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DESCRIPTION
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TE
662
.A3
no.FHWA-
RD-72-15
leport
No.
FHWA-RD-72-15
Tunnel
Ventilation and
Air
Pollution Treatment
S.
J.
Rodgers,
F.
Roehlich, Jr.,
and C.
A. Palladino
Mine Safety
Appliance
Research Corporation
Evans
City,
Pennsylvania
16033
DEPARTMENT
OF
TRANSPORT
OCT
2
-
197Z
LIBRARY
4
*r5
ov
June
30,
1970
This document is available
to the
public
through the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield,
Virginia
22151.
Prepared for
FEDERAL
HIGHWAY
ADMINISTRATION
Office
of Research
Washington,
D.C.
20590
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NOTICE
This document
is
disseminated
under the sponsorship
of
the Department
of Transportation in the interest
of
information exchange. The United
States
Government
assumes no
liability for its contents
or
use
thereof.
The
contents
of this report
reflect
the
views of the
contracting
organization,
which is responsible
for
the
facts
and
the accuracy
of
the data presented
herein. The
contents
do
not
necessarily
reflect
the
official views
or policy of the
Department
of
Transportation.
This
report does not
constitute a
standard,
specification, or
regulation.
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department
o
TRANSPORTATI
ECHNICAL REPORT
tTANTD^
T$T CE
l|Q(
.-/r
1.
Report
No.
FHWA-RD-72-15,
2.
Government
Accession
No.
3. Recipient's
CataloglNo.
LIBRARY
4. Title
and
Subtitle
\s *
Tunnel Ventilation and Air Pollution
Treatment
5.
Report
Dote
QctOl
Date
of
Preparation
6.
Performing
Organization
Code
7.
Author's)
Sheridan
J.
Rodgers
,
Ferdinand
Roehlich,
Jr.,
Cataldo
A.
Palladino
8.
Performing Organization Report
No.
MSAR-71-187
9.
Performing
Organization
Name
and
Address
Mine Safety Appliance Research
Corporation
Evans.
City,
Pennsylvania
16033
10.
Work
Unit
No.
FCP
33F3012
11.
Contract
or
Grant No.
FH-ll-7597
12.
Sponsoring
Agency Name
and
Address
U.S.
Department of Transportation
Federal
Highway
Administration
Washington,
D.
C.
20590
13. Type
of
Report
and
Period
Covered
Final
Report
June
30,
1970
14.
Sponsoring Agency Code
Ab
2980
15.
Supplementary
Notes
16.
Abstract
The dangers
such
as
harmful
physiological
effects
and nuisances
for various
tunnel air impurities for
occupants
were
usually negligible,
especially because
of
limited
exposure periods. Only
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons,
nitrogen
oxides, and
particulates
pose
any significant problems.
From
the
foregoing
analysis, standards
of American Conference
of
Government
and
Industrial
Hygienists,
Federal
ambient
air
and
occupational
safety
and
health
regulations, and tunnel
occupancy,
tentative limits
include:
Safety
for
Unmanned
Tunnels
Carbon
Monoxide
500
ppm
Nitric
Oxide
37.5 ppm
Nitrogen Dioxide
•
5
ppm
Particulates
lOmg/meter
A
computer
program
was
developed
and
validated to predict
various
significant air
contaminants.
Instrumentation
to monitor
tunnel air quality was proposed.
Treatments
of
tunnel
air
for
either
discharge to
the
surroundings or
recycling
were
examined.
Economic
and
processing
constraints
such as dilute
concentrations were
probed.
Limited
laboratory
tests
were
conducted. Removal
of carbon
monoxide
appears
to be
impractical.
Adsorption of
nitrogen dioxide
and
more
noxious
hydrocarbons by
activa-
ted
carbon showed
promise.
Particulates
can be largely removed
by
electrostatic
precipitation,
filtration,
and
wet scrubbing.
17.
Keywords
TnTinel
f
Mr
pollutants
Ventilation
Instrumentation,
Air Purifica'
tion,
Air
Quality
Standards
18.
Distribution
Statement
Availability
unlimited.
The
public can
obtain this
document
through
the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield,
Virginia
22151.
19.
Security
Classif.
(of
this
report)
Unclassified
20. Security
Classif.
(of
this
page)
Unclassified
21.
No.
of Pages
267
22.
Price
Form
DOT
F
1700.7
<s-69)
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ABSTRACT
This
study,
funded
by
the
Department
of
Trans-
portation,
Federal
Highway
Administration,
was
aimed at
evaluating
current
air
quality
in
existing
tunnels
and
determining
means
of upgrading air
quality
in
existing
and
future
tunnels.
The study
consisted
of six
phases:
1.
Identify
the types
and
quantities
of
impurities
in
vehicular
tunnels.
2. Evaluate
the
physiological
effects
of these
impurities
on
tunnel workers
and
transients.
3.
Establish air quality criteria
for
vehicular
tunnels.
4.
Determine available
methods for
improving
air
quality
in
vehicular
tunnels.
5.
Perform
laboratory
tests
to
demon-
strate the
applicability of
selected
purification procedures.
6.
Recommend
instrumentation
for
vehicular tunnels.
Phase
1
consisted primarily
of a literature
survey
of
past
tunnel
studies
as
well
as
vehicle
emission
rates
as a
function
of various
driving
modes.
Those
of
major
concern are
CO, N0
X
,
HC and particulates.
A
computer
program
was
developed
which
adequately
predicts
the
concen-
tration
of various
impurities
as a
function of driving
mode
and ventilation
rates.
Some
on-site
sampling
was
performed
to
verify the validity of
the computer program.
Phase 2 involved
a survey
of
the
literature to
determine
both
short term and
long term
effects
on
humans
exposed to
specific
tunnel impurities.
These effects
were
considered
in
terms
of
both safe levels
and
comfort
levels
with respect
to
tunnel
employees and tunnel
transients.
The work
of Phase 3 evolved
as
a
result
of the
findings
in
Phase
2.
Criteria for tunnel impurity
levels
were
established
with the basic
guidelines
being
the
Recommended
Levels
of
the
American
Conference
of
Governmental
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Industrial Hygienists, the
EPA
standards
as
set forth
1n
the
Federal
Register
and other
references
on the
effects
of
air
impurities
on
safety
and
comfort.
Phase
4
involved
a
review
of
current
literature
on
methods
and
procedures
for
purification
of
contaminated
atmospheres. Typical purification
systems
which
were
reviewed
included
catalytic combustion,
adsorption,
absorp-
tion, wet scrubbing and
electrostatic
precipitation.
These
methods
were
considered within
the
constraints
imposed
by
tunnel
atmospheres
(i.e.,
low
impurity levels and
large
gas
volumes). An
economic evaluation
of
selected
systems
was
made.
Phase
5
reguired
laboratory
evaluation
of
the
most promising methods
of
tunnel
atmosphere
purification.
Small
scale testing was
performed
in
a
chamber
containing
actual automobile
exhaust
gases.
Parameters
which were
studied included temperature,
space velocity,
residence
time and
so
on.
Hopcalite
at
225°F
to
250°F
reduced
the
CO
to
zero.
Activated
carbon
proved
to
be
effective
in
the
removal
of
NO2
and
heavy
hydrocarbons.
Phase
6 reguired
the
recommendation
of
impurity
monitors
which should
be used
in
tunnels.
For tunnels
where
the air
guality
is
maintained
by
ventilation,
the recommen-
dation
was made
that
CO
continued to
be
monitored
and used
as
the
primary
indicator
of
tunnel
ventilation
rates.
It
was also
recommended
that
smoke meters
be
installed
in
tunnels, particularly
those which have heavy
diesel
traffic.
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TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
No
INTRODUCTION
1
RESULTS
OF THE
PROGRAM
3
Identification
of Types
and Quantities
of
Impurities
in
Vehicular
Tunnels
3
Literature
Survey
3
Computer
Model
21
Emission
Rates
for
CO, H-C, N0
X
and
Particulates
38
Verification
of Computer Model
45
PHYSIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF
TUNNEL
CONTAMINANTS 69
Contaminants
Which
Have
Been Found
in
Tunnel
Atmospheres
69
Selected
Contaminant
Levels
for
Vehicular
Tunnels
72
Specific
Limits
for
Manned
Tunnels
72
Unmanned Tunnels
76
Summary
of Recommended Levels
79
EVALUATION
OF
POLLUTANT
REMOVAL
METHODS 81
State of
the
Art
-
Applicable
Control
Technology 81
Applicable
Tunnel
Pollution
Control
Technology
83
Carbon
Monoxide and
Hydrocarbons
84
Catalytic Oxidation
87
Thermal
Afterburning 93
Adsorption
94
Wet Scrubbing
97
Nitrogen Oxides
101
Source
Control 105
Particulates
108
Tunnel
Pollution Control
-
Feasibility
and
•Economic Evaluation 113
Tunnel
Pollution
Control
Strategies
116
Exhaust Emission
Projections
119
Tunnel
Air
Treatment:
Problem Statement
125
Tunnel Ventilation
Costs
130
Process Feasibility: CO
and
Hydrocarbons
134
Process Feasibility:
Hydrocarbons
139
Process Feasibility: Particulates
143
Process Feasibility: Water
Solubles
150
General
Feasibility:
Recycle
&
Compart-
mentali
zation
151
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Conclusions
of Alternative Control
Technologies
Selection
of
Control
Techniques
to be
Evaluated
General Discussion
Carbon
Monoxide
Removal
Systems
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of
Nitrogen
Particul
ates
Purification
Test
System
Run No.
1
-
Blank
Run
No.
2
-
Cold
Hopcalite
Run No.
3
-
Activated Carbon
Run
No.
4
-
Purafil
Run No.
5
-
Hot Hopcalite
Run
No.
6
-
Silica
Gel
-Hopcal
i
te
Run
No.
7
-
Hopcalite
Runs
8
and
9
-
Filter Media
Run
No. 10
-
Mn02-Cu0
Run No.
11
-
Charcoal Plus Hopcalite
Run
No.
12
-
Charcoal
Plus
Moisture
Tolerant
Hopcal
i
te
Purification
Systems
for
Tunnels
TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION
171
Carbon
Monoxide
'
Smoke
or
Haze
Other Monitors
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen
Oxides
Total
Aldehydes
Carbon
Dioxide
and
Recommendations
for
Tunnel
CONCLUSIONS
177
REFERENCES
181
BIBLIOGRAPHY
191
A.
Specific
Tunnel
Studies 191
B.
General
Tunnel
Studies
192
C.
Emission Rates
194
D.
Traffic
Surveys
and Studies
197
E.
Ventilation
Requirements
and
Equipment 199
F.
Physiological
Effects
201
G.
Emission
Control
204
H. Pollutant
Monitoring
205
Page
No.
155
158
158
159
159
159
160
160
162
164
164
166
166
166
167
167
167
167
168
168
171
173
174
174
174
174
Oxygen 174
Instrumentation 174
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TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
(Continued)
Page No.
APPENDIX
I
-
Final
Report
- IHF
209
APPENDIX
II
-
Pollutant
Removal Proceas
Calculations
241
from
Final
Report
—
Patent Development
Associates,
Inc.
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LIST OF
ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure
No.
14
Page
No
Multiplication
Factor
for
Gradient
G
Increases
For
oiesels
31
decrease/
15 CO Emission
at
5500 Ft.
Compared
with
That at
500
ft.
32
16
Ventilation Rates
and Roadway
Gradient
for
Baltimore
Harbor-East
Tube
47
17
Actual Trace
of
CO Monitor
Readings
in
The
Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel
48
18 Computer
Predicted
CO
Profile-Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel-East Tube
50
19
Calculated
and
Actual
CO
Concentration
For
Baltimore Harbor
Tunnel-East
Tube 51
20 Ventilation Rates
and
Roadway
Gradient
For
Allegheny-North Tube 53
21
Computed
Traffic
Conditions
for
Armstrong
Mountain Tunnel 54
22 Carbon Monoxide Profile
Lincoln
Tunnel-
North Tube 56
23
Actual and Calculated
CO
Values for
the
Lincoln Tunnel-North
Tube
57
24
Actual and
Calculated CO Values for the
Lincoln Tunnel
-Center
Tube
59
25
Actual
and
Calculated CO Values
for the
Lincoln
Tunnel-2
Way
Traffic
60
26
Carbon Monoxide
Profile of
Fort
Pitt
Tunnel-West
Tube
62
27 Measure of CO
Values for
the Naturally
Ventilated
Armstrong
Tunnel
67
28
Schematic
Diagram Proposed
by Sir Bruce
White 82
29
Emissions
of Carbon Monoxide
vs.
Vehicle
Speed 117
VI
i
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LIST
OF
ILLUSTRATIONS
(Continued)
Figure
No.
30 Projected Average
Exhaust
Emissions,
Period
1970-1980
31
Automotive
Exhaust
Purification
Test
Chamber
32 Removal
of
Hydrocarbons
by
Activated
Carbon
33 Effect of Catalyst
Temperature on CO
Concentration
Page
No
126
161
165
169
1
x
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LIST
OF TABLES
Table No.
Page
No.
1
Suspended
Particulate
Parameters
in
Sumner Tunnel
Outlet
and
Inlet
Air, Sept.
14-20,
1961
10
2
Comparison
of Mean
Concentrations
of
Particulate
Pollutants at
Sumner Tunnel
as
Two-Way
Tunnel,
Sept.
14-20,
1961
With
Operation as
One-Way
Tunnel
April
20-28,
1963
12
3 Results
of
Tunnel
Experiments, Summer
1958
15
4
Pollution in Blackwall
Tunnel, May
14,
1959
16
5
Average
Annual
Amounts
of
Smoke and
7
Polycyclic Hydrocarbons Per
1000
Cubic Meters
of
Air
at the
Mersey
Tunnel 17
6
Average
Annual
Amounts
of
Selected
Impurities
at
the
Mersey Tunnel 18
7
Exhaust Gas
Emission
Rates (ft^/min
25
8
Carbon
Monoxide Production
as
a
Function
of
Carburetor Adjustment
(Cubic Feet
CO
per Foot
of
Travel
26
9 CO
Emissions
Reported
in Reference
22
Emission
Rate gm CO/veh-mi
40
10
Grams
of
Pollutant
Emitted
per
Mile
For
Fixed
Mode
of
Operation
(gm/veh-mi)
41
11
Carbon
Monoxide
Emission, gm
CO/Vehicle-
Mi. 42
12
Analysis of Material
Collected
From
Ventilation Building
of
The
Fort Pitt
Tunnel
63
13
Fort Pitt
Tunnel
Test Data
April
7,
1971 65
14
Measured
Tunnel
Contaminants
70
XI
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LIST
OF
TABLES
(Continued)
Table No.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
TLV
and
STL
for Selected
Pollutants
Tentative
Pollution Levels
for
Tunnels
Comparative
Process
Capabilities
Combustion-Related
Vehicular Emissions
Removal Process Summary Catalytic
Oxidati on
Scrubber Capabilities (Imperato)
Results of
a
Typical Analysis
of
Automobile
Exhaust
Gases
Simplified
Reaction Scheme for
Photo-
cehmical Smog
Suspended Particulate
Parameters
in Sumner
Tunnel Outlet and Inlet
Air,
Sept.
14-20,
1961
National Air Quality
Standards Proposed
by EPA
Primary
Standards
Exhaust Emission
Standards and
Goals
Automobile
Longevity
Tunnel Pollutant
Loadings
Preliminary
Single-Pollutant
Optimum
Process Indication
Estimated
1970 Tunnel Ventilation Blower
Capital Costs
as
Function
of
Head
Regui
rement
Operating
Costs of
Tunnel
Ventilation
Blower as Function of
Head Reguirement
Summary
of
Catalytic Oxidation
Costs
Spray
Holdup
Time
&
Chamber
Volume
as
Function
of
Dust
Particulate
Size
Page
No.
77
79
85
86
89,90
98
103
104
110
120
122
124
127
129
132
133
139
148
xii
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Table
No.
33
34
35
36
LIST
OF
TABLES
(Continued)
Influence
of Recycle on
CO
Concen-
trate on
Process
Cost and Feasibility
Summary
Summary of Purification
Systems
Application of
Continuous
Monitoring
Instruments to
Tunnel Atmospheres
Page
No
154
156
163
172
x i i i
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INTRODUCTION
This is
the
final report
on
Contract
FH
11-7597
with the
U. S.
Department
of
Transportation,
Federal
Highway
Administration. The
work
which covered
Tunnel
Ventilation
and
Air
Pollution
Treatment was
performed
by
MSA
Research
Corporation
and
covered a
period
of
16 months.
The
basic
objectives
of
the
program
were
to
identify
the
impurities
and
the
level
of
these
impurities
in
vehicular tunnels,
establish
the
toxicity
levels
of these
impurities
and rec-
ommend
desirable
time-concentration
limits
for
the
Impurities,
determine and
test
applicable processes
for
removal
of
the
impurities,
and recommend
air pollution
monitoring
devices
for
tunnels.
The
work
statement
as
presented
in
the contract
is
quoted below:
The
contractor
shall
furnish
the
necessary facilities,
materials,
personnel
and
such
other services as may
be
re-
quired,
and
in consultation
with the
Government,
conduct
a
research and
development
project
entitled
Tunnel
Ventilation
and
Air
Pollution
Treatment.
The
contractor shall
direct
its
best
efforts
toward
achieve-
ment
of
the
program
objective
to
the
extent
that
time and
funds
are
provided.
The
objective
is
to
conduct
research
on
the feasibility of
removing
impurities from
the
air with-
in
vehicular
tunnels
and
to
maintain
a
purity level
so as to
relieve
the
discomfort
and
eliminate
the
dangers
to
the
traveling
public without
exhausting vitiated
air to
surround-
ing
areas.
To
fulfill
the above
objective,
the contractor shall obtain
through comprehensive
literature
surveys and
other
sources,
pertinent
information and
analyze this material to:
Recognized
variables
include
traffic
conditions
and
vehicle
mix
under
various
circumstances such
as
speed,
load
and,
fuel
type-,
road conditions
including gradient,
pavements,
and
elevation
above
mean
sea
level;
and
atmospheric
conditions
such
as
ambient
temperature
and
winds
at
portals.
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3.
Establish
criteria for
desirable
and allowable time-
concentration
limits
of
the
pertinent
impurities
for
the
maintenance
of
a
safe
and
comfortable
tunnel atmosphere for
various
conditions and with due
consideration to
operating
personnel
as
well
as the
traveling public.
Reasoning
be-
hind
the
criteria
shall be
formulated.
4.
Determine available
methods,
processes,
and mechanisms
for removing contaminants
from
the
tunnel
air
which may
in-
clude
but
not
be
limited
to cooling,
scrubbing,
electro-
static precipitation,
and deacidi fi
cation. The interplay
of
natural
additions
and flow,
vehicle
induced
air
movement,
internal
ventilation
patterns,
and
exhausting
to
the
atmos-
phere
shall
be
considered.
Physical feasibility of
the
systems
including
power,
space,
and
disposal problems
shall
be
included
in
the
analyses. Cost
effectiveness,
and
other
economic
factors
will be involved
in
arriving at
practical
and
practicable
systems
for various tunnel
conditions.
5. Investigate and
establish the adequacy,
practicability,
reliability,
and
costing
of
available air pollution
gauges
and
detection devices
(and
systems
of
these)
in the tunnel
environment.
The local
concentrations
as
well
as
the
large
scale
concentrations
of
pollutants
shall
be
subject
to
me
asurement.
6.
Perform
laboratory tests
as
required
to demonstrate
the
applicability
of chosen clean
up
procedures.
This phase
of
the
work
must be carefully
considered
so
that
unnecessary
work
is
not
expended.
Two
subcontractors
were
used in
the
performance
of
the
program.
The
Industrial
Health
Foundation
of
Pittsburgh
Pennsylvania contributed in evaluating
the
physiological
effect
of
tunnel impurities. Patent
Development
Associates,
Inc.
of
Glenshaw, Pennsylvania
reviewed current
impurity
control
technology and
performed
feasibility
and
economic
evaluations
of
the
current
technology.
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RESULTS
OF THE
PROGRAM
This section presents
the
results
of
the various
phases
of the
program.
One
of the
more
difficult
tasks
was
to
recommend
desirable
time-concentration
limits for vehicular
tunnels.
These recommendations
were to
cover
three
general
categories
-
safe
levels
for
tunnel
personnel
(Maintenance
men
or
police
officers)
who would
spend
hours
per
day
1n a
tunnel,
safe
levels for
transient
users
who
would
spend
5-
15 minutes In
a
tunnel
and comfort levels
for
the
transient
users.
Identification of
Types and
Quantities
of Impurities
in
Vehicular Tunnels
Literature Survey
-
All artificially ventilated
tunnels
have
instrumentation
for continuous
monitoring
of
CO.
In
almost
every
case,
the
type
of
instrument
which is
used
to
monitor
CO 1n
vehicular
tunnels
is
the
Hopcallte
type
where the
change
1n
temperature
due
to
the
heat
of
catalytic
oxidation
of CO
can
be
related to
the
CO concen-
tration
in
the
air
samples.
Although
a
wealth
of data
exists
on
CO
concentration
as
a result
of
this continuous
monitoring,
it is
difficult
to relate the CO
concentration
to
the
traffic
density,
type
of
vehicles
(gasoline or
diesel),
vehicle
velocity
and
so on
since these
parameters
are
not
routinely
measured.
Furthermore, the
monitoring
systems
1n
tunnels
measure
only
CO, while this
program
is
directed
toward
establishing
typical concentration
values
for other Im-
purities which
are
present
1n
vehicular
tunnels.
One
addi-
tional
shortcoming to
this
Information is
that
1t
represents
point
concentrations
either
at the
site of
the
analyzer
or
an
average concentration for
a
complete tunnel section
when
the
monitoring station
is
located
1n
a
ventilation duct.
A
number of studies have
been
made on
the
concen-
tration
of
impurities other
than CO
1n
vehicular tunnels.
Some
studies
have been devoted
to
measuring the complete
CO
profile
throughout the
length of
a
tunnel. These
studies
were
helpful
1n
trying
to
determine
typical
and
maximum
values
of
Impurities
in
tunnels,
but
again
1n
many
cases
the
studies failed
to present
real
time
data on
traffic
patterns
and ventilation
rates.
Two
studies
were
made
on
the
1.1 mile
long Sumner
Tunnel
in
Boston, Massachusetts.
The
first study was
made
in
196l(U
when
the Sumner
Tunnel
was
a
single tube
carrying
two way
traffic. .A
second study on the
Sumner
Tunnel
was
performed
in
1963(2)
when a
sister tunnel,
the Callahan
Tunnel
was
opened and
the
Sumner
Tunnel
was
converted
to
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a
two
lane,
one way
traffic pattern.
The
Sumner
Tunnel
has
intake and
exhaust
fans located
at
both
the Boston
and
East
Boston ventilation
buildings.
The
ventilation
rate
ranged from
73,000
cfm to
613,000 cfm.
using
t
vehi
cle
maximum
and
eve
plot
of
day,
we
to
Sept
tration
time,
week of
August
during
closed
the
amo
equatio
During
he
tunnel
flow
was
flow
was
ning
rush
traffic
ekend and
ember
20,
in
the t
Figure
3
Septembe
2,
1961.
the study
system
an
unt
of
po
n:
the
f
was
a
200
v
2,200
hours
flow
v
weekl
1961.
unnel
shows
r
14-2
The
h
was
2
d
thus
llutio
i
rs
t
s
bout
3
ehi cle
vehic
(8
A.
ersus
y
aver
Figu
exhaus
the
pe
0,
196
ighest
56
ppm
offer
n emit
tudy,
5,000
s
per
les
pe
M.
and
time
o
age
fo
re
2
s
t
stac
ak CO
1
as
w
insta
.
The
s
the
ted
pe
the num
per
day
hour
at
r
hour
4
P.M.
f
day
f
r
the
w
hows
th
k
for t
concent
ell
as
ntaneou
tunnel
opportu
r
vehic
ber of ve
The
mi
5
A.M.
a
during
th
).
Figur
or
a
typi
eek
of Se
e
mean
CO
he same
p
ration fo
the
week
s
peak
co
is
essen
nity
to
d
le
mi
le u
hi
cles
nlmum
nd the
e
morning
e
1 is
a
cal
week-
ptember
14
concen-
eriod
of
r
the
of July
27-
ncentration
tlally a
etermine
sing the
Amount
measured
=
(Outlet
cone.
-
Inlet
cone.
)(Vo1ume
of
ventilation
air) /i
\
(No.
of
veh1cles)(0.55
mile
of
tunnel
length)
*
'
The
term 0.55 mile
was
used
since only half of the tunnel
served by
the
Boston ventilation
building
was used
in the
calculation. From
1
A.M.
to
5
A.M.
the
calculated
emission
rate for
CO
was 35
gm
per
vehicle
mile.
During
the
remainder
of the
day,
the
values for
emission rate were
approximately
twice
this
value.
The
higher
rate
is
due
to
the effect
of
traffic
modes,
varying periods
of
idle,
acceleration
and
deceleration
as
a
result of
traffic
tie-ups.
The mean soiling
index
was
measured, also,
and is
shown in
Figure
4.
The
highest mean coefficient
of haze
and
smoke
(Cons) per
1000
feet
of
air was
6.5
Cohs.
In
Allegheny
County,
Pennsylvania
the
following
classifications
are
used
for
soiling
index:(3)
0-1.0
Cons/1000
ft
1.0-2.0
Cohs/1000 ft
2.0-3.0 Cohs/1000
ft
3.0-4.0
Cohs/1000
ft
slight pollution
moderate
pollution
heavy
pollution
very
heavy
pollution
Thus,
in terms
of
this arbitrary
assignment
of pollution
values,
the 6.5 Cohs/1000
ft
measured
in the
Sumner
Tunnel
would
correspond
to
very
heavy
pollution.
Suspended
particulates were
measured over a
sampling
period
of
8
hrs
with the
maximum
concentration
being observed
during
the period from
9 A.M.
to
3
P.M.
The
total
particulate
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3000
uj
2000
1000
1
1
I
i
i
.A
A
f\ k
/
\ \
J
f\\\
.^A
—
\\\syi
v
WEEKDAY
—
,
.r--v\
l/s.
\
y.\
i
1
\
r
1
**zzf
/'/
WEEK—
5
/
If
s
VV
:/ __•'
^—WEEKEND
v~\
r
1
\
*\
^ 1
/
*
\*S\
*
^v
Jl
v
s*
1
V
i
i
1 1
12
HOUR
OF
DAY
IS
20
24
FIGURE
1
-
MEAN
HOURLY TRAFFIC
FLOW
THROUGH
SUMNER
TUNNEL,
BY
TIME
AND
TYPE
OF
DAY, SEPT.
14-20, 1961
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12
HOUR
OF
DAY
16
J
?0 2»
FIGURE
2
-
MEAN CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN
SUMNER
TUNNEL
BY
TIME
AND
TYPE
OF DAY,
SEPT. 14-20, 1961
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300
SEPTEMBER
14-20
A
7
£Vv
JULY 27-AUGUST 2
\
'
20
24
HOUR OF DAY
FIGURE
3
-
PEAK CARBON
MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION
IN
SUMNER
TUNNEL,
BY
TIME
OF DAY, JULY
AND
SEPTEMBER 1961
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if
^
TUNNEL
CENTER
x
--
—
TUNNEL
OUTLET AIR
—
\
HOUR
OF
DAY
FIGURE
4
-
MEAN
SOILING
INDEX
AT
SUMNER
TUNNEL
STATIONS
ON
WEEK
DAYS,
BY
TIME
OF
DAY,
SEPT.
14-20,
1961
8
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conce
solub
mg/m3
for
7
The
b
metal
cern
1
11s
Using
ticul
(0.16
ntrati
le
mat
)
of
t
.5%
(.
alance
s
othe
due
to
ts
the
equat
ates
(
gm/ve
on
durtn
erial
(o
he
total
045 mg/m
of the
r
than 1
its
tox
composi
ion
(1)
0.36 gm/
hide mi
g
that
rganic
parti
3
)
of.
parti c
ead.
icity,
tion
o
emissi
vehicl
le)
an
peri
s)
ac
culat
the
t
ulate
Cadmi
was
f
the
on
ra
e
mi
1
d
lea
od
wa
count
e inv
otal
s
wer
urn,
a
qui te
coll
tes
w
e)
, o
d
(0.
ere
calculated for
par-
rganic particulates
031 gm/vehicle
mile).
of
6 samp
study was
two
lane,
daily
tra
nif
icant
was
attri
mode
and
5 shows
t
Mean
morn
ranged
fr
centratio
showing
3
two
way
t
centratio
The secon
ling stati
made afte
one
way
t
ffic
densi
decrease i
buted
to
o
a
decrease
he CO
cone
ing
rush
h
om
100-120
n
was
^90
.5
Cohs fo
raffic. T
n
for
the
d
Sumne
ons thr
r the
t
raffic
ty
of
2
n impur
peratio
of
36%
entrati
our
con
ppm
CO
ppm
CO.
r
one
w
able
2
two mod
r
Tunn
oughou
unnel
c
o
n
f i
g
2,000
ity
le
n
of
t
i
n
mo
on
as
centra
,
whil
The
ay tra
compar
es
of
el stu
t
the
had
be
uratio
vehicl
vel
s
w
he
tun
tor ve
a
f
unc
tions
e
the
s
o i 1 i
n
ffic
v
es
the
traffi
dy
in
tunne
en
co
n
wi
t
es
pe
as
no
nel
i
hide
tion
for
t
one w
g
ind
ersus
mean
c.
volve
1.(2)
nvert
h
an
r
day
ted
;
n a
o
traf
of ti
he
ay
ex
6
tw
mo
wa
5
part
d
a
total
This
ed to
a
average
.
A
sig-
the
decrease
ne
way
traffic
fie.
Figure
me of
day.
o way
mode
de
mean con-
s
also
lower
Cohs for
iculate
con-
Additional
pollutants including SO2,
N0«,
aldehydes
and
NO
were
measured
during
the
second
study.
The
concen-
trations
of these
impurities
are
shown in
Figure
6.
It
was
concluded
that
automotive exhaust
does
not
contribute
sig-
nificantly
to
the S0
2
content of
tunnel
air.
The
results
showed
that
the
ratio
of NO/NO2
was
approximately 5/1.
Finally,
the
aliphatic
aldehydes ranged from
about
0.01 to
0.1 ppm.
An
early study
on
the
CO and
particulate
levels
in the Holland
Tunnel was performed
by
the
Bureau
of
Mines.
(4)
The
data in
this
report is
probably
of
limited value
due
to
the
difference
in emission
rates from
gasoline
powered
ve-
hicles,
gasoline
composition
and the
number of
diesel
powered
vehicles
of today
compared with the types
of vehicles
in
use
at
that
time. Standard
operating
procedure
at
that
time
was
to
allow
the
CO
concentration
to
rise to
250 ppm with
no
change in
ventilation
rate.
If the
level
remained at
250
ppm
for
longer
than
5
minutes,
then
additional
fans were
acti-
vated. The
authors noted
at
that
time
that
the
CO concen-
tration
was
highest
on
the
upgrade
sections
of the
tunnel.
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130
T
120
-
1
1
I
1 1
1
1
BOSTON
LAND
SECTION
BOSTON
HARBOR
SECTION
.
•--'
EAST
BOSTON HARBOR SECTION
••-••EAST
BOSTON
LAND SECTION
K
»~»
100
E
Q-
CL
90
e
80
o
•r-
4-»
70
ro
i.
4->
60
C
O
o
50
c
o
o
40
o
o
30
20
10
i
—
i
—
I
8 10 12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Time of Day
FIGURE 5
-
MEAN CO CONCENTRATION
AT
SUMNER TUNNEL
STATIONS
BY
TIME OF DAY, APRIL
20
THROUGH
28,
1963
11
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TABLE
2
-
COMPARISON OF
MEAN
CONCENTRATIONS OF
PARTICULATE
POLLUTANTS
AT SUMNER
TUNNEL
AS
TWO-WAY
TUNNEL,
SEPT.
14-20,
1961
WITH
OPERATION
AS
ONE-WAY TUNNEL
APRIL 20-28,
1963
Concentration,
ug/cu
m
Two
-Way One-Way*
Tunnel Tunnel
Outlet Inlet
Outlet
Inlet
Pollutant Air
Air Air
Air
*36%
decrease in traffic
Total
particulates 588 104
424
86
Benzene-soluble
organic
substances
Sulfates
Nitrates
Lead
225 11
144.2
8.3
29 22 18.1
0.3
2.4 3.4
0.3
0.9
44.5
1.1
9
0.1
12
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to
l~
c
CD
o
c
o
o
45
40
35
SO
-
25
20
15
10
-
Station Locations
1
-
toll
booth,
E.
Boston
2
-
1/3
of distance
into
tunnel
3
-
center
of
tunnel
4
-
2/3
of
distance
into
tunnel
5
-
Boston
ventilation
bldg.,
(inlet
air)
6
-
Boston
ventilation bldg.,
(outlet
air)
UJ
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.
23456
123456
123456
Sampling
Stations
12
3456
FIGURE
6
MEAN
DAILY
CONCENTRATION
OF
GASEOUS
POLLUTANTS
IN THE
SUMNER
TUNNEL
BY
SAMPLING
STATIONS,
APRIL
20
THROUGH
28,
1963
13
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Work d
emissi
tunnel
CO
per
than t
ticul a
with a
of
the
but
it
that
a
other
S
i
n
g
s
t
motive
1000
v
of 880
370
ft
cfm.
one
by Katz and
Frevert^
5
'
led
to
on
rate
of
10 cu
ft per
car
while
This
would correspond
to
an
em
vehicle mile, a
factor
of
approx
he currently
accepted
average emi
te
concentration
in
the
tunnel
ra
mean particle
diameter
of less
t
particulates
showed
lead
and ars
was
concluded
on
the
basis
of
in
rsenic
was
not
contributed
by
aut
point
of interest in
this
study w
ad's work(6)
on
the
induced
pisto
traffic
in
vehicular tunnels.
S
ehicles
per
hour
produced
longitu
ft/min.
Assuming
a
free
cross-s
2
,
this
is
equivalent to
a
volume
an
estimate
of CO
traversing
the
ission rate
of 220
g
imately 10
higher
ssion rate.
Par-
nged up
to 1
.88
mg/m
3
han 1
micron. Analyses
enic
to
be present,
let
air
concentrations
omotive
exhaust.
