transcontinental[78]

Eurasian country. Asian Turkey (madeup largely of Anatolia), which includes97% of the country, is separated fromEuropean Turkey by the Bosphorus,the Sea of Marmara, and theDardanelles (which together form awater link between the Black Sea andthe Mediterranean Sea). European Turkey (eastern Thrace or Rumelia in the Balkan peninsula) comprises 3% of thecountry.[79]

The territory of Turkey is more than 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) long and 800 km (500 mi) wide, with a roughly rectangular shape.[76] It lies between latitudes 35° and 43° N, and longitudes 25° and 45° E. Turkey's area, including lakes, occupies 783,562[80] square kilometres (300,948 sq mi), of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 sq mi)

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are in Southwest Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,174 sq mi) in Europe.[76] Turkey is the world's 37th-largestcountry in terms of area. The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Seato the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.[81]

Ölüdeniz Beach near Fethiye on the TurkishRiviera.

The European section of Turkey, East Thrace, forms the borders ofTurkey with Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country,Anatolia, consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains,between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and theTaurus Mountains to the south. Eastern Turkey has a moremountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as theEuphrates, Tigris and Aras, and contains Lake Van and Mount Ararat,Turkey's highest point at 5,165 metres (16,946 ft).[81] [82] Lake Tuz,Turkey's third-largest lake, is a macroscopically visible feature in themiddle of the country.

Turkey is divided into seven census regions: Marmara, Aegean, BlackSea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolianterrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt. This region comprises approximately one-sixth ofTurkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as itprogresses eastward.[81]

Mount Ararat (Ağrı Dağı) is the highest peak inTurkey at 5,165 m (16,946 ft.)

Turkey's varied landscapes are the product of complex earthmovements that have shaped the region over thousands of years andstill manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasionalvolcanic eruptions. The Bosporus and the Dardanelles owe theirexistence to the fault lines running through Turkey that led to thecreation of the Black Sea. There is an earthquake fault line across thenorth of the country from west to east, which caused a majorearthquake in 1999.[83]

Climate

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean Sea and the Mediterranean Sea have a temperate Mediterraneanclimate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters. The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Black Seahave a temperate Oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters. The Turkish Black Seacoast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitationthroughout the year. The eastern part of that coast averages 2,500 millimeters annually which is the highestprecipitation in the country.

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Sea of Marmara (including Istanbul), which connects the Aegean Sea andthe Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate Oceanicclimate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters. Snow does occur on the coastalareas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but it usually lies no more than a few days.Snow on the other hand is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of theMediterranean Sea.Conditions can be much harsher in the more arid interior. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterraneaninfluences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climatewith sharply contrasting seasons.Winters on the plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 °C to −40 °C (−22 °F to −40 °F) can occur in eastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground at least 120 days of the year. In the west, winter temperatures

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average below 1 °C (34 °F). Summers are hot and dry, with temperatures generally above 30 °C (86 °F) in the day.Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres (15 in), with actual amounts determined by elevation. The driestregions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain, where annual rainfall frequently is less than 300 millimetres(12 in). May is generally the wettest month, whereas July and August are the driest.[84]

Economy

Maslak financial district in Istanbul.

Turkey has the world's 15th largestGDP-PPP[6] and 17th largest NominalGDP.[6] The country is a foundingmember of the OECD and the G-20major economies. During the first sixdecades of the republic, between 1923and 1983, Turkey has mostly adheredto a quasi-statist approach with strictgovernment planning of the budget andgovernment-imposed limitations overprivate sector participation, foreigntrade, flow of foreign currency, andforeign direct investment. However in1983 Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist, insulatedsystem to a more private-sector, market-based model.[44]

The reforms spurred rapid growth, but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994,1999 (following the earthquake of that year),[85] and 2001,[86] resulting in an average of 4% GDP growth per annumbetween 1981 and 2003.[87] Lack of additional fiscal reforms, combined with large and growing public sectordeficits and widespread corruption, resulted in high inflation, a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomicvolatility.[88] Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time, KemalDerviş, inflation has fallen to single-digit numbers, investor confidence and foreign investment have soared, andunemployment has fallen. The IMF forecasts a 6% inflation rate for Turkey in 2008.[89]

TCDD high speed train.

Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reformsby reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment andthe privatisation of publicly owned industries, and the liberalisation ofmany sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amidpolitical debate.[90] The public debt to GDP ratio, while well below itslevels during the recession of 2001, reached 46% in 2010 Q3. TheGDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 7%,[91] which madeTurkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during thatperiod. However, growth slowed to 1% in 2008, and in 2009 theTurkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis, with a

recession of 5%. The economy was estimated to have returned to 8% growth in 2010.[1]

In the early years of this century the chronically high inflation was brought under control and this led to the launch ofa new currency, the Turkish new lira, on January 1, 2005, to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms anderase the vestiges of an unstable economy.[92] On January 1, 2009, the new Turkish lira was renamed once again asthe Turkish lira, with the introduction of new banknotes and coins. As a result of continuing economic reforms,inflation dropped to 8% in 2005, and the unemployment rate to 10%.[93]

Turkey 15

One of the fastest growing airline companies inthe world, Turkish Airlines was chosen as the

official carrier by Europe's leading football clubslike FC Barcelona[94] and Manchester

United.[95] The company is also the primarysponsor of Euroleague Basketball.[96]

The tourism sector has experienced rapid growth in the last twentyyears, and constitutes an important part of the economy. In 2008 therewere 31 million visitors to the country, who contributed $22 billion toTurkey's revenues.[97] Other key sectors of the Turkish economy arebanking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oilrefining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, machineindustry and automotive. Turkey has a large and growing automotiveindustry, which produced 1,147,110 motor vehicles in 2008, ranking asthe 6th largest producer in Europe (behind the United Kingdom andabove Italy) and the 15th largest producer in the world.[98] [99] Turkeyis also one of the leading shipbuilding nations; in 2007 the countryranked 4th in the world (behind China, South Korea and Japan) interms of the number of ordered ships, and also 4th in the world (behindItaly, USA and Canada) in terms of the number of ordered mega yachts.[100]

Esenboğa International Airport in Ankara.