One
as
a
reference
to
n
effect of
auto-
ingstad stated that
dinal air velocities
ectional area
of
trie flow of 315,000
Waller,
et
an?) studied the
impurity levels of
the
Blackwall
and
Rotherhithe
Tunnels
in
London during
a
period
of high traffic
density. Table
3
summarizes
the
concentration of
CO,
smoke
and
hydrocarbons which
were
found
in the
two tunnels. Table 4 summarizes
additional
tests
which
were
made
in the Blackwall Tunnel
only and
in-
cludes
lead,
NO
and N0o
in addition
to
the
previously
men-
tioned
contaminants.
it was reported that
the
mass median
diameter
of the smoke
particles
was 1 micron.
Stocks
et
a
W studied
the
concentration of seven
polycyclic hydrocarbons
and 13
trace
metals
in
the Mersey
Tunnel
in
England.
Table
5
shows
the
average
annual
con-
centration
of
smoke and selected hydrocarbons
found in the
Mersey
Tunnel.
Table 6 lists the average
annual
concen-
trations for the 13 metals
which
were analyzed.
fi
cal
Baker
to me
prof i
and
o
tunne
stall
file
d
u r
i
n
d
i
c a
t
level
the
t
in
a
the
m
ly
ve
,
Jr.
asure
le
th
ne
ca
1 wit
ed CO
of
th
g
the
ed by
s
as
unnel
tunne
aximu
A rece
n
t
i
1
a
t
Compa
ment
o
rougho
n
comp
h the
monit
e
4225
early
the
t
high
a
.
Fig
1
wher
m CO m
nt
st
ed
,tu
ny(9
f
CO
ut ea
are t
level
oring
ft
1
morn
unnel
s
160
ure 8
ein
t
oni
to
udy
was
n
n
e
1 s i
11).
A
only, i
ch tunn
he CO
1
s
indie
system
ong
Squ
ing
rus
CO
mon
ppm
we
shows
he pi
st
r
readi
perform
n
Pittsb
1
though
t
is
of
el was
m
evels at
ated
by
s .
F
i
g
u
irrel
Hi
h
hour,
itors wa
re
measu
the
effe
on
effec
ng
(145
ed on
urgh
this
inter
easur
vari
the
p
re 7
1 1
we
The
s
100
red
n
ct of
t
is
ppm
C
the
by
th
study
est
b
ed ex
ous
p
erman
shows
stbou
maxim
ppm
ear
t
two
negat
0)
wa
three
e
Mic
was
ecaus
perim
o
i
n t
s
ently
the
nd
tu
urn va
CO wh
he
ce
way t
ed.
s
sig
arti
-
hael
1 imi
ted
e
the
CO
ental
ly
in the
i n-
C0
pro-
nnel
1
u
e
i
n
-
ereas
ntetr
of
raff
ic
Again
nifi-
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cantly
lower
than
the actual
maximum
in
the tunnel
(290
ppm
CO).
Figure
9
shows
the CO profile of
the
3613
ft
long
Fort
Pitt
Tunnel
durinn
the
early
morning rush hour.
In
this
case,
the
maximum
reading
of the CO
monitor was
150
ppm
CO
while
the
maximum CO
concentration
in
the tunnel was
195
ppm
CO.
Figure
10
is
a
CO
profile of
the Liberty Tunnel
during the evening
rush
hour.
The
Fort Pitt
and
Sguirrel
Hill
Tunnels have a
longitudinal distributive
type of
venti-
lation
while the Liberty
Tunnel
has
a
basic
longitudinal type
of
ventilation.
Specifically,
fresh
air is
drawn
in
through
the entry portal
and
exhausted
at
the
center
for
the
first
half
of
the tunnel,
then
fresh
air is
injected
about
50 ft
beyond the center
and exhausted
through
the exit
portal.
This mode
of ventilation
accounts
for
the
CO
peak
at
the
center of the tunnel
.
Computer Model
-
After havino
reviewed
the pertinent
literature, two
facts
became
obvious. First, the
bulk
of the
work
on
tunnel
impurity
levels
had
been
limited
to
the
measure
ment of
CO,
and second the bulk of the
data which
had been
reported represented averages
over
time
periods
ranging
from
1
hr
to
24 hr
with
little
or no
information
on
ventilation
rates
as
well
as
traffic
density,
traffic
mix,
road
grade
and
so on.
As
a result
of
these deficiencies
in
the studies
which had
been made,
it was
concluded that
a
computer
model
should
be
developed
which
would predict concentration
levels
of
any
exhaust
impurity
at
any
point in
a
tunnel.
The quantity
of
each
component
emitted from
a
particular
vehicle
at
a
specific
time
is
dependent
upon
a
number
of
factors
:
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Type of engine
(gasoline, diesel,
etc)
Size
of
engine
(displacement, horsepower)
Condition of engine
Type
of
fuel
(octane
rating, additives)
Adjustment
of
carburetor
Driving
mode
-
acceleration
-
rrnuinn
ru
i
si ng
-
idling
-
deceleration
Velocity
Rate
of
acceleration
Road
grade
Elevation
above
sea level
Ambient
temperature and
relati.
Vehicle
load
Condition of
control
devices such
a
valve
and gasoline
tank
vapor suppr
ve humidity
as
PCV
essors
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UJ
_J
u_
o
cr
a.
ui
o
x
o
Z
O
ro
to
o
z
*
^
_l
UJ
Z
Z
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Z
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O
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CD
(-
q:
cr
<
o
o
u.
co
<
<
uj o
o
o
CO
o
I
v-
o
bJ
uj
«1
O
UJ
UJ
a.
to
CO
2
<
U.
a:
ui
o
uj
0
£
cr
< ob
o
cr
<
o
m
_j
o
cr
z
o
CD O
CD
J
°
Z
<
c
ro
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ro
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o z:
cr
^
a.
id
i—
i
W)
x <:
O
LU
O
CO
cr
<C
o
cr
(_)
z
<
o
o
ro
O
O
cvj
O
O
o
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CO
CO
ZD
>-
»—
CC
Ul
CQ
I—
i
_J
I
O
CC
LU
O.
CQ
ZD
X
CO
O
LU
O
CQ
o
CXL
C3
23
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When
considering the
total
pollution generated
within
a
given
tunnel,
the following additional parameters
must be considered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Vehicle
mix
-
cars,
diesel trucks, busses,
of
each
the
ult
represe
calcula
tunnel
both
fo
and
for
speci
f
c o n d
i
t
i
by
the
p
o 1
1
u
t
i
Du
of
t
imate
n
t
i
n
g
tion
or
pr
r
det
the
c
a
t
i o
ons
a
descr
on
co
ring
th
hese fa
goal
i
any
tu
of poll
oposed
e
rm i n
i n
e
s t a
b
J
i
ns.
(A
ff
ectin
i
ption
ncentra
engi
prop
a ga
carb
wher
Howe
engi
gas
emi
s
vehi
dece
A
nes
are
ortions
sol
ine
on
mono
eas
a
d
ver,
th
ne may
powered
si
ons
o
cle
ope
le
ratio
Ithough
simi
lar
of thes
powered
xide
emi
i
e s e 1
bti
e hydroc
be
seven
automob
f four
e
e early
part
of
the
program an
evaluation
ctors
and
parameters was
initiated
with
n
mind
of
establishing
a
mathematical
model
nnel. Such
a
model would then
enable
ution
levels
expected
in
any
existing
tunnel
and
thereby
serve as
the
basis
g
pollutant removal
system
requirements
shment of pollution
monitoring
system
preliminary summary
of the
study
of
the
g
exhaust emission
is
given
below followed
of
a
computer program for
calculating
tion.
the exhau
to
those
e constit
automobi
tted duri
s may
emi
arbon emi
times
th
i
le.
Tab
xhaust
co
namely
ac
An important
factor in
exhaust
emission
rates
aside from
the
engine
is
the
carburetor.
This
is
particularly
so
with
larger
vehicles
as
illustrated
in
Table
8
which com-
pares
CO
emission
of
cars
and trucks as a
function
of car-
buretor adjustment.
(1
3)
Another
exhaust
factor
is
crankcase
ventilation.
The
control device
introduced
in
1963 reduces
pollution
rates
considerably when it
is in
proper
condition.
The
concentrations of
other exhaust
pollutants
-
nitric
oxide
and
hydrocarbons
as well
as
CO
-
are
influenced by
the fuel/
air
ratio
delivered
to
the
engine
as
shown
in
Figure
11.^4)
24
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TABLE 7
-
EXHAUST
GAS
EMISSION RATES
(ft
3
/min)
Mode
Gas
auto
Diesel
bus
Gas auto
Diesel bus
Gas
auto
Diesel
bus
Gas
auto
Diesel
bus
CO
NO*
HC
R-COH
Accel eration Crui
se
Idle Deceleration,
6.000
0.200
0,700
0,080
0,400
0.025
0.400
0.040
0.050
0.400
0.020
0,083
<0.001
0,007
<0.001
0.009
0.016
0.100
0,006
0.030
0.005
0,045
0.024
0.100
0.002
0.008
<0.001
0.003
<0.001
0.001
0.001
0.009
25
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TABLE
8
-
CARBON
MONOXIDE PRODUCTION
AS
A
FUNCTION
OF
CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT
(Cubic Feet CO per Foot of Travel)
Cars Trucks
Adjustment
of 18.8
mi/ 9.4 mi/
5.6
mi/
Carburetor
qal 1 on
r/
qal
Ion
qal 1
on
Good
/.•5
0.000248
H2.\
0.000494
%C.o
0.000829
Average
0.000646
.
S^
0.001292 0,002152
Bad
5*;
-5
0.001033
}7f,&
0.002066
3
5 %
7
0.003358
26
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r—
oi
VO
u
cove
<-
cm
c
oo«ott
cm
o
«»»• AM01N3?
yjd
anniOA
-
noiiiimhoo
s*o isnvmo
00
Ul
z
o
2:
o
o
<:
X
Ul
o
c
c
IT)
o
I-
o
o
Wdd-»0N
u_
1
oc
M
<
u_
-
UJ
X
u.
u.
Z
Ul
UI
K
t-
U»
1
Ul
K
3
r—
t-
X
2
Ul
O
e;
<
3
(
H
H»0SV)
uidd
'NOUVUlNaDNOD NOOHVDOMQAH
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Another
factor,
particularly
in
hydrocarbon concentration,
the timing
adjustment
of
the
ignition
spark
cone
.(15)
1
s
Exh
distance
trav
much
greater
50
miles/hrl
in
the litera
vehicle
veloc
some
of
these
squares
equat
fol
lows
aust
emission
rates
in
units
of
weight
per
unit
eled
for
a
slow
moving
vehicle are
generally
than
for
one cruising
at
speeds in
excess of
Several
experimental
studies
have
been
reported
ture
which
correlate carbon
monoxide
emission
with
i
ty
and
acceleration.
('4,
16-19)
/\
summary
of
results is given in Figure
12.
A
least-mean
ion
of
the
combined
data was
calculated
as
v
=
1.478xlO
J
+
10.43
where
v
=
spe
y
=
CO
Other studies
of
pollutants
rating mode
(
rvT°
is
r?-o6
4-b
in,
ik
*&
fs.^n
So
3^.??
55
37-
3
°
&o
3£T,
(s
(2)
ed
in miles
per
hour
emission
in gms/veh-mi
have been
reported
in
which
the
exhaust emission
other
than
CO
have been related
to vehicle
ope-
velocity,
acceleration, etc).
the
r
an up
of
ac
Conve
decel
state
obtai
give
di
ese
cl
imb
norma
car
d
it
wo
estab
sea 1
m
o
b
i
1
will
examp
5500
When
human
prese
A few
repor
tunne
about
E
a
d , i
-grade
celera
rsely
erati
o
d
as
a
ned
f
the
gr
1
true
ing
a
1
ly
wo
escend
u 1 d
w
i
1
i
shed
xhaust
.
e
.
,
i
on th
t
i
o n
,
the
e
n.
Th
mul
ti
om
Equ
ade
co
ks. F
2%
gra
uld
on
ing
a
th
zer
for
o
emi ssi
n
c
1
i
n
a
t
e
exhau
that
is
ffect
o
e effec
pi
i
cat
i
ation
2
ef
f
i cie
or
exam
de wi 1
a
flat
3%
grad
o
grade
ther
ex
on
is
a
1
ion
of th
st
emissi
,
it
i n c
f
a
down-
t of
grad
on coeffi
J
The
gr
nts
for
C
pie,
Figu
emi
t
1,4
(0-grade
e
will
em
Coeffi
haust
pol
o
aff
e roa
on ra
eases
grade
e
on
c
i
e
n
t
aphs
emi
re 13
time
)
roa
it on
c
i
e
n
t
1
utan
eve
e
who
be
co
le of
feet
coup
body
nts
a
expe
ted,
1 nea
11
,0
Another
of the
se
carb
n
s
i
d
e r
a
this i
e
1
e
v
a
t
i
ed
with
decrea
seriou
rimenta
primari
r
Denve
00
feet
exha
roadw
ureto
bly
g
s
giv
on co
the
ses a
s
pro
1 stu
ly th
r
whi
abov
ust
p
ay.
r i
s
reate
en
in
mpare
fact
salt
blem
dies
ose
m
ch wi
e sea
arame
The
e
ad jus
r
at
Figu
d
wit
that
i
t
u
d
e
i n
a
of
th
ade i
11
be
leve
ter
is
xhaust
ted
fo
higher
re
1
5
h thos
the CO
i ncre
high
a
e
al
ti
n
conn
locat
1.(21
J
ected
dway
te is
the
i
s s
exhau
appl
of
Fi
s s
i
o
n
show
s as
dway
ly
70
s can
ts.U
the
emi
s
r
sea
elev
for C
e at
tole
ases
,
ltitu
tude
e
c
t
i
o
ed
at
by
t
The
s i
m i
exhau
i m
i
1
a
st
vo
ied
t
gures
of
c
s
tha
much
while
%
as
be
s
8)
he
gr
effe
lar t
st
vo
r
to
1
ume
o
the
13
a
ars
a
t
a
c
CO
as
the
much
i
m
i
1 a
ade
of
ct of
that
1 ume.
that
of
may
be
points
nd
14
nd
ar
it
same
CO as
rly
elevation
above
si on
of
an
auto-
level
conditions
ations.
An
emissions
at
500
feet.
16
)
ranee
of the
this
parameter
de tunnel.
(
2
°)
effect
have
been
n
with
a
proposed
an
elevation
of
28
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180
1
1
'
1
160
(*]
140
ELEVATION
O
—
Acceleratl
»—
u.
o
o
to
</
100
y
•
i—
<
\
\
•
E
i
-C
>
—
E
o
o
no
60
40
£>
Deceleration
*
Deceleration
<T
20
Deceleration
Deceleration
O
-
©
-
D
-
-
Surgeon General
Report, 1958
Study
-
Cars
Stern,
Los
Angeles
&
Cincinnati, 1965
-
Cars
0TT,
1962
Study
-
All
vehicles
Tlppetts,
JFK
Airport
study
1
10
I I
20 30 40
Vehicle
speed (m1/hr;
i
J
L
50
60
FIGURE
12
-
CO
OUTPUT
VS
VEHICLE
VELOCITY
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%
Grade
(x)
A
=
1
.00
+
0.0542
x
where
x
=
percent grade
A
=
CO
emission
multiplication
factor
for
cars on
grade
(t
wpDCflccX
DECREASE/
F0R
GASOLINE
POWERED CARS
30
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%
Grade
(x)
B
=
1
+
x/2 for grades
>-0.25%
B
=
0.91
+
0.11
x for
grades
<-0.25%
where
x
=
percent
grade
B
=
CO
emission
multiplication
factor
for
diesels
on
grade
FIGURE
14
-
MULTIPLICATION
FACTOR
FOR
GRADIENT
(deCREASe)
F0R diesels
31
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180
160
140
120
E
100
I
-C
<u
>
*->.
«/>
E
o»
v
~
-
80
•o
o»
4->
+>
•f
-
E
Ul
o
o
i
I
r
40
20
t—
i
r
10 20
30 40 50
60
Vehicle
speed
(mi/hr)
FIGURE
15
-
CO
EMISSION
AT
5500 FT
COMPARED
WITH THAT
AT
500 FT
32
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Available data
has
been
correlated
in
order
to
establish
an
altitude
coefficient
for
our
mathematical
model
Two
regression
lines have
been
computed
as
follows:
CO
emission
vs
altitude
with
zero
grade
F
=
1.0
+
0.166
1000
A
-
0.7035xl0
_8
h
2
(3)
where h
=
altitude above
sea
level
in
feet
F
=
CO emission
multiplication
factor
for
altitude
b.
CO
emission vs
grade
at
elevations
exceeding
7500 ft above sea
level
y
=
92.99
+
28. 2x
+
6.924x
2
where
x
=
percent
grade
y
=
CO emission
in
gms/vehi cl e-mi
1 e.
(4)
van
mix
,
so
o
powe
bure
thes
This
car
stra
be
a
emis
abl
es
vehi
n)
r,
th
tor
a
e are
is
t
.
De
ightf
diff
si
on
(jhe com
such
as
cle
velo
ther
fac
e
condit
djustmen
unknown
o
say
th
velopmen
orward
w
i
c
u 1
1 t
a
rate.
puter
emi
s
city,
tors
ion
o
t
and
vari
at
th
t
of
hile
sk in
progr
s
i
o n
r
road
such a
f
the
so
on
ables
ere i
s
the
co
select
terms
am wh
ates
,
grade
s eng
e
n
g
i
n
coul
whi
ch
no
s
mpute
i on
o
of
s
i ne
ich
was
developed included
ventilation
rates, vehicle
induced
ventilation
and
displacement
and horse-
e,
age
of
the
vehicle,
car-
d
not
be
included
since
exist
in
any
traffic mix.
uch
thing as
an
average
r
program
was rather
f
emission
rates
proved
to
electing
an
appropriate
The
expected
concentration
level
of
lutant in
a
given tunnel may
be calculated
if
data are known:
a
gaseous
pol-
the
following
a.
Quantity
of pollutant
generated
(cfm/vehi
cl
e)
b.
Traffic
load
(vehi
cles/hr)
c.
Fan
air flowrate
(cfm/mile)
d. Traffic speed (miles/hr)
e.
Ambient
air
pollutant
concentration
(ppm)
The
average
pollutant
is
then
calculated
by
concentration
the equation:
within
the
tunnel
(f
f(ppm)
=
axbxl06
+
e
cxd
(5)
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In
order
to
calculate
a
more
definitive
profile
of
a
given
pollutant
through
the
length
of the tunnel, the
following elementary model was
derived.
The
assumptions
made in the
derivation
are
minimal hence the
chief
possible
source
of
error
is
the
accuracy
of the input data.
The
assumptions
made
are:
a.
There is no appreciable
removal
of
oxygen
nor
production
of
CO2,
or
water vapor.
b.
The
gas
composition
at
a
given
tunnel point
has
constant
access
to
the
tunnel
cross
section.
c.
Longitudinal diffusion
is low.
Assumption
a
is
implied
by
the
mass volume balance
for
air
flow. It states,
essentially,
that
the
net
gain
or
removal (of
these
substances)
is small
when
compared
with
the
quantity
of ventilating
air
passing through the
tunnel.
The combustion
process
is
3N
+
2
°2
+
M
CH
2)N
—
>NC0
2
+
(N
+
1)H
2
(6)
where
the
second term represents
the
saturated
hydrocarbon.
This
process does produce
a slight
increase in air
volume.
The second assumption
(uniform composition
at
a
given cross section)
is
based on
turbulence induced by
traffic.
Since
the axial
air velocity
differs
from
the
vehicle velocity,
a
turbulent
swirl is
produced
behind
each
vehicle which
tends
to
homogenize
the tunnel
air.
Also
the
inlet
and outlet air flow patterns
minimize the
possibility
of
stagnant air
pockets. In
the
third
assumption the pure
axial diffusion
is extremely low. The
axial
diffusion
caused
by
the
swirls in the wake
of
the
vehicles
is
larger. How-
ever for
long
tunnels
it
is
small
when
compared
with the
axial
transport of
pollutants.
If
these
assumptions
are
applied,
the
differential
equations
for
pollutant
concentration
become
simple
air
and
pollutant
mass balances. The
differential equation
for
air
is
$
M
v
o
(7)
where
Q
=
quantity of
air
flow
in
axial
direction
1
=
length
v
i
»
v
o
=
cross flow
in
and
out
(quantity per
unit length).
34
7/21/2019 Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod g
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The
differential equation
for
pollutant
is
4|^£l
=
v.c
r
\
c+z
(8)
where
C
=
pollutant
concentration
q
=
ambient
pollution
concentration
G
=
pollution
generated
per
unit
length of tunnel.
The above
equations
are
subject
to
the
boundary conditions:
Q(0)
=
Q
(9)
and
C(0)
=
C
in
(10)
where
Q
-
inlet
axial
flow
Cj
n
=
pollution concentration
at
tunnel inlet.
The
above
equations
can best
be
cast
in
a
finite
difference
form.
Several
forms are
available of
which
the
following
are the
simplest:
Q(n)
=
Q
(n-1)
+
(V
i
(n)-v
(n))dl
(11)
c(n)
=
V
i
(
)
C
-,-
d
1
+
Q(n-1
)c(n-l )+G(n)
(
12
)
where
(n-1)
positive
and
V
n
and
(n).
and
G
are
evaluated
at
the
mid
point between
These equations
require that
Q
be always
are
always
stable.
The
computer
program
solves
the above
set
of
equations stepwise from
tunnel
entrance
to
tunnel exit.
The
step
length
(dl)
may
be
selected
as
desired.
The
program
is
written
so
as
to
check
the direction of axial air
flow at
each
step and will
stop
if
Q
becomes negative.
For
tunnels
in
which
air
flow
direction
in
some segments
is
opposite
that
in other segments,
the
program
would be applied
to
the
individual
tunnel
segments
so as
to
keep
Q
positive. Since
the exit
air flow
is
given
the
tunnels
or tunnel
segments
may
be conveniently
linked.
A
out
of
the program
is
presented on
page
36.
The
program
is
normally read
from
magnetic tape,
however
a
punched
tape recording
of
the
program
has also
been
prepared
and will be
forwarded
with
this
report.
A
glossary
of
input
and
readout
data
is
given
on page 37.
This
lists
the
units
and encoding
symbols used for each of
the
variables
used
in
the
program.
7/21/2019 Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod g
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L
C
P
IS GU
FT/VEH
MILEJ
QTI/O IS
CFM/MILEJVI
IS
CFM
C
TUNNEL
LENbTH
AND DELT
IS
MILESJVEH
IS
VEH/HH;CONC
ARE
PPM
DIMENSION
GTK5>*QT0C5>
24
TYPE
I
1
FORMAT
</#/*/*
TUNNEL CONC #/» POL. COEFS
>
ACCEPT
2* P1*P2
2
FORMAT
<E)
TYPE
3
3
FORMAT C/* TRANS
AIR
IN *
/# TRANS
AIR
OUT )
ACCEPT
2*QTIU >*0TI(2 >*QTl
<3>*QTI
<4>*QT1<5>
ACCEPT 2*GT0<1
>*QT0<2>*QTOC3>*QTOC4>*QTO<5>
6
TYPE
4
4
FORMAT
C/* END
AIR IN
TUNNEL
LENGTH TUNNEL
DELT
L
>
ACCEPT
2*V1*BL*DL
IF (VI) 6*7*7
7
TYPE
27
27
FORMAT C/* VEHICLES/KR;
INLET*
AMBIENT
CONC )
ACCEPT 2*VEH1*VER2*CI*C0
TYPE
32
32
FORMAT
</* CONT >
ACCEPT
2*C0NT
IF
(CONT)
33*34*34
33 W=0.0
GDIS«0.0
34
TYPE
5
5
FORMAT
(/*/* TUNNEL
POS
CONC )
ALs0.0
lSWT<=i
35
IF
<AL*DL-BL>
8*8*36
36
DLnBL-AL
ISWV=-ISWT
8
AL-=AL<DL/2.0
13
QTIC
=
(((eTI(5>*AL+QTI<4))*AL+QTI(3>)*AL+QTH2))*AL+QTI<l
>
IF
<QTIC>
15*16*16
15
TYPE
17*QTIG
17
FORMAT C/* TRANS
IN
IS NEli *E>
00
TO
25
16
QT0Cn(CCQT0(5)*AL+QT0C4))*AL+QT0C3>)*AL+QT0<2)**AL+QT0<l)
IF <QT0C>
18x19*19
18 TYPE
20*OTOC
20
FORIiAT C/* TRANS
OUT IS
NEfo *E>
bO TO 25
19
VO VI+DL*CQTlC-QTOC>
IF
CVO)
21*22*22
21 TYPE
23
23 FORMAT
(/*
AIR VEL
ZERO ?
AL=AL+VO/<QTOC-GTIO+0»5*DL
bO'TO 25
22
CI=VI*CI+QT1C*DL*C0+<VEHI*P1+VER2*P2)*1
.6667E4*DL
CI-CI/(VO*QTOC*DL>
ALnAL+DL/2.0'
VJ-VO
TYPE 28*AL*C1
28
FORMAT (/*E*E)
QDI5 GD1S*QT0C*DL
u<=v;+UT0C*r)L*ci
IF
<XGWT>
31*31*35
31
TYPE
30*VO
'
30
FORMAT </* DI5CHARUE
FLOW'VE)
IF(QDIS) 38*24*38
38 Cl^U/QDXS
TYPE 3V/CI
37
FORMAT (/* AV'b
CONC *E>
1.0
TO
24
25
TYPE
26*
AL
2C
FORMAT
t/*
M
P05ITON *E>
.„,-«,»«
co
to 24
TYPICAL
OUT
OF
uiu
COMPUTER
PROGRAM
7/21/2019 Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod g
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<D
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OH
CD
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> CQ o > o
1
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7/21/2019 Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod g
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An
actual
data computation
is
presented
on
page
39.
Output
data
consists
of columns
showing concentration levels
for
a
given
pollutant
at
incremental
distances
along various
sections
of
the
tunnel.
Section
boundaries
are
usually
de-
termined
by
blower
shaft locations and
changes
in road grade
level
(or
percent
inclination).
The
exhaust
air
flow from
the section
is
given
below the
concentration/location
columns
followed
by the average
concentration
of
the
given
pollutant
in
the
exit
air
duct
(where
applicable).
As stat
to
be
a
gress
o
existed
ported
later
t
predict
CO,
N0
X
f
u n
c
t i o
same
re
of carb
Emission Rate s
for
CO
ting
appd befo
di
f
f
i
c
n
Road
in reg
in
this
hat in
emissi
,
HC
an
n
of mo
ference
uretor
re, selec
ult
and
f
Tunnel
s
I
'
ard to
em
referenc
some case
on
rates.
d
R-COH
f
de
of ope
also
rep
adjustmen
H-C,
N0_£
and Particulates
51
ropriate emission
rates
proved
strating
task. The XIII
World
Con-
showed that
a
great discrepancy
ission
rates.
Some
of
the
data re-
e dated back
to
1919,
and
it was
found
s
this
data is still
being used
to
Table
7
shows
the
emission rates
of
rom gasoline
and
diesel engines
as
a
ration
as
reported in
1965. This
orts
emission
rates
of
CO
as
a
function
t for
cars
and
trucks (Table
8).
Table 9
lists
the
emission rates for
CQ^s
sum-
marized in
XIII
World Congress
on
Road Tunnels.
(
22
'
This
table represents
the best data
available
in 1957
and
is
com-
posed
primari ly
.of
resul
ts reported
by
the Coordinating
Re-
:ouncil.
(
23
'
search
Ci
The
Surgeon General's Report
of
emission
rates
for late
1950
automobiles,
the results;
values for
H-C
and
N0
X
are
shown
in this
table
also
and will
be
discussed
later.
1962<
24
)
lists
the
Table
10 lists
Over the
past
few
years,
the
emission
rate
of CO
from
gasoline
powered
vehicles
has
been decreasing.
Table
11
shows
the emission rates for
pre-1966,
1966-1969
and 1970
passenger cars and
light
trucks as
well
as
heavy
duty
trucks
25
»
2
Stormont'
2
^)
reports
emission
rates
of
65
g
CO/veh-
mi for
1965-1967
models,
35
gm
CO/veh-mi for
1968 models,
25 gm CO/veh-mi for
1969
and
1970
models.
A
target
of 4.7
gm
CO/veh-mi
is
set
for
1975
models.
Federal
Regulations
for
CO
emissions
as
reported in
Environmental Science and
Technology(
28
) are:
Year
gm
CO/veh-mi
1968
35.1
1970
23.0
1972
39.0
1975 4.7
38
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0.7209
0.3341
TRANS
AIR
IN
TRANS
AIH OUT
0.4684E6
0.264E6
to
end
aih
in
tunnel
lenbth tunnel
delt
l28600
0.235
0.02
vehicles/hr; inlet*
anient
conc 11&0 352
CONT-I
TUNNEL
POS
0.200000E-1
0.400000E-1
0.599999E-1
0.800000E-1
0.999999E-1
0.119999E+0
0.139999E+0
0.159999E+&
0.179999E+0
0.199999E+0
0.219999E+0
0.2350O0E+0
DISCRAKbE
PLOW
CONC
0.850087E+1
0.142818E+2
0.1&3770E+2
0.213752E+2
0.236307E+2
0.253666E+2
0.267267E+2
0.27815SE+2
0.2869S4E+2
0.294170E+2
0.300154E+2
0.304023E+2
-766339E+5
Section
N4
40
ppm
CO Monitor
Chart
Reading
AVb
CONC
0.235749E+2
TUNNEL CONC
POL.
COEFS
0.9876 0.86
TRANS
AIR
IN
TRANS
AIH
OUT0.6011E6
0.6266E6
end
aih
in
tunnel
lenuth
tunnel
delt
l
0.76634e5
0.4868
0.05
vehicles/hr; inlet* ambient
conc
1180
352
30.4
CONT-l
TUNNEL POS
CONC
0.5000U0E-1
0.333033E+2
0.1Uu)kJt3t3L
+
kJ
0.3S41
40E+2
0.1S000WE+0
0.369414E+2
Section
0.200000E+0
0.3b0414fc;+2
0.250000E+0 0.3bb298E+2
0.3000O0E+0
0.393920E+2
0.35O000E+0
0.39790911+2
0.399999E+0
0.400723E+2
0.449999E+0
0-40269bE+2
0.466600E+0 0.403804E+2
DISCHARbE
PLOW
0.642205E+5
AVO
CONC
0.381655E+2
N3
50
CO
ppm
Monitor
Chart Reading
TUNNEL
CUNC
POL.
COEFS 1.1944
2.7607
TRANS
AIH
IN
TRANS
AIH
OUT
0.&786E6
0.&76E6
END
AIH
IN TUNNEL
LENbTri TUNNEL
DELT
L
0.642205E5 0.4621
0.05
VEHlCLES/HH;
INLh.T#
AMBIENT
CONC
1
1 bo
352
40.38
CONT-l
PORTION
OF
COMPUTER PRINTOUT
FOR
LINCOLN
TUNNEL-WESTBOUND
TUBE
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TABLE
9
-
CO EMISSIONS
REPORTED
IN REFERENCE
22
Emission
Rate
gm
CO/veh-mi
Downgrade Level Accelerati
on
Upgrade
?£
£
3
'Jx
5
/
73
41
56
r
195 86
(3
45
64
225
99
s
6
^/
(3
40 70
269
112
56 78 311
128
i?
2. f
«5
?
74 99 410
159
?*-
Z-7
/<£S
^
106 128 573
214
40
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TABLE
10
-
GRAMS OF
POLLUTANT
EMITTED
PER
MILE
FOR
FIXED
MDDE OF
OPERATION
(gm/veh-mi
Mode
Cruise:
20 miles
30 miles
40
miles
50
mi les
per
per
per
per
hour
hour
hour
hour
Acceleration
:
to
60 miles
per hour
to
25 miles per
hour
15
to
30
miles per hour
Decelerati on
50
to 20 miles per hour
30
to 15 miles per
hour
30
to miles
per hour
40
to 20
miles
per
hour
CO
Gross
HC
M
x
72
57
47
40
9.1
6.4
5.4
7.7
2.7
5.2
381
240
120
28
29
14
10.2
26
40
60
30
6.8
5.9
7.7
5.0
41
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o
o
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C7>
co
co
ol
o
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c
o
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3
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in
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r—
UJ
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c
CT>
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i/1
1
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If)
42
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This
applies
only to
light
duty
vehicles.
Many other
references
were reviewed
and
are
in-
cluded
in
the Bibliography
section
of
this
report.
For
the
current
mixture
of
model years we
have
selected
an
average
CO emission
rate
from
gasoline
powered
vehicles
of 40 gm
CO/
yeh-mi
.
If
the
Federal
Standards
are
met
and
as
older
models
are
phased
out
of
operation,
this
value
will
decrease.
Less
information
was found
on CO emission from
diesel
powered
vehicles, and again
some
of
this information
was contradictory.
For
example,
all
references
on
CO emis-
sion
from diesel
engines listed
some
positive values,
whereas
the Surgeon General's Report of
1962(24)
listed an
emission
rate
of zero for CO.
Rispler
('2)
reported
a
CO emission
rate for
diesel
engines at
40 mph
cruise
of 4.3
gm/veh-mi.
Rose(29)
reported an emission
rate of
CO
from
diesels
of
about
3.5
gm/veh-mi under
crui
se,
condi tions .
From this
limited data, we conclude that under cruise
conditions, the
CO
emission
rate
from diesels
is
M
gm/veh-mi.
Emission rates
of
CO
from
diesels
for
the effects
of road
grade
can
be
ad-
justed
using.
the data
in
Figure Ik.
Hydrocarbon
emissions have
been studied by
a
number
of
investigators. In the
case
of hydrocarbons, emissions
are much more dependent
upon
the
condition
of
the
car
and
the
emission
control devices installed
on
cars
than
are
CO
emission rates.
The
Surgeon
General's
report(24)
listed
the emission rates
as
a
function of mode of operation.
(Table
10).
This
same
reference
reports
diesel
emission
of
H-C
as
4.5 gm
H-C/veh-mi
at
30
mph (cruise), 20.5 gm
H-C/
veh-mil
under
acceleration
and
17.3
gm
H-C/veh-mi under
'decelerati
on.
Stormont(27)
reports
H-C
emissions according
to
the
year
of
the
automobile
under cruise
conditions. The
values are:
Year
1965-1967
1970
1972
1975
gm H-C/veh-mi
12
6
2
0.5 (Projected)
The Federal Standards
(28,
30)
for
H-C
emissions
from passenger
vehicles are
as
follows:
Year
1972-1974
1975
gm H-C/veh mi
3.4
0.46
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These
values
apply
to
light
duty vehicles only.
In
1965,
Rose'29)
reported
H-C emission for
gaso-
line
and
diesel
engines under cruise
conditions
as
5.8
gm
H-C/veh-mi
1
and
6.2
gm
H-C/veh
mi,
respectively.
On
the basis
of
the data
which
were
compiled on
H-C emissions,
we selected
an average
emission
rate
of
2.7
gm
H-C/veh-mi
for
gasoline powered vehicles
and
3.4
gm
H-C/veh-mi
for
diesels.
Hydrocarbon emission
by diesels
are
about 8.0
gms/veh-mi under
accelerating conditions and
10.5
gm/veh-mi
under
decelerating
conditions.
The
emission
of
oxides
of
nitrogen
from
motor
ve-
hicles
exhaust is generally
reported
in
terms of
N0
X
,
i.e.,
the
total of NO
plus
N0
2
.
Studies
have shown
that
approxi-
mately
80%
of
the N0
X
emitted is in
the
form
of
NO.
In
tunnels,
where the residence time of
the
exhaust gases
is
of
the
order
of seconds, there
is little time for
NO
to
con-
vert
to
NO2,
hence
approximately
is there
as
NO.
80%
of
the N0
V
in
tunnels
The Surgeon General's
Report
lists
NO
emissions
of
2.6
gm
NO
x
/veh-mi
at
30 mph
and 5.2
gm
NO
x
/veh-mi
at
50
mph
cruise.
The
same
reports
lists
the emission
from
diesels
as
8.9 gm
NO
x
/veh-mi
and
8.8
gm NO/veh-mi under
acceleration.
Stormont reported
N0
X
emissions
according
to
the
vehicle
year:
Emission
Rate
Year (gm NO
y
/veh-mi)
1960
6
1965-1971
5
1972 4
1973
3
1975 1
The
values listed
for
1972-1975
are
projected
values.
Rose
reported
an
emission
rate
of
3.9
gm
NO
x
/veh-mi
for gasoline
engines
in
the
cruise
mode. Diesels
in
a
cruise
mode
emitted 10.0
gm
N0
x
/veh-mi.
Although the data
are
limited with
respect
to N0
X
emission, the reported values
are
in
relatively
good agree-
ment.
We
have selected
an
emission rate
of 4.0 gm
NO/veh-mi
for gasoline engines and
8.0
gm
NO/veh-mi for
diesel engines.
It must
be
recognized that various
driving
modes
will
change
these emission rates,
but
the
data
on
function of
driving
mode is limited.
N0„
emissions as
a
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The data
on
particulates
are
even
more
limited
than for
other
exhaust
contaminants.
Frey
and Corn^
31
'
studied
the
particle
size
and concentration
in vehicle ex-
haust
gases.
The particle
size
ranged
from 0.01
to 5
u.
Gasoline engines
were reported to
emit
0.4
gm/veh-mi
while
diesel
engines
emitted
5.0
gm/veh-mi.
The Environmental
Protection
Agency'
32
)
has
set
standards
for
particulate
emissions
for
1975
model
cars
-
0.1
gm/veh-mi.
In
summary, it has
been
difficult to select standard
emission rates
for gasoline and
diesel
powered
vehicles
under
various
driving modes, with the
possible
exception
of
CO.
However,
by
limiting the
selection
during
the
1
960
' s only,
we believe
representative of the gasoline and
mix which is
currently on
the
road
we
have
selected are
as
follows:
of
emission
rates reported
the selected rates are
diesel powered vehicle
The emission
rates
which
Type of
Vehicle
Gasoline
Diesel
Mode of
Operation
Cruise*
Cruise
Emission Rates
(gm/veh-mi)
N0
V
ParticulatesO, HC
40
2.7
4.0
3.4
Gasoline Projected
1970
23
2.2
Gasoline
Projected
1975**
4.7 0.5
-x
4.0
8.0
0.9
0.4
5.0
0.1
Emission
rates
for
CO can
be
corrected for grade
by using
factors
given
in
Figures
13 and 14.
Federal
Standards
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel
Allegheny Mountain Tunnel
Lincoln
Tunnel
Fort Pitt
Tunnel
Armstrong
Tunnel
In most
cases, the
CO
levels
of
the
tunnel were
taken
from
the
continuous
monitoring
data while
in
one
case
CO,
H-C,
NO
and/or
particulates
were measured.
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The Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel is
a
6700
ft
long
dual
tube
tunnel
which
is
part
of
an
expressway
circling
the
city
of
Baltimore.
The
Harbor
Tunnel is
located
beneath
the
Patapsco
River.
The northern
portal and
ventilation
building
are
surrounded
by
industrial
plants while the
southern
one lies
in
rather open country.
Tolls
are
collected
at
booths located
about 0.7 miles from
the
south
portal.
Each
tube
is
staffed
by
3 or
4 patrolmen
on
a
continuous
basis
with
a
shift
change
every
two hours.
Each
tunnel patrolman spends
a
total
of
4
hours
per day
inside the tunnel
-
most
of the time
in
semi-
enclosed shelter
booths.
The
traffic load
varies
from
55,000
to
75,000 vehicles
per day. Transverse
ventilating
is used
and CO
is
continuously
monitored
in
the exhaust
stacks.
One
of
the chief reasons
for
selecting the Harbor
Tunnel
for
our
survey
was
the
fact
that complete
records are
maintained
which
include
the following:
•
Traffic
counts
and
traffic
type,
according
to
number
of
axles
•
Continuous
ventilation
rate
data
•
Detailed accounting
of
all traffic
stoppages in
the
tunnel
•
Complete
set
of engineering
drawings
•
Ambient weather
conditions.
During
the
visit
spot
checks were
taken of traffic
count
and
mix
and
vehicle residence time
or
speed. Particulate
samples
were
also
obtainedby
portable
MSA
mine
samplers
placed on
the
tunnel
catwalk.
The weight
per
unit-volume
of
sample
collected
was about
0.6
mg/m^
which
is
the
same
concentration
as the
sample
taken
at the
Fort
Pitt
Tunnel.
The
average
CO
concentration
in the tunnel,
as
recorded
by monitors
sampling
exit
air,
averaged
about 75
ppm
over
a
three
day
period
and
rarely exceeded 180 ppm
during
peak
traffic
periods.
Traffic
counts were
made of
both
gasoline
and
diesel
powered vehicles in the
east
tube over a
period
of
about
15
mins.
The
CO
traces
for this
period were
then
ob-
tained from
the
Baltimore
Harbor Tunnel
authorities.
Figure
16
shows the
road
grade of the
tunnel and
the
reported
ventilation
rates for the
period
during
which
traffic counts
were
made.
Figure
17
is
an
actual
trace
of
the
CO
monitors
in
the tunnel
during
the period when traffic counts
were
made.
The
inputs
to the
computer program
included:
1.
Ventilation pattern
and
flow
rates,
road
gradient and
tunnel
section
lengths
are shown
in
Figure
16.
2.
Traffic
count and
mix:
1260 gas/hr
268
diesel/hr
I
5
l
46
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E
U
«-
i-
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<C
o
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0)
eg
r—
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C CO
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1
f—
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fc?
E
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k.
O
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o
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n
UJ
f—
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•
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00
CO
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UJ
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u:
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a:
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*-
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0J
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r—
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rt
i-.
O
CM
o
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o
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•—
Q
C
—
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«t
sz
oc
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CD
a>
c
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-J
3
Q
r—
<C
a>
o
o
c
err
c
c
O
=>
O
CO
J-
oo
a:
cc
o
z
o
o
o
e—
CM
I—
Co
70
o
o
o
o
I
ID
CD
47
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CO
Concentration (parts
per
10,000)
Ol
1 2
AM
/
1
1
AM
\
10
AM
•
-1—
12
AM
11
AM-
10 AM
1
f^h
\
1
,
FIGURE
17
-
ACTUAL
TRACE
OF
CO
MONITOR
READINGS IN
THE
BALTIMORE
HARBOR TUNNEL
48
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3.
Vehicle
velocity:
4.
Ambient
CO
level
:
5.
Piston
effect:
6.
Emission
rate
for
42-50
mph
2 ppm assumed
^23%
of fan
rates
(50,000
cfm)
CO
as
a
function
of the
above
conditions.
The
CO
concentration
profile
calculated
by
the
mathematical
model
method
is
presented in Figure 18.
The
sharply
defined
maximum
and minimum
values
are
similar to
pattern obtained
by other
investigators.
These peaks
are
caused
by
the
combined
effects
of
ventilation patterns
and
CO
emission
rate
differentials.
the
Since the
tunnel
CO
monitor's sampling probes are
installed
in
the exit
air
ducts
instead
of
at
road
level,
a
direct
comparison
with
calculated
results at
a
given point
in the
tunnel
can
only
be
obtained
by actual CO
measurement
at
a
given point.
However,
an
average
CO
concentration
calcu-
lated
from the
profile values
should agree with
the
CO
levels
indicated
by
the
permanent
tunnel CO
monitors. Hence
an
additional
step was
added
to the
computer program
which yields
average
CO
concentration
values
at
the
end
of
each
tunnel
section
and
a cumulative
average
value for
a
series
of com-
bined
tunnel
sections.
Average CO
concentration
values ob-
tained
were:
a. 71.1
ppm
for Section
(1
and
2)
b.
75.9 ppm for Sections
(3,4,
5 and
6)
Actual
values
taken from the
recorders
in
the
control
during
the time of this
test were,
respectively:
room
a.
b.
60
i
65
+
15
15
ppm
ppm
(1
and
(3,
4,
2)
5 and
6).
Figure
19
is
a plot
of these
average
results.
The
results
indicate
that the computed CO
level
falls
within
the measured
CO
concentration.
locat
the
o
rural
is
61
tunne
Venti
ei
the
steps
air i
readi
Th
ed on
t
ther
tu
area
w
00 ft
1
1
s are
lati
on
r
porta
from
4
s
exhau
ngs
of
e
Alleg
he
Penn
nnels
w
hi le
th
ong and
venti 1
a
is
prov
1 of ea
50,000
sted th
wind
ve
heny Mounta
sylvania
Tu
hich
we
vis
e others
we
has
an
ave
ted in
a
lo
ided by
ove
ch
tube.
F
cfm/tube to
rough the
t
locity insi
in
Tunnel
is
a
dual tube
tunnel
rnpike.
It differs from all
of
ited
in
that
it
is
located
in a
re all urban
tunnels.
Each
tube
rage grade of
t
0.5%.
The
ngitudinal
distributive
fashion,
rhead ducts and fans
mounted
at
lowrates
may
be adjusted
in
four
1,200,000
cfm/tube.
Vitiated
raffic portals.
Anemometer
de the duct
of the south
tube
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ex.
o
<
ZTLU
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UD
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yielded
values of
600
ft/min
at
a point
30
ft from
the intake
fan and
390
ft/min
at
duct
midpoint.
Traffic
and
gas/diesel
mix was
rather
constant
throughout
the
day and was nearly identical
in
both directions
295
±
10
gasoline vehicles/hr
105 ±
5
diesel vehicles/hr
Average
speed
for
the
vehicles
was
determined
by
telephone
communications at each portal
9
and
was
55
to
60 mph for
cars
and 50
mph for
large
trucks.
Carbon
monoxide monitoring
instruments
are
located
in
the ventilation building
control rooms. Air
inlet
probes
are
located in three niches
in the
wall
of
each tube.
The
CO
levels indicated
by
the center tunnel
monitors
are
gen-
erally
higher than those of
the
other monitors. However,
the
concentration
ranges
of all six
monitors
were
below 40
ppm
throughout
the
day of
our visit.
(Fig.
20)
Input parameters:
Traffic
count and
mix:
Ventilation
flow
rate:
Ambient CO
level
:
Road
gradient:
Tunnel length:
291
gas/hr
110 diesel/hr
450,000
cfm/duct
(see
Fig.
20)
1
.
ppm
assumed
See
Fig.
20
See
Fig.
20
The CO
level
was quite
low and
nearly
constant
throughout
the
length
of
the
tunnel
during
the
period
that
the traffic
counts were made. Monitors
located
in niches
at three points inside the
tunnel
each showed
CO levels
averaging
20 ppm.
Since the
response accuracy
of
the
moni-
tors is
I
10
ppm
the computed
result
(15
ppm
CO)
is
considered
in agreement
with
actual. If
a
20%
factor
is
added
for
piston
effect
the
calculated average
CO
concentration
drops to
12
ppm
which is
still
in agreement
with
the
monitors.
Other
potential
conditions
for the Allegheny
Tunnel
were computed (Figure
21).
These
included:
1.
1000 cars/hr @
40 mph
with
450,000
cfm
forced and 50,000
cfm natural
and
piston
ventilation
(Curve A).
2.
A
complete
power
failure with
1000
cars/hr
@
40 mph
with a
180,000
cfm
piston
effect
(Curve
B).
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3.
A traffic
jam
with
a
forced
ventilation
rate
of 600,000
cfm
(Curve
C).
4. A
traffic
jam
with
a
forced ventilation
rate
of
450,000
cfm
(Curve
D).
With 1000
cars
traveling at
40 mph
and
a
ventilation
rate
of
450,000
cfm,
the average
CO
concentration
would be
35
ppm.
Under
a
traffic
jam
condition,
the
CO
would
be
160
ppm
with
a
600,000
cfm ventilation
rate
and
225
ppm
with
a
450,000
cfm ventilation
rate. With
a power
failure
where
the only
ventilation would
be due
to
the piston
effect,
the
CO
profile would
range
from zero
at
the entry portal to
150
ppm
at
the
exit portal.
Traffic
counts
were
made at
the Lincoln Tunnel
in
New
York
City and CO
data
from
the permanent monitors
in the
tunnel
were acquired. This
information
was
used
to
predict
the
CO
level
in
various
sections
of the tunnel
and
to
compare
the
predicted
with
the
actual
concentration.
veloped
Authori
was to
and
Hoi
air
and
length
used in
equatio
nant
pr
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A
mat
in
1965
ty-Engi
n
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land
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contami
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tunne
the
MSA
ns
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ofi
les.
al
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a
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ntial
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eering
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nels.
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Lincoln
lancing
ctional
equations
rential
contami
-
hould
be
(dl)
is
of
The
carbon monoxide
profile
of
the Lincoln
Tunnel-
north tube
was calculated using the PNYA
model.
The results
were
then
compared with
observed CO
values
as
shown
in
Figure
22.
Agreement
between observed and calculated
CO
profiles is
good except
at
the tunnel portals.
55
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concentrations deviated
somewhat
from the
measured
concen-
trations. This was
also
true
in the
case
where
two-way
traffic
was used in
the
center
tube
(Figure
25).
However,
with
the
two-way
traffic
pattern the calculated and
measured
CO
con-
centrations
followed the
same
general trend.
Deviations
of
the
actual values
from calculated
values
could
be
due
to
in-
-
correct ventilation rate data, incorrect
CO
readings,
incorrect
inlet
air
CO
concentrations
or an
error
in
the
computer
pro-
gram.
However,
the
latter
reason is
unlikely
since
good
agree-
ment
between
actual
and calculated
values
were
found
in
all
other
tunnels
tested as well
as
the
north
tube of
the
Lincoln
Tunnel
.
The Fort
Pitt
Tunnel
is
a
dual-tube
urban
tunnel
which
carries
Interstate
Route
1-76
into
downtown Pittsburgh,
Pa.
Each
tube
is
4900
ft
long and
has
a
road level grade of
Mo
except
at
one
end of the
West
tunnel
which has
a
3.5%
up
grade
for about 400
ft.
(The North
portals
are on two
differ-
ent
levels which correspond
to
the
decks
of
the approach
bridge.)
Atmospheric conditions
were cloudy,
light
rain
all
day, very
little wind,
temperature
50
to
54°F
during
the
day
when
actual
measurements
were
made.
times
t
traf f
i
c
tube
be
hour
at
inbound
400
per
The
rat
varied
rush
ho
55
mph.
average
tunnel
den si
ty
A
s
hrough
rate
tween
peak
).
Du
hour
i
o
of
from
1
ur.
T
At
p
s
p
a
c
i
popul
may
i
eries
of 30-minute
counts were taken at
various
out
a
typical week
day.
Results
showed that
the
varied from
1500
to
1900
vehicles per
hour per
9
A.M.
and
4
P.M.
and
3200
to
3400
vehicles
per
times
(4
to
6
P.M.
outbound tube
and 7
to
9
A.M.
ring the night the
rate
is usually
down
to
200-
except
when
a
sports or civic
event is
scheduled,
gasoline
engine
powered to
diesel
powered
vehicles
3/1 in
late
morning
to
66/1
during
the
evening
raffic normally
moved
through
the
tunnel
at
45 to
eak
periods
speeds fall
to
20-25
mph. Since
the
ng
between
vehicles is about
20 ft,
the
maximum
tion is
250
vehicles
per
tube.
The
population
ncrease, of course,
in
case
of
a
stoppage.
empl
oy
intake
lines
in
the
tunnel
350 ft
signal
m
o
n i
t
o
the
n
i
day
it
rises
fan
sp
i ncrea
In
semi
-t
fans
b
for
the
tunnel
employ
in
fro
s from
red
by
ght
the
rises
to
100
eeds
ar
ses
the Fo
ravers
ut
no
CO
mo
wal
1
ed
two
m the
each
o
operat
CO
le
to
abo
ppm.
e
not
rt
Pit
e
or
s
exhaus
ni tori
about
moni
t
portal
f
the
ing
pe
vel
is
ut
50
Peak
p
i
n
c
r
e
a
t
Tunn
emi
-1
t fans
ng
equ
9
ft
a
ors
pe
sort
four H
rsonne
norma
ppm
ex
e
r
i o
d
s
e
d
in
el
,
a
n
g
i t
u
,
the
ipmen
bove
r
tub
unnel
opcal
1
in
lly
a
cept
level
adva
s
in
most
dinal ven
air
samp
t are
mou
roadway 1
e
;
each
o
ends.
T
i te-type
the
contr
bout
10
p
at
peak
p
may rise
nee
of
po
tunnels
which
t
i
1
a t
i
o
n
with
ling
intake
nted
in niches
e v
e
1
.
This
ne
located
about
he recorded
detectors are
ol
room.
During
pm.
During
the
eriods
when it
to
250
ppm
if
llution
emission
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Spot
checks of
CO content
at
catwalk
levels were
made
with
a
portable
detector.
Readings during
off-peak
hours
agreed with
the
CO values
recorded in
the
control
room.
At
peak traffic
hours, however,
the spot check
values
ranged
about
60
ppm
higher
than
.those
recorded.
In
a
more complete
analysis
of
CO
level variations in
the Fort Pitt
tunnel,
it
was demonstrated
that
the CO level in
the central
portion
of
the
tunnel may
be considerably
higher
than that
at the
ends
(Figure
26).
Each
tube
contains
six fans
-
three at each end.
Only
two of
the three
are used as
fresh
air input fans. The
third fan is
used
as an emergency exhaust. Fresh
air is supplied
through
ceiling ducts from
either end of
each
tube.
Vitiated
air is
exhausted
through the traffic
portals. Considerably
more
air is
exhausted
via the
traffic
exit
portal
due chiefly
to the addition of
the piston effect. The magnitude of
this
difference
was measured by
taking
anemometer readings
on
the
catwalk. Air
velocity
at the inlet portal ranged from about
820 ft/min
compared with 1210
ft/min
at
the
exit
portal.
Air flow
rates
are
adjusted manually from the con-
trol
room according
to
traffic demand.
Flow
rates
range
from
121,000
cfm
(night-downgrade)
to
535,000
cfm (peak-upgrade)
with
a
maximum
fan
capacity
of
714,000 cfm (upgrade tunnel).
Each fan
can provide for
up to
85%
of
the normal requirement
for
its particular duct.
Ten-minute observations
were carried out
at
various
hours
along
the
tunnel catwalk. Results
showed
an average
noise
level
of
97
dBC
with
peaks
up to
106 dBC. The
peaks
were
produced
by
the
passage
of
large
trailer
and
cab
type
trucks. Operating
and
maintenance
personnel
are
normally
not
exposed
to
these
sound
levels for extended time periods.
A
constant
volume
air sampler was placed in
operation
at a point 264
ft
from
the
south
portal of
the east
tube on
the
catwalk
with
the
sampling
inlet
away
from the
stream
of
traffic.
A
filter
paper disc
(MSA
Part No.
25310)
was used
with
a sampling flow
rate of
15
cfm. The sampler
was operated
for
5 hours
during
the off-peak
hours (11
A.M.
to
4
P.M.). A
total of 68 mg
of
particulates
were
collected
which
represents
a
density
of 0.6
mg/m3.
A
3.2
gm
sample
of
particulates
was
collected
from
the
floor of
the
room
housing
the
Fort
Pitt tunnel
south
portal
ventilation
fans. An analysis
of this sample
was
performed
by
an emission
spectroscopy
method.
The
results are
shown
in
Table
12.
Extraction
with
benzene showed that the
sample was
9355 benzene
soluble
(organic).
61
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TABLE
12
-
ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL COLLECTED
FROM VENTILATION
BUILDING
OF
THE
FORT
PITT
TUNNEL*
Component
Concentration
Iron
7.5%
Aluminum 3.6%
Magnesium
1%
Silicon
14%
Boron 90 ppm
Cobalt
10 ppm
Manganese 8000
ppm
Tin
150
ppm
Lead
2000 ppm
Chromium
400 ppm
Titanium
1000
ppm
Nickel
500 ppm
Molybdenum 200
ppm
Vanadium
200
ppm
Sodium 1500
ppm
Niobium
<100
ppm
Calcium
<100
ppm
Zinc
1000
ppm
is
an
analysis
of
the benzene
in
soluble
fraction
of the
collected
material.
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Samples were
taken
for total
hydrocarbons
and NO,
also.
The
total
hydrocarbon samples were taken in
glass
sampling bombs
and
ultimately transferred
to
the
laboratory
and analyzed.
Samples
for
NO
were
collected and
analyzed
by
the Saltzman
Method.
(33)
south
in
ea
trol
the
p
selec
The
p
The
N
predi
measu
diffe
NO
le
This
gener
could
for
t
bound
ch
tu
room
redi
c
ted
e
redi
c
B-l
s
cted
remen
rence
vel
s
may
i
al
,
h
prob
he cu
Vehi
tub
be.
oper
ted
miss
ted
amp
leve
ts
a
s
co
were
ndi
c
owev
ably
rren
cle
co
es and
Venti
ators
level
s
ion
ra
and
ac
es for
Is. H
nd
wer
uld be
equal
ate th
er
,
mo
be im
t
car
unts
we
sample
1
a
t
i
o
n
and the
based
tes.
T
tual CO
NO
and
owever,
e
made
expect
to
or
at
NO
e
st of t
proved
populat
re
made
s
were c
rates we
i nforma
on
the
c
he resul
values
HC did
since
t
near the
ed.
In
higher t
mission
he
resul
if
bette
ion.
in
bot
o
1
1 e
c
t
re
obt
t
i
o n
w
ompute
ts are
agree
not ag
hese a
entry
al
1
ca
han
th
factor
ts
agr
r
em
is
h the no
ed
at
tw
ained
fr
as used
r
model
shown i
quite we
ree
well
re point
of
the
ses,
the
e
measur
s are
in
ee
rathe
s
i o
n rat
rthbo
o
loc
om
th
to ca
and
t
n Tab
11
(±
wi
th
sour
tunne
pred
ed
va
corre
r wel
es
we
und and
a
t i
o
n
s
e
con-
1 cul
ate
he
le
13.
20%).
the
ce
1
,
some
i
cted
1
ues
ct.
In
1
,
but
re
known
One naturally
ventilated tunnel, the
Armstrong Tunnel
in
Pittsburgh,
was
visited and
data
were
collected on
CO
con-
centration
and noise
level. This two-tube
tunnel
is
located
near
downtown Pittsburgh,
Pa. It
carries
city
traffic
a
distance
of
1350
ft
and lies
beneath
the
campus
of
Duquesne
University.
Traffic
lights
are
located
at
the
intersections
at
either end
of
the
tunnel.
Since this
tunnel
has
no venti-
lating
fans,
it
was
selected
as an
ideal location
to
study
piston
effect.
The
tunnel
is also used
by pedestrians
(in
one tube
only).
The
number of
vehicles admitted to
the
tunnel
is
limited by
the
cycle
of
the traffic
control
lights. In the
west
tube
approximately 18 vehicles/min are
admitted
while
in the
east
tube
the
number
is
about 33
per minute..
Traffic
speed is
maintained
at about
30 mph.
Backing
does
occur
at
the
traffic
lights. This normally
involves
6
to
12
vehicles
for
times
of
30 seconds.
Gas/diesel
ratio
ranges
from
10:1
to
20:1.
Pedestrian
traffic
averages
8 per
hour
with
an
average
walk-through
time of
approximately
four minutes.
Readings
taken with
a
portable Hopcalite detector
averaged 50
ppm
inside the
tunnel
with
an
increase
to
200
ppm
at
the portal
at which
backed-up traffic
occurs,.
Anemometer
determinations
of
air
movement
showed
that
a
velocity of
370
ft/min
was
maintained
at sidewalk
level
with
an
intermittent
flow
of
1050
vehicles
per
hour.
Assuming a
tunnel
cross-
section
of
435 ft
2
,
the
volumetric
flow rate
could
be as
high
as
150,000
cfm. The CO
output
for
18
cars
at
30
mph
is 18
x
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60
gms/mile
or
270-
gm
per
tunnel
length
(1/4
mi).
Since
vehicles require
30
sec
to
pass
through the
tunnel the
CO
emission
rate
is
540
gms/min
or 15.3
cfm.
Assuming
a ven-
tilation rate
of
150,000
cfm
(4,860,000
gms/min)
yields a
possible
average
tunnel CO concentration of 110
ppm.
Figure
27
shows
the measured
CO
profile.
Traffic
noise
ranged
from
88
to 93 dBC.
In
conclusion,
the
computer program
appears to
adequately predict
the pollution level of
CO
in
tunnels
as
a function
of
the
variables
which
are
fed
into
the
program.
Computed
values
for
hydrocarbons
and
NO
appear to
be reliable
in some
cases
and unreliable
in
others.
However,
emission
rates for
the contaminants
are
not as well
defined
as
are
emission
rates
for
CO
and
vary considerably
depending upon
the
mechanical
condition
and
age
of the
car.
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PHYSIOLOGICAL
EFFECTS OF TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS
The
objectives
of this phase of
the
program
were
to
evaluate
the
effects
of vehicle
tunnel impurities
on
both
in-tunnel
workers
and
the transient
public,
and
to
set limits
for
maximum
allowable
concentrations for manned
tunnels
as
well
as
safety
and
comfort
levels for unmanned
tunnels.
Selection
of the
impurities
for which
limits
were
set was
based
on
the
contaminants
which were
found
in
tunnels
and
the
concentration
levels
at
which
these contaminants
were
present
in
vehicular
tunnels.
The Industrial
Health Foun-
dation,
Inc.
of Pittsburgh served
as
a
subcontractor
on
this
phase
of
the program.
The final report from Industrial
Health
Foundation is
included
as
Appendix
I
of
this report.
The selection
of specific limits
was
the
responsibility
of
MSAR and selected limits
along with
the
criteria for
se-
lection
of
these
limits
were submitted
to
and
reviewed
by
the
Environmental
Protection
Agency.
Table
14
is
a composite listing of ranges of tunnel
contaminants measured in
a
number
of different
tunnels.
These
values serve
to compare
relative concentrations
and
therefore
provide
a basis on
which
to select those
contaminants for
which
limits
should
be
set.
Carbon monoxide levels
in
tunnels
frequently
exceed
the
Threshold
Limit
Value
(50
ppm)
and occasionally
exceed
the
Short
Term
Limit Value
(400
ppm/15
min).
Since
CO
is
the
major health hazard
impurity
in
automobile exhaust,
limits
will
be
set
for this
contaminant.
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TABLE 14
-
MEASURED TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS
Contaminant
CO
N0
2
Aldehydes**
'
SO2
Tota
Poly
1 pa
cycl
Pyre
Benz
Coro
Benz
Metals
Lead
Iron
Zinc
Cadm
rticul
ates
ic
hydrocarbons
ne
o(a )pyrene
nene
perylene
i
urn
Range
54-170
ppm
0.05-0.43
ppm
0.2-1
.63
ppm
0.05-0.12
ppm
0.04-<0.05
ppm
0.424-2.350
mg/m
0.04-1.20
yg/m
3
0.03-0.69
yg/m
3
0.03-0.53
yg/m
3
0.09-0.99
yq/m
3
9.5-44.5
ug/m
3
9.5-23.4 yg/m
3
2.2 yg/m
3
0.04-0.6
yg/m
3
(1)
It has been
estimated
that
formaldehyde
accounts
for
70-80%
of
the total
aldehyde
emissions.
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as
a
combu
of op
appro
oxide
that
the
m
where
nants
and
o
plans
examp
conve
tunne
predi
tunne
that
resul
st
ion
erati
ximat
s
of
emi
tt
ore
t
as
th
appe
dor t
to u
le,
t
rt
an
1.
T
ct
an
1.
I
level
Oxides
t
of ox
.
The
on
but
ely
4/1
ni
troge
ed by
g
o
x
i c an
e
TLV
f
ar to
b
hreshol
se cert
he
Pitt
e x
i
s t
i
hese
bu
increa
n antic
s
would
of
nit
i
d
a
t
i
o
N0/N0
2
on
the
to
5/
n
emi t
a s o
1 i
n
d
more
or
NO
e
pres
d
1
imi
a
i
n t u
sburgh
ng tro
ses
wi
sed
le
i
p
a
t
i
o
be
se
rogen
n of
a
ratio
avera
I in
q
ted by
e
engi
i
rri
t
is
25
ent
in
ts
,
at
nnel s
Port
Hey
t
II be
vel of
n
of
t
t for
are
p
tmosp
vari
ge
th
a s
o
1 i
dies
nes
.
a
t
i
n
g
ppm.
1
eve
the
for d
Autho
unnel
d i
e s e
ox id
hese
NO
an
resent
h
e r
i
c
es ace
e
rati
ne
eng
el
eng
Of th
.
The
Altho
Is
bel
presen
i
e s
e 1
rity
T
into
1
powe
es
of
probl
e
d N0
2
.
i n t
ni
tro
ordi
n
o
is
i nes
.
ines
e
two
TLV
f
ugh
t
ow th
t
tim
traff
r
a
n s
i
a
mas
red
a
ni
tro
ms
,
i
unnel
gen
du
g
to t
in the
Howe
are
hi
oxide
or
N0
2
hese
c
e safe
e
,
the
ic
onl
t
inte
s
tran
nd
one
gen in
t
was
atmospheres
ring fuel
he mode
range
of
ver, the
gher than
s,
N0
2
is
is
5 ppm,
ontami
-
ty
limits
re
are
y.
For
nds to
sit
bus
woul
d
that
decided
The
other
impurity
in
tunnels which
has
been
ob-
served
to exceed the irritation
or odor
threshold
limit
is
formaldehyde.
The
irritation
threshold
for
HCHO
has been
reported
to
be as
low as 0.05 ppm while
levels
of 0.12
ppm
have been reported
in
tunnels.
Authorities on odor
have
frequently
attributed
the
objectionable odor
of
auto
exhaust
to the aldehyde
content.
Therefore,
limits
have
been
se-
lected
for
formaldehyde which
is the
major aldehyde
emitted
from
auto exhaust.
Other
impurities
present
in
tunnel
atmospheres
in-
clude,
as
two general categories,
partially
burned
hydrocarbons
and
metals. Benzo(a
)pyrene
has been of particular concern
to
the
environmental health
personnel
because of
its
carcinogenic
properties.
However,
the
maximum
value
measured
has
been only
0.5% of
the
TLV.
All
metals which have been
detected are
well
below
the
TLV.
Lead
is
the
metal that has
been measured
in
highest
concentrations
and
it
is
only
20%
of
the
TLV.
With
the
advent
of unleaded
gasolines,
the concentration
will
un-
doubtedly
decrease.
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This
covers all
of
the contaminants
which
have been
detected
in
vehicular tunnels
except
for
S0«.
A
cursory
com-
parison
of the
concentration
level
versus tne
odor
level
would
suggest
that limits should
be
set for
SO?.
However,
the
work
which
provided these
values
showed
that the
S0«
level
was
present in the
intake
air
rather than
as
a
result
of auto-
motive exhaust. Therefore, no
limits
will be
set for
SO2.
Selected
Contaminant Levels for Vehicular Tunnels
In manned
tunnels,
police
officers
are located
at
three
or
four
locations in
the
tunnel.
These officers
spend
two hours in
the
tunnel
and
two hours
out of
the
tunnel
,
so
that during
an 8 hr work day, they are
exposed
to
the
tunnel
atmosphere for
a
total
period
of
four
hours.
Personal
in-
terviews
with
these
employees
revealed
that they
frequently
experience headache, tiredness
and
eye
irritation.
Personal
observation
of
these
officers
as
they
came
off duty
during
or
immediately
following rush hour traffic
indicated that
they
did
indeed
have
eye irritation.
whi
ch
such
and
w
perio
Turnp
way
t
eveni
being
the
t
that
a
sho
Ma
is
e
x
as
repl
ashing
d
s
.
In
i
ke
Tun
raff
ic
ng
and
washed
u n
n
e
1
i
mai
nten
rt
time
intenance
personnel
represent another
work
group
osed
to
tunnel atmospheres.
Routine
maintenance
acement of lights, repair
or
replacement
of tile
of the tunnel
walls is
scheduled
during
off-peak
dual tube
tunnels
such
as
the Pennsylvania
nels, Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel
and
others,
two
is
shunted through
one
tube during
the
late
early morning
hours
while
the
other tube
is
or
repaired.
Emergency
maintenance
within
s
not frequently
required
and in general requires
ance
personnel
be
present
in the
tunnel for only
Three of
the
studies were
directly
pertinent to
setting
of
limits
for
manned tunnels
in
that
the
studies
in-
volved
clinical
examination of
personnel
who had
spent
greater
than
10
years working
in
tunnels.
One
of
the reports
stated:
No
mortality or
morbidity
from primary
lung
cancer
was found
among a group
of
97
retired
tunnel
police
officers who
had
worked
within
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the
H
in
re
years
lung
pol ic
this
1 i v
i
n
cl
ude
mary
years
posur
study
37 ye
30
ye
oil
and
Li
ti
rement
of activ
cancer wa
e
officer
same reti
g
nontunn
din this
lung
cane
ago.