Turkey's economy is becoming more dependenton industry in major cities, mostly concentratedin the western provinces of the country, and lesson agriculture. However, traditional agricultureis still a major pillar of the Turkish economy. In2010, the agricultural sector accounted for 9% ofGDP, while the industrial sector accounted for

26% and the services sector 65%.[1] However, agriculture still accounted for 27% of employment.[101] In 2004, itwas estimated that 46% of total disposable income was received by the top of 20% income earners, while the lowest20% received 6%.[102] According to Eurostat data, Turkish PPS GDP per capita stood at 45 per cent of the EUaverage in 2008.[103]

Turkish brands like BEKO and Vestel are amongthe largest producers of consumer electronics and

home appliances in Europe.

Turkey has taken advantage of the European Union – Turkey CustomsUnion, signed in 1995, to increase its industrial production destined forexports, while at the same time benefiting from EU-origin foreigninvestment into the country. Turkey now has also opportunity of a freetrade agreement with the European Union (EU) – without fullmembership – that allows it to manufacture for tarif-free salethroughout the EU market.[104] [105]

By 2009 exports were $110 bn and in 2010 it was $117 bn (mainexport partners in 2009: Germany 10%, France 6%, UK 6%, Italy 6%,Iraq 5%). However larger imports, which amounted to $166 billion in2010, threatened the balance of trade (main import partners in 2009:Russia 14%, Germany 10%, China 9%, US 6%, Italy 5%, France 5%).[1]

After years of low levels of foreign direct investment (FDI), Turkey succeeded in attracting $22 billion in FDI in2007 and is expected to attract a higher figure in following years.[106] A series of large privatizations, the stabilityfostered by the start of Turkey's EU accession negotiations, strong and stable growth, and structural changes in thebanking, retail, and telecommunications sectors have all contributed to a rise in foreign investment.[90]

Turkey 16

Demographics

Ethnic groups in Turkey (2008)[2]

Ethnic groups Percent

Turks 76.0%

Kurds 15.7%

Others 8.3%

The historic İstiklal Avenue in Istanbul'scosmopolitan Beyoğlu district.

The last official census was in 2000 and recorded a total countrypopulation of 67,803,927 inhabitants.[5] According to theAddress-Based Birth Recording System of Turkey, the country'spopulation was 73.7 million people in 2010,[4] nearly three-quarters ofwhom lived in towns and cities. According to the 2009 estimate, thepopulation is increasing by 1.5% each year. Turkey has an averagepopulation density of 92 people per km². People within the 15–64 agegroup constitute 67% of the total population; the 0–14 age groupcorresponds to 26%; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older makeup 7%.[107] In 1927, when the first official census was recorded in theRepublic of Turkey, the population was 13.6 million.[108]

Life expectancy stands at 71.1 years for men and 75.3 years for women, with an overall average of 73.2 years for thepopulace as a whole.[109] Education is compulsory and free from ages 6 to 15. The literacy rate is 96% for men and80.4% for women, with an overall average of 88.1%.[110] The low figures for women are mainly due to thetraditional customs of the Arabs and Kurds who live in the southeastern provinces of the country.[111]

Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through thebond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish" as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnicdefinition. However, the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity. They are estimeted at 70–75%by the CIA[1] and at 76.0% by a survey of Milliyet in 2007.[2]

The Kurds, a distinct ethnic group concentrated mainly in the southeastern provinces of the country, are the largestnon-Turkic ethnicity, estimated at about 18% of the population according to the CIA[1] and at 15.7% according to asurvey by the Milliyet daily newspaper.[2] Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do not have anyspecial group privileges, while the term "minority" itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey. Reliable data on theethnic mix of the population is not available, because Turkish census figures do not include statistics onethnicity.[112]

Other major ethnic groups include the Abkhazians, Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians,Hamshenis, Laz, Pomaks (Bulgarians), Roma, Zazas and the three officially recognized minorities (per the Treaty ofLausanne), i.e. the Armenians, Greeks and Jews. Signed on January 30, 1923, a bilateral accord of populationexchange between Greece and Turkey took effect in the 1920s, with close to 1.5 million Greeks moving from Turkeyand some 500,000 Turks coming from Greece.[113]

Minorities of West European origin include the Levantines (or Levanter, mostly of French, Genoese and Venetiandescent) who have been present in the country (particularly in Istanbul[114] and İzmir[115] ) since the medievalperiod.