Th
e in
the
was
at
ars
;
a
rs
;
in
8
rs. (34l
nco 1
n
for at
e
serv
s
foun
s stud
rement
el
ret
study
er
sue
e
inte
tunnel
east
1
9.7%,
Tunne
leas
ice.
d
amo
ied w
peri
ired
,
the
cessf
rval
s and
8 yea
the
i
Is,
a
t
10
No
c
ng
th
ho
ha
od.
pol
ic
re
is
ul
ly
betwe
the
rs
an
nterv
nd
had
years
ase of
e 25
r
d
died
Among
e
offi
one w
resect
en i
n
time
o
d
as
1
al
was
been
after
25
primary
etired
during
the
16
cers in-
ith
pri-
ed
11
tial ex-
f
this
ong
as
over
The second article stated:
Resul
i
nvest
pulmon
to aut
nonspe
lent
i
more t
time
o
freque
did
no
of
age
The
ma
with t
cantly
speci
f
of the
ts
are
igatio
ary
fu
omobi
ci
f
i
c
n
men
han 10
f
empl
nt
in
t perm
or ci
ximal
he
Wri
lower
ic
res
worke
pre
n
of
ncti
e ex
resp
who
yea
oyme
thi
s
it
p
gare
expi
ght
in
pi
ra
rs
s
sented
the
r
ons
of
haust
i rator
had
wo
rs
tha
nt.
C
group
roper
tte
sm
ratory
peak
f
the wo
tory d
tudied
of
a
e
s
p
i
r
a
gr
in
a
y
dis
rked
n
in
hest
.
Th
asses
o
k
i
n
g
flow
lowme
rkers
iseas
(35
n
epi
atory
oup
o
road
ease
in
th
those
colds
e
siz
sment
on t
rate
ter
,
with
e
tha
demiol
og
sympton
f
men
ex
tunnel
.
was more
e tunnel
with
a
were
al
e
of
the
of the
his
popu
,
as
mea
was sign
chronic
n
in
the
i
c
s
and
posed
Chroni
c
preva-
for
shorter
so
more
sample
effect
1
a t
i
o
n
.
sured
ifi-
non-
rest
A
third stated
that:
Examination
of
a
group of 156 Holland
Tunnel
traffic
officers
exposed throughout
a
period
of
13 years
to
an occupational
carbon
monoxide
exposure averaging
70
ppm did not reveal any
evidence of
injury
to
health
contri
butable
to
carbon
monoxide
exposure.
(36)
the
basis of
the work
by Speizer,
one
may conclude
that
adverse effects
on the
respiratory
system are
imposed
exposure
to tunnel impurities.
In spite
of
the
large volume of
information avail-
on
physiological
effects of air
contaminants
on the
uman being,
it is still extremely
difficult
to
select
firm
for
employees in manned tunnels due to
the con-
data which
are presented. However,
this
dilemma
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has apparently
been solved by the
Occupational
Safety and
Health Act of 1970,
Public
Law
91-596.(37)
This
Act
sets
standards to
assure
safe
and
healthful working
conditions
for working men
and
women . As
part
of this
Act,
concen-
trations
are set
for
air
contaminants
including
CO, NO,
NO2, HCHO and particulates (oil mist).
These
values
are:
Contaminant
CO
NO
N0
2
HCHO
Particul ates (oil
mist)
Al lowable
Concentrati
on
Time
Weighted
Avg.
Limi
ts(38)
50
ppm
75.0
ppm
25
ppm 37.5
ppm
5 ppm
10.0
ppm
3
ppm
6.0 ppm
_
10.0
mg/rrr
mg/m
3
Although
the
Act
does
not make
allowances
for
less than
8
hr
exposure periods, the
TLV
levels
do
provide
for
a
time
weighted
average.
By
definition, time weighted averages permit ex-
cursions
above the
TLV provided they
are
compensated
by equiv-
alent excursions below the limit during the work
day. In
some
instances it may be
permissible
to
calculate
the
average
weekly concentration for
a
workweek
rather
than
a
workday.
The
degree of
permissible excursion is
related
to
the
magnitude
of the
TLV
of
a
particular substance
as
shown
below:
TLV (ppm)
Permi
ssi
bl
Excursion
Factor
0-1
3
1-10
2
10-100
1.5
100-1000
1.25
It is
therefore
recommended that these time
weighted
average
limits be adopted as
standards for
manned
tunnels
since
tunnel
personnel
are
not exposed for
a
full 8 hr
workday.
Most
tunnels are
designed to
maintain
CO levels at
less
than
100
ppm
and
in general,
a
warning
light is
activated
in
the
fan control
room
when the
level
goes
above
250
ppm.
During rush hour
traffic,
CO
levels
in the
range
of
350
ppm
are not
unusual in
some tunnels.
It is
obvious
that
these
levels
significantly
exceed
the
above
recommended
values
for
manned tunnels. In
such cases,
the
workers are
exposed
to
levels exceeding
the
Occupational
Safety
and
Health
Act
of
1970
and some
remedial
action
must
be
taken to
bring
these
tunnels
within the
limits
as set
forth
by the
Act.
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The
Act
does
allow
these
limits
to
be
exceeded
in
cases
where protective
equipment
or
protective equipment
in
addition
to other
measures are
provided.
Alternatives
to
maintaining levels at
less
than the
specified
limit should
be
considered
since
with appropriate
fan
operation
these
levels can
be
maintained
in most tunnels for
18-20
hrs
of
a
24 hr
day. Some tunnel
authorities have
already
considered
alternatives
:
1. Baltimore
Harbor
Tunnel Authority
con-
sidered the use of closed
circuit
tele-
vision surveillance
as
an
alternative
to
having personnel in the
tunnel.
In the
event
of an accident or breakdown
as in-
dicated
by
the
closed circuit television
system,
maintenance men, firemen
or police
officers
would
immediately
enter
the
tunnel
to
rectify
the problem. However,
the
authority
ultimately rejected the
idea
with
the reasoning
being
that
men
stationed
in
the
tunnel
could react
more
rapidly
to potentially
hazardous
situations
such
as accidents, fires and
so
on.
2.
The
i nst
Line
tai n
rapi
They
trol
mann
In
t
the
woul
of
t
will
is
h
to
c
1 i mi
the
tami
Port
Au
ailed
c
oln
Tun
police
d
respo
are cu
ley car
ed
by
a
he even
closed
d be
ra
he
prob
not
be
ighly
1
oncentr
t
at th
piston
nants
t
t h
o
r
i
losed
nel .
offi
nse
t
rrent
whic
pol
i
t
of
ci
rcu
P
i
d
1
y
1
em.
stat
i k
e
1
y
ation
e exi
ef
fee
hroug
ty
of N
circui
Howeve
cers
in
o
fires
ly
buil
h
would
ce
offi
a
probl
it
tele
d
i s
p
a t
Al
thou
ioned
i
that h
s above
t porta
t
of
ca
h the
p
ew Yo
t
tel
r,
th
the
,
bre
ding
be
c
cer
a
em wi
v
i
s
i
o
ched
gh
th
n
the
e
wi
1
the
Is
as
rs
ex
ortal
rk
Ci
evisi
ey st
tunne
akdow
a pro
onsta
t
eac
tness
n
,
th
to
th
e off
tunn
1
be
speci
a
re
haust
s.
ty
has
on in the
ill
main-
1 for
ns, etc.
totype
ntly
h
portal,
ed on
e
car
e
scene
icer
el
,
it
exposed
fied
suit
of
ing
con-
These
two
aforementioned
measures involve removing
the
offi-
cers
from the
tunnel,
and
it must be
admitted
that
this does
increase the
reaction time
to an
incident
in
the tunnel.
elude:
Other measures which
would
be feasible
would
in-
1.
A
direct air
supply
to
the officers'
cubicle
to
provide
clean,
outside air
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was
tried in
at least
one
tunnel,
but the
inlet
vents
were
plugged
up
by
the
offi-
cers
during the winter
due
to the
chill
factor
of
the
cold air blowing in.
2.
puri ty
Health
that th
Confere
used,
ceeded
peak ho
adopted
tunnels
traffic
puri
fie
tection
In
limit
and
S
e
tim
nee
o
It
is
durin
urs
i
,
the
with
cont
a
t
i
o
n
summ
s i
n
afety
e-wei
f
Gov
reco
g
rus
n
som
n
rem
in
al
rol
,
of
t
ary,
manne
Act
ghted
ernme
g
n
i
z e
h
hou
e tun
edi
al
lowab
chang
unnel
the
re
d
tunn
of
197
limit
ntal
a
d
that
rs
in
nel
s.
actio
1 e
1
i
m
es
in
air
o
commen
el
s
co
with
s esta
nd Ind
these
all tu
If
th
n must
its.
tunnel
r
indi
dati
on
nf
orm
the
a
b
1
i
s
h
e
u s
t r i a
limit
nnel
s
ese re
be ta
These
venti
v
i
d u
a
1
i
s
ma
to
the
ddi
tio
d
by
t
1 Hygi
s are
and
ev
commen
ken
to
action
lation
respi
de
tha
Occup
nal
pr
he Ame
e
n i
s
t s
curren
en
dur
dati
on
bri
ng
s
may
proce
ratory
t
lm-
a
t i o
n
a
1
o v
i
s
i
o
n
r
i
c
a
n
be
tly
ex-
i
n
g
n
o
n
s
are
the
i
nclude
dures
,
pro-
min/day)
n i
f
i
c a
n
t
police
o
premise
should
b
safety
1
be
h
i g h
of
expos
shorter,
separate
Unmanned Tunnels
of
the t
ly
less
t
fficers
i
is made
t
e set
to
evel
must
r
than th
ure
to th
Safety
ly
in
the
The
pollutants which
are
considered
in
unmanned
tunnels
are
the
same as
those considered in
manned tunnels,
i.e.,
CO,
NO,
N0
2?
HCHO
and
particulates.
Since the
resi-
dence
time
of
an
individual
in
a
tunnel
is
relatively
short
(5-15
min),
then
safe
levels
for most
of the
contaminants
can
be
increased
over those
limits
set
for
manned
tunnels.
It must be remembered
that
if
one
contaminant
is
allowed
to
increase, then
all other
contaminants
increase
proportionately
according
to
their
relative concentrations
in auto
exhaust.
However,
if
internal purification
which
is
being
studied
as
part of
this program
proves
to
be
feasible,
removal
of
selected
contaminants
would be
possible.
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Prior
to
setting
safe
limits
for unmanned
tunnels,
safe
limits
must
be
defined. The
definition
used
in this
case refers to
levels at
which short
term
exposure will
not
create any
physiological
effects on
the
individual.
One of
the problems
in
setting short term
safe
limits
is
that
limited
work
has
been
done
in
this
field,
and
no
systematic
rationale
has
been
developed for
relating Threshold
Limit
Values,
which
are set
for
long
term exposures,
to
short term
exposures.
The
American
Industrial
Hygiene
Association,
The
Pennsylvania
Department of Health
and
the
Aero Medical
Association
have
attempted
to set
tentative
standards and
at
this
time this
is
the only
established
information which
can
be reliably
quoted.
Table
15
lists
Threshold
Limit Values
and
Short
Term
Limits
(AIHF)
which
have been set
for
the
selected
tunnel
pollutants.
It is
obvious
from
Table 15
that
the
number of
Short
Term
Limits
which
have
been
set are
signifi-
cantly fewer than the number which
have
not
been
set.
How-
ever,
the
tunnel
engineer
needs
values
to
design
to
and
other
data
exist which can be used to set
tentative
limits.
TABLE
15
-
TLV
AND
STL
FOR SELECTED
POLLUTANTS
STL
(ppm)
Polluta
nt TLV 5
mm
10
min
1
5
mi
n
30 min
CO
50 ppm
_
_
1500 1000
800
NO
25
ppm
—
-- --
N0
2
HCHO
5
ppm
35 25
20
2 ppm
3
5
mg/m
5
--
--
Particulates
--
--
-- --
The assumption
is
made
that
during rush hour
traffic
with
a stop and
go
situation, the
time
to
traverse
a
tunnel
could be
of the order of
15
min.
The standard curves
for
effects
of
various carbon
monoxide
exposures
as
a
function
of time
shows that
at
500
ppm no perceptible
effects occur
within
15
min. Nitric oxide
(NO)
is
a
simple
asphyxiant
and
therefore
levels
significantly
higher
than
the
TLV
should
be
tolerable. However,
in
the
absence
of
any
firm
values
to
support this
conclusion,
it
is .recommended
that
the
STL
for
NO
be
set at 37.5
ppm.
The
STL for N0
2
(15
min)
has
been
tentatively
set
at
5 ppm. This
could
cause
temporary
eye
and nasal
irritation
but
no
permanent
physiological
damage.
Short
Term Limits for
formaldehyde
has
been set at
5
ppm for
5
min.
The
literature
states that
levels
above
5
ppm are
severely
irritating and
therefore
a
5
ppm STL
is
recommended
for
15
min.
exposures.
Particulates are
the
only
non-gaseous
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impurities which
are
being considered
for
STL
values.
We
do
not recommend
a
level
higher than
the
TLV
for
particulates,
i.e.,
10 mg/m^.
In summary,
it is
difficult
to
set
Short Term
Limits
for tunnel pollutants
due to the
lack
of
specific
data
on short term
effects.
However,
using the
data
which
are
available
along
with what is believed
to
be
reasonable
extrapolations
of
related
data, the limits
which have been
selected are as
follows:
CO
NO
NO2
HCHO
Particulates
-
500 ppm
37.5
ppm
5
ppm
5 ppm
5 mg/m*
3
Comfort
level, as
used in this
case,
is
defined
as that level
of
contaminant which produces
no
irritation,
sense
of
unpleasant
odor or
physiological
effect such
as
minor
headache.
The
comfort
level
varies
from
person
to
person
depending upon his sensitivity
to a
given
contaminant.
Individuals
with certain
allergies
may
be
particularly
sensitive
to specific contaminants. Some individuals
are
more
sensitive
to
odors
than
are others. These
are
normal
differences
that
exist among the human
population,
so
in
general, odor
threshold
levels
or irritation
levels have
been
selected
on
the
basis
of the sensitivity experienced
by
the
major
portion of
the
public.
Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless and
there-
fore
creates
no sensation
odor
or
eye
or
nasal
irritation.
Significant
levels
of
carbon
monoxide
over
certain periods
of
time
can cause headache. However,
assuming
a
maximum again
of
15 minutes residence
time
in
a tunnel,
a
level
of
1000 ppm
is
certainly
well
within the
tolerable
range.
Nitric
oxide
(NO)
is
also
a
colorless gas
with
a
slightly sweetish taste
or
odor
at
high concentrations.
No
data
were
found
on
either
the odor
threshold
limit
or the
irritation
threshold
limit,
hence for the
present
time the TLV of 25 ppm
will
be
used as
the
comfort limit
for
NO.
NO? exhibits an undesirable
odor and is a strong
irritant.
Trie
odor
threshold
limit
has
been
reported
to be
1-3
ppm
and the odor is
characteristic and
distinct at
5
ppm.
The
recommended
comfort limit
for
tunnels
should
be
1-3
ppm.
Formaldehyde
is
also
an
odorous
and
irritating
compound.
Most references
quote
an
odor threshold
limit
of
^1
ppm,
although
this
seems
to vary
greatly
among
individuals.
Eye
and
nasal
irritations
have
been reported
at
levels
of
2-3
ppm
HCHO. For
a
comfort
level in
tunnels,
we
recommend
a
level
of
1
ppm.
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Particulates
in tunnels can
be
odorous
due
to
their
own chemical
composition
or
from
odorous
gases
absorbed on
the
particulate
surface.
Particulates
can
also have
an irri-
tation
effect
particularly
through
deposition
in
the eyes.
However,
the most
significant
effect
on comfort
is
probably
due
to
the
haze effect
of
particulates. Mo
data
was found
on
the correlation
of particulate
concentration
versus
visi-
bility in tunnels.
Spot checks made
by MSAR personnel
at
the
Baltimore Harbor
Tunnel and
the
Fort
Pitt
Tunnel
showed
particulate
concentrations of approximately
0.6
mg/m
3
with
the
particle
size ranging
from
<1
micron
to about
5
microns.
At
this
concentration
level
(0.6
mg/m
3
),
the
haze level
was
low and
the
visibility was
quite
good. However,
we
hesitate
to select
this
concentration
as
a
firm
value
for
tunnel
comfort.
In
the absence of
sufficient
data, we
have
decided
that
a
satisfactory
level
cannot be
chosen
at
this
time.
Summary of
Recommended Levels
Tentative
pollutant concentration
levels have been
chosen for manned
tunnels and for unmanned
tunnels.
In
the
latter
case,
both
safe and
comfortable
levels have been
chosen.
These
levels
are
summarized
in
Table
16.
TABLE
16
-
TENTATIVE
POLLUTION LEVELS
FOR TUNNELS
Pol
1
utant
CO
NO
N0
?
hcro
Parti
cul
ates
(1)
N.R.
Manned
Tunnel
s
75
37
10
6
10
ppm
5
ppm
PPm
PPm
mg/m
J
Unmanned Tunnels
Safety
Level
Comfort
Level
500
ppm
1000
ppm
37.5 ppm 25
ppm
5 ppm 1
ppm
6
ppm
10 mg/m
J
1
N.R. W
No
recommendation
due
i
n
format ion.
to
insufficient
The
levels
which have been set for
manned tunnels
were dic-
tated
by
the Occupational
Safety
and Health Act of
1970;
there
would seem
to
be
little reason
to
question
these values since
they
are
required
standards set
by
the Federal
Government.
The
safety
and comfort
levels
which
were
chosen are,
of
course,
subject
to
some
question
since
little
data
exists on
short
term
exposure
limits.
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EVALUATION OF
POLLUTANT REMOVAL
METHODS
There are
two
potential
reasons
for
development
of
methods and systems
for purification
of
tunnel
atmospheres.
One
of
these
reasons
is
to
purify the
atmosphere
within
the
tunnel
itself,
while
the
other
reason is
to improve
the
quality
of the
exhaust air from
the tunnel.
In
relation.
to
purity
of
the
air
within
the
tunnels,
one
reference*
39
'
which
was
found involves
recycle
of
tunnel
air.
This
system catalyti-
cally
oxidized
CO
to
CO2 with
Hopcalite followed
by condensation
of CO2
and water
at liquid
nitrogen-liquid
oxygen
temperatures
(Figure
28).
The
boil-off
of the liquid air during
cooling
provided fresh
air
for the
tunnel.
No
claim
was
made for re-
moval of
hydrocarbons
,
particulates
and
so on.
One
other
reference was
found
on recycle of tunnel air.
(4°)
This
system
incorporated wet scrubbing for particulate removal, catalytic
oxidation for CO
removal,
a
deacidi
f
ication
unit
to
remove
CO2
and
a
condenser.
This
article
claimed that Neutrotecni
cia
Italiana S.R.L., Milan
manufactured
these units
commercially.
MSA
Italiana is located
in
Milan
and one
of
the
MSA
repre-
sentatives
in
the
Milan
office
was
requested
to
procure in-
formation
from
the referenced company.
The
MSA
representative
reported
that
the company
stopped its
activity
in
November
1968.
Patent Development
Associates, under
subcontract to
MSAR,
reviewed the state-of-the-art
of applicable control
technology.
PDA
also
made
an
economic evaluation
of selected
control
measures which
might
be
adaptable
to purification
of
tunnel
atmospheres.
The
result
of
this
study
is
presented
as
part
of
this section. It should
be noted
that
the
PDA study
was
made
mid-way
through
the overall
program
and
therefore
some of
the emission
standards
or
criteria
which
are
quoted
may
have
changed
since
that
time. It must
also
be kept
in
mind
that the
economic evaluations
which
are
presented are
for
hypothetical
cases
and do
not
necessarily
apply
to
any
specific
existing
or planned tunnel; these economic
evalu-
ations
are presented merely
to
show the relative cost
of
tunnel
air
purification
or
recycle
versus
direct
ventilation.
As
a
result of
the
survey,
certain control
tech-
niques
were
selected for
evaluation. The test
system
and
the
control techniques
which have been tested
are
also
presented
in
this
section.
State
of
the
Art
-
Applicable Control
Technology
Historically, emission control
technology
was
devel-
oped
as
a
set
of empirical solutions to
specific
industrial
problems
in
diverse
industries
and
areas.
The
acceleration
of
technical
and industrial interest in
pollution
control per
se
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VENTILATING
DEVICE
AT \i,2m (SOO
It.)
INTERVALS ALONG
TUNNEL
FPESH
DISCHARGE
DUCT
arfe
8
Q
B
P
HOPCALtTE
CATALVST
FOR OXIDISING
CARBON
MONOXIDE
TO CARBON
DIOXIDE
RFLF.ASE FLOAT
VALVE
WATER
LIOUID
CARBON
DIOXIDE
CARBON DIOXIDE
PUMP
FIGURE 28
-
SCHEMATIC
DIAGRAM.
PROPOSED
BY
SIR
BRUCE
WHITE(39)
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in
the
last
two
decades
has
forced
continuing
collection
and
critical
examination
of the
technology
available
for accom-
plishing such
control,
and
several
comprehensive reviews
have
recently
appeared.
The
Air
Pollution
Engineering
Manual
j
./1s
an
ex-
tensive
compilation
by
the
Air
Pollution
Control
district of
the
County
of Los
Angeles
of
control problem hardware solu-
tions
and
design
approaches
by
type
of
industrial
emission
and industry.
This
reference
includes
in-depth
review of
the supporting
theory for
the
design and selection
of
control
method and
equipment for
particulate removal
(inertial
separ-
ators,
baghouses, electrical
precipitators)
and gaseous
pollutants
(thermal and
catalytic
incineration,
adsorption,
condensation,
scrubbing).
control
Sources
Perhaps
t
technology
of Air Poll
he
best
basic
text
in
field
is
Air
Pollution
ution
and Their
Contro
t
reyi
nuaiv
4
work
con
ment des
art
Ma
same
tec
etc.
g
i
v
design
p
of
curre
made
in
drawing
of the
p
similar
many
are
informat
to equip
enforcem
should
e
At
the
p
and
tech
One resu
design
t
attendan
to
some
problem.
tains
the
m
ign prccedu
ew
is Vol urn
3)
which
co
hnology
cat
en above,
rocedures
i
nt equipmen
this
refere
board
and
t
lant
design
plants
and
as
of
prese
ion
obtaine
ment vendor
ent
efforts
ventually
f
resent
time
no
logy
is
h
It of
this
o compensat
t
cost
and
of
the
appl
ost com
res
and
e
II:
C
vers
in
e
g
o r
i
e s
An abbr
n
d i
c
a t e
t
selec
nee
tha
he
coll
,
the
p
process
nt cont
d by
e
or i n
and
in
orce su
,
much
eld by
s
i
t u a t
i
e
for
p
space e
i
c a
b
1
e
plete
and
c a
p
a
b
i 1 i
t
ontrol
Equ
d
u s
t r
i
a
1
c
of
inerti
eviated
tr
s the
empi
tion
proce
t
when
th
e c t o r
is
t
recou
a r
rol techno
xperience
us trial
fi
dependent
c
h
data
in
of
control
vendors
on
on is
freq
erformance
xcesses
,
a
control
te
d
e
t
a
i
ies
.
i
pmen
rime
es is
ontro
al se
eatme
ricis
dures
e pro
be
rse
i
e
a
1 i s
logy
has
1
es
,
resea
to th
equi
a co
uent
unce
nd
th
chnol
(42)
1
of
Ted
r
Anot
t
of
T
equ
parat
nt of
m
of
.
Th
cess
speci
s to
tic
a
art.
been
but t
rch a
e
ope
pment
nf i de
equi
p
rtain
is si
ogy
f
ew
po
Vol
urn
this
eview
her
s
the
A
i
pmen
ors
,
theo
1
arge
e
sta
is on
fied
exper
pprai
Much
and i
he in
nd
pu
n
lit
desi
n
t i a 1
ment
ty, w
tuati
or
th
lluti
e
III
prima
of
e
tate-
i
r
Po
t in
bagho
ry
an
area
temen
the
as pa
i e n c e
sal
o
of
t
s
con
creas
b
1 i
c
a
eratu
gn ar
basi
over-
i
th
on
ap
e tun
on
ry
quip-
of-
1
1
u
t
i
o n
the
uses
,
d
s
t
rt
,
on
f
he
f
i
ned
e
in
tion
re.
t
s.
plies
nel
Applicable
Tunnel
Pollution
Control
Technology
Control
technology
problem
of
pollutant removal
tunnels must be
evaluated
in
system
constraints. Initial
automotive
exhaust
pollution
possibly
applicable to
the
in
the
ventilation
of
vehicular
the context
of
the
probable
review
of
tunnel
-contained
dilute
indicate
the
following
parameters
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to
be potentially significant:
1 ow
or
being d
conf
i
gu
one
com
process
dilute
operati
the
gas
likely
adsorpt
particu
precipi
that
a
cover
t
present
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thu
zero
p
e
s
i
g
n
e
ration
ponent
es cap
pol 1
ut
ons
,
a
eous
c
to sat
ion,
c
lates
,
tation
comb
in
he
spe
in di
Mul
ti
-poll
utant removal
requirements.
Blower
head
loss
limitations,
particularly
in
existing
tunnels.
Large
air
volume
handling requirements.
Relatively low
pollutant concentrations.
Relatively low
pollutant
emission
rates.
s,
app
ol
luta
d into
s
,
and
or
ty
able
o
ant co
s
typi
ompone
isfy
t
atalyt
a
p
p
1 i
,
and
ati on
ctrum
luted
1
i
c
a b
nt th
hi gh
pref
pe of
f
tre
ncent
fied
nts
,
he ab
i
c
ox
cable
inert
of
co
of
po
autom
1
e
co
resho
-thro
erabl
poll
a
t
i n
g
ratio
by
el
the
c
ove-n
i
d
a t
i
proc
i
al
o
ntrol
lluta
oti
ve
ntrol
te
Id
s
e
n s
ughput
,
y
be
fun
utant.
large v
ns are n
ectrosta
ontrol
p
oted gen
on,
and
esses
in
r wet-sc
operati
nts and
exhaust
c
h
n
i
q u
e
tivity,
1 ow-1 os
cti
onal
Unfortu
ol
umetr
ormal
ly
tic
pre
rocesse
eral
cr
absorpt
elude
e
rubbing
ons w i
concent
gas.
s
sho
be
c
s equ
for
natel
ic
fl
sing
c
i
p
i
t
s
tha
i
teri
ion.
lectr
.
It
1
be
ratio
uld
apab
ipme
more
y,
m
ows
1
e-p
atio
t
ap
a
ar
For
osta
i
s
need
n le
have
le
of
nt
than
ost
at
wery
urpose
n.
For
pear
e
the
ti c,
obvious
ed
to
vel s
Table 17 presents
a
summary
of
the
comparative
process capabilities for
the
probably-applicable
control
technology
as
they
apply to the
tunnel
pollution
problem.
An inspection of Table
17
shows that
\/ery
few
of
the
stand-
ard
control
operations appear to
have
unqualified
applica-
bility
to the
tunnel'
pollutants
within
the general
constraints
of the
problem.
The two
operations
that
appear
to be
tech-
nically
applicable without
apparent
limitations
or
additional
research
are electrostatic precipitation
for
the
particulates,
and
adsorption
for the hydrocarbons.
The
state
of
the
art
of
available
control
technology
will
be reviewed
below
with respect to
the
principal classes
of
pollutants,
and
the processes
that would
normally
be used
for
removal
of
each
pollutant. Because
of
the
mul
ti -function-
ality
of
several
of
the operations
considered, process
dis-
cussion emphasis
will be placed on
the primary
pollutant
applicability
as shown in Table 17.
Carbon
Monoxide
and
Hydrocarbons
In
terms of the relative
magnitude
of
pollutant
loadings, CO
and unburned
(including
partially-oxidized)
hydrocarbons are the
major constituents
in auto
exhausts,
as
shown in Table
18,
taken
from
Stern'
42
).
In addition
to
the
emissions
shown
as
contributed
by
blow-by and
exhaust,
the
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evaporative losses
from
the
fuel tank
and
carburetor
add
another
20
to
40
percent
to
the
hydrocarbon content
of the
total
emission. Nevertheless,
Table 18
indicates
the various
pollutant
contributions,
exclusive of
the
particulates,
and
CO and hydrocarbons
are
the most
significant.
These
two
pollutant
components
are
usually
grouped together
by
reason
of
the fact
that
they
are present
because
of
incomplete
oxidation, and
completion
of
oxidation
by
secondary
means
will
eliminate
them from
the
exhaust.
It
should
be
pointed
out,
however,
that
for non-oxidati
ve
techniques
such as
adsorption, these two
components
will not
behave
similarly.
The two
general
methods
of oxidative
disposal of
carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons
are.
(a) Catalytic
oxidation
(b) Direct
thermal
or
flame incineration
These
two
methods
of
combustion completion
have
been
used
as
source
control
techniques
for
automotive
emissions,
and
sufficient
experience has been
obtained on
their
use
to
provide
a
guide
to
their
possible use
on
tunnel
air.
Catalytic Oxidation
Basic
researc
series of
hydrocarbons
carried
out
by Accomazz
industrial
aspects
of
d
been
reviewed
by
Brewer
the
commercial
catalyti
(a)
active metal /metal
1
carrier, and
(c)
active
loss of
activity is
one
materials
and
both
Brew
the nature
of poisons
f
Miller(47a)
reported
th
the effect
of support
g
a volumetric
space velo
30,000
to 175,000 hr.
1
geometrically
regular
s
volume
costs for this
c
prohibitive.
Further
w
by
Leak(48)
w
ho tested
catalytic
mufflers
on a
of
vanadia
plus
copper
activity
for CO
and
hyd
economic
data
on CAB
in
and Krenz(50)
while des
h
on
nir
c
aft
ic
ca
meta
of
t
er
an
or th
e res
eomet
city
,
con
uppor
ataly
ork
o
alumi
uto e
chrom
rocar
stall
ign
p
the
s
talyt
and
,
eco
and
W
erbur
r
r
i
e
r
1
/
o
x
i
he
ma
d
Wer
e
var
ults
ry on
(gas
c
1
u
d
i
t
was
st
($
n
sup
na-co
xhaus
ite
o
bon
r
a t
i
o
n
roced
uscepti
bi
1
i
ty
of
homolo
ic
oxidation
has
been
Caretto^
45
)
,
while
the
nomics and operation
ha
erner(47).
Werner
clas
ning
(CAB)
catalysts
as
,
(b) active
oxide/oxid
de carrier. Poisoning
jor
problems
with CAB
ner
provide
information
ious
types
of
catalysts
of laboratory
tests of
oxidation performance
volume/bed
volume)
rang
ng that an
open-structu
optimum.
However,
lar
300/cu.ft.)
appear
to
b
port
geometry was repor
ated
steel
wool
filamen
t. A
dual-catalyst
sys
n
the
alumina
had
the h
emoval.
Industrial
and
s
is provided
by
Lauber
ures are
given
by Dey(5
gous
ve
s
i
f
i
e
s
e
or
on
over
e
of
red
ge
e
ted
tary
tern
ighest
(49)
1).
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vanadium
a
amount
of
contai
ned
This file
the
develo
either
by
or
petrole
of
several
treatment
Research
on a
wide
variety
of
possible
exhaust
has been published including
vanadium-alumina
promoted
uranium
oxides(54) an
d
combinations
of
nd copper
oxides
with noble metals(55)
a
/\
large
relevant background
art on
catalytic
mufflers
is
in the
U.
S.
Patent Office,
Class
23/Subclass 2.
has
been reviewed, and it
was found
that
most
of
pment
effort
in this
area has been
undertaken
chemical
companies
manufacturing
tetraethyl
lead
urn
companies. Table
19
summarizes
the
features
of the
recent
catalytic muffler
patents for
of
auto
exhaust.
in the
techno
a
p
p
1
i c
proces
automo
of 600
cataly
will
i
temper
a
recy
has to
cool ed
circul
parti
c
cataly
Cata
ra
n
g
e o
logy of
a
t
i o n to
s
emissi
t i v
e e
x h
°F. In
tic
o x
i d
ncur
an
ature el
cle
gas
be
heat
to
ambi
a t
i
n
g
a i
ularly
1
St.
lytic
f
400
catal
the
ons
a
aust
tunne
a t i
o
n
econo
evati
opera
ed
to
ent
c
r
vol
ow,
o
o x
i
d
a
°-800°
ytic o
remova
t
thes
cataly
1
gas
proce
m
i
c
b u
on.
T
t
i
o
n i
react
i
rcul
a
umes
,
r
pref
tion
n
F.C5.6).
x
i d
a t
i
1 of o
e
el ev
st
tern
proces
ss
at
rden
p
he the
s
doub
ion
t
e
tion
t
an
opt
erenti
ormal
Muc
on
de
rgani
ated
perat
sing,
tempe
ropor
rmal
led,
mpera
emper
imum
ally
ly
i n
h
of
ri ves
c vap
tempe
ures
the
ratur
t
i
o
n a
penal
becau
ture
ature
syste
ambie
vol ve
the
c
from
ors f
ratur
are
o
opera
es
ab
1
to
ty
in
se th
it
h
.
Th
m
wi
1
nt-te
s tempe
n v e
n
t
i
commer
rom
ind
es(57),
f
the o
tion
of
ove
amb
the deg
the
ca
e gas
n
as to
b
us,
wit
1 requi
mperatu
ratures
onal
cial
ustrial
and
rder
a
ient
ree of
se
of
ot
only
e
re-
h
large
re
a
re
does
b u
s
t
i
the
o
react
eratu
only
o
x i
d
a
suppo
trans
unbur
was
s
range
below
have
one
oxide
a
com
tempe
10,80
Heat
not appea
ble
cone
ther hand
ion at t
re requi r
limited w
nts for
C
rted
nob
i
t
i
o
n
and
Low-
ned
hydro
tudied by
of
metal
350°C.
satisfact
catalyst,
,
had
a
t
plete
oxi
rature le
0. All
o
evolution
in
catalytic oxidation
application
r
to
be
a
potential problem
at
the
low
com-
entration
levels
expected
in
tunnel
gas.