Turkey 17

UrbanisationAccording to 2010 estimate metropolitan areas in Turkey with the largest populations are İstanbul (13.1 million),Ankara (4.4 million), İzmir (3.4 million), Bursa (1.9 million), Adana (1.6 million), Gaziantep (1.3 million), Konya(1.0 million) and Antalya (1.0 million).[116] An estimated 70.5% of the population live in urban centers.[117] In all,18 provinces have populations that exceed 1 million inhabitants, and 21 provinces have populations between 1million and 500,000 inhabitants. Only two provinces have populations less than 100,000.

Largest cities of TurkeySource?

Istanbul

Ankara

Rank City Name Province Pop. Rank City Name Province Pop.

İzmir

Bursa

1 Istanbul Istanbul 10,861,463 11 Diyarbakır Diyarbakır 613,332

2 Ankara Ankara 3,842,737 12 Eskişehir Eskişehir 581,408

3 İzmir İzmir 2,644,531 13 Şanlıurfa Şanlıurfa 472,238

4 Bursa Bursa 1,537,040 14 Denizli Denizli 465,947

5 Adana Adana 1,506,272 15 Samsun Samsun 459,781

6 Gaziantep Gaziantep 1,192,023 16 Malatya Malatya 419,212

7 Konya Konya 973,791 17 Adapazarı Sakarya 382,226

8 Antalya Antalya 877,945 18 Kahramanmaraş Kahramanmaraş 380,805

9 Kayseri Kayseri 775,594 19 Erzurum Erzurum 361,160

10 Mersin Mersin 692,300 20 Van Van 331,986

LanguageTurkish is the sole official language throughout Turkey. Reliable figures for the linguistic breakdown of the populaceare not available for reasons similar to those cited above.[112] According to CIA the Turkish language is spoken by70–75% of people and the Kurdish language by approximately 18% of people.[118] The public broadcaster TRTbroadcasts programmes in the local languages and dialects of Arabic, Bosnian, Circassian and Kurdish a few hours aweek.[119] A public television channel, TRT 6, which airs programs of Kurdish-language most of the time, wasopened in early 2009.[120]

Religion

Religions in Turkey[13]

Religions Percent

Islam 84.1%

Non believers and Atheists 15.2%

Christianity 0.6%

Others 0.1%

Turkey 18

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul.

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the TurkishConstitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[121] [122]

Islam is the dominant religion of Turkey, it exceeds 99% if secularpeople of Muslim background are included.[123] [124] [125] Researchfirms suggest the actual Muslim figure is around 98%,[126] or 97%.[13]

There are about 120,000 people of different Christian denominations,including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox,[127] 35,000 RomanCatholics,[128] 5,000 Orthodox (of them 3,000–4,000 beingGreeks)[127] and smaller numbers of Protestants. Today there are 236churches open for worship in Turkey.[129] The Orthodox Church hasbeen headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century AD. Christiansrepresent less than 0.2% of Turkey's population, according to the CIAWorld Factbook,[130] and Christian organizations such as Joshua Project[131] and Persecution.org.[132]

There are about 26,000 people who are Jewish, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[133]

The Bahá'í Faith in Turkey has roots in Bahá'u'lláh's, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, being exiled to Constantinople,current-day Istanbul, by the Ottoman authorities. Bahá'ís cannot register with the government officially[134] but thereare probably 10[135] to 20[136] thousand Bahá'ís, and around a hundred Bahá'í Local Spiritual Assemblies inTurkey.[137]

Though there are no exact figures on the Muslim sects, according to a 2006 survey, 82% were identified as SunniHanafi, 9.1% Sunni Shafi'i, and 5.7% were Alevi. Though academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15to 20 million.[138] [139] Alevi community is sometimes classified within Twelver Shi'a Islam. According to Aksiyonmagazine, the number of Shiite Twelvers (excluding Alevis) is 3 million (4.2%), and they live in Istanbul, Iğdır,Kars, Ankara, İzmir, Manisa, Çorum, Muğla, Ağrı and Aydın.[140] There are also some Sufi practitioners.[141] Thehighest Islamic religious authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs (Turkish: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı), itinterprets the Hanafi school of law, and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country's 80,000 registeredmosques and employing local and provincial imams.[142] The role of religion has been controversial debate over theyears since the formation of Islamist parties.[143] Turkey was founded upon a strict secular constitution which forbidsthe influence of any religion, including Islam. There are sensitive issues, such as the fact that the wearing of theHijab is banned in universities and public or government buildings as some view it as a symbol of Islam – thoughthere have been efforts to lift the ban.[144] [145] [146] [147] The vast majority of the present-day Turkish people areMuslim and the most popular sect is the Hanafite school of Sunni Islam, which was officially espoused by theOttoman Empire; according to the KONDA Research and Consultancy survey carried out throughout Turkey on2007:[13] 40.8% defined themselves as "a religious person who strives to fulfill religious obligations" (religious);42.3 % defined themselves as "a believer who does not fulfill religious obligations" (not religious); 4.0% definedthemselves as "a fully devout person fulfilling all religious obligations" (fully devout); 10.3% defined themselves as"someone who does not believe in religious obligations" (non-believer); and 4.09% defined themselves as "someonewith no religious conviction" (atheist). Non-believers and atheists make up 15.2% of the population according to theKONDA Research and Consultancy survey.[13]

Turkey 19

Culture

Orhan Pamuk is one of the leadingcontemporary Turkish novelists andthe winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize

in Literature.

Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the OğuzTurkic, Anatolian, Ottoman (which was itself a continuation of bothGreco-Roman and Islamic cultures) and Western culture and traditions, whichstarted with the Westernization of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today.This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culturewith those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration fromCentral Asia to the West.[148] [149]

As Turkey successfully transformed from the religion-based former OttomanEmpire into a modern nation-state with a very strong separation of state andreligion, an increase in the modes of artistic expression followed. During the firstyears of the republic, the government invested a large amount of resources intofine arts; such as museums, theatres, opera houses and architecture. Diversehistorical factors play important roles in defining the modern Turkish identity.Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a "modern" Western state, whilemaintaining traditional religious and historical values.[148]

One of the main entrance gates of theDolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul.

Turkish music and literature form great examples of such a mix ofcultural influences, which were a result of the interaction between theOttoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe, thuscontributing to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions inmodern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[150] Turkish literature washeavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of theOttoman era, though towards the end of the Ottoman Empire,particularly after the Tanzimat period, the effect of both Turkish folkand European literary traditions became increasingly felt. The mix ofcultural influences is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "newsymbols [of] the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the worksof Orhan Pamuk, winner of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[151]

According to Konda public opinion researchers, 70% of Turkish citizens never read books.[152]

Architectural elements found in Turkey are also testaments to the unique mix of traditions that have influenced theregion over the centuries. In addition to the traditional Byzantine elements present in numerous parts of Turkey,many artifacts of the later Ottoman architecture, with its exquisite blend of local and Islamic traditions, are to befound throughout the country, as well as in many former territories of the Ottoman Empire. Mimar Sinan is widelyregarded as the greatest architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. Since the 18th century, Turkisharchitecture has been increasingly influenced by Western styles, and this can be particularly seen in Istanbul wherebuildings like Dolmabahçe and Çırağan Palaces are juxtaposed next to numerous modern skyscrapers, all of themrepresenting different traditions.[153]

Turkey 20

Sports

Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul hosted the 2005 UEFAChampions League Final.

The most popular sport in Turkey is football.[154]

Turkey's top teams include Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe andBeşiktaş. In 2000, Galatasaray cemented its role as amajor European club by winning the UEFA Cup andUEFA Super Cup. Two years later the Turkish nationalteam finished third in the 2002 World Cup Finals in Japanand South Korea, while in 2008 the national team reachedthe semi-finals of the UEFA Euro 2008 competition. TheAtatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul hosted the 2005UEFA Champions League Final, while the ŞükrüSaracoğlu Stadium in Istanbul hosted the 2009 UEFACup Final.

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular. Turkey hosted the finals of EuroBasket2001 and the finals of the 2010 FIBA World Championship, winning second place on both occasions; while EfesPilsen S.K. won the Korac Cup in 1996, finished second in the Saporta Cup of 1993, and made it to the Final Four ofEuroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001.[155] Turkish basketball players such as Mehmet Okur and HidayetTürkoğlu have also been successful in the NBA. Women's volleyball teams, namely Eczacıbaşı, Vakıfbank GüneşSigorta and Fenerbahçe Acıbadem, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.

The traditional Turkish national sport has been yağlı güreş (oiled wrestling) since Ottoman times.[156] Edirne hashosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1361.[157] International wrestling styles governed byFILA such as Freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World andOlympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.[158]

Weightlifting has been a successful Turkish sport. Turkish weightlifters, both male and female, have brokennumerous world records and won several European,[159] World and Olympic[160] championship titles. NaimSüleymanoğlu and Halil Mutlu have achieved legendary status as one of the few weightlifters to have won three goldmedals in three Olympics.

Istanbul Park racing circuit a few hours before the F1 Turkish Grand Prix.

Motorsports are also popular inTurkey. The Rally of Turkey wasincluded to the FIA World RallyChampionship calendar in 2003,[161]

and the Turkish Grand Prix wasincluded to the Formula One racingcalendar in 2005.[162] Other important

annual motorsports events which are held at the Istanbul Park racing circuit include the MotoGP Grand Prix ofTurkey, the FIA World Touring Car Championship, the GP2 Series and the Le Mans Series. From time to timeIstanbul and Antalya also host the Turkish leg of the F1 Powerboat Racing championship; while the Turkish leg ofthe Red Bull Air Race World Series, an air racing competition, takes place above the Golden Horn in Istanbul.Surfing, snowboarding, skateboarding, paragliding and other extreme sports are becoming more popular every year.

Turkey 21

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Retrieved 2011-05-16.[2] (http:/ / www. milliyet. com. tr/ 2007/ 03/ 22/ guncel/ agun. html), Milliyet, 22 March 2007. (Turkish)[3] 80–88% in 1995, Turks (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ turkey/ 27. htm) in Helen Chapin Metz, ed. Turkey: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.:

GPO for the Library of Congress, 1995.[4] "Turkish Statistical Institute" (http:/ / www. turkstat. gov. tr/ PreHaberBultenleri. do?id=8428). Turkstat.gov.tr. . Retrieved 2011-05-16.[5] "2000 census" (http:/ / www. citypopulation. de/ Turkey-C20. html). Citypopulation.de. .[6] The World Bank: World Development Indicators Database. Gross Domestic Product 2010, PPP. (http:/ / siteresources. worldbank. org/

DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/ GDP_PPP. pdf) Last revised on 1 July 2011.[7] IMF World Economic Outlook Database, April 2011. (http:/ / www. imf. org/ external/ pubs/ ft/ weo/ 2011/ 01/ weodata/ weorept.

aspx?sy=2010& ey=2016& scsm=1& ssd=1& sort=country& ds=. & br=1& c=186& s=NGDPD,NGDPDPC,PPPGDP,PPPPC& grp=0& a=&pr. x=91& pr. y=15) IMF staff estimates for the GDP figures of 2010.