On
,
combustible
levels are too
low
to
support
mperatures
above
ambient. The
ambient-temp-
ement
delineates an
operational
area
in
which
ork
has
been
done. Low-temperature
catalytic
and hydrocarbons consist
of hopcalite,
e-metal catalysts, and
some newly
developed
noble-metal
/activated carbon
combinations.
temperature catalytic
oxidation
of
CO
and
carbons at
simulated
auto
exhaust
conditions
Cannon
and
Welling(58)
for
a
very
wide
and
support
combinations
at
temperatures
While
a large group
of
catalysts
appeared
to
ory
activity
in
this
temperature
range,
only
a
commercial
60%
manganese
oxide/40%
copper
hreshold
oxidation
temperature
of 25°C and
dation
(100%)
efficiency
at an
operating
vel
of 25°C
for
an
hourly
space
velocity
of
ther
catalytic
materials
tested
had
threshold
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oxida
effic
that
use
-
ature
opera
ganes
and
W
the
a
burne
of
wa
objec
tempe
inent
prior
fumes
tion temp
iency
lev
one
of
th
retentio
s
-is
no
tion on
t
e-copper
elling be
bility
of
d
hydroca
ter
vapor
tives of
rature st
Becaus
work
on
has to
b
erat-u
els
o
e
cri
n
of
t
rel
unnel
oxide
cause
thes
rbons
is e
the
t
ructu
e
of
the c
e
re-
res
well
ver
200°C
terion fo
catalytic
evant
to
venti
lat
combi
nat
of
high-
e catalys
at room
xtremely
unnel
ven
ral
and
a
this
chan
atalytic
examined
in
ex
.
It
r
aut
acti
conti
ion
g
ions
tempe
ts to
tempe
s
i
g
n
i
til
at
c
t
i
v
i
ge
in
oxida
or re
cess o
shoul
omoti
vity
a
nuous
as.
T
were
d
rature
o
x i
d
i
rature
f
i cant
ion
pr
ty cha
cri
te
tion
o
peated
f
100°C
a
d
be
note
e
catalyt
t
elevate
ambient-t
h
u
s
,
w
h
i
1
owngraded
loss of
ze
both C
in
the
p
in
terms
ogram, an
nges are
r
i
a
of a
f
automot
nd
100%
d
here
ic muffler
d
temper-
emperature
e
the
man-
by Cannon
acti
vi ty
,
and
un-
resence
of
the
d high-
not
pert-
ceptabi
1
i
ty
,
ive
exhaust
hopcal
It is
activi
of
por
also
b
area
c
lysts
be
res
lysts
oinati
oxidat
metal
synthe
Cu/Pt/
select
to
1.0
of
80%
cated
,
space
Th
ite,
a
bel
iev
ty
may
e
f
1
ow
e expe
atalys
suppor
istant
tested
on on
ion at
oxide
sis
g
a
carbon
ivity
.
Bee
,
exce
al
tho
veloci
e
usual
re
susce
ed that
be
due
•at
lo\,
cted
to
t.
Howe
t
on
act
to
wate
,
a
copp
carbon
w
lower
t
catalyst
s
at
25°
catalys
(in
the
ause
the
llent re
ugh
conf
ties
wou
low-tempe
ptible
to
a part
of
to
c
a
p
i
11
temperatu
be
operat
ver,
Sutt
i
vated-ca
r-vapor
p
er II chl
as
found
emperatur
(150°C).
C
at
a sp
t
gave
10
presence
syngas u
sistance
i rmati
on
Id
be
des
rature
poi
son
this
w
ary
con
res,
wh
iveon
(59)
re
rbon
wh
o i
s o n
i
n
oride/p
to be f
es
(25°
When
ace vel
0% CO
o
of
Ho)
sed
has
to wate
of
this
i rable.
CO ca
ing w
ater-
densa
ich
p
any
f
porte
i
ch
w
g.
latin
u n c t
i
C)
th
teste
o c
i ty
x i
d
a t
v a
ry i
a
re
r
poi
beha
talysts
such
as
ith water
vapor,
caused loss
in
tion
and
blockage
henomenon
would
ine-pore,
high-
d
two
new cata-
ere
claimed
to
f
the two cata-
um
group
com-
onal for CO
an
a
transition-
d
on
ammonia
of
200,
the
ion
at
a
CO
ng
from
0.86
lative
humidity
son ing
is
indi-
vior at
higher
number
meetin
hydroc
mi
les.
the em
manifo
fuel-a
design
ever
u
ceased
muffle
eviden
standa
In
1
of
cata
g
their
arbons
a
Howeve
ission
s
Id
(manu
ir
ratio
As
a
sed, and
in
1964
rs are t
ce
that
rds
proj
964,
lytic
proje
nd
1.
r,
th
tanda
al tr
.
sp
resul
furt
. Th
he su
they
ected
the
sta
muffle
cted 19
5%
carb
e
autom
rds by
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
ark t
i m
t, none
her
res
e
u
1
1
i m
bject
o
can mee
for th
te
of Ca
r
system
66
emiss
on monox
obile
ma
air i
n
j
e
ions) or
ing and
of
the
earch
on
ate
capa
f
some
s
t
the mo
e
mid-
a
1
if
orni
s
as
be
ion sta
i d
e
,
a
v
nuf
actu
c t
i
o n
i
by
mod
other
a
catalyt
these
b
i 1 i
t
i
e
pecul at
re stri
nd late
a
cert
ing
ca
ndards
eraged
rers
c
nto
th
ificat
spects
i
c
d
e
v
reacto
s
of
c
ion,
b
ngent
-1970'
ified
a
pable
o
of 275
over
1
hose
to
e
exhau
ion
of
of eng
ices
we
rs
virt
atalyti
ut
ther
emissio
s.
Imp
f
s
ppm
2,000
meet
st
the
ine
re
ual
ly
c
e
is
n
rove-
91
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ments
are required. to
meet the
di
sadvantages
shown in
the
1964
test campaign:
a.
Short
life-time
of
6,000 to 12,000
miles
b.
Susceptibility
to lead
and
particulate
poisoning (a contributing
factor
to
the
short
life).
c.
Susceptibility
to
inactivation
by
temper-
atures
in excess of
1700°F,
a
level
occasionally
reached
in
the
exhaust.
d.
Relatively high
initial
cost
of
$75
to
$100,
with
frequent
maintenance
and
replacement
costs.
in
the
19
surface w
obviously
a
smaller
in
ere
as
in
have been
unleaded
ever, the
still
rem
Ameri
can
the
devel
the 1968
bon
.
monox
162)'
One
64 Ca
ith
1
remo
and
g
sup
cl as
(
p
o
i.
s
othe
ain.
Chemi
opmen
or
19
i de
a
of the
1
i
forn
ead(60
ve thi
less-s
plies
si
f
i ed
o n
i
n
g
r de-a
For
t
cal
So
t
of
a
70 fed
t
reas
prim
i
a
te
).
T
s
cau
luggi
of
un
acco
or no
c
t
i
v
a
hese
ciety
cata
eral
onabl
a
ry
c
a
u
s
sts
was
he
use
o
se
of
fa
sh conve
leaded
g
rding
to
n
-
p
o
i
s o
n
tion mec
reasons
,
that d
lytic co
standard
e cost a
es
of
the
co
f
a
no
i 1 ure
rter.
a
s
o
1 i
n
a
p
p
1 i
ing)
q
h
a n i
s
m
it ha
i
f
f
i
cu
nverte
s
for
nd
wit
short
a
t
i
n
g
n-lea
and
With
es
,
e
c
a
b
i 1
a
s
o
1
i
of o
s
bee
1
1
i e
s
r tha
hydro
h
rea
cataly
of
the
ded
gas
also
wo
the ad
xhaust
»)
ver-hea
n
state
thus
r
t could
carbons
sonable
st
life
catalyst
oline
would
u
1
d
yield
vent
of
catalysts
leaded
or
How-
ting
would
d
by
the
emain in
meet
even
and
ear-
1
i
fetime
o
x i d
a t
i
o
hydrocar
gas
appl
i nstance
at the 1
and
most
volved
i
no known
one of
t
the
new
above
ap
deal
of
for
the
such
tec
informat
p
o
i
s o
n
i
n
present
qui remen
at
ambie
accompl
i
e
rat
ure
The
n
tec
bons
i
c
a
t
i
s
of
arge
impo
n
tun
succ
he th
1
ow-t
pears
a
d
d
i t
full
hnolo
ion o
g,
ca
1 abor
ts
nt tu
shed
condi
outl
h
n
i
q
u
at
th
on
is
i
ndus
gas
f
rtant
nel
a
essfu
ree s
emper
hope
i
o n
a
1
evalu
gy.
n
al
1
talys
atory
Again
nnel
at th
t
i o
n
s
ook
f
es fo
e
con
not
tri
al
1
ow
v
,
at
i r tr
1
i
nd
peci
f
ature
ful
p
deve
ati on
Feasi
owabl
t lif
data
,
the
condi
e
mor
prev
or
the
r
the
d
i
t
i
o
n
encour
a
p
p
1 i
ol
umes
the
re
eatmen
us
tri
a
i
c
par
catal
arti cu
1
opmen
of
th
bili
ty
e
spac
e
,
cos
fall
pract
t
i
o
n
s
e
f
avo
alent
p
o s s
i b
removal
s
speci
aging,
cation
,
1
ow
c
1
ati vel
t.
Mor
1
i
n
s
t
a
ameters
yst
lab
larly
f
t
work
e
large
determ
e veloc
ts
and
short o
ical
i
ty
what ha
rable
c
in
the
le
use
of
CO
fie
to
There
of
cata
ombusti
y
low
t
e to
th
1
1
ati
on
sti
pul
oratory
or
CO
o
is o
b v
-scale
i
n a
t
i
o
n
ity, po
a
v
a
i 1
a
b
f these
of
try
s not
b
oncentr
source
of
ca
and
u
proje
are
n
lytic
ble
c
emper
e poi
s
i nv
a
t
e d
data
x
i
d
a
t
ously
u
t
i
1
i
requ
s s
i
b
1
i
1
i
ty
asse
inq
t
een c
a
t
i
o
n
exhau
talyt
nburn
cted
o
kno
ox id
oncen
ature
nt ,
t
o 1 v i
n
Alt
revi
i
on
requ
z
a
t
i o
i
res
e tra
,
and
ssmen
o
ace
ommer
and
st ,
m
1 c
ed
tunnel
wn
a
t i o
n
tration
,
s
in-
here
are
g
any
hough
ewed
a
great
i
red
n
of
further
ce
metal
the
t
re-
ompl
i
sh
c
i
a
1 1
y
temp-
ust
be
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seriously
questioned.
Should low-temperature
oxidation
of
the
major
pollutant,
CO, prove
feasible,
then
a secondary
operation,
such
as
adsorption, will
be required
for
removal
of the
hydrocarbon
content. Such dual
processing
is certain
to
be costly, even
if
probably feasible.
catalyti
carbon
o
reviewin
emission
being
is
because
afterbur
quiremen
reports
s t
a
11
a t
i
successf
several
been rep
mineral
vinyl
fl
it
c
oxi
x
i
d
a t
g
the
cont
sued
sour
ners
t
of
in
th
ons o
ul us
diffe
orted
solve
oor c
din
shoul
d a
t
i
o
ion u
use
rol
,
by th
ce te
could
Rule
e
lit
f
cat
e
of
(Mf.
nt
fu
o v e r i
favor
d
be no
n
has
n
se in
t
of
cata
Krenz
s
e
Los A
st
data
not
me
66 .
T
erature
alytic
a
CAB
o
units
a
Conve
me was
ng plan
of
a
c
ted
t
ot
be
he
Lo
lytic
tated
ngele
i
ndi
et
th
here
on
t
oxi
da
n
an
t
Joh
rsely
obtai
t wit
onden
hat i
en
fo
s
Ang
afte
that
s
Cou
cate
e
90
are o
he su
ti
on
a
cry
nson
,
onl
ned
a
h
CAB
s a t
i
o
ndustrial
und
accep
eles
area
rburners
permi
ts
nty
APCD
that thes
percent
e
ther,
and
ccess
of
units.
F
ic
monome
Wax
Compa
y
partial
t
a
GAF C
,
and
th
n-mist
el
appl
(635.
for
s
are n
for
t
e
cat
ffici
conf
comme
or
ex
r
vap
ny
pi
oxid
orpor
s pro
i
m i
n a
icati
for
In
ol ven
o
1
on
hese
alyti
ency
li
cti
r
c
i
a
1
ample
or
in
ants
ation
ation
cess
tor s
on of
hydro'
t
qer
units
c
re-
ng,
in-
,
the
has
of a
was
ys-
Information
privately
available
to
PDA
on
catalytic
oxidation
uses
indicates
that
CAB
is highly
effective
for
situations where
the material
to be
oxidized
is
either a
single component or an homologous group of
compounds.
Fur-
ther,
for an
efficient
design,
the concentrations
and
ex-
haust
conditions must be known
in
detail.
For
most applica-
tions
involving
a
wide range of
combustible
materials
at
variable concentrations,
CAB
will
not
yield
adequate effic-
iency
levels.
Thermal Afterburning
All of the development
work on
thermal
afterburning
of
the residual CO and
hydrocarbons in vehicle exhaust has
been done
as source
control work.
Early
efforts
to
complete
the
combustion
of the
unburned
hydrocarbons
and CO
leaving
the cylinders involved
both
air
injection
into
the exhaust
manifold
and direct
flame
afterburners
(42)
.
Air
injection
and/or engine design
changes
appear
to
be
sufficient
to
meet the
1970
federal
standards
for
CO
and
hydrocarbon
emissions,
but for
the
pro-
jected
lower
emission
levels,
more
advanced
systems
are
required.
One
such system
under active
development
is
the
exhaust manifold
thermal
reactor,
a
unit
which
has
been ex-
tensively
developed by DuPont
(66) (67)
. Exhaust
reactors
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are
suitable
for
use
with
leaded gasolines,
and
their
use
would
permit
continuation
of present
gasoline
formulations.
The exhaust
manifold
reactors
mount
on
the
engine
in place
of
the conventional
exhaust
manifolds.
Air
is injected
into the
exhaust ports,
using
the
air
injection
system
now
standard on
most
production
autos.
The reactor
consists
essentially
of
an initial mixing chamber,
followed
by
baffled
passageways to
provide
adequate
retention
time
at
high
temperature.
The
DuPont
units
use
concentric annular
baffles
surrounding
the
central
mixing
tube.
Development
efforts
have been directed
at
finding
suitable
low-cost
materials that
will endure
the
1700°F
reaction temperatures
and also
have adequate
erosion
resistance
to the high-
velocity
lead compounds impinging
with the exhaust.
In an initial
100,000
mile test, an
early
Type I
reactor^6)
held average
emissions
to
27 ppm
carbons
and 0.65%
CO,
but suffered
from baffle.
An improved
later
version,
Type V,
was claimed'-
emission
levels
of 0.2 g/mile HC
and
4.5
g/mile
well
below
the 1974 California
standards.
DuPont
hydro-
rosion.
7
'
to
yield
CO, both
Thermal
incineration
of
small quantities of
com-
bustibles in
air
requires
temperatures
of the
order
of
1100
o
-1500°F.
Because
of the
virtually
trace
quantities
of oxidizable
material, none
of the
heat requirements can
be
internally
derived, and
must
therefore
be
completely
supplied externally.
Even where
a
fraction
of the
thermal
energy
was internally derived,
the economic
penalty
attached
to the
higher temperatures of direct
incineration
was
cal-
culated
by
Heinle)
to
be
from
150
to
600%
of
the
cost
of
an
equivalent
catalytic
oxidation
temperatures
of
500°
to
800°F
lower
than
for
thermal
incineration.
The
external
fuel and
cooling costs for thermal
cycles
of the
order of
magnitude required for
direct
incineration
of
the
CO
and
HC
in
the bulk
tunnel air thus
appears to
be insupportable.
Adsorption
stream
Al thou
the
va
surfac
and al
g
a n
i
c
genera
bonsH
h
o
1
d
i
n
the
fi
the la
S
can
gh ac
por-p
e
are
umina
and
i
y
h
bu
g
cap
nal
c
st
tr
11-
elective
removal of
hydrocarbons
from
a
gas
be
effected by
the process
of physical
adsorption,
tivated
carbon
is
the
usual
sorbent
employed
for
hase adsorption
of
organic
molecules,
other
high-
a
media,
such as
synthetic
zeolites,
silica
gel
,
have been
used
for
selective
removal
of
or-
norganic, contaminants.
The
synthetic
zeolites
ave better sorption
efficiencies
than the car-
t
they do
not have as
great
an
equilibrium-
acity.
They
are
therefore
occasionally
used
as
leanup
bed
in
a
two-adsorbent
system to
remove
aces of pollutant.
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dustrial
Van der
cular we
is
somet
contains
hydrogen
viewed
a
surface,
bon
exis
prior
1
book, wh
practi
ce
Barry(73
that
ade
not
sati
the
Los
Service
and obta
theless
,
for the
seldom
s
Activa
use,
an
Waal's f
ights
gr
h
i
n
g
of
,2
to
25
(69).
A
s a comp
A
fair
ts.
Has
terature
ile
some
is cove
),
after
quate de
sfactory
Angeles
undertoo
ined
and
valid
d
speci
f
i c
a
t i
s
f
i
e
d
ted car
d
this
orces
,
eater
t
a
m
i
s
n
o
%
oxyge
c
t
i
v a t e
lex org
ly
volu
slerwO
,
h i
s t
o
prel
im
red i n
review
sign an
at
tha
County
k
the
e
p
u
b
1 i s
e
s
i
g
n
r
organi
i
n adv
J
bon
i
mater
all c
han
N
mer,
n
and
d
car
anic
i nou
pre
ry,
a
inary
two
s
ing
p
d
pro
t
tim
AFCD
valua
hed
u
equi
r
c
or
ance.
s
the
i
a
1
w i
ompone
2
or
inasmu
c
o
n s
i
bon
ma
polyme
s
lite
sents
nd
cur
engin
tandar
u
b 1
i
s
h
cess s
e.
Co
and
th
t
i
o n o
pdated
es
rel
organi
sorbent
of
11
adsorb,
nts
from
a
2.
The
te
ch
as
acti
derable
qu
y
be
more
r
with
a 1
rature on
a
detailed
rent appli
eering
des
d
referenc
ed
informa
caleup
pro
nfirming t
e
U.
S.
Pu
f
sorption
design da
i
a
b
1
e
1
a
b
o
c
mix, a r
general
i
by
means
ir with
mo
rm
carbon
vated
carb
a
n t
i
t
i
e s o
properly
arge
inter
acti vated
review of
cations in
ign
theory
t
i
o n
,
cone
cedures
we
his
find
in
blic
Healt
design
me
ta(74).
N
ratory
dat
equi
rement
n-
of
le-
ti
»
on
f
nal
car-
the
his
and
1 uded
re
g,
h
thods
ever-
a
a gas-
is
pro
force)
temper
smal
le
costs
normal
mit
re
and
he
energy
therma
and
co
the
no
suff
ic
from
t
be
emp
For ex
stripp
in
the
of
org
level
Va
solid
p
o
r t
i
o
.
The
atures
r
carb
are
in
ly
reg
-use.
at
mus
of
ad
1
ener
ndensa
rmal
t
i
e n 1 1
y
he car
loyed
ample
,
ed
org
sorpt
anic
m
is
red
por-ph
equi
1
nal
to
equi
1
and h
on par
the
r
enerat
Physi
t
be
s
sorpti
gy
and
bility
empera
high
bon
,
a
for ve
Matti
anic
i
ion
cy
ay
be
uced
t
ase
a
brium
the
i
b
r
i
u
igh
p
tide
ange
ed
wi
cal
a
uppl
i
on.
beca
,
it
ture
to
co
nd
st
r
a
s
req
cle
i
requi
o
200
if
56?
dsorption
over
activated
crbon
is
process
where
the
rate
of dsorption
displacement from equilibrium
(driving
m driving force is favored
by
low
ressure,
and
in
many cases,
by
sizes. Because
activated
carbon
of
$0.75/lb, adsorption
beds are
th
steam
or
hot
inert
gas
to
per-
dsorption
is an exothermic
operation
ed
in regeneration
to
overcome
the
Steam is
a
convenient
source
of
use
of its
low
(ambient)
vapor
pressure
is
the
regenerant
of choice.
However,
range of saturated steam is
not
mpletely
strip
an
adsorbed phase
eam-regenerated carbon cannot
normally
w
concentrations
of
organic
pollutants.
states
that
3.5 lbs
of steam/lb
of
uired
when
the
vapor-containing
air
s
0.2%,
while
over
30
lb
of
steam/lb
red when the
pollutant
concentration
ppm.
Adsorption
techniques
have
been
applied to
the
control
of
evaporative
emissions from
automobile
fuel
tanks
and
carburetors. Vapor-capture
systems,
employing
activated
carbon
canisters or
foamed polyurethane,
serve
as
storage
systems
for the
vapors
released during
engine
shutdown.
The
95
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stored
vapors
are
purged
from
the
sorbent
on
engine
startup
into the
intake
system
of
the
engine^'5),
j^e
main
problem
with
such
adsorption/desorption systems had been
the
up-
setting
of
carburetion
by
over-enrichment of the
engine feed
on
startup,
but automatic
valve
control
appears
to have
solved this
particular
problem.
The
technical
feasibility
of such evaporative control
systems
has
been
demonstrated
v42
and it
is
expected that they will be
incorporated
in
1972
producti
on
model
s.
The
use of
continuous removal
o
to be
technically
fe
ambient temperature
ti
ation probl em
,
ac
only with
respect
to
in
combination
with
cover
N0
X
. It
will
the major
const
ituen
fore
be
considered
a
trol process
for
thi
activated
carbon
tre
the
projected tunnel
Exclusive
of
erectio
carbon
sorption syst
mated
to
be
$32.50/1
Operating
costs
depe
generation
life
of
b
and
necessity for
pr
Given the
wery
dilut
air and
the
nature
o
sorption
may
have
to
ati on
employing
a
di
cost problem.
a c
t
i
v a
t
f
hydroc
a
s
i
b
1
e
,
operatic
ti vated
the
org
other
so
be d e f
i c
t
of
the
s
only
a
s a
p
p
1
i
c
atment
o
a
p
p
1
i
c
a
n
costs,
ems
us
in
b
of
con
nd
on
th
ed,
cont
e-f
i
1 tra
e
org
an
f
the
po
be
supp
fferent
ed carb
arbons
i
nasmuc
n.
In
carbon
a n
i
c co
rbents
,
i
e n t w
i
pol
lut
partia
ation.
f
large
t
i
o n is
total
g
steam
t
ami
nan
e
frequ
ami
n
ant
t i o n
an
c
conta
1
utant
lemente
sorbent
on
adso
from tu
h as th
terms
o
adsorpt
ntent o
i t
may
th
resp
ant
i
n
p
1
or
su
The
ma
f 1 ows
one of
install
regene
t
capac
ency
an
concen
d
secon
m
i n
a
n t
mix,
a
d
with
,
thus
rptio
nnel
is is
f
the
ion
h
f
the
al so
ect t
ut , a
pplem
jor
o
of
ga
capi
ed
co
ratio
ity
p
d
len
trati
d-sor
1 eve
c
t
i
v
a
a
cle
compo
n
for
air
a
p
norma
tunne
as
pot
gas,
parti
o
CO
r
nd can
entary
bjecti
s
typi
tal
co
sts
fo
n
,
are
er eye
gth of
on lev
bent
s
in
tu
ted
ca
anup
o
u
n
d i
n
g
the
pears
1 ly an
1
ven-
e
n t
i a
1
al
though
ally
emoval
,
there-
,
con-
on to
cal
of
st.
r
e
s
t
i
-
le(43).
re-
el
,
ystems
nnel
rbon
per-
the
sorpti
system
cess
,
erati
o
gas
ne
recove
propos
adsorb
An eco
i
n c
i
n
e
had th
credit
sol ven
onomic
eratur
T
on
sy
s
(20
in
wh
n i
s
eded
ry ra
ed
a
ers
i
nomi
c
rati
o
e
low
for
t ere
.
Ho
e
cat
o
meet
stems
ppm)
ich
th
i
n
c
i
n
e
for
re
ther
t
Casca
n para
compa
n
syst
est
an
the re
dit, t
wever
alyti
c
some
as
app
,
Matt
e
stri
rated
genera
h
a n in
de
op
lie
f
r
i
s
o
n
ems in
nual iz
covere
he
Zo
if
a
oxida
of
the
lied
to
ial56)
pped
or
to prov
tion.
ci
nerat
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
eed
a
s
of
vari
d i
c
a t e
ed
cost
d solve
rbci
n
low-con
tion
te
cost o
1
ow
c
propos
ganic
ide
bo
In
the
ion
is
in
wh
ingle
ous mo
that
t
,
i n c
1
nt.
W
arrang
centra
c
h
n
i
q
u
bjections
oncentrat
ed the
Z
obtai ned
th
the
he
event
th
indi
cate
ich
a
p a
i
secondary
des
of
so
he
Casca
u
d
i n
g
an
ithout
th
ement
was
tion
and
e
is avai
to
ca
ion 1
e
orbci n
during
at
and
at org
d
s
Mat
r
of
p
adsor
rption
de
ar
apprec
is rec
the
m
ambien
lable
,
rbon
vel
pro-
regen-
inert
anic
tia
ri
ma ry
ber.
and/or
rangement
i
a b
1
e
overed
ost
ec-
t-temp-
there
96
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would
be
no
point
-to
sorbing organic
pollutants
prior to
an
elution
and
burning
sequence.
being
probl
bed
m
unit
aeros
carbo
parti
the
a
occur
recyc
techn
is
us
Th
proces
ems.
I
ay
act
will
in
ols
may
n
,
and
culate
erosol
s,
then
le
syst
ique
su
ed
in
s
e
presen
sed
by
a
f
the
pa
as a
fil
crease
o
also
po
a
sorpti
effects
size
and
aerosol
em,
unle
ch
as
el
e r i
e s
w i
ce
of
cti
va
rticu
ter
a
r
it
ison
on
be
by
su
bed
bui 1
ss
an
ectro
th th
part
ted
c
lates
nd
th
may
p
the
s
d
mus
itabl
depth
dup i
effi
s
t
a
t
i
e
ads
i
c u
1
a
t
arbon
are s
e
flow
lug.
orpti
o
t
usua
e
pre-
is
su
n
the
c
i
e
n t
c
prec
orpti
o
es
in
an air stream
sorption
poses
several
olid,
then the
carbon
resistance of the
Very
fine
solids
or
n
abilities
of the
lly
be
protected
from
filtration
means.
If
ch
that
bed
penetration
gas
will
occur
in
a
particulate
collection
ipitation
or
filtration
n
unit.
Wet Scrubbing
has tw
late
r
of
fun
and
ty
point
types
towers
device
iencie
they,
some d
fer
co
vice v
Wet
s
o
differen
emoval and
cti
on,
dis
pes of equ
is
Table
2
of
equipme
,
are conv
s.
As
is
s for thes
as
well
as
egree of
d
ntactors
,
ersa,
and
theory
desi
ra
and
objec
ble.
crubb
t
mea
gas
t
i
n
c
t
i
pmen
tak
nt
li
entio
o
b
v
i
o
e two
the
ual-f
dust
becau
ti ves
ing
n
i n
g
s
absor
ion
b
t
is
en
f
sted
,
nal m
us fr
type
prima
u
n c t
i
col le
se of
,
sep
in the f
It is
p
t i
o
n
,
a
etween
t
sometime
om a rec
only tw
ass
tran
om
the
p
s
of
equ
r
i
1
y
d
u
s
onal i
ty.
c t i
o
n
is
the ext
a
r a
t
i o
n
ield
appl
nd
de
he
tw
s
not
ent
r
o ,
th
sfer
artic
ipmen
t-scr
How
usua
reme
by
pr
of
pol
ied
to
spite
o
appl
made
.
eview.
e pack
or gas
ulate-
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list
ubber
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lly
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di
ffer
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lution
both
p
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dis
i cation
A
cas
Of th
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and
-absorp
removal
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in T
units,
for
mas
c i
d
e n t
a
ences
i
functio
control
articu-
parity
areas
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in
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eight
spray
tion
eff
ic-
able
20,
have
s
trans-
1
and
n
design
n
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The primary
function
of
any
piece
of
absorption
equipment
is to
provide
a
large
active
area
of
contact
between the gas
and
liquid phases.
This is accomplished
by
dispersing
the
liquid
phase
over a
geometric
packing
material or
as
droplets
by
spraying.
Packed
tower
absorbers
may
modes
of
two-phase flow operation:
(a
(b)
cocurrent
and
(c)
crossflow.
The
absorption
efficiency
(most
number of
NTU)
is
obtained
with
countercurrent
difficultly-soluble
gases,
or maximum
this is the
preferred
type
of contact
the completeness
of
solute
removal
fr
a
sensitive
function
of
the time of c
Because
the gas pressure loss
through
directly
proportional to the
height
o
factor
controls
efficiency and
affect
For
this
reason,
a
large variety of 1
packings
have
been
developed
commerci
packing shape represents
a
compromise
ing
requirements
of high fluid
disper
pressure losses, each
tower
packing h
optimum
area
of
application.
be used
in three
)
countercurrent,
maximum
degree
of
transfer
units,
or
contact,
and for
degree of
removal
,
unit.
In
an
absorber,
om
the
gas
stream
is
ontact
or
height,
the
packing
is
f
packing,
this
latter
s
gas
blowing
costs.
ow-loss,
high-efficiency
ally.
Because
any
between the
conflict-
si
on
and low
gas
as
its
particular
and
c
packi
mate
,
of
ei
trans
advan
the b
has
n
even
not i
opera
proce
whose
those
this
The
olumn des
ng
for
a
some
typ
ther
a
vo
fer
unit,
ces
in fu
ody
of
de
ot
reflec
for
a giv
nvari
ant
tive
port
dure
is
t
conditio
of the
a
informati
key en
ign
is
given
e
of
p
lgmetr
(HTU)
ndamen
sign i
ted th
en
sys
prope
ion of
herefo
ns
or
ppl ica
on i
s
gi
neer
asses
amount
acking
ic coe
,
must
tal
tr
nf
orma
ese
ad
tern,
an
r t i e s
,
the
e
re
to
determ
t
i
o
n
.
u
n a
v a
i
i
ng
es
sment
of
tr
perfo
ff
i cie
be
em
ansfer
t i
o n a
vances
d pack
but
d
q
u i 1
i
b
select
i
n
a
t
i
o
For
t
1
abl
e.
timate
of
the
ansfer.
rmance
nt, Kg
a
ployed,
theory
v a
i
1
a
b
1
The
ing, th
epend
o
rium
cu
desi
gn
n
most
race
co
l
n
pa
requi
To
index
,
or
Des
in r
e
to
di
ff
i
e
coe
n
flo
rve.
perf
cl
ose
ntami
eking
red v
make
,
in
heigh
pi
te
ecent
the
e
cul
ty
ffici
w
rat
The
orman
iy ap
nant
sele
ol ume
this
the
f
t
of
the
r
year
ngine
is
t
ents
es an
stand
ce
da
proxi
remov
c
t
i
o
n
of
e
s t
i
-
orm
a
api
d
s,
er
hat
,
are
d
ard
ta
mate
al
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Spray
chambers
or
towers may
be
used
for
gas
absorption in
cases
where only
a
few
transfer
units
are
required,
i.e., for
soluble
gas
components.
These
units
have the
advantages
of
very
low
gas-phase
pressure
drop
and inexpensive
construction,
but
do
not
offer
counter-
current contact.
Four
types of spray
systems
are
used
commercially:
(a) simple spray
columns,
(b)
cyclonic spray
towers,
(c)
venturi
scrubbers, and (d) jet
scrubbers.
The
spray
chamber
is
a
contacting
device
that
is
frequently
used in
situations
where
a
contaminated
gas
stream contains
both
particulates
and
a
highly
soluble gas component.
Particle collection in
spray
towers
is
discussed
below,
but
the mass
transfer
characteristics of
this equipment
is
pertinent
to
the removal
of
the oxygenated, partially-
oxidized,
hydrocarbons in
the
exhaust.
These
include such
components
as
acrolein and formaldehyde,
which
are
object-
ionable from
the point
of
view of odor and
irritation
effects.
gas
s
vapor
ature
humid
may a
remov
are
a
a
f ul
test
eratu
of tr
was
i
The
r
nozzl
col
le
a
pro
gas
f
of
su
tream
comp
diff
i
f
ied
dsorb
ed
by
v
a
i
1
a
ly
va
data,
re
da
ansfe
ncrea
ate
o
e
,
ow
ction
bl
em
lows
,
i
tab
Spray
by
th
onent
erenti
by
co
on
pa
impi
n
ble
pr
lid d
e
With
ta
for
r
unit
sed
by
f
mass
ing
to
of
sp
with
s
al tho
e
mist
scrubb
ree me
in the
a
1
,
in
Id
wat
rticul
gement
imari 1
sign w
respe
spray
s
was
a
fin
trans
the
f
ray
by
pray
t
ugh
th
el
imi
ers
c
chani
1
iqu
the
er sp
ate
m
on
t
y
for
ould
ct to
towe
propo
er
sp
fer
w
ormat
the
ower
is
pr
nator
technique
air
poses
ployed
as
is employ
the same
that
the
the solve
exists wi
an
aqueou
the air.
humidity
Appl
ica
s to
rem
several
a
solve
e
d
, its
order of
net effe
nt, for
th water
s
phase
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
is
not
d
tion
of we
oval
of
co
probl
ems.
n t
,
even
i
vapor
pres
magnitude
ct
could
b
another, t
as
a
solv
system wil
ous operat
esirable
,
an
remo
sms(79)
id,
(b)
same
ma
rays
,
a
atter
w
he
liqu
the so
undoubt
the
so
rs(80)
rtional
ray
(hi
as
most
ion of
chamber
use,
pa
oblem
m
s
or
cy
t
scrub
ntamina
If
an
f
a
hig
sure
wi
as
som
e
subst
he
solu
ent,
si
1 tend
ion
of
and
app
ve
hyd
:
(a)
conde
nner
t
nd
(c)
h
i
c
h
i
id dro
lubili
edly
r
lubili
showed
to
th
gher
1
rapid
fresh
wal
1 s
rticul
ay
be
clonic
b
i
n
g g
nts f
organ
h-mol
e
1 1
una
e
of t
i t u t
i
o
te.
A
nee
re
to
adi
a
tunn
1 i
c
a
t
i
rocar
d i
s s
o
n
s a t
i
hat a
vapo
s
sub
ps.
ty
me
equi r
ty
me
that
e
1
iq
i
q
u i d
near
1 i
q
u i
.