[8] "Human Development Report 2010" (http:/ / hdr. undp. org/ en/ media/ HDR_2010_EN_Table1. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-11-01.[9] The Turkish lira (Türk Lirası, TL) replaced the Turkish new lira on January 1, 2009.[10] National Geographic Atlas of the World (7th ed.). Washington, DC: National Geographic. 1999. ISBN 0-7922-7528-4. "Europe" (pp.

68–69); "Asia" (pp. 90–91): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe ... is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River,Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."

[11] Mango, Andrew (2000). Ataturk. Overlook. ISBN 1-5856-7011-1.[12] Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey; Vol.1, Empire of the Gazis. the rise and

decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1808. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-5212-9163-1.[13] KONDA Research and Consultancy (2011-06-25). "Religion, Secularism and the Veil in daily life" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/

20090325005232/ http:/ / www. konda. com. tr/ html/ dosyalar/ ghdl& t_en. pdf) (PDF). Milliyet. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.konda. com. tr/ html/ dosyalar/ ghdl& t_en. pdf) on 2009-03-25. .

[14] "CIA World Factbook gives 18% Kurds" (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ tu. html#People). Cia.gov.. Retrieved 2011-05-16.

[15] "Turkey – Turkish Origins" (http:/ / countrystudies. us/ turkey/ 5. htm). Countrystudies.us. . Retrieved 2011-05-16.[16] "Can Turkey Be a Source of Stability in the Middle East?" (http:/ / www. heptagonpost. com/ Dessi/

can_turkey_be_a_source_of_stability_in_the_middle_east). heptagonpost.com. 2010-12-18. . Retrieved 2011-05-16.[17] Harper, Douglas (2001). "Turk" (http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=Turk). Online Etymology Dictionary. . Retrieved

2011-05-24.[18] On the right side of the Corona Græca in the Holy Crown of Hungary, there is a picture of the Hungarian King Géza I (1074–1077), with

the Byzantine Greek inscription: "ΓΕΩΒΙΤZΑC ΠΙΣΤΟC ΚΡΑΛΗC ΤΟΥΡΚΙΑC" (Geōvitzas pistós králēs Tourkías, meaning "Géza I,faithful kralj of the land of the Turks"). The contemporary Byzantine name for the Hungarians was "Turks".

[19] Jenkins, Romilly James Heald (1967). De Administrando Imperio by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus. Corpus fontium historiae Byzantinae(New, revised ed.). Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 0884020215. According to ConstantinePorphyrogenitus, writing in his De Administrando Imperio (ca. 950 AD) "Patzinakia, the Pecheneg realm, stretches west as far as the SiretRiver (or even the Eastern Carpathian Mountains), and is four days distant from Tourkias (i.e. Hungary)."

[20] Istvan Baan: "Byzanz und Ostmitteleuropa, 950–1453" (http:/ / books. google. com. tr/ books?id=uZDgivj7_RAC& pg=PA46& lpg=PA46&dq=metropolitanate+ of+ tourkia& source=bl& ots=wUYhlxFzqX& sig=zmJO_Y_ZZ-vxlNH_H0-KDE2YiLk& hl=tr&ei=oebbTYjVDtDz-gb08MnMDw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=metropolitanateof tourkia& f=false). Page 46.

[21] Thissen, Laurens (2001-11-23) (PDF). Time trajectories for the Neolithic of Central Anatolia (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/20070605005726/ http:/ / www. canew. org/ files/ Thissen lecture. pdf). CANeW – Central Anatolian Neolithic e-Workshop. Archived fromthe original (http:/ / www. canew. org/ files/ Thissen lecture. pdf) on June 5, 2007. . Retrieved 2006-12-21.

[22] Balter, Michael (2004-02-27). "Search for the Indo-Europeans: Were Kurgan horsemen or Anatolian farmers responsible for creating andspreading the world's most far-flung language family?". Science 303 (5662): 1323. doi:10.1126/science.303.5662.1323. PMID 14988549.

[23] "Ziyaret Tepe – Turkey Archaeological Dig Site" (http:/ / www3. uakron. edu/ ziyaret/ timeline_3period. html). .uakron.edu. . Retrieved2010-09-04.

[24] "Assyrian Identity In Ancient Times And Today'" (http:/ / www. aina. org/ articles/ assyrianidentity. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2010-09-04.[25] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (October 2000). "Anatolia and the Caucasus, 2000–1000 B.C. in Timeline of Art History."

(http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ ht/ 03/ waa/ ht03waa. htm). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. . Retrieved 2006-12-21.[26] Hooker, Richard (1999-06-06). "Ancient Greece: The Persian Wars" (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ GREECE/ PERSIAN. HTM).

Washington State University, WA, United States. . Retrieved 2006-12-22.[27] The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (October 2000). "Anatolia and the Caucasus (Asia Minor), 1000 B.C. – 1 A.D. in Timeline of

Art History." (http:/ / www. metmuseum. org/ toah/ ht/ 04/ waa/ ht04waa. htm). New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. . Retrieved2006-12-21.

Turkey 22

[28] Daniel C. Waugh (2004). "Constantinople/Istanbul" (http:/ / depts. washington. edu/ silkroad/ cities/ turkey/ istanbul/ istanbul. html).University of Washington, Seattle, WA. . Retrieved 2006-12-26.

[29] Wink, Andre (1990). Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World, Vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11thCenturies. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09249-8.

[30] Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.[31] Kinross, Patrick (1977). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Morrow. ISBN 0-6880-3093-9.[32] Kirk, George E. (2008). A Short History of the Middle East. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 58. ISBN 1443725684.[33] "FACT SHEET: ARMENIAN GENOCIDE" (http:/ / www. umd. umich. edu/ dept/ armenian/ facts/ genocide. html). University of

Michigan. . Retrieved 2010-07-15.[34] Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) Dictionary of Genocide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. ISBN

0-313-34642-9.[35] Patrick J. Roelle, Islam's Mandate- A Tribute to Jihad, AuthorHouse, 2010, ISBN 9781452080185, p. 33. (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=KL0RTx77lrwC& pg=PA33& dq=the-eastern+ "claims+ that+ Armenians+ were"& hl=en& ei=vvcHTrfQFKfMmAXIntS3DQ&sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=the-eastern "claims that Armenians were"& f=false)

[36] Bloxham, D. The great game of genocide: imperialism, nationalism, and the destruction of the Ottoman Armenians. Oxford UniversityPress, 2005, p. 150 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=TSRkGNoEPFwC& pg=PA150&sig=ACfU3U09_Sjo0a0T4KpiS6QfG-94noUmdg)

[37] Levene, Mark (1998). Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia,1878–1923, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 3 Winter 1998, pp. 393–433. ( abstract (http:/ / hgs. oxfordjournals. org/cgi/ content/ abstract/ 12/ 3/ 393)).

[38] Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-century Conflict And the Descent of the West, Penguin Press, p. 180[39] "Growth in United Nations membership (1945–2005)" (http:/ / www. un. org/ Overview/ growth. htm). United Nations. 2006-07-03. .

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ISBN 0-6880-3093-9.• Mango, Andrew (2000). Ataturk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey. Overlook.

ISBN 1-5856-7011-1.• Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.• Shaw, Stanford Jay; Kural Shaw, Ezel (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge

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Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-09249-8.Politics• Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2006). "Upsurge amidst Political Uncertainty. Nationalism in post-2004 Turkey. SWP

Research Paper 2006/RP 11, October 2006" (http:/ / www. swp-berlin. org/ common/ get_document.php?asset_id=3380) (PDF). Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (German Institute for International andSecurity Affairs). Retrieved 2007-07-31.

• Hale, William Mathew (1994). Turkish Politics and the Military (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=50O5kEzZ1JQC& pg=RA1-PA1& dq=Turkish+ Armed+ Forces#PRA1-PA154,M1). Routledge (UK).ISBN 0-4150-2455-2.

• Rubin, Barry M.; Heper, Metin (2002). Political Parties in Turkey. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0714652741.

Turkey 27

Foreign relations and military• Bal, İdris (2004). Turkish Foreign Policy In Post Cold War Era (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=vDzjkrTDKjYC& pg=PP1& lpg=PP1& dq=turkey+ cold+ war). Universal Publishers. ISBN 1-5811-2423-6.• Cook, Steven A.; Sherwood-Randall, Elizabeth (2006-06-15). "Generating Momentum for a New Era in

U.S.-Turkey Relations" (http:/ / www. cfr. org/ content/ publications/ attachments/ TurkeyCSR. pdf) (PDF).Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2006-12-17.

• Huston, James A. (1988). Outposts and Allies: U.S. Army Logistics in the Cold War, 1945–1953 (http:/ / books.google. com/ ?id=ID4E3Lm8TsgC& pg=PA198& lpg=PA198& dq=turkey+ cold+ war). Susquehanna UniversityPress. ISBN 0-9416-6484-8.

• Rubin, Barry M.; Çarkoǧlu, Ali (2003). Turkey and the European Union: Domestic Politics, EconomicIntegration, and International Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=1Nxy_E8Gds4C& pg=PP1&lpg=PP1& dq=Turkey+ European+ Union). Routledge (UK). ISBN 0714654027.

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Demographics• Çarkoǧlu, Ali (2004). Religion and Politics in Turkey (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=t5G_zw9exMQC&

pg=PP1& lpg=PP1& dq=Religion+ in+ Turkey). Routledge (UK). ISBN 0-4153-4831-5.• Extra, Guus; Gorter, Durk (2001). The other languages of Europe: Demographic, Sociolinguistic and Educational

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• Shankland, David (2003). The Alevis in Turkey: The Emergence of a Secular Islamic Tradition (http:/ / books.google. com/ ?id=lFFRzTqLp6AC& pg=PP1& lpg=PP1& dq=Religion+ in+ Turkey). Routledge (UK).ISBN 0700716068.

• "Türkiyedeki Kürtlerin Sayısı! (Number of Kurds in Turkey!)" (http:/ / www. milliyet. com. tr/ default.aspx?aType=SonDakika& Kategori=yasam& ArticleID=873452& Date=07. 06. 2008& ver=16) (in Turkish).Milliyet. 2008-06-06. Retrieved 2008-06-07.

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org/ web/ 20061207220323/ http:/ / www. die. gov. tr/ nufus_sayimi/ 2000tablo5. xls) (XLS). Turkish Statistical Institute. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. die. gov. tr/ nufus_sayimi/ 2000tablo5. xls) on 2006-12-07.