En
arly
resol
flow
as
ab
om
tu
ic
so
cul
ar
v o
i
d
a
he
po
n
of
s i m i
cycle
a
b
a
t
i
el
at
on
of
bons
f
1
u
t
i
o
n
on
by
i r
is
r
mol e
sequen
Design
c
h
a
n
i
s
e
pre
c
h
a
n i s
the
n
u i
d
r
a
power
the
s
d surf
trai
nm
at
the
ved
by
spray
rom
a
of the
temper-
de-
cules
tly
data
m, and
i
m
i n
a ry
m
,
1 i
t
-
umber
te,
and
input)
.
pray
ace
and
ent
is
higher
the use
towers.
sorption
nnel
ventilation
Ivent is
em-
weight material
bly
be
at
least
llutants, so
one
pollutant,
lar
problem
of gas
through
cally
saturate
100% relative
wet
scrubbing
100
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techniques would
require
the use
of
a
downstream
condensing
system
to
remove
solvent
vapors.
If
the
absorber
is
operated
at
ambient temperatures,
then the downstream
solvent-removal
condenser must be
operated at
low,
or refrigerant,
tempera-
tures
in
order
to remove
solvent.
This,
in
turn,
means
that
the bulk
tunnel air
must
be
thermally cycled
between
refrig-
erant
and
ambient
temperatures,
adding
a
thermal
cooling
and
heating
cost to
the base operation of
the
absorption.
proble
absorp
using
While
atmosp
local
contam
locate
have
s
in
the
trol d
While
scrubb
use
of
up and
al
so
p
ready
I
m wi 1
tion
such
the
w
heric
accum
i n
a
n
t
d
nea
pray
even
evice
the d
ing m
wate
blee
ermi
t
acces
t appe
1
prob
proces
a
proc
ashed
condi
u
1
a t
i
o
recyc
r
the
chambe
t
of
t
s
woul
i sposa
ay
be
r
recy
d
1
i
q
u
use
o
s
to
1
ars that the
humidi
f
ication
or saturation
ably prevent in
situ tunnel application of
ses.
However,
the
possibility
remains of
ess on the exhaust
air from
the
tunnel,
air may
generate
a
steam
plume
under
certain
tions,
exhaust
processing
would prevent
ns
of pollutants,
and
the possibility
of
le in situations
where the intake
fan is
exhaust
fan.
A number
of tunnels
already
rs
installed
to
protect the
exhaust
fans
unnel
fires,
and their use
as
exhaust
con-
d
represent
only
an
operating cost
increment.
1
of the polluted water
resulting from
wet
a problem, this can
be minimized by the
cle
operation,
with
a
small amount
of
make-
id. The
recycle
mode
of
operation
would
f
exhaust
wet
scrubbing in
tunnels without
arge amounts of
water.
Nitrogen Oxides
Combustion
of a hydrocarbon
fuel with air normally
results in the combination
of part
of the
nitrogen
and
oxygen
to form nitric oxide
(NO)
at
the
higher
temperatures.
Sub-
sequent
to
its formation, NO
is
oxidized
by
residual or
atmospheric oxygen
to
nitrogen dioxide,
NO2:
2N0
+
Oo
=
2N0,
The
1
iber
ature
trati
is
2%
oxidi
of
ox
Kinet
rate
the
h
al
so
both
x
i
d
a
t
i
ating 2
s.
The
on-depe
by
vol
z
e
, w
h i
i d
a t
i
n
ically,
constan
omogene
explore
a c t
i
v
a
t
n
of ni
4,250
B
x
i
d a
t
ndent.
ume,
it
le
it t
when
t
the
ox
ts
have
ous
gas
d the
c
ed carb
trie
x i
tu/lb mo
ion
reac
When
th
requi
re
akes
nea
he i
n
i
t
idation
been
th
-phase
r
atalyzed
on
and
s
de is
le
, a
tion
e
r
i
s
10
rly 6
al
NO
react
oroug
eacti
ox
id
i
1 i c a
a
si
nd
is
in
a
g
i n
a
1
secon
hou
cone
ion i
hly e
on.
a
t
i
n
gel
ow
exot
favore
r
is
ma
concen
ds
for
rs for
entrati
s
third
xplored
This
la
of nit
as
cata
(13)
dermic
reaction,
d
by
low
temper-
rkedly
concen-
tration of
NO
half
the
NO
to
a
similar
degree
on
is 1
ppm'
-order,
.and
the
by Rao^°
2
)
for
tter
investigation
ric
oxide,
using
lysts
.
101
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amount
fix-
tures
engi
ne
ratios
speeds
the
NO
range
Los
An
sented
d
r
i
v
i
n
Th
s
of
o
NO. fo
and ex
s
, the
s
1 i
g
h
and h
x
,
and
betwee
geles
by
Fa
g
vari
e van
ther
n
rmatio
cess
o
h
i
g
h e
tly on
eavy
a
level
n
800
County
1th(83
ations
able
mix
i
trogen
n
is fav
xygen,
s
st emiss
the
lea
ccelerat
s
of
N0
X
and
3000
Air Pol
)
and
g
i
on
NO
ture
oxide
ored
tha
ions
n si
d
ions
emi
s
ppm(
1 u t
i
o
ven
i
emiss
of NO
s
)
is
by
nig
t for
are
as
e
of
s
produc
w
s
n
Cont
n Tabl
ions.
and
NO?
(plus
minor
commonly
designated
as
h
combustion
tempera-
internal combustion
sociated
with air-fuel
toi
chi
ometri
c.
High
e
the
major portion of
in
typical
urban traffic
Data
published
by
the
rol
District,
as
pre-
e 21 show the
effect of
At
\/ery
low
concentrations
of N0
2
,
the reaction
with
water
is:
2 N0
2
+
H
2
=
HN0
2
+
HN0
3
(K
=
10
5
)
(15)
and in
warm
water, the HN0
2
is
unstable:
3
HN0
2
=
HNO3
+
2N0
+
H
2
(16)
The NO
released
in
any
of
the
above
dissolution
reactions must be re-oxidized
to N0
2
.
violet
reacti
chemi
c
mation
role
show
t
ism, w
of
sec
ppm
of
(unsat
but
va
have b
Al
thou
tunnel
dustry
Ni
light
ons
re
al smo
of
ph
f
N0
2
,
he pro
hi
le t
ond
a
ry
N0
X
a
urated
1
ues
a
een
fo
gh ul
t
s
,
F
a
i
shows
troge
and
s
u
1
1
i
g.
A
otoch
is
g
babl
e
he su
i
r r
i
nd
1
e
)
are
s
hi
und
f
ravio
th(33
that
n
d
i
x
is the
ng
in
simp
emical
iven
i
prima
bseque
t
a n t s
ss tha
suf
f
i
h
as
or
amb
let
ra
)
stat
oxide
i
d
e
i
i ni
t
the f
if ied
smog
n
Tab
ry ox
nt
re
and
p
n
1
p
c
i e
n t
.7
pp
lent
d
i
a
t
i
es th
s
of
s
a
s
i
ator
ormat
reac
(62)
Te
22
idant
actio
ol
lut
pm of
to i
m
N0
X
atmos
on is
at ex
ni
tro
trong
comp
ion
ti
on
indie
.
Th
(ozo
ns
in
ants.
reac
n
i
t
i a
and
phere
not
perie
gen
i
abso
ound
f
ozo
schem
a
t
i
n
g
e
fir
ne)
f
d
i
c
a
t
A
f
ti
ve
te
th
3
ppm
on s
avail
nee i
n
ext
rber
for
th
ne
and
e for
the t
st
two
ormati
e
the
ew
ten
hydroc
e
reac
hydro
moggy
able i
n
the
remely
f
ultra-
e
chain
photo-
the
for-
rigger
reactions
on
mechan-
formati on
ths of
a
arbons
tion
chain,
carbons
days
n
vehicular
gas
i
n
smal
1
102
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TABLE 22
SIMPLIFIED
REACTION
SCHEME FOR
PHOTOCHEMICAL
SMOG
N0
2
+
Light
—
*~
NO
+0
Nitrogen
Nitric
Atomic
dioxide
oxide
oxygen
+
°2
T
°3
Molecular
Ozone
oxygen
3
+
NO
—
N0
2
+
2
+
He
—
HcO
Hydrocarbon
Radical
HcO
+
2
_^
HcOj
Radical
Hc0
3
+
He
—
Aldehydes,
ketones ,etc.
Hc0
3
+
NO
-
—
—
Hc0
?
Radical
Hc0
3
+
2
m-
3
+
Hc0
2
HcO
x
+
N0
2
—
—
Peroxyacyl
Radical
nitrates
This
reaction scheme is
intended
to
be
illustrative,
not
definitive.
Research is still
in
progress
on
the
detailed
chemistry
of
the
smog-forming
process.
104
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quantities
will
react
with
matter,
even
in the
dark.
respect
to
in situ
particulate
matter
has
apparently
not
been
investigated,
present
data on
concentration
levels,
to
tunnel
baust
to the
hydrocarbons
to form
particulate
This
latter
role of N0
X
with
generation
in tunnels
so
that based
on
the
primary
objection
N0
V
concentrations would be
with
respect
to
ex-
ambient
atmosphere.
Source
Control
for the
carbons
b
u
s
t
i
o n
product
oxygen
oxidati
the
deg
the com
able
at
and thi
control
De
purp
and
gene
ion.
atten
on ar
ree
o
b
u
s
t
i
this
s
pro
: exh
sign
ose
o
carbo
rally
The
dant
e
exa
f
nit
on te
temp
vi
des
aust
change
f
redu
n mono
have
higher
on
mor
ctly
t
rogen
mperat
eratur
the
b
gas
re
s made
c i n
g
t h
xide
th
the
opp
combus
e
effic
he
cond
f
i
x a
t
i
o
ure
and
e serve
as is fo
c
i r
c u
1
a
on in
e
emi
rough
o
s
i
t e
tion
ient
i
tion
n.
C
the
s
to
r
the
tion.
ternal-
ssion
o
more
e
effect
tempera
combust
s
servi
onverse
amount
reduce
most
c
combust
f unbur
f
f
i
c
i
e n
on
nit
tures a
ion
or
n
g to i
ly,
red
of
oxyg
the N0
X
ommon
a
ion
engines
ned hydro-
t
com-
rogen
oxide
nd excess
secondary
ncrease
uction
of
en
avail-
level s
,
pproach to
Esso
which
simpl
latio
wide-
Dynam
of
ab
level
per m
requi
decre
be
ac
Resea
recy
e
vac
n
at
open
omete
out
1
s to
ile.
re
30
ase i
cepta
The
exhaus
rch and
En
cles
gas
f
uum-operat
idle
to
g
throttle
t
r
tests
fo
5
percent
the 1974 C
Theoretic
percent
e
n power
ge
ble.
t
gas
gi
nee
ro.m t
ed
on
ve
sm
o
pre
r
50,
showe
al i
fo
ally,
xhaus
nerat
reci
r
ri
ng
C
he
exh
-off
v
ooth e
vent
1
000
mi
d
cons
rnia
s
90
pe
t
gas
ion
at
c u
1
a t
i
ompany
aust
t
alve
s
n
g
i
n e
oss
i
n
les
at
i s t e
n
t
tandar
rcent
recycl
this
on
sys
(85)
u
hrottl
huts
o
operat
vehic
a
rec
reduc
ds
of
NO
e
recycl
'x
re
Teve
tern d
t
i 1
i z
e
pla
ff th
ion
a
1
e
pe
ircul
ti on
1.3
g
e
lev
eveloped
by
es
a
system
te.
A
e
recircu-
nd also
at
rformance.
at ion
rate
of N0
X
rams
of
N0
X
on
will
)
but
the
el
may
not
N0
X
emissions
from
vehicles
can
also
by
catalytic
reduction
in the
exhaust stream.
be
controlled
However, such
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a
reduc
gas
sue
i
n
c
o
n
s
i
this re
control
beds,
o
ion,
an
removal
in U. S
and Eng
treatme
f ol
lowe
catalys
CO2
and
produce
tion
op
h as CO
stent
w
ason,
m
of N0
X
ne oper
d the
A
ca
.
Paten
i n
e e
r
i n
n
t
call
d
by a
t
to
re
2
o
, an
e
ratio
or a
i th
1
ost
pr
call
a t
i
n
g
ther
a
se
in
t
No.
g
Comp
s
for
reduci
act CO
d reac
n
requi
hydroca
her exh
oposed
for
two
at
redu
t
oxidi
point
i
3,429.6
any^
8
°)
a
prima
ng
bed
and
th
tion
of
res t
rbon
,
aust
catal
sepa
cing
zing
s
pre
56,
a
.
Ta
ry
ox
conta
e
hyd
the
he
pres
and
th
control
ytic
mu
rate
re
condi
ti
condi
ti
sented
ssigned
ylor
1
s
i
d
a t
i
n
i n i
n
g
a
rocarbo
ence
is is
objec
f
f
ler
actors
ons
ons
by
T
to
two-
bed
fo
fo
ay
Es
st
t
C0
X
a
steam
ns wit
N0
V
with
the
f
a re
b
v i
u
t
i
v
e
s
system
or ca
r NO
r
lor,
1
so
Res
age
ex
remo
-refor
h
H
2
hydrog
d u
c
i n
g
sly
For
s
for
talyst
-
reduct-
nd
HC
969,
earch
haust
ve
02,
ming
to
form
en
thus
d.
(87)
A
recent news
announcement
KO/
3
disclosed
the
development
of a
new ni ckel
-copper
catalyst
claimed to
be
90% effective for
N0
X
reduction
in
automotive
exhaust.
It
was
also
indicated
that
the
new
catalyst
for
would
be
part of
a
dual
-catalyst
system,
with the
catalyst
capable
of
oxidative
removal
of
CO
and
hydrocarbons
However,
the development of exhaust
catalytic
converters
for
N0
X
does not appear to have
progressed
to
the
same
feasibility
point
as
the exhaust
recycle
units.
N0
X
removal
second
elevate
the red
nitric
order
reduc
ti
practi
c
the
nee
ating
t
type
of
for the
tempera
normal
cycle
a
level
,
n
i
q
u e
w
for cat
the
pos
such
as
been
st
1
aborat
Har
d
and
ucti on
acid
p
f
200
on
sys
al
ly
a
essary
empera
reduc
tunne
ture
1
atmosp
i
r
,
an
preclu
hich
c
alytic
s
i
b
i
1
i
CO
in
u
d
i e
d
ory
le
di son
88)
atmospher
of N0
X
i
lants.
W
ppm
Europ
tern.
The
11
of
the
complete
ture
1
i
mi
tion
oper
1 ventila
eve and
heric con
d
the
obv
des
the
u
ould cons
reductio
ty
of
sel
the
pres
by
both B
vel
and
i
c
pr
n
the
hen
t
ean
p
firs
oxyg
redu
ts
ar
a
t
i
n
tion
the
centr
ious
se
of
ume
n app
ecti
v
ence
akerv
Fletc
e s s
u
r
tail
he
em
racti
t sta
en
f
c
t
i
n
e
fro
does
probl
xygen
a
t
i
n
neces
any
xygen
1 i
c a
t
e
rea
of
0?
90)
a
her(89
e
cata
gases
i
s
s
i
n
ce
is
ge
is
om
the
in th
m
900°
not a
em,
be
-remov
of
ox
s
i
ty
reduct
.
Thu
ion to
c
t
i
n
.
Thi
nd
Rya
)
have
lytic
p
from
limit
to
use
used
to
gas st
e
secon
to
1
ppear
t
cause
al feat
ygen
in
f mai
nt
i
v e
cat
s
, the
NO
ha
with a
s
so
1
atte
11*91)
reviewed
rocesses
i n
d
u s t r
i
is
of
t
a
two-st
remove
ream
to
d
stage,
°F,
and
be fea
f
both
t
ure.
Th
tunnel
a
i
n
i n
g
t
alytic
t
only pot
s
to
ste
reduci
ng
r
reacti
,
at
the
both
for
al
e
age
secure
Oper-
this
s i
b
1 e
he
e
re-
his
ech-
e
n
t
i
a 1
m
from
agent
on
has
It
is
anticipated that
removal
of
nitrogen
oxides
from
tunnel
air
by
any
conventional
technique,
including
catalytic reduction
may
be
the
most
difficult
objective
to
achieve. Thermodynami
cal ly
,
the
decomposition
of
NO into
106
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2
and
found
rates
lytic
of
2
,
employ
more
d
reacti
p
a
t
i
b
1
cataly
select
Ryason
at
hi
suppor
of
100
reacta
not
ap
N
2
is
q
that
w
i
or
tempe
oxidatio
catalyt
s
reduci
if
ferent
on
condi
e
reacti
st
with
ively,
c
(91)
stu
h
space
ted
cata
0°F
were
nts,
so
parently
uite
fa
1
effec
ratures
n
of
CO
ic remo
ng
cond
cataly
tions
o
ons.
E
the cap
o u
1
d
y
i
died th
veloci t
lysts
t
requi
r
that th
promis
vorab
t thi
(92).
and
val
o
i
t
i
o n
sts w
ften
ven
i
a
b i 1 i
eld a
e
cat
ies
a
o
be
ed,
p
is
ap
ing.
le
,
b
s
dec
Whi
hydro
f N0
X
s.
fi
i
th
d
al
low
n
the
ty
of
n in
alyze
nd
te
effec
lus
s
proac
ut
no
omposi
le
the
carbon
from
owever
i
s s
i m
i
s
the
prese
adsor
ternal
d
reac
mperat
ti
ve.
toichi
h
to t
cataly
tion
a
destr
s
requ
a gas
,
the
lar
se
cataly
nee
of
b
i
n
g
b
redu
tion
o
ures a
Howev
ometri
unnel
st
has b
t
reason
uctive
c
ires
an
stream
n
use
of
t
lecti vi
t
sis
of
i
excess
oth
CO
a
ctive
re
f
N0
X
wi
nd
found
er,
temp
c
quanti
gas
clea
een
able
ata-
excess
ormal
ly
wo
or
ies at
ncom-
°2»
a
nd
N0
X
action.
th
CO
alumina
eratures
ties
of
n
u
p
is
An
extremely comprehensive
and
detailed
body
of
work
on
N0
2
adsorption was
developed
in connection
wi
t
b
the
Wisconsin
process for
the
production
of nitric
add'93j
t
This
process
employed shallow fluidized beds of silica
gel
for
the
adsorption
of
N0
2
,
and
this process was
demonstrated
on an
industrial
scale. Silica
gel
contacting was also
used
in
this
process
for
the
catalytic
oxidation
of
NO
to
N0
2
.
The published data
on
this si
1
ca-gel
-based oxi
dati
on-sorption
operation
show
the
following
specific
points:
a.
Sorber
design
was
based
on
operation
at
10°F
at a
gel:
N0
2
ratio
of
14.
Poor
recovery was
indicated
at
temperatures
above
10°,
regardless
of
gel
flow.
b.
Catalysis
of NO
oxidation
to
N0
2
by
silica gel
required
a
gas
dewpoint
of
-60°F.
It
is obvious
that
both
of
the above specifications
are
outside
the range
of
probable
tunnel application with
respect
to
utilization
of
ambient
temperatures and
in-tunnel
dewpoints. The
sorption
concept is
nevertheless of
con-
tinuing
interest;
Sundaresan(94)
reported
that
a
commercial
zeolite
(molecular
sieve)
was more efficient
than silica
gel
for
removing
very
low
concentrations
of N0
X
from
a
nitric
acid plant tail
gas.
N0
X
selectivity in the presence of
organic contaminants
has
not
been
explored for
zeolite
or
carbon
adsorption, and laboratory
studies
of such
selectivity
at
the low levels of
N0
X
concentration indicated
for
tunnel
air must be made
before
actual application can
be
seriously
considered.
107
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sol lit
larly
nor e
gas
c
CO2
a
A
det
sorpt
stack
wi
th
that
the
m
N0
X
f
recyc
ever,
was b
b
t
a i
ion
r
at
1
ff ici
ompon
nd SO
ailed
ion
gase
this
absor
ost
p
rom
p
le
li
the
ased
ned
i
As sh
e
a
c t
i
ow
CO
ent
a
ents
2
,
wi
revi
f low
s
has
1
atte
ption
romi
s
ower
mewat
poten
on tw
n the
own
ab
ons
of
ncentr
bsorpt
likely
11
int
ew of
conce
been
r revi
(wi th
i
n
g
p
pi
ant
er
or
tial
cond
case
ove i
N0
2s
a
t
i
n
ion
s
to
b
erfer
the
d
ntrat
recen
ew, a
chem
tenti
stack
magne
promi
i t i
n
of
tu
n
the
wet
s, is
i
t
u
a
t
e
pre
e
wit
i
ff
ic
i
ons
tly
p
pape
i
cal
al
te
gas,
sium
se
s tha
nnel
bri
e
scrub
nei
t
ion.
sent
h
N0
y
ul tie
of
NO
u
b
1 i
s
r
by
react
c
h
n
i
q
and
hydro
f thi
t
wou
venti
f
rev
bi
ng
her
a
Fort
in
tu
solu
s
ass
x
fco
fiedO
Barto
ion)
ue
f
sugge
xide
s
abs
Id
no
1 a
1
1
i
ew
of
of
M0
X
,
strai
g
her,
ot
nnel
ga
tion
eq
ociated
m
oower
appeare
r
the
r
sted
th
s
1
u
t
i
orption
t neces
n
the
d
part
htf
or
her
s
s ,
su
u i 1
i
b
with
pi
an
conn
ndi
ca
d
to
emova
e
use
n.
H
tech
s a r i
1
i s-
icu-
ward
ol
uble
ch as
ria.
the
t
ection
ted
be
1
of
of
ow-
n i
q
u e
y
be
tents
s t u
d
i e
and ca
alkali
were f
rather
event,
appare
feasib
to
be
a.
Cost-benefit
calculations
on
a complex
magnesium
hydroxide
absorption
flow
sheet showed
absorption to have
the
lowest
annual costs only because
by-
product
credits offset the high
capital
charges
for
installation.
b. It
was
assumed
that equimolar con-
centrations
of NO
and
N0
2
(N2O3)
could be
obtained in the
gas
in
order
to
optimize
absorption.
The
assumption of
equimolar
NO and
NO?
gas
con-
finds
some support
in
the
literature;
Radnakri
shna'96)
d the
removal of N0
X
with
dilute
sodium,
potassium
lcium
hydroxide
solutions, and
found
that when
the
was
in excess,
equal
amounts
of
nitrate
and nitrite
ormed.
However, this may be
a
liquid-phase
reaction,
than
a
catalyzed
gas-phase
displacement.
In
any
N0
X
removal
from
tunnel
air by
wet
scrubbing
means
ntly requires intensive
development effort
prior to
i 1
i
ty
determination,
and
this
operation
does
not appear
susceptible
to
design
or
installation
at
present.
Particulates
The
government
has
estimated
that current
vehicles
emit
approximately
0.3
g/mile
of particulate
matter(67).
Although particulate matter has
not
as
yet
been clearly
de-
fined,
and
neither
measuring techniques nor
test cycle
con-
ditions
have
been
specified,
a
standard
of 0.1
g/mile
has
been
proposed
for
1975,
and
a
1980 level
of 0.03
g/mile.
According
to
Stern(42),
automotive
exhaust
emissions
contain
70%
by
count
of
extremely
fine particles in
the
size range
108
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of 0.02
to
0.06y.
However, on a
mass
distribution
basis,
particles less than
1
.
0y
in
size account
for
less
than
5%
of the
total weight
of the particulate
matter
in
the ex-
haust.
Exhaust
particulates
contain
both
inorganic
and
organic compounds of high
molecular
weight,
with
the most
significant
fraction consisting
of
lead
compounds deriving
from the tetraethyl
lead antiknock
compounds.
Approximately
75% of the lead burned
in
the engine
is
exhausted
to
the
atmosphere, with
the
total
amount
of
lead
particulates
dis-
charged
being proportional
to the concentration
of
tetra-
ethyl lead
in the gasoline. It
is worth noting that
the
current
introduction of
low-lead
and
non-leaded
gasolines
at
the
fuel pumps will directly
yield
significant
reduc-
tions
in the total
particulate
emission.
ulates
mists.
derive
operat
contri
engine
and od
the
us
rise
t
Bari urn
enough
pound
salts
certai
In
a
may
als
Furthe
d
from
t
ions) an
b
u
t
o r is
s. The
or
compo
e
of bar
o
a
uniq
sul
fate
sulfur
in
the
e
are
toxi
n.
dditi
o
rep
r , tu
i re
a
d fug
exha
latte
unds
ium-b
ue se
has
in
d
xhaus
c
, an
on
to
resen
nnel
brasi
i
ti ve
ust
,
r exh
(part
ased
t of
low
t
esel
t
ash
d
com
the lead
t
carbon,
air
also
on,
salt
dust. T
both
from
a
u
s
t
is
p
ial
ly-oxi
smoke
sup
particula
oxici
ty
,
fuel
to
y
Howeve
plete
sul
salt
i
ron
conta
(from
he
pr
gaso
artic
di
zed
press
te
em
and
t
ield
r
,
wa
fatio
s
,
the
e
rust,
t
ins
part
winter
imary
pa
line
and
ularly h
hydroca
ant
a
d
d
i
i s s
i
o
n
p
here
is
this
inn
ter-sol
u
n
may no
xhaust partic-
a
r
s
and
oil
iculates
salting
r t
i
c u 1 a t e
d
i
e s e
1
igh
in smoke
rbons),
and
tives
may
give
roblemsW).
usual
ly
ocuous
com-
ble
barium
t
always
be
109
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7/21/2019 Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod g
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64,000
mile
test
as
against
a
normal
emission
rate of 0.2
to
0.3
g/mile.
In a
26,000
mile test on
an improved
version
of
the trap
system,
lead
salt emissions
were reduced
to
0.03
g/
mile.
Perhaps even
more
significant were the reductions in
the
BaP
emission
rates.
At
3,000
miles, the
trap system
reduced
BaP
emissions
from 66
to
24
mi
crograms/gallon
of
fuel,
while at
18,000
miles
traveled,
the reduction
was
from
228
to
6
micrograms/gallon.
Studies
are
continuing,
but the last
test
data showed that total particulate
emission
could
be
maintained at
the 0.03 to
0.04
g/mile level,
with a
lead
salt
content
running from
50
to
75%
of
the total
partic-
ulates.
utilize
motive
particl
system
the
sam
larger
be easi
it
beco
populat
eff
i
cie
Collect
on
part
particl
the
nat
haust
i
for
pro
and oth
in
the
prel imi
drops
a
at leas
ventila
The
D
d the
fl
exhaust
es
from
of parti
e
flow
e
venti
lat
ly accom
mes
infi
ion
dens
ncy
deer
ion
effi
i
c
1
e
s
i
z
e proper
ure of
p
s still
per sele
er inert
plus-10
nary
imp
re
regui
t of
the
tion sys
uPont exhaus
ow
energy
an
to
agglomera
the
exhaust
culate
remov
nergy
to
the
ion flow. F
plished
at
h
nitely
more
ity. For
cy
eases
with
d
ciency
for
i
e
distributi
ties. As
po
articul
ates
sketchy,
and
ction of
col
ial
devices
micron
size
ortance. Fu
red
for high
same
order
tern itself.
t
trapping system
described
above
d
high
velocity
inherent
in
auto-
te
and
centrifugal
ly
separate
the
gases.
Any
similar external
al must
include
means
for
imparting
total
gas:
exhaust
plus
the
much
urther,
while agglomeration
may
igh
particle
population
density,
difficult with
a
very
disperse
clones,
therefore,
dust
collection
ecreasing dust
loadings
(42)
.
nertial
separators
also
depends
on, particle
density
and
other
inted out
above,
information
on
in
gasoline
and diesel
engine ex-
does
not yet
provide the basis
lector
type.
Inasmuch
as
cyclones
show
high efficiencies
for particles
range, such data are
of extreme
rther,
relatively high pressure
efficiencies,
and
these
will
be
of
magnitude
as
the
initial tunnel
Some
of the
pressure drop characteristics
of wet
collectors,
as
well
as
the
gas
and
liquid
velocity
ranges
were
given in
Table
20. Again
the
humidi
f
ication
problems
existing
with
any type
of
wet
contactor
mitigate against
the
use
of
an
internal wet
scrubber,
but
such
units
may
have
application
to
the exhaust
air.
Most of the wet
collectors
listed also have
a
pressure drop range
that
would
necessitate
a
doubling of
the
fan horsepower
for most existing
tunnels
in order
to
operate
the scrubbing
equipment.
Notably,
the
spray
chamber
is
the
sole
device
with
an
inherent
resistance
less
than
1 inch.
W.G.
Aqueous spray
scrubbing
is
capable of
a
high
degree
of
particulate
removal
in
a
well-designed
unit.
Hangebrauclo
9/
)
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has
re
(a)pyr
level
s
carbon
polynu
f
racti
exhaus
emi
ssi
scrubb
o r
g
a
n
i
the NO
ported
ene
emi
of
con
emi
ssi
clear
c
on, the
t contr
on. In
i n
g
has
c
s
,
w
h
i
x«
appea
probl
col le
is
ap
preci
only
charg
d
i
s c
h
groun
to
ma
and
v
Becau
press
very
throu
sec)
One
rs to
be
em
is th
ctors
,
s
plied
to
pi
t
a
tor
to
the
p
i
n g
the
arge and
ded
coll
i
n t a
i
n
t
ol tages
se of th
ure
loss
low,
fro
gh the
u
so
that
that
spray
scrubbing
removed
98%
of
the
benzo-
ssion from a municipal
incinerator.
Similar
trol were
achieved
on
the
polynuclear
hydro-
on
from
hot
asphalt blowing
plants.
Because
arcinogens
are associated with
the
particulate
se
data
indicate
excellent
potential
for tunnel
ol
for the
most
dangerous
health
hazards
in
the
addition
to
the
organic
carcinogens,
wet
capability for
the
removal
of
most
oxygenated
ch
are
usually
water-soluble,
and
a
portion
of
of the few
industrial
control units which
readily
applicable
to the
tunnel air
control
e
electrostatic precipitator.
In
mechanical
uch filters
(baghouses)
and
cyclones,
energy
the entire
gas
stream.
In
the
electrostatic
the energy used for
collection is
applied
articles.
The collection
process
consists
of
particulates
by
means
of
a
hioh-voltaqe
corona
then
electrostatically
depositing them
on
a
ecting
electrode. The electric
power
required
he corona
ranae from
50
to
500 watts/1000
CFM(J2)
of
from
50,000
to
100,000 volts are
required^
98
)
e
highly
selective energy
input mechanism,
through
the electrostatic
precipitators is
m 0.1
to
0.5 inches
W.G.
However,
gas
flow
nit
must be
held
tc
low
velocities
(2
to
8
ft/
these
devices are
usually
fairly
large.
d
i
s a
d
v
expl
os
i
e n
c
i
e
99%(99
equal
design
(c)
f
high
e
should
resist
cle re
by
a
t
corona
normal
In
antage
ion
ha
s
of
c
)
and
f
aci
1
i
n
c
1
u
low
di
ff
1
cie
be i
n
i vi ty
s
i
s
t
i v
hick
p
from
perf
o
addi
s inc
zards
ommer
submi
ty
as
de
(a
stri
b
ncy
p
the
range
i
t
i
e s
artic
the
c
rmanc
tion
to
1
u d e hi
in
the
c
i
a
1
u
n
cron
pa
100-rni
)
dust
u t
i
o
n
a
artic e
range
o
s
from
can
le
le
laye
ol ecti
e
of th
the
gh
ca
case
its
n
rti
cl
cron
re
si
s
nd (d
remo
f
10
4
lO
3
ad
to
r
and
ng
el
e
u
n
i
volume
pi to
s of c
ow
bei
es
may
parti
c
ti vi
ty
)
mo is
val
,
t
to
10
to
1
0l
col le
subse
ectrod
t.
trie
costs
umbus
ng
so
be
c
les.
(b)
ture
he
el
10
oh
4
ohm
c t
i o n
q
u
e
n
t
e
,
in
requi
and
tible
1
d
ar
ol lee
Fact
gas t
conte
e
c
t
r
i
m-cm;
-crow
elec
back
terfe
rement
p
o
s s
i
b
dusts
e
i
n
e
ted wi
ors co
empera
nt
of
cal
re
actua
9).
H
trode
d
i
s
c
h
ring w
s,
other
le
dust
.
Effic-
xcess
of
th almost
ntroll
i
ng
tures
gas.
For
si
sti vi
ty
1
particle
i
gh parti
-
insulation
arge
of
a
i
th the
An
excellent
review of
both
design
and-
application
of electrostatic precipitators
is
presented
in
the Air Pollu
-
tion Engineering Manual
(41)
while
Walker(
99
)
$
nas
updated
the
cost
and efficiency data for
this
equipment. A
simpler,
and
potentially cheaper form
of
electrostatic
unit, is
the
112
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s
p
a
c
by
Ha
parti
charg
the
f
1 i
q
u
i
col
le
absor
parti
high
unate
and
w
avail
e-charae
precipitator,
described
by
Faith^
^)
and
nsonHOl).
in
the
space-charge
precipitator,
the
culates
are
charged
by
a
conventional
corona,
and then
ed
droplets
of
liquid
are
introduced into
the
gas in
orm of
a
spray
froma
charged nozzle.
Particles and
d
droplets
are
then collected by grounded
wire mesh
ctors. This
unit
combines
the best
features of
spray
ption with
the electrostatic efficiency
levels of
culate removal,
while
avoiding the complexity
and
capital
cost
of conventional
precipitators. Unfort-
ly, this
type
of
equipment
is
in
the devlopment
stage
ill
require extensive work before becoming commercially
able.
Tunnel Pollution
Control
-
Feasibility
and Economic
Evaluation
techn
for
r
The
p
and i
carbo
real
i
contr
of se
The
o
contr
ef
fee
to
a
the i
T
i
c a
1
a
emovi
n
ol
uta
nclude
ns ,
an
zed
th
ol
tec
veral
ther
p
ol
and
tivene
degree
n
situ
he
objective
of
this
study was to
determine the
nd
economic
feasibility of
available
processes
g
pollutants
from vehicular tunnel atmospheres,
nts
are
those
originating
in
automotive
exhausts,
CO, N0
X
,
unburned
and
partially-oxidized
hydro-
d.
particulates.