Turkey 28

Retrieved 2006-12-11.Culture• Goodwin, Godfrey (2003). A History of Ottoman Architecture. Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-5002-7429-0.• Kaya, İbrahim (2003). Social Theory and Later Modernities: The Turkish Experience (http:/ / books. google. com/

?id=0Iy7pJBRgjYC& pg=PA58& lpg=PA58& dq=Turkish+ culture). Liverpool University Press.ISBN 0-8532-3898-7.

Further reading• Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today. Overlook. ISBN 1585676152.• Bozarslan, Hamit 'Turkey: Postcolonial discourse in a non-colonised state', in Prem Poddar et al. , Historical

Companion to Postcolonial Literatures—Continental Europe and its Colonies, Edinburgh University Press, 2008• Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 1585675814.• Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Citlembik.

ISBN 9944424013.• Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts.

ISBN 1-903973-56-2.• Turkey: A Country Study (1996). Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ISBN 0-8444-0864-6.

External links• Official website (http:/ / http:/ / www. tccb. gov. tr/ pages/ )• Turkey (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ tu. html) entry at The World

Factbook• Turkey (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Regional/ Middle_East/ Turkey/ ) at the Open Directory Project• Wikimedia Atlas of Turkey• Turkey travel guide from Wikitravelkbd:Тырку ltg:Turceja

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Hunter, Aee1980, Aegean Boy, Aegeanfighter, Aelffin, Aeminorhan, Aero1980, Aerodil, Aerospace1980, Afa86, AgentPeppermint, Agnostic2694, Ahassan05, Ahmet Hasim, Ahmet Tolga Tek, Ahoerstemeier, Ais523, Aivazovsky, Ajaxmaster, Aka519, Akanemoto, Akhristov, Akocsg, Alan McBeth, Alanbly, Alderschloß, Aledeniz, Alessandro57, Alex43223, AlexanderShap, Alihandk, Alikimi4, Alivelideli, Alpboyraz, Alphachimp, Alphathon, Alphax, Alsandro, Altenmann, Amakuru, Amateur55, Americanneo, Amerika, Amilsum, Amitch, Anatolianpride, Andre Engels, Andreas2009, Andreas678, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andy M. Wang, Andy Marchbanks, Andybazslim, Andyjsmith, Andyto0o, Angela, Angelo De La Paz, Anger22, Angr, Ankara56, AnonMoos, Anonymous editor, Anonymous56789, Antandrus, Antonio "Tony" Montana "Scarface", Anupam, Aozan, Aozcakir, ApprenticeFan, Arab Hafez, Arad, Arado, Aram Goldsmith, AramaeanSyriac, Aramgutang, Aranherunar, Archie123, ArchonMeld, Ardeshire Babakan, Aregakn, ArglebargleIV, Aristovoul0s, Aristovoulos, Arman88, Armanalp, Armavi8, Armavi88, Arminius, Arnold Reisman, Arnout Steenhoek, Arpeen, Arsenalfc06, Arshalooys, Art LaPella, Artaxiad, Asdfqwe123, Asmaybe, Asparagas, Assyria 90, Asteraki, Atacan887, Atacanus, Athaenara, Athenean, AtilimGunesBaydin, Atkinson 291, Atlantima, Ato, Attaleian, Aude, Auntof6, Avala, Avenger, Avicennasis, Avionics1980, Avnionur, Awaterl, AxG, AxLoriAx, Axel B Corlu, Axxxion, Aycan, Aydchery, Ayça Leovinus, Azxd, B, BD2412, BRFC Rovers Forever, Babaeski, Babakexorramdin, Bakudai, Balaam42, Balderdash707, Balthazarduju, Bambuway, Bamtelim, Banes, 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Mactcel, Macukali, Magister Mathematicae, Magnificientturk, Magnus Manske, Mahmut Başar Özer-Kaştanadam, Majorly, Makalp, MakaveliReturns, Maksim L., Malakian Fan 13, Malhonen, Malkoçoğlu, Malo, Man vyi, Manavkızı, Mani1, Manicsleeper, Mar4d, Marcarmo, Marcus Brute, Mardavich, Marek69, Margana, Mark, Mark83, Markco1, MarsRover, MarshallBagramyan, Mart572, Martianmister, Martinwilke1980, Mas11112, MassimoAr, Masterjamie, Materialscientist, Matt Yeager, Matt.s.wise, Mav, Mavigogun, Maviyengeç, Mbrutus, McDogm, Mcmlxxxvi1986, Mediterranean33, MehrdadNY, Meji100, Mel Etitis, Melaen, Melih Yavuz, Member, Memty, Menikure, Merlin Beaufighter, Mesgul82, Metb82, MetroStar, Mevlüt Kılıç, Mfa fariz, Mgiganteus1, Mhking, MiG, Miacek, Miborovsky, Mibutt, Mic, Michael Hardy, Mickey gfss2007, Mierlo, Mihalis, Mihrimah, Mike R, MikeLeahy1, Millahnna, Millisits, Minnesota1, Miranda, Misarxist, MisfitToys, Miskin, Mista Allen, Mitch1981, Miyokan, Mizrak, Mjolnir1984, Mjpieters, Mm11, Mo0, Modulatum, Mokoko 24-7, Monomachus, Montrealais, Moorehaus, Moreschi, Moroccan Spaniard, Morwen, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Mpiff, Mr Adequate, Mr Rookles, Mr. Yooper, Mr. reverto, MrDarcy, MrFish, MrSomeone, Mrzaius, Mshecket, Mttll, Mu5ti, Muhsin Bey, Mukadderat, Mulacho, Munferit, Murder1, Murtasa, Mushroom, Mustafaseker, Mustaqbal, Muzoben, Mwanner, My76Strat, Myhamsterrox, Mysadist, Mytildebang, NESsimmen, Nach0king, Naddy, Nakon, Namuslu, Nard the Bard, Natanyel, NathanBeach, Navybrat95, NawlinWiki, Nayvik, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyene, Nebuchadnezzar o'neill, Nedim Ardoğa, Neesnueht, NeoRetro, Nepaheshgar, Neparis, NeroDrusus, Nerval, Nestore, Netsnipe, Neurobio, Neutrality, New4325, Nezigurler, Niandralades, Nichalp, Nick, Nick125, Nickinuu, Nightrider083, Nightstallion, Nihiltres, Nikkul, Nikmat, Nikosextra, Nikosgreencookie, Nipsonanomhmata, Nishkid64, Nitya Dharma, Nlu, Nnemo, Noahns, Nochoje, Noctibus, Noira, Northumbrian, Nosrail, Notthe600, Novakoff, Nozdref, Nquotes, 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Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Flag of Turkey.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Turkey.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: David Benbennick (original author)File:Turkey (orthographic projection).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turkey_(orthographic_projection).svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: User:The Emirr, User:The EmirrFile:Increase2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Increase2.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: SarangFile:Troy1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Troy1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dodo, Nevit, Rrburke, 3 anonymous editsFile:Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:MichiFile:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Atilim Gunes BaydinFile:Edirne 7333 Nevit.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edirne_7333_Nevit.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Nevit DilmenFile:MustafaKemalAtaturk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MustafaKemalAtaturk.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original photographer unknown.Image:Roosevelt Inonu and Churchill at the Second Cairo Conference.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Roosevelt_Inonu_and_Churchill_at_the_Second_Cairo_Conference.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: CeeGee, Flavius Belisarius, PatrickneilFile:TBMM interior.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TBMM_interior.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Ankaralı TurgutFile:Cropped rte.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cropped_rte.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: RandamFile:EU Turkey flag.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EU_Turkey_flag.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: LokumFile:2009 G-20 Pittsburgh summit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2009_G-20_Pittsburgh_summit.jpg  License: Creative Commons AR-Presidency  Contributors:BrightRaven, Cambalachero, Chaser, Hameryko, Piotrus, Randam, Russavia, Scanyaro, Tharkun, 4 anonymous editsFile:NATO-2002-Summit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NATO-2002-Summit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Cantus aten.wikipediaFile:Boeing 737 AEW&C MESA Peace Eagle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boeing_737_AEW&C_MESA_Peace_Eagle.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Seattle AviatorFile:MEKO 200 TN.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MEKO_200_TN.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Dz.K.K.File:BlankMapTurkeyProvinces.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BlankMapTurkeyProvinces.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Atilim Gunes BaydinFile:Bosphorus Bridge Night.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bosphorus_Bridge_Night.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Kara SabahatFile:Oludeniz03.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oludeniz03.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Erdal. Original uploader wasOscarKosy at en.wikipediaFile:NEO ararat big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NEO_ararat_big.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/JSCFile:Maslak financial district Istanbul.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maslak_financial_district_Istanbul.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0  Contributors: Kara SabahatFile:TCDD CAF 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TCDD_CAF_1.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: TCDDFile:Turkish Airlines B777-300ER TC-JJB at LHR.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Turkish_Airlines_B777-300ER_TC-JJB_at_LHR.jpg  License: CreativeCommons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Andy Mitchell from Glasgow, UKFile:Esenboga terminal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Esenboga_terminal.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors:(Mustafa Goksu) CheyrekFile:BEKO stand at the international fair.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BEKO_stand_at_the_international_fair.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Red Dot Fair 2008File:Istiklal Avenue in Istanbul on 3 June 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Istiklal_Avenue_in_Istanbul_on_3_June_2007.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: EdBever, Gryffindor, Kara Sabahat, Mehmet Kerem Tuncay, Nouill, Schekinov Alexey VictorovichFile:Lev Ist Tur 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lev_Ist_Tur_1.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Geia sou LevendiFile:Kizilay Square.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kizilay_Square.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: AnkaralıTurgutFile:Izmir from Konak Pier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Izmir_from_Konak_Pier.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Cretanforever, Dario Moreno, MachFile:BUTTIM Bursa Turkey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BUTTIM_Bursa_Turkey.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Bursa Uludağ

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 31

File:Sultan Ahmed Mosque.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sultan_Ahmed_Mosque.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KamioxFile:Orhan Pamuk3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orhan_Pamuk3.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EugeneZelenko, Gryffindor, Juliancolton, Martin H.,Towsonu2003, 9 anonymous editsFile:DolmabahceMainGate.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DolmabahceMainGate.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anniolek, Galileo01, Pascal.TessonFile:Atatürk Olympic Stadium Istanbul.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Atatürk_Olympic_Stadium_Istanbul.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: OlympisTRFile:Istanbul Park Turkish Grand Prix Circuit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Istanbul_Park_Turkish_Grand_Prix_Circuit.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: F1 Istanbul Park GP, Morio

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