Early in the program, it was
at adaptation of
existing industrial pollution
hnology
for
processing tunnel
air
was
only
one
possible
control
strategies that might be
employed,
ossible
strategies include
auto exhaust
source
tunnel
ventilation augmentation. The cost
and
ss
of
these
latter control
strategies
were
explored
sufficient
to
establish a
basis for comparison
for
secondary
pollution
control
approach.
The
present
state of
the pollution
control
tech-
nology
art
potentially
applicable
to
the
tunnel problem
has
been
covered. This
section
deals
with
the
preliminary tech-
nical
design and
cost evaluations for selected
systems.
The
base model
used for the
feasibility
studies is
a
1-mile
long,
250,000
CFM
ventilation rate
tunnel.
indust
to
the
In
add
exhaus
in the
emissi
result
d u
c t
i
o
from
p
the
tu
in
s e
it
app
D
rial
remo
i
tion
t
sou
deca
on , c
s of
n
in
resen
nnel
eri
ty
ears
esign
a
pol luti
val
of
,
a
stu
rce
con
de of
1
orrecte
this
la
CO and
tly-man
polluti
unless
that
tu
nd
ec
on co
pol
lu
dy
ha
trol
970-1
d
for
tter
hydro
dated
on
pr
ambi
nnel
onomi
ntrol
tants
s
bee
measu
980,
auto
study
carbo
vehi
oblem
ent
s
venti
c
studi
proces
from
v
n
made
res pro
on
the
mobi le
i
n
d
i
c
a
n
emiss
cle exh
wi 11
c
tandard
1 at
ion
es hav
ses
po
e h
i
c
u
1
of
the
gramme
averag
popula
te
tha
ion 1
e
aust c
orresp
s
are
design
e
been ma
t e n t
i
a
1
1
y
ar
tunnel
effect
o
d
to
go
i
e
CO and
tion age.
t
a
four-
vel
swill
ontrol s
,
ondi
ngly
changed.
must
mak
de of
appl icable
atmospheres
.
f
automotive
nto
effect
hydrocarbon
The
fold
re-
result
and that
diminish
At
minimum,
e
allowance
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for the transi
ent nature
of the
pollutant
loadings,
and at
maximum,
there
is
a
good
possibility
that
source
control
will
eliminate
the
tunnel atmosphere
problem.
tunnel
poll
uti
revi sio
route
t
at
this
catalyt
tempera
tunnel
data, a
recomme
operabi
carbon
the
pol
well
be
Economi
competi
was
ass
control
t
e
c
h n
i
c
di rect
A
v
e
n
t
i
on co
n
is
all
time
i c
ox
ture
use.
nd
fu
nded.
lity
adsor
1
utan
1
ow
t
cally
ti
ve
essed
of
t
ally
test
compara
1 ati
on
ntrol
p
the mos
e
v i at i
n
.
Of
a
i
d
a
t
i
o
n
catalys
Howeve
rther
d
From
q
u e
s
t
i
o
p
t
i
o
n
a
t or
pa
he
lowe
,
only
with
a u
•
as
a
p
he
gros
feasibl
veri
f
i
tive fe
bl ower
rocesse
t
techn
q
the
t
11
of
t
,
uti 1
t, appe
r,
desi
irect
d
a techn
ns
for
nd
elec
rti cul a
r
limit
catalyt
gmented
o
t
e
n t i
a
s
tunne
e
and e
a t
i o
n
i
a
s
i
b
i
1
augment
s has
s
i
c
a 1
1
y
unnel
a
he
cont
zing
a
ars
mos
gn was
evelopm
i
c
a
1
v
i
catalyt
trostat
te
cone
of
any
i
c o x
i d
bl
ower
1 exhau
1 emiss
conomi
c
s
d
e
s
i r
ty and
a
t
i
o
n
hown
t
and
ec
tmosph
rol
op
60%
Mn
t
prom
extrap
ent
wo
ewpoin
i
c
o x
i
ic
pre
entrat
known
a
t
i
o
n
capac
st tre
ion,
a
ally
p
able.
econ
vs
.
v
hat b
onomi
ere
n
erati
02/40
i
s
i
n
g
ol
ate
rk
is
t, th
d
a
t
i
o
c
i
pit
ion
i
indu
appea
ity.
atmen
nd
wa
romi
s
arious
s
lower
ad
cally
fe
ollution
ons,
tha
%
CuO
am
for in
dy
of
econdary
dition
or
a s
i
b
1
e
burden
t
of
b
i
e
n t
-
si
tu
d
from 1
requi re
ere
are
n
,
a
c t
i
v
a
t i o n
be
n each c
s
t
r
i
a 1
a
rs to
be
Spray
s
t
method
s
found
i
n
g
,
alt
aboratory
d
and
seri ous
ated
cause
a s
e
is
ppl
i
cation
near-
c
rubbing
for
to be
hough
A short
study
of
recycle
air
operations
around
the
tunnel
or
tunnel
section
was
made,
and
it was
found that any
degree
of recycle would
give
rise
to an
increase
in tunnel
pollutant
concentration above the
level
obtained in once-
through
air
operation.
The
detailed
review of
the
state-of-the-art
for
both
source control
and tunnel
ventilation
air treatment
technology
yields a
number of significant
conclusions
which
bear
directly
on
the
technology feasibility
determination.
In
summary:
1.
Control technology
available
for the
removal
of vehicle-derived
pollutants
comprises
two distinct
categories:
(a)
Source
control
technology already
developed
for
removal
of
pollutants
from
automotive
exhaust at
exhaust
conditions.
(b)
Industrial
technology
which
must
be
adapted
or
extrapolated to
tunnel
air
pollutants and
concentration
levels,
as
well as
to
ambient
temp-
erature
operating
conditions.
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V
e
h f
c u
1
a
al
ready
e
s c a
1
a
t
i
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
the
imme
proven
c
posed
fu
exists,
t e
c
h n
i
q
u
able
in
decrease
al
ready
r pol
parti
ng
de
cy. is
di ate
ontro
ture
and
a
es
wi
the
n
s
i
n
occur
lutant so
ally
in
o
gree
of a
now
mand
fi
ve-yea
I
equipme
emi ssion
choice
o
II appare
ear futur
vehicular
red.
urce
controls
are
peration and
an
pplication
and
ated by
law
for
r
period.
Some
nt
meeting
pro-
standards
already
f
competitive
ntly
become avail
e.
Significant
emissions
have
In
most
cases, the
adaptation
of
con-
ventional industrial
control technology
to
the
tunnel
air treatment
will require
experimental
development and field
tests
This required
preliminary work
has not
been
done,
and
no
present
tunnel
treat-
ment
installations exist.
4.
5. It
does not
appear reasonable
to expect
exhaust
control
techniques
developed
to
operate
at
the
high-temperature, high-
pollutant
concentration
exhaust
conditions
to function
at
the
150-
fold dilution,
ambient-temperature
tunnel
air
conditions.
In
pollution
control
design
a
prime
rule
is
to treat
at
the point
of maximum
con-
centration
prior
to dilution
-
a
rule
based
on
both
economic
and
efficiency
considerations,
as
well
as
functional
feasibi
1
i ty.
The
above preliminary conclusions strongly
indicate
that
tunnel
air
treatment
is
not likely
to
prove to
be
a
tenable
control
strategy at
this time,
should
alternate
means
of
control
be
available.
On
the other hand
there
are a
few
standard tech-
nologies
such
as electrostatic
precipitation,
which appears
to
be more
suitable for
tunnel
air
processing
than
for
source
control
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application.
This section
will be
concerned
with
the
evalu-
ation
of
the
capabilities
of
all potentially
applicable
tech-
nology in the
context
of available
alternates
and
the
changing
nature of
the
source
emissions.
Tunn
el
Pollution
Con
trol
Strategie
s
I ..
..II.
.
, — II.. ..
»— —
I
I
—
»
~ I—I.
~ ~
^t-
—
The application
of pollution
control
equipment for
the
removal
of
pollutants
from
tunnel
air
is
only
one of
several control
approaches open, and
it is
necessary
to con-
sider
these
alternates,
if
only from
the
point
of
technical
and
economic
perspective.
There
are four
apparent tunnel
pollution
control strategies:
A. Control
of
traffic
loadings and
speed
within
tunnel.
B. Increased ventilation
rates.
C.
Exhaust
source controls.
D.
Tunnel
air
treatment.
Pragmatically, the first
two
control
strategies
are standard present
control
modes
for
tunnel
pollution
problems, although
recent studies'^
8
)
indicate
that these
techniques
are
not
yet
fully realized.
the Mon
in
the
1
1
mi
tin
utilize
e
n
t e r i
n
The Gre
ti nuous
enterin
vehi
cle
Lincoln
install
tied in
nal
s.
of vehi
average
from Ot
crease
in ere
as
measure
Se
t
Bla
I960'
g
in-
s
a
s
g
the
at
St
ly
mo
g
tra
s is
Tunn
ing
t
to
a
The o
cles
vehi
t
U
02
in
av
ing a
veral
nc
Tun
s
,
ut1
tunnel
ystem
tunne
.
Bern
ni tor
ffic
i
reache
el und
raff
i
c
comput
bjecti
in the
cul ar
)
show
erage
verage
of
the
nel an
lize
t
emi ss
of
con
1 to
c
hard
T
the nu
s
stop
d.
Wh
er
the
flow
er
whi
ve i s
tunne
speed
s
the
vehi
cl
vehic
newer
E
d
Great
raffic
f
ions
(20)
trol lig
ontrol
s
unnel
us
mber
of
ped
when
lie
t h
e
s
Hudson
control
s
ch will
to
simul
1
at any
in
the t
reductio
e
speed
le speed
uropean tu
St.
Bernha
low contro
The
Mon
hts
for
ve
peed
betwe
es
traffic
vehicles
i
the
maxim
e
are
non-
River, is
utilizing
in turn co
taneously
one
time
unnel.
F
i
n
in CO
em
and
it
is
is
a
dire
nnels
,
rd
Tun
1 as a
t
Blan
hides
en 25
count
n
the
urn
num
urban
report
traff
ntrol
reduce
by
inc
gure 2
is
si
on
appare
ct
CO
such
nel
,
o
means
c
Tunn
in an
and
37
ers to
tunnel
ber
of
tunnel
edU8)
i
c
c
o
u
traffi
the n
reasin
9,
tak
with
nt
tha
contro
as
pened
of
el
d
mph.
con-
,
and
s
,
the
to
be
nters
c
sig-
umber
g
the
en
in-
t
1
Information supplied
by Kyle'
18
)
on
the Sumner
Tunnel
in
Boston
Harbor showed
that
the total
longitudinal
air
speed in the
tunnel
was 14.7
mph,
of
which
the
ventilation
air
speed constituted only 1.3 mph,
while the vehicle
sweep
effect
contributed
13.4 mph.
It
should be
noted that
the
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UJ
c
x
o
z
o
5
1
i
1
FIGURE
29
EMISSIONS
OF
CARBON
VS.
VEHICLE
SPEED
^*^*.
SOURCE
5
0TT(I9
_
If)
o
to
if)
CM
o
CJ
ID
DC
X
to
UJ
UJ
-J
o
X
UJ
>
u.
o
Q
UJ
UJ
0.
0)
UJ
<
UJ
>
<
lO o
lO
o
to
ro
CM
CM
o
O
o
O
IT)
O
<5
to
o
6
o
6
\W21
l
(3311HN3 3QIX0N01N
N09HV0
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i a
b
1
y
hand
opera
capac
carri
1
a
t
i
o
tunne
v
e
n
t
i
qui
re
qui
re
f
i
xed
flow
Depen
fan
o r
i
g
i
head
by
fl
the d
syste
bl
owe
ent
f
v
e
n t
i
to
re
p
a t
i
b
of i
n
but
t
c
o
n
s
i
Re
built
e
peak
ting ex
ity. T
ed one
n capac
1
s
are
1
a
t
i
o
n
ments f
ment
is
-size
d
rate
wi
ding
on
it
is
p
nal
fan
flow
ca
ow
augm
egree
,
m
,
and
r. Thi
or
each
1
ati
on
place
t
i 1
i ty
w
termedi
his w
i
d
e r
a t
i
o
serve
into t
traf
fi
pense
heoret
step
f
i
ty
of a
f
blower
or tha
a
fun
uct
,
a
1
1
cau
the
h
robabl
to
de
paci
ty
en tat
i
if
any
the
he
s
comb
tunne
system
he
bl
a
ith
th
ate
ve
1 be
f
n is
b
capaci
unnel
c 1
oad
of
con
i
c
a
1
1
y
urther
Howeve
i
x
e
d
s
s
is
s
t
duct
c t
i
o n
n atte
se
a
f
ead-ca
e
this
vel
op
Thu
on
for
,
of
o
ad-cap
i
n
a
t
i
o
1
,
and
d
e
s
i
g
des
on
e a
d d i
nti
lat
e a s
i
b
1
eyond
ty
and fan
v
e n
t
i
1
a
t
i
o
i
n
g
s
,
with
stantly
ru
,
this des
by
adding
r,
v
e
n
t
i
1
a
ize,
and
t
i
m
i
1
a r
1
y
f
size.
Be
of
(gas ma
mpt
to
dou
our-fold
i
pacity
cha
higher
he
any
more
t
s reductio
an
e x
i
s
t
ver-design
acity
char
n
of
facto
would
req
n.
Altern
the
o r
i
g
i
t
i
o n a 1
h i
g
ion
shafts
e
only for
the
scope
spee
n
sys
out
i
nning
ign
a
fans
ti
on
he
pr
i xed
cause
ss
fl
ble
t
ncrea
racte
ad
wi
han
a
n
of
ng
tu
i
n
t
acter
rs
wi
ui re
ately
nal
f
h-hea
is
a
spec
of
th
d
con
terns
ncurr
at
m
pproa
to
a
ducts
essur
by
th
the
ow
ra
he
pe
se in
r
i
s
t
i
1
1
no
frac
pol
1
u
nnel
he or
i
s t
i
c
11 ob
check
,
it
an
to
d uni
nothe
i
f
1
c
i
s
re
trol
are
in
order
i
n
g
the a
aximum ve
ch
could
ugment pe
in
exist
e
head
of
e
peak
fl
blower
he
te)
2
thro
ak
ventil
the head
cs
of
the
t
permit
t
i
o
n
of
i
tant
cone
will
depe
iginal
ve
s
of
the
viously
b
i
n g
of
t
may
be po
yield
he
t.
The
a
r
possibi
tunnels
,
port.
i
nvar-
to
d d
i t
i
o
n a
n t
i
1
a
t
i
o
be
ak
venti-
ing
the
ow
re-
ad
re-
ugh
the
a t
i
o
n
1
oss
.
original
the
ts
low-
en t
rati
o
nd
on
n
t i 1
a
t
i
o
original
e
differ-
e
initial
s
s
i
b
1
e
ad
com-
d d
i
t
i
o
n
1
ity
and
this
Direct
vehicular
exhaust
control
techniques
have
received
the
major
share
of
attention
and
implementation.
There
appears
to
be no
question
that
every
possible
effort
has
been, and
will be
made,
to
protect
the
present
industrial
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and
private
investment
in the
internal
combustion
vehicular
engine
by
the further
development
of
source
controls.
Present
differences
between
Federal authorities
and
the
automotive
industry
concern
timetables
for
emission
reduction,
rather
than
the degree.
the
a
claim
carbo
uncon
reduc
cars.
the
c
d
e
s
i
g
signi
intro
age
avera
porti
quant
and
t
utomo
ed th
n
emi
troll
tion
No
laime
n
cha
f
i can
ducti
v
e
h
i
c
ge
as
on
of
i
t
a
t
i
his
w
In
a
re
t i v e
in
at
1971
ssi
ons
ed
mode
in
N0
X
data
we
d emiss
n g
e s
in
t
reduc
on
of
1
le
emis
the ve
these
ve effe
ill
be
cent paper
d
u s
t
ry
in
model
pas
and
65%
le
Is.
Jense
emi
ssi
ons
re introdu
ion
reduct
recent
mo
t
i
o n s in e
ow-emissio
si
ons, and
hide
popu
low-
emi
ssi
ct
of the
done below
(103)
rev
control 1
senqer
ca
ss
CO
emi
n
also in
could
be
ced
to
su
i
ons
,
but
del
years
xhaust
em
n
vehicle
will
con
1
a
t i o n
in
on
v
e
h
i
c
programme
iewi n
ng
em
rs
ha
s
s
i
o
n
d
i
c a t
expec
pport
neve
have
i s
s
i
o
s
i
s
t
i n
u
e
cl ude
es
,
p
d red
g
the pr
i
s s
i
o
n
s
,
d
85%
le
than
ea
ed
that
ted for
the
mag
rtheless
al
ready
n. Whil
now
affe
to
lowe
s
a
grea
redi
ctio
u c t
i
o
n
s
ogress
of
i
t
was
ss hydro-
r
1 i
e
r
similar
1973 model
n i
t
u d
e
of
,
e
n
q
i
n
e
produced
e
previous
cting
aver-
r
this
ter
pro-
n
of
the
is
desirable,
succeed
cri
teri
p
o
s
s
i
b
1
must
ta
which
a
sent
al
recent
Table 2
tration
when
co
In
view
emi
ssi
tain
th
decline
be
made
it
is
a
nology
1
oading
tration
Be
ing,
a
goa
e,
if
ke
in
re
1
i
lowab
i
nfor
4,
an
once
mpare
of
t
n red
at
th
,
and
in
v
lso
v
prove
s,
th
1 i mi
cause
proje
Is th
not
to ac
kely
1
e
po
mati
o
d the
a ye
d
to
he pr
u c t
i
o
e
ave
with
entil
i
rtua
s to
e
all
ts
wi
source
cted em
at
form
probabl
count t
to
be
c
1
1
utant
n
on
pr
propos
ar)
of
present
oposed
n in t
rage CO
respec
a
t
i
o
n
d
lly
cer
be
effe
owable
11
also
contr
i
s s
i
o
n
erly a
e.
Tu
he
new
onsi
de
conce
imary
ed CO
17.2
p
d
e
s
i
g
Federa
e 1971
emi
ss
t to t
e
s
i
g
n
tain
t
cti
ve
i
n
-
1
u n
be
1
o
ol te
stan
ppear
nnel
Fede
rably
ntrat
stand
level
pm is
n
1 im
1
sta
-1980
ion 1
his
p
for
t
hat
,
in
re
nel
a
wered
c
h n
i
q
dards
ed un
v e n t
i
ral a
more
ion 1
ards
(
(max
part
its
o
ndard
peri
evel
ollut
his
d
as
ex
ducti
mbi
en
ues
and
atta
lati
i
r
q
str
i m i
t
104)
imum
i cul
f
10
s
f
o
od
,
wi
11
ant
,
ecre
haus
on o
t
po
appear
air
q
u
i
n a
b
1
e
on
syst
ual i
ty
i
n
g
e n t
s.
The
is
giv
1 -hour
a
r 1
y
i
m
to
20
r
autom
it
appe
c
o n t
i
n
al
1
owa
ase.
H
t contr
f
peak
1
1
u
t
i
o
n
to
be
a
1 i
ty
are
now
em
design
cri
teri
a
,
than
pre-
most
en
in
concen-
portant
ppm
CO.
oti ve
ars
cer-
ue
to
nee
must
owever
,
01
tech-
pol
1
utant
concen-
Exhaust
Emission Projections
The design
basis for
the
ventilation
of
vehicular
tunnels is
the
peak
traffic load (exhaust emission rate)
plus
a
maximum CO
concentration limit.
It should be
noted
that
prevailing
vehicular CO emission
data
obtained
from test
data
at
the time of the ventilation
design are
now used as
the
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TABLE
24
NATIONAL
AIR
QUALITY
STANDARDS
PROPOSED
BY
EPA
PRIMARY STANDARDS
Air
Pollutants
pg/m
3
ppm
CO
Max.
8-hr. cone,
once a
year
Max.
1-hr.
cone,
once a year
10,
000
15,000
11.4
17.2
HC
Max.
3-hr.
cone,
from
6
am.
to
9 am.
once a year
125
--
NO
x
Annual
arithmetic mean
24-hr.
cone,
once a
year
100
250
0.19
(as
NO2)
0.47
(as
NO2)
SO
x
Annual
arithmetic
mean
24-hr.
cone,
once a year
80
365
0.21
(as
SO2)
0.96(asSO2)
Particulate
matter
annual
geo. mean
Max. 24-hr.
cone,
once
a
year
75
260
--
Photochemical
oxidants
Max.
1-hr. cone, once a year
125
Adapted from Pollution Engineering,
1971
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basis
for estimating
ventilation
needs.
Straight Creek
Tunnel
ventilation
system
emission
test
data
obtained
in
1964
road
Ventilation needs
for
the
year
1990
were
Thus,
for
the
des1gn(l05)
f
CO
tests
were utilized,
also
calculated
based
on
these 1964
emission
data.
Because 1964
is
a
year
representative of
virtually
uncontrolled exhaust
emissions,
it
may serve
a
conservative
design
base,
but
a 26-year
ex-
trapolation in
the light of the success
of
source control
techniques
represents
an
unknown degree of over-design.
tion
to re
sourc
techn
be in
immed
this
10
ye
As no
d
e
s
i
g
i
n
i
t
i
p
e
r
i
o
this
decre
val
id
contr
of
fu
In
problem
view
and
e
contro
iques
ha
creasing
iate
f
i
control
ars, and
ted
abov
ned
for
at ion,
b
d
of
dec
period
s
a s
i
n
g
v e
predi ct
ol
timet
ture
aut
order
in
a t
quant
Is
on
ve
bee
ly imp
e-year
strate
will
e
,
tun
the
em
ut
are
reasin
hould
n t
i
1 a
t
ive
mo
abl es
,
omoti
to pr
i m
e
-
v
ify
t
f
utur
n ope
lemen
peri
gy
af
furth
nel
v
i
s s
i
o
then
g
emi
be
so
ion 1
dels,
it
i
e
emi
operly
a r i a
n
t
he
effe
e
emiss
r
a
t
i
v
e
ted
at
od.
Th
feet
tu
e r i n
-
e n t
i 1
a
t
n s e x i
s
wri tte
s s
i
o
n
s
.
design
oad. W
togeth
s now
p
ssi
ons.
d
e
f
i
n
frame
cts
ions,
for
s
highe
e
que
nnel
unnel
ion
s
ting
n off
Sys
ed
as
ith t
er wi
o
s
s
i
b
e
the
work
,
f man
Exh
evera
r
eff
s t
i
o
n
envi r
cont
ystem
at
th
over
terns
to t
he
re
th
th
le
to
tunne
it
is
dated
aust
s
1 year
i
c
i
e
n
c
is:
h
onment
rol
be
s
appe
e
time
a
20
amorti
ake ad
cent
d
e
firm
predi
1
air
nece
autom
ource
s ,
an
ies
i
ow
mu
s
i
n
nece
ar
to
of
d
to
30
zed
o
vanta
evelo
ing
o
ct th
pol 1
u-
ssary
otive
control
d
will
n
the
c
h
will
the
next
ssary?
be
esign
year
ver
ge
of
pment
f
a
of
emi ssi
on
course
posed
ni
a.
as
Fe
expec
stand
of
77
exhau
accel
Shoul
25
wi
compl
may b
compo
f
utur
in
de
Table 25
by
both
the
These
standa
deral
standar
ted
to be
ann
ards
prevai
1
,
.3%
in hydroc
st
emissions
sizes the Cal
indicate tha
erate the
Cal
d
this be the
11
prove
to
b
iance
by
the
e
combined
wi
si
tion data
t
e
emissions,,
tail
by
Blum'
lists
Federal
rds mus
ds are
ounced
then
1
arbons
,
compare
iforni
a
t
the
E
i form*
a
case
,
e
conse
automot
th pass
o
gener
a
n
d
t
h i
107)
in
the
e
gove
t
be
prese
some
975
m
47.8
d
to
stan
nvi
ro
time
then
rvati
ive
i
enger
ate a
s
typ
hi
s
xhau
rnme
cons
ntly
time
ode
% in
1971
dard
nmen
tabl
the
ve,
ndus
car
qua
e of
Mode
st
emiss
i
nt
and
th
idered
te
beinq
fo
in
1971.
cars
w
i
CO, and
model
s
.
s
,
recent
tal
Prote
e
in
its
schedule
assuming
try.
The
(and tru
nti tat ive
analysis
1 I prese
on st
e
Sta
n t a t
i
rmul
a
If
1
sho
75%
i
Alth
news
c
t
i
o
n
own
F
indie
of
CO
data
ck)
p
pred
has
n
t
a
t
i
andards
te
of
C
v
e
,
i
n a
ted,
an
Califor
w
a
dec
n
N0
X
i
ough
Ta
announ
Agency
ederal
ated
in
urse,
f
of Tab
opul
ati
i
c t
i
o
n
been
de
on.
pro-
al
ifor-
smuch
d are
nia
rease
n
ble
25
cements
may
schedule.
Table
ull
le
25
on
of
veloped
Previous
estimates of future automotive
exhuast
emi
ssions
(1
°8)
have made
allowance for the
projected
increase
in
the total
automobile population.
This
is
a
necessary
approach
when
computing
the
net
effect of control
technology
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TABLE
25
EXHAUST
EMISSION
STANDARDS
AND
GOALS
Emission Levels, Grams per Mile
Year
HC
CO NO
x
Particulate
1970
2.2
23.0
1971*
2.2* 23.0*
4.0*
1972*
1.5*.
23.0*
3.0*
1973
2.2
23.0
3.0
1974*
1.5*
23.0*
1.3*
1975* 0.5* 12.0* 1.0*
1975
0.5
11.0
0.9
0.1
1980
0,25
4.7
0.4 0.03
Evaporation
Losses
-
6.0
grams per test
in
1970 in
California
and
1971 nationwide.
California
only.
122
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on
atmospheric
pollution
in urban areas,
and
where
total
emissions are of
prime
interest. However,
vehicular tunnels
have
a
finite length, and
a
design
base
maximum
traffic
capacity
at
a
fixed emission
level. Emissions
in
tunnels
will
thus
be affected
only
by the
age-composition
of the
automobile
and truck
population,
and not
by
the
expansion
or gross numbers of
the car and truck populations.
Age-composition
data have
been
calculated
by
Blum^O?)
f
r
om
figures
published in
Automobile
Facts and
Figures
('
09)
and these data
on
automobile
longevity
are
presented
in Table 26. In
the absence of information
on
changes in
ownership
patterns
or
automobile
longevity
with
economic conditions,
it
may
be
assumed
that
Table
26
repre-
sents
a
composition
that
will be
relatively
stable with
time, and
that
the age distribution of
1963-1964
will
con-
tinue
to
hold for
the
1970-1980
period. Blum
derived a
statistical
model
relating
the
total rate
of
vehicular
emissions to driving characteristics and vehicle
emission
controls,
and
while
this
model
is
best
projected
by
computer,
Table 26
does allow arithmetic approximation
of Blum's
Model
I
analysis, using
the
emission
control schedules
of Table 25.
the
averag
6
years,
t
Further, w
of
the
tot
cars produ
later.
Be
a
time-
lag
all
emissi
1972 were
(6-year
av
would
make
they
would
they would
placement
7 years,
7
pi acement
any
in
ere
are
thus
c
controls
.
(with
cont
age
and
a
vehicles.
As
Blum
e
age
of
he media
hile
car
al
car
p
ced in
a
cause of
in
the
on level
to
have
erage
ag
up
50%
make
up
have
re
is
even
5% repla
of
18
ye
se
in th
onservat
Any
inc
rols) wi
greater
points
out,
T
the
automobi
n
life
of
an
s
16
years an
opulation
in
model
year
a
this
longevi
effect
of
any
s.
Thus,
eve
little
or no
e) before the
of
the total
75% of
the
p
placed .95%
of
slower''
10
/
w
cement
time
o
ars.
These d
e
rate
of
pro
ive
in
terms
reases in
the
11
be reflect
influence on
able 26 indicates
t
le
population is
ap
individual
vehicle
d
older
constitute
any given year,
10%
re
still in
use
16
ty characteristics,
change
in
emission
n
if
all cars
produ
emissions,
it
would
1972
and
later
mod
car population,
198
opulation, and 1986
the older
cars.
T
i th
a
50%
replaceme
f 1
3
years
,
and
a
9
ata
make
no
allowan
duction of new mode
of the
effects
of
e
rate
of new model
ed
in
a
decrease
in
total
emissions
of
hat, while
proximately
is 11 years
1
to
2%
of the
years
there is
on
over-
c
e d
in
be 1978
el cars
1
before
before
ruck
re-
nt
age
of
5%
re-
ce
for
Is,
and
xhaust
producti
on
average
the
new
Combining
the above
data with
the
projected
control
timetables
enables
a
stepwise
arithmetic
calculation
of
com-
parative
CO and
HC
emissions
for
the
years 1970,
1975
and
1980.
These
calculations
are
presented
in
the
Appendix
II
123
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TABLE
26
AUTOMOBILE
LONGEVITY
Fraction of Cars
(A-l) Years Old in Fraction of
Cars
A
Preceding
Year
Originally Produced
Age
of Car
Surviving
to
Become that
had
Survived
(Years) A
Years Old
i
in:
A
Years in:
1963 1964 1963 1964
2
-
3 .999
1
.000+
3
-
4
.999
.991
.999 .991
4
-
5
.990
.990
.990 .981
5
-
6 .974
.975
.964
.956
6
-
7
.957
.952
.922
.910
7
-
8
.936
.916 .863 .834
8
-
9
.906 .909
.781
.758
9
-
10
.856
.859
.669 .651
10
-
11
.813
.822
.544
.535
11
-
12
.780
.770
.424
.412
12
-
13 .764
.753 .324 .310
13
-
14
.769
.752
.249
.234
14
-
15 .752
.757
.187
.177
15
-
16
.773
.731
.145
.129
16+
.797
.825 .116
.107
Median
Automobile Life
=
11
Years
(Approx.)
Average
Age
of
Automobile
Population
=
6
Years
(Approx.)
124
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and the results are
plotted
in Figure
30.
It
is
obvious
that, despite the
time-lag
effect,
the degree
of
control
programmed
is so
sharp
that
the
indicated
reductions
in
average
emissions are
considerable. The
average
hydro-
carbon emission
will
be
reduced
from 660
ppm
in
1970
to
156 ppm in
1980,
and
the average
CO
emission
will
decrease
from
25,790
ppm
to
6,120
ppm
over this
same
period.
This
calculation
makes
no
assumptions concerning
the
nature
of
the
exhaust control technology to
be
employed,
but
should
it
be
of
a
non-integral nature, such
as a
catalytic
con-
verter, which
can
be added to older
models,
then
the
decrease
in emissions
would be even
more marked
than
shown
in Figure
30.
hydro
i
m
p
o
s
to
a
origi
emi
ss
p
e r
i
o
not
a
are,
ness
can
b
The i
carbons
in
i
t
i
o n of e
four-fol
d
n
a
1
design
ion levels
d). The
q
u x
i 1 i
a ry
t
o
r
w
i 1
1
be
of the
exh
e ventured
ndicated four-fold
reduction
in
CO
and
the immediate decade resulting from
the
xhaust
controls
is
substantially
equivalent
increase
in
tunnel ventilation
capacity
over
levels
(discounting
the
decreases
in
average
that have
already occurred in
the
1964-1971
uestion
naturally
arises
as to
whether
or
unnel
ventilation or
pollutant
removal
measures
,
required
in view of
the
apparent
effective-
aust
control
approach.
The
only
answers
that
at
this
time
are:
1. If
no changes
are
ambient
tunnel
co
used as the initi
design
basis,
the
will
not
be
requi
trol will
elimina
tunnel
pollutant
2. Tunnel
control
te
only in
the
event
criteria
call for
in
excess
of
thos
via source exhaus
made
in
the allowable
ncentration
levels
al ventilation
system
n
additional
controls
red,
and
source
con-
te any
excessive
loading problems,
chnology will
be needed
that ambient quality
pollutant
reductions
e presently
scheduled
t
controls.
Because
national primary
criteria
are still in
preparation,
review the
control
problems
at the
been
formulated
and accepted.
ambient
air quality
it
will
be
necessary
to
time
these
standards
have
Tunnel Air
Treatment:
Problem
Statement
The design
base used
in assessing
the
feasibility
of
various
tunnel air
treatment techniques was
a
1-mile
long,
single-tube
tunnel
with
a
ventilation air
rate
of 250,000
CFM
Data
on
the
gaseous
pollutant
volumetric
emission
rates
for
this
base tunnel
are
listed in
Table
27.
These
values
are
125
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Wdd**NONOO
NOSUVOOUaAH 1S0VHX3 39VU3AV
O
O
O
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
CO
*0
<fr
CM
o
CO
I
o
en
o
o
I—
LU
a.
o
•—
en
re
X
LU
UJ
CD
<c
a:
LU
o
LU
o
a:
o
CO
cr
CD
._0IX
Wdd
VN0N00
00 SnVHX3
39VU3AV
126
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TABLE
27
TUNNEL
POLLUTANT LOADINGS
Basis:
1
Mile
Tunnel
Length
Level
Single
Tube,
2,000 Vehicle/Hr.
40
Mile/Hr.
Average
Speed
Component
Ft.
3
/Hr.<
a
)
ppm
Lbs./Hr.<
b
)
Monoxide
2
,260
150
163.5
thylene 28
1.86 2.02
cetylene 28
1.86
1.88
carbon 68
4.53
17.6
<
c
>
Dioxide
8
0.53
0.95
Oxide 28
1.86
2.17
10 0.67 1.44
22
1.47 1.70
Dioxide
16
1.07
0.26
Dioxide
10,
170
678
1,156
Letter
from
F.
Roehlich,
MSA
Research,
March
19,
1971
to
B.
Lerner, Patent
Development
Associates
Based
on
70°F.
tunnel temperature
Assumed mol.
wt.
=
100
Ventilation Air Rate
=
250,
000
cfm.
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also
stated
in
terms
of
parts
per
million
(volumetric) and
mass
rates
to
provide comparisons with normal
industrial
pollution
equipment
capabilities. With the
exception
of
CO,
the
ppm
pollutant concentrations
listed
in Table
27 are
representative
of
treated
gaseous
effluent
concentration
levels
for
most
gas
processing
operations,
rather than
concentration inputs
to
such
processes.
of
the
the
lo
rel
ati
equi va
total
necess
to
rem
and
CO
select
to
rem
vol
ves
lbs/hr
capaci
cated
which
n
i
q
u e
s
contro
cessin
extrac
a rare
typi
ca
only
i
i
n d
i
c a
t i
o
n a
are
qu
b
e n
e
f
i
A
pol 1
u
a
d
i
n
g
s
vely 1
lent
t
air t
r
ary
to
ove le
Z'
*
n
i vi ty
ove
th
the r
air
,
Th
ty
wit
in
the
is h
i
,
and
1
oper
g
anal
tive m
metal
lly
0.
s
the
ted
po
i r
,
b
u
i
t
e
d
i
ts are
prel
imi
tion
lo
to the
ow. Th
o
a
wei
eatment
proces
ss
than
the
ca
requi
re
e eye
i
emoval
and
for
nary
me
as
ading
rat
assumed
e
ventila
ght
rate
is
to be
s more th
25 Ibs/h
se of the
ment is m
rri
tants
,
of
3.2
lb
NO
x
e
com
h the
Tabl
hly
u
even
ati
on
og
wi
etal 1
such
5% fo
conce
1
1
uta
t the
f fere
stil
binati
extre
e
27
d
n
i
q
u e
for
mo
s
such
t
h
s
i
m
urgi
ca
as
ur
r
uran
ntrati
nt con
cost-
nt tha
1
not
3.0
on of
mely
ata,
for i
st
sp
as
a
1
lar
1 ope
a
n
i
u m
ium
o
on
50
centr
benef
n
for
fully
ure
of
es
may
v e
n
t
i
1
tion
a
of
1
,1
c o
n
s
i
an
500
r of
p
i
n
d
i
v
uch
mo
acrol
s/hr
Ibs/h
high
low
CO
cal
1
s
ndustr
e
c
i
f
i
c
dsorpt
select
rati
on
from
x
i
d
e
.
to
1
a
t i o
n
it rel
pol lu
d
e f 1 n
the
very
be
obtain
a
t
i
o
n
air
ir rate
of
25,000 lbs
dered, the
tons/hr o
ol lutants
idual
poll
re
extreme
ein
and
fo
from
the
t
r
total
ncent
for
a
i
al
a
ally
ion.
i
vi
ty
s
i
nv
a
low
In
t
000-f
level
a
t
i o
n
tants
ed.
small
mag
ed by
com
rate,
w
h
i
250,000
/hr.
Thu
n
it
will
f
air
in
other
tha
utants, t
For
ex
rmal
dehyd
otal
1
,12
ni
tude
paring
ch
is
CFM
is
s
,
if
be
order
n
CO
he
ample
,
e
, in-
5,000
gas
ratio
remo
1
r
tr
s e
n
s
i
The
requ
o
1
v
i n
-cone
he la
old h
s
i
n
ships
,
whe
proces
n
leve
val
se
eatmen
tive
p
cl oses
iremen.
g
the
entrat
tter
c
1
g
h
e
r
tunnel
for u
re
the
sing
Is
i
n d
i
lecti
vi
ty
t
tech-
ollution
t
pro-
ts
is
removal
of
ion
ore,
ase
?
not
than for
venti
la-
ranium
health
The
tunnel air treatment
problem
becomes
even
more
complex
when
each
pollutant
is
matched
against
the
re-
moval
process judged
to
be
most
applicable
under
normal
cir-
cumstances. This
has been
done
in
Table 28,
which
briefly
summarizes
the
results
of
an evaluation
of
the
current
opti-
mum
control
process
art with
respect
to each
pollutant.
Also given
in
Table
28
are
particulate
data.
The process
selections listed
are
preliminary and
apparent
from an
engineering
point of
view; they
should not
be
considered
feasible
or
recommended
at this
point.
It is
obvious
from
Table
28
that
a
combination
of
processes
will
be required
for
the
removal
of most or all
of
the
pollutants.
Essentially,
the
1,125,000
lbs/hr
of tunnel air
must be
processed several
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TABLE
28
PRELIMINARY
SINGLE
-POLLUTANT
OPTIMUM PROCESS
INDICATION
Component
Monoxide
Dioxide
Oxide
Oxide
Dioxide
ppm Process
Indication
150
Catalytic
Oxidation
1.86
Catalytic
Oxidation
1,86
Catalytic
Oxidation
4.53
Carbon
Adsorption
0.53
Water
Absorption
1.86
Zeolite
Adsorption
0.67
Water
Absorption
1.47
Water
Absorption
1.07
Water
Absorption
678 Water
Absorption
a
)
(including
benzene
soluble organics)
(150)
/V
nr
500
Electrostatic
Precipitation
Letter of
December
30,
1970
from
F.
Roehlich,
Jr
,
MSA
Research
to
B.
J.
Lerner,
Patent
Development
Associates,
Inc.
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times
to
yield multi -pol
lutant removal
capability.
One
of
the
hidden
difficulties
in
Table
28
is
the
fact
that
each
process
was
selected
for
the
individual
pollutant,
neglecting
the
interference
and
interaction
effects
known
to
exist.
For
example,
gas
absorption
of
NO2
in water is
a
standard
operation for
this
component,
but
it
is
doubtful
if this soluble acid-gas
can
be absorbed in
the
presence
of
much higher
concentrations
of another
acid-gas:
CO2.
Further,
even when
considered
alone,
the
concentrations
of
NO2
in
tunnel
gas
are
far
below
the concentrations
normally
treated in sorption
operations, and
indeed,
below
usual
effluent
treated
gas
concentrations.
on
con
out
re
this 1
t
i
n
s
,
it
may
cation
some
as
aqu
a tunn
charac
the pa
proble
puri
ty
c
n
s t i
T
s
i
d
e r
feren
atter
whic
be n
of
t
f
the
eous
el wi
teri s
rticu
m;
th
-cont
tutes
he
sele
a t
i
n
ce
to
t
factor
h will
oted he
unnel
a
standa
a.bsorpt
11
not
tic of
larly
u
e
conce
ri
butio
a
seco
c
t i
n
f
the
heir
lead
be
co
re
th
ir
tr
rd
tr
ion.
be pe
such
n
i
q
u
e
ntrat
n or
ndary
s
listed
nature
tunnel
s
s
direct
nsidered
at
the
c
eatment
eatment
Re-use
rmi
ssi bl
treated
aspects
ion
of
p
s
u
b
s
t
i
t u
p
1 1
u
t i
i
n
T
of
th
i te
ly
to
i n
d
losed
in
si
proce
of
we
e bee
air.
of
t
ol
1
ut
tion
on pr
able
28
a
e si ngle
f
generat
f easi
bi
e
t
a
i
1
b
e
1
-system
a
tu
immedi
sses
of
T
t-scrubbe
ause
of
t
This
p
i
he tunnel
ants
is
s
by
a
trea
oblem.
re
bas
pol
lut
ion.
i
ty
de
ow.
H
spect
ately
able
2
d air
he
100
nts
up
venti
low
tment
ed
entirely
ants
with-
Addi
ng
termina-
owever
of
a
p
p 1
i
rules
out
8
,
such
within
%
humidity
one
of
1 a
t
i
n
that
im-
operation
Tunnel
Ventilation Costs
treat
tion
may
i
tunne
case
aside
provi
and
can
b
di
rec
data
Tunne
i
n
a
s
m
provi
pol
1 u
contr
for
prope
pol
1
u
ment
by
m
nvol
1 s
of
p
,
th
des
pera
e me
t,
t
beco
1 ve
uch
ded
tant
ol t
ne
rty
tion
As
i
for
eans
ve po
such
ollut
e ass
a yar
ting
asure
hey
c
me av
n
t
i
1
a
as
a
for
a
s i n
e c
h n i
r two
is
pa
cont
ndi
ca
pol
1
u
of
fa
s
s i
b
1
recon
i
on
c
essme
d
s
t i c
costs
d. W
an se
a
i 1
a
b
ti
on
100%
50%
the
t
ques
spec
rtly
rol
p
ted
a
tant
n
add
e rec
struc
ontro
nt
of
k
aga
of a
hi
le
rve a
1
e
to
base
incre
decre
unnel
c
n
s
i
i
f
i
c
of
f
se
roces
bove
remova
i t
i
n
onstru
tion
i
1
e
q
u
i
i ncre
i
n s
t
w
ny
ind
such
c
s a pr
permi
costs
a
s e
in
a
s e in
air.
dered
c
n
t
a
m
t
by
t
s
, so
an
al
t
1
is i
Al th
ction
s
much
pment
mental
h
i
c
h
t
i
v
i
d
u
a
ost
c
e
1
i
m
i
n
t
v a
1
i
provi
d
venti
conce
On th
be
ow
i
n
a
n
t s
he
h
i
that
d
ernate
t
ncreased
u
g
h
th
problems
more
p
r
i nstal
1
a
tunnel
he compa
1 pollut
ompari
so
ary
guid
d
cost-b
e
a
cons
1
a
t
i
n
f
nt
rati on
e
other
are
gene
T h i
s
her
effi
irect co
tunnel
a
i
tunnel
ven
s
latter me
for
existi
b
a
b
1 e in
t
tion.
This
ventilation
rative capi
ion control
ns
are
by
n
e
,
until
s
u
enefit calc
ervative
me
low theoret
for all ai
hand, ~Tn~e
p
rally
selec
limited s
e
ciency
of
t
st
comparis
r
t
i
1 a
-
thod
ng
he
factor
costs
tal
method
means
ff
i
cien
u
1 a t i
n
asure
ically
r
Dilutio
ti
ve
ecti vi t
he
ons
130
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at
this
stage
of
changing ambient standards
becomes
uncertain
fan
a
rate
be
no
neces
ti on
t a
i
n e
Studi
mi le
to se
cost
Table
1
sta
made
Add
it
b
i
n
a
t
di
rec
axi al
a
cos
Table
stati
Tabl
nd motor
of
250,00
ted
that
sarily
ap
systems
.
d
in
Proj
es
of the
Strai ght
a
level h
index
c
h
a
29
was
t
ndby,
eac
to provid
ional ly
,
ions in T
t
q
u
o t
a
t
i
motor-fa
t of
$11
,
29
value
c head.
e
29
pre
combi
nat
CFM
ag
this
is
ply
to
a
These
c
ect No.
Col
orad
Creek
Tu
orsepowe
nges bet
he use
o
h
of
250
e a
maxi
extrapol
able 29
on
from
n
comb
in
250
for
of
$18,
sents
i
ons
a
i
n s t
an
ar
11
ty
al
cul
170-3
o
Dep
nnel
.
r
req
ween
f
thr
,000
mum
(
ated
were
a
man
a t
i
o
n
the
p
500
f
a
tabul
to yield
di
f
fere
bi
tra
ry
pes
of
t
ations
w
(212)
(1
artment
These
ui rement
1964
and
ee fans
CFM
rati
and thus
unit
p
r
i
known
to
ufacture
s
at
1.5
air.
T
h
or the
s
a t
i
o
n
a
ne
nt
he
examp
unnel
ere
b
966)
of
Hi
latte
s
and
1970
1
su
ng,
a
cons
ces
o
be i
r
on
sta
is
co
ame
f
of
ca
ak
ven
ad 1
os
le
and
s
and
ased
o
Report
ghways
r data
corre
.
The
pply
,
c
h
o
i
c
ervati
f the
n t r
i
n
s
two
12
tic
he
mpares
low ca
p
i
t a 1
t
i
1 a t i
ses
.
does
tunnel
n the
on
Ve
for
t
were
cted
f
basi
s
1
exha
e
deli
ve
) co
motor-
ic
a
11
y
5,000
ad
i
n
with
pa
city
costs
of
on
air
It
should
not
v
e
n
t
i
1
a
-
data con-
n t
i 1
a t
i
o
n
he
1
.6
corrected
or the
for
ust
and
berately
st
basis.
fan
corn-
high;
CFM
vane-
i
cated
the
at
1
men
tat
i
static
250,000
venti
1
a
a
total
The
new
origina
for
the
be
$6,6
the
cap
constan
the
use
tunnel
.
in
vol
ve
charge
Ta
on
ro
head
CFM
tion
capi
head
1 hea
adde
80.
ital
t
del
of
a
Tab
a
ca
incre
ble
2
ute o
(or
b
f
1
ow
rate
tal
c
of 4
d
req
d sys
Addit
costs
i
vere
f
i xe
le 29
pita
ment
9
pro
f
pro
oth).
for
a
at
a
harge
.2
W
ui
rem
tern
o
ional
i ncu
d vol
d-bed
show
cost
of
$1
v
i
d
e s a
v
i
d
i
n
g
e
Thus
,
n
i
n
i
t
i
a
2
stati
for
the
.G.
woul
ent, and
n a
30-y
ly,
Tabl
rred
in
ume,
a
s
p
o
1
1
u
t
i
s that a
increme
,700.
base
i
t
h
e r
to pr
1
250
c pre
addi
d
sat
the
ear
a
e
29
incre
i
t
u a
t
on
co
n inc
nt of
cost
i
ncr
ovi
de
,000
ssure
t
i
o
n a
i
s
f
y
annua
morti
may
b
a
s i
n
g
ion t
ntrol
remen
$26,
of the
emental
an
i
n c
CFM
tunn
head,
w
1
blower
the
squa
1
capita
z a
t i
o
n s
e used
t
the sta
hat woul
unit
in
tal
3
W
100,
and
bl
owe
vol
urn
ement
el
pe
oul
d
s
of
rinq
1 cha
chedu
o
est
tic
h
d
res
a
ve
.G. h
an
a
r aug-
e or
al
ak
requi re
$102,600.
of the
rges
le
would
imate
ead
at
ult
from
nti 1
ati
on
ead
would
n n u a
1 i z
e
d
The tunnel
ventilation
fan operating
costs
were
also
adapted
from the
Straight
Creek Tunnel
Design report,
and
the
electrical
energy costs were
assumed
to
be the
same
as
in
the
report.
In
the absence
of
a
specific reference
tunnel
location,
the
electrical
power
cost
data for
any
location
may
be
used
as
a
reference case, provided the
detailed
cost
break-
down
is provided,
as
was
the
case
in
the
Straight
Creek
Tunnel
report.
The
calculated data
are
summarized
in
Table
30,
and
attention
is
called
to
the assumed operating
rate
of
half-peak
load
for
365 days/year
plus peak
load of
44
hours
per
week.
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of
a
incu
city
with
capa
the
sign
oper
the
pres
on
t
tunn
aero
the
a
ne
proc
loss
al
te
will
pol
1
rs
a
wi
1
out i
ble
o
cost-
i
f
i
ca
a t
i
n
g
pol 1
u
ented
he
he
els
ss
th
norma
g
i i
g
i
esses
char
mate
poss
It
s
u
t
i
o
n
head
be
r
nstal
f
red
benef
nt
he
cost
ti on
by
t
ad-ca
pragm
e pol
1
hea
ble h
that
acter
to
h
ess
a
hould be
o
control
u
loss
of
1
equi red.
1
a
t
i
o
n of
u c
i
n
g
the
it
p
o
t e
n
t
ad
loss
mu
s
of
the
a
improvemen
he fan
inc
pa
city
cur
a
t
i
c
a
11
y
t
1
u
t
i
o
n
con
d
rating
o
ead
loss.
have
an
i
istic,
but
i
g
h
h
e a
d
-
two-fold
b
v
i
o
u
nit i
or m
Howev
the
p
pol 1 u
al
of
st
ou
dditi
t
ben
remen
ves
o
h
i
s w
trol
f
the
Ther
nhere
in
v
oss
e
econo
s
at
t
n
the
ore
, t
er ,
th
o
1
1
u
t
i
tant
c
pol lu
twei
gh
onal f
efit
o
t
i t
s
e
f
the
o
u 1 d i
equipm
o r
i
g
i
e are
ntly 1
iew of
quipme
m
i c
ad
his
p
o
tunnel
hen
ad
e use
on
con
oncent
t
i
o
n
c
not
o
anpowe
f
the
If.
W
origin
n d
i
c
a
t
ent
be
nal
fa
very
f
ow
or
the
i
nt
,
th
vantag
i n t
t
h
v
e
n
t
i
d
i
t
i o
n
of
thi
trol u
ration
ontrol
nly
th
r
requ
v
e
n
t
i 1
hile
t
al fan
e
that
held
n
,
and
ew
pol
n
e
g
1
i
g
ncreme
e
1
ow-
e.
at
if
1 a t
i
o
al fa
s
fan
nit,
1 eve
unit
e
cap
i
r e
d
,
ati on
his
w
s
i
n
the
to
le
pref
1 utio
i
ble
ntal
1
oss
l
nse
n
sys
n cap
al
on
is it
Is.
wi th
ital
but
pote
ill
d
exist
head
ss
th
erabl
n
con
press
v e n t
i
equip
rtio
tern
a-
e,
self
Thus
and
al so
n
t i
epen
ing
1
oss
an
y
to
trol
ure
1
a
t
ment
Process
Feasibility:
CO
and Hydrocarbons
c
1 u
d i
combu
remov
CO
an
pol
1 u
the
p
Table
o x
i
d
a
fact
tunne
known
the
a
advan
remov
suppl
Be
ng oxyg
sti
on
ing
the
d
hydro
tant
lo
referre
27
led
tion
wa
that th
1
air
a
feed
s
mbient
tage fo
al for
i
e d
,
an
cause the
enated
hy
completi
o
se
pollut
carbons
c
ad, and
o
d i
n
d
u s
t r
to
the
p
s not
fea
e
concent
re
severa
tream to
temperatu
r such
a
the
requi
d thermal
pres
droca
n
of
ants
n
s t i
x i
d
a t
ial
t
rel
im
s
i
b 1
e
ratio
1 ord
a
the
re
of
proce
red t
i
n
c
i
ence of
r
b
o
n
s
,
i
combusti
from
tun
tute
the
ive remo
reatment
i
n a
ry
j u
This
n
1
eve
ers
of m
rmal inc
the tun
ss.
All
hernial
c
nerati
on
CO
and
s
the
r
on is
a
n
e
1
air
major
val
of
method
dgement
concl us
of
com
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
i
n
e
r a
t
i
n
e
1
air
of the
ycle
mu
was
no
hydroca
esult
o
n
o
b v i
o
Howe
f
racti
o
these
f
9
i n
s
p
e
that
t
ion
is
b u s
t i
b
1
e lower
on
proc
presen
energy
st
be
e
t
c
o
n
s
i
rbons
f
inc
us
me
ver
ns
of
racti
c
t
i
o
n
herma
based
es in
than
ess
ts no
i
npu
xtern
dered
,
in-
omplete
thod of
al
though
the
o n s
is
of
1
on
the
the
any
and
that
thermal
t
and
ally
fea
si
bl
134
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or
treated
in
depth. However,
some
preliminary
calculations
were
carried
out
to
assess
the
magnitude
of
the
economics
of
a
hypothetical
heat/cooling
cycle.
di
rect
combus
to
the
greate
the tu
Assumi
increm
e s t
i
m
a
cycle,
requir
vati
ve
taking
then
t
operat
time
o
this
f
costs.
105
CF
CFH
of
1
o
a
d
i n
a sepa
total
tunnel
t
e c
h
n
i
appear
Ther
flame a
tion
of
tunnel
r
concen
n n
e
1
air
n
g
,
ther
ent of 1
tes have
using
a
ements
o
estimat
these
a
he
minim
ion
w
o u
f
2,288
igure is
Fur the
H
of
nat
combust
g.
Thes
rate
flu
vent
i 1
at
s would
cal and
to
be
n
employs
o
than
thos
neverthel
costs
for
ambient
,
operation
pol
lutant
energy,
trial low
moval
,
tw
the
low-t
commerci
on
automo
ity
tempe
no
furthe
which
app
condition
c a
1
c u
1
a t i
were
made
The
perat
e
use
ess w
tunn
or ne
,
to
prob
While
-temp
o
rec
emper
al 6
ti
ve
ratur
r
i
nf
ears
s rep
ons
o
to
d
e
are
nd
i
n
di
rec
air
p
trati
,
thi
ef
ore
000°F
been
ther
f
5.5
e
of
s
equ
al
an
d
be
hours
far
r,
it
ural
ion
g
e wou
e
,
bu
ion
a
i
n v o
1
econo
e
g
a
t
i
norma
ing
t
d
in
ould
el ai
ar-am
avoid
1
em
o
a
11
eratu
ent
1
ature
0% Mn
exhau
e
of
ormat
to
be
orted
f
the
eterm
two
di
re
t
fl
ollu
on
1
s
me
,
in
,
Pr
mad
mal
6
x
cool
al
t
nual
$99,
. E
i
n e
sho
gas
ases
Id h
t
si
ir r
ve
c
mic
ve.
types
ct
hea
a me
in
tant
c
evel s
thod
w
di
rect
e
1
i
m i n
e.
Fo
e
f
f
i
c
i
10
5
CF
ing
cy
o
the
opera
200,
b
ven wi
xcess
ul d
be
as
f
ue
with
ave
to
nee th
ate
,
p
o
n
s i
d
e
i
n
d
i
c
a
of
th
ting,
c
i
n
e r
a
oncent
as
tho
as
jud
heati
ary he
r
the
ency
1
H are
cl
e
op
n
a
t u r a
ting
c
ased
o
thout
of the
noted
1
prod
their
be ve
ey
amo
rovi
si
rabl e
ti
ons
ermal
o
Becaus
tion wo
rations
s
e
o
r
i
g
ged not
ng,
and
a t
i
n
g
a
heating
evel of
indicat
era ting
1
gas c
osts
fo
n a
tot
system
a u
x
i 1
i
that t
uces a
own
sec
nted fr
unt
to
on
for
constru
for the
x i d
a t
i
o
e
the
p
uld
pro
of
the
i
n
a
1
1
y
a
p
p
1 i
c
a
temp
nd
cool
p
o
r t
i o
5
0%,
n
ed.
If
costs
osts
fo
r
the
t
al
annu
capital
ary
ven
he use
total
o
ondary
om the
about
2
this in
c
t
i
o
n
.
rmal
ox
n
pra
roduc
bably
same
prese
able
.
eratu
ing
c
n
of
atura
a
co
is ma
r
hea
herma
al
op
char
ti
lat
of 5.
f
3.7
pol
lu
tunne
5% of
exi
s
Thus
i
da
ti
c t
i c
e
d
;
ts
of
add
or
nt
in
re
ost
the
1
gas
nser-
de,
ting,
1
cycle
erating
ges,
ion
56
x
c
6 x
10
6
tion
1
by
the
ting
,
both
on
1 i n
d
u
empera
therma
consti
r
trea
b
i
e n t
both
f
auxi
teratu
re o x
aborat
requi
02/40%
st
and
25°C.
ion
co
s
i m i 1
for
t
requi
i
n
e
t h
stri
a
tures
1 oxi
tute
tment
tempe
therm
1
i
a
ry
re
se
d
a t
i
o
ory
d
remen
CuO
repo
Desp
uld
b
ar to
his c
red
c
e
fea
1
cataly
several
d
a
t
i
o
n
t
apprecia
.
What
rature
c
al cycl
i
fuel
-bu
arch
fai
n
proces
evelopme
ts.
The
catalyst
rted
to
ite seve
e
elicit
Hopcal
i
a t a
1
y
s
t
atalyst
si
bi
1 i ty
tic ox
hundr
e c
h
n
i
q
ble
th
is
req
atalyt
ng
and
r
n
i
n
g
led
to
ses fo
nts
ap
first
teste
have a
ral
di
ed
on
te.
B
were
v
vol ume
of
la
idati
ed
de
ues
,
ermal
ui
red
ic ox
the
to su
find
r
pol
peare
of
t
d
by
thre
rect
this
ecaus
ery
e
and
rge
s
on
pr
grees
but
t
cycl
i
s
a
idati
secon
pply
any
lutan
d
to
hese
Canno
shold
i
n
q
u
i
mater
e
the
ncour
heat
cale
ocess
lower
hese
ing
n
on
dary
thermal
i
n
d
u
s
-
t
re-
satisfy
is
a
v
n
(58)
acti
v-
ries
,
i al
,
test
aging
,
loss
a
p
p
1 i
-
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cation to the
250,000
CFM
base tunnel air
case:
Cannon Catalyst
:
60
Mn02/40 CuO
Test
Conditions:
Space
Velocity
=
10,880
hr
Operating
Temperature
=
25°C
Catalyst
Density
=
0.88 g/ml
Volumetric
Air Flow
=
250,000
CFM
a.
Catalyst Volume Required
Volume
=
{250,000)(60)
=
-,
380 CF
10,880
b. Pressure Drop
Without
information
on
the physical
form
of
the
catalyst, it
is necessary to
assume
that it
would
be equiv-
alent
to
4-10
mesh granules
in
fixed-bed
form.
Assuming
further
a
linear velocity of
80 ft/min,
typical
of
granular
fixed-bed
gas
processing:
Case
I
:
Face Velocity
=
80
FPM
Bed
Area
=
(250,000
CFM)
_
„
3>125
ft
2
(80
FPM)
Bed
Thickness
=
.(Volume)
=
P?jj°?
=
0.441
ft
(Area)
(3125)
5.3 inches
Weight
of
Catalyst
=
(1380
CF)
(0.88) (62.4
PCF)
=
7,580
lbs
From
Figure
1,
Appendix II:
Pressure
Drop/inch
depth
at
80
FPM
=
0.725
in.W.G
Pressure
Drop
through
5.3-inch
bed
=
(0.725)
(5.3)
=
3.84 in.
W.G.
The
above
pressure
drop
calculation
was
based
on a
normal linear
gas
flow
velocity
through
a
fixed
granular
bed,
and
the AP of
3.84
in.
W.G.
may
be
excessive
for
ventilation
blowers
with
limited
heads.
It is
therefore
desirable
to
calculate
bed
area
and
thickness for
the
case
of
limited
blower
head,
and this
latter value
can
now be assumed as not
to
exceed
1
inch
W.G.
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Case
II:
Face Velocity
=
45
FPM
(Trial
&
error
from
Figure
1,
Appendix
II)
Bed
Area
=
(
25
?»??°?
=
5,560
ft
2
(45)
Bed Thickness
=
-(^jj*Jg|
=
0.2485
ft
=
(0.2485)
(12)
=
2.98 inches
From
Figure
1,
Appendix
II,
at
45
FPM
Pressure
drop/
in.
depth
=
0.33
in.
W.G.
Total Pressure Drop
=
(2.98)
(0.33)
=
0.985
in.
is
ac
45 FP
to
3
vel
oc
from
area
,
in te
econo
facto
d
a t
i
o
bed
a
c a
p
i
t
vol
ve
p
a
r i
s
appea
the
t
there
the C
and
t
times
Secon
carbo
may
n
bons
,
which
The
t
manga
t a t
i
v
pol
lu
The
compl
is
he
M,
and
a
inches,
ity value
3,125
ft
2
which
wi
rms of th
mic calcu
r,
to pro
n. The
o
rea
cap
it
al
and
op
d
,
from
t
on
be
req
Whil
rs
to
off
u n n
e
1
air
are two
annon
tes
he
concen
as
great
d, there
n
fractio
ot be
pos
such
as
are
much
e
c h n i
c a
1
nese-copp
ely
promi
tant cone
reduct
d
by
t
simul
t
Howeve
of
10
to
5
,
11
be
e
extr
lation
vide
t
ptimum
al
cos
eratin
he
dat
ui
red.
i
on in
he
red
aneous
r
,
in
,800 h
560
ft
ref
lee
a
bed
s out
he mos
fixed
t rel a
g
cost
a
of
T
press
u
u c
t
i
o
n
decrea
order
t
r-1, th
2
.
Thi
ted
in
constru
ined
be
t o
p
t
i
m
-bed
un
t i
o n
s h i
s
diffe
ables 2
re
dr
in
fa
se
in
con
e
bed
s
i
s
the
c
c t
i
o
n
1
ow
d
i
s
t
i
c
it
in
p
can
rence
9
and
op
f
ce ve
bed
serve
f
1 ow
a
783
a
p
i
t a
requ
e 1
i
b
e
cost
term
be d
for
30,
om
3.8
loci
ty
t
h
i
c
k n
the i
area
incre
1 cost
ired.
rately
e s t
i
m
s
of
t
etermi
the bl
should
to
from
ess
f
n i
t
i a
incre
ase
i
of
t
Howe
negl
ate
f
he
he
ned f
owers
this
1
W.G.
80 to
rom
5.3
1 space
ases
n
bed
he
unit
ver,
the
e
c
t
this
or
oxi-
ad-loss/
rom the
in-
com-
e
the
er
re
prob
a
d d i
t
ts
we
trati
as t
is ev
n
by
s i
b
1
e
acrol
more
feasi
er ox
sing,
entra
ambien
asonabl
lem,
pe
i
o
n a
1
a
re
made
ons
of
hose
to
i
d
e n
c
e
ambient
,
and
c
e
i
n
and
discern
bil
ity
i
d
e
cat
and
fu
t
i
o
n
s
i
t-tem
e
pro
n d
i n
g
spect
di
re
pol
lu
be
e
that
-temp
ertai
form
forti
of
ca
alyst
rther
s
str
perature
spects o
further
s
to
be
ctly on
tants we
ncounter
complete
erature
n
partia
al dehyde
ng
than
t a
1
y
t
i
c
s
may
be
di
rect
ongly re
,
MnOo/Cu
f
appiica
developm
considere
automoti
v
re approx
e
d in
tun
oxidati
o
catalytic
1
ly-oxidi
,
are eye
their
i
n
e
oxidation
consider
testing a
commended
catalyst
bil
ity
to
ent
effort,
d. First,
e
exhaust,
imately
150
n
e 1
air.
n
of
the
hydro
oxidation
zed hydrocar-
irri
tants
rt
precursors.
employing
ed
to
be ten-
t
tunnel
air
One
of the
well-established
feasibility factors
for
catalytic
oxidation
of
automobile-derived
pollutants
is the
susceptibility of
the
catalyst
to
poisoning
by the lead
salts
and
other particulates
present
in
auto
exhaust.
Based
on
exhaust
catalytic
converter
experience continuous
long
term
137
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use
of
a
feasible
and a
co
This
con
temperat
consi sts
carbon,
temperat
120°C,
a
the
lowe
catalyst
scale, w
pressure
space
ve
that
ext
because
catalyst
of
its
a
carbon
a
fixed
w
i t
h o
st
eva
sidera
ure
ox
of
a
When
ure
at
1
thoug
st
the
appea
i t
h
s
p
Tes
loci ti
rapol a
of the
,
i
t
i
p
p
1
i
c
a
dsorpt
-bed
ut pr
luati
ti on
i
d
a
t
i
trans
used
whic
h
the
rmal
rs pr
ace v
ts
at
es
of
ti
on
acti
s pro
tion
ion
,
catalytic
o
v
i
s
i
o n
f
on
must
c
also
appl
on
ca'taly
ition
met
on
ammoni
h
plus-90
re
were
i
activity
omi sing
,
e
1
o
c
i
t
i e s
higher
p
4800
hr~
to
tunnel
vated
car
bable tha
will
clos
treated
b
o x
i
d
a
or pre
n
s
i d
e
ies
to
st
dev
al oxi
a synt
%
oxid
n
d
i
c
a
t
level
the
da
of
on
ressur
1
show
d
e
s
i
g
bon ba
t
the
ely
pa
el ow.
tion
p
r
-remova
r
the
c
the
se
eloped
de supp
h
e s
i
s
g
at ion
w
ions
t
h
a
c
h
i
e
v
a
ta
prov
ly
200
es
(400
ed
only
n i s un
se
for
feasibi
rallel
ocess
1
of
ombin
cond
by
Su
orted
as
,
t
as
ob
at
th
ble.
i ded
hr-1
psi)
503
certa
this
lity
that
is
not
parti
cul
ed
syste
on
acti
he
lowes
tained
w
i
s
was
n
While
t
are
labo
at
ambie
and
hi
g
c
o n v e r s
i
in.
How
o
x
i d
a
t
i
o
and
econ
of
a
c
t
i
v
ates
m.
1
ow-
wh\ch
vated
t
as
ot
his
ratory
nt
her
on
,
so
ever
,
n
omics
ated
Price information
on the
Mn02/Cu0
catalyst
tested
by
Cannon
was
not
available directly, and it was
therefore
assumed
that this
was
a
precipitated
material. From
publishe
price
data
on
the component
oxides
so
prepared,
it
was
esti-
mated
that the
cost
of
the mixed oxides
was
approximately
$1.80/1b.
Provided that
bulk
quantities
of this
catalyst
could
be
obtained
at
this
price,
the catalyst cost
for the
required
7,580
lbs
would
be
$13,644.
This
latter
figure
involves
considerable
uncertainty because
of
the
quantity
involved and
the.
present
lack of
available
information
on
commercial
sources.
lyti
i
t
w
unit
corr
adso
CFM
from
of
t
the
trea
deca
f
11
cata
were
e s
t
i
cont
diff
give
c
oxid
as fel
s
coul
e c
t
i
o
n
rbers
have
n
the 1
unnel
extrap
ting
2
nter
er
hou
lytic
equiv
mated
a
i n s
a
erence
s
an
i
Because
a
t
i
o
n
op
t
that
a
d
be
app
for
the
(and
cat
ot
yet
b
0,000
to
air flow
olated
i
50,000
C
blower
a
sing and
oxidatio
alent
to
capital
carbon
between
ncrement
of th
erati
v
a
i
1 a
lied
cost
a
lyti
een
b
50,0
of
t
nstal
FM of
nd
mo
vess
n , it
50%
cost
charg
this
al
co
e sirrn
ons an
ble
ca
to
the
of ca
c
oxid
u
i
1
1
00
CFM
he
pre
1 ed
co
ai
r
tor,
c
el
,
wa
was
a
of the
of
$14
e
of
$
price
st of
larity
b
d
a
c t
i v
a
pital
co
catalyt
talyst
a
a
t
i
o
n u
n
it is n
range t
sent
pro
st of an
i
n
c
1
u
d
i
n
ooling
t
s
est
i
ma
ssumed t
total
i
7,000.
0.45/lb,
and the
$10,233,
etween
f
ted
carb
sts
data
ic
opera
nd
acces
its) 1
a r
cessary
o
the
25
blem.
F
acti
vat
g
superh
ower,
fi
ted
to
b
hat the
nstal
led
However,
and
cor
$1.80/1
for
a
t
ixed-
on ad
for
tion,
sorie
ger
t
to ex
0,000
rom
H
ed
ca
eater
1 ters
e
$29
acces
cost
this
recti
b
cat
otal
bed
c
sorbe
the
1
wi
th
s.
B
han
5
trapo
CFM
EW, A
rbon
,
con
,
car
5,000
sory
s
giv
f
igu
ng
f
alyst
of
$1
ata-
rs
,
atter
due
ecause
0,000
1
ate
1 eve]
P-68U
adsorb
denser
bon
For
charge
i
n
g
an
re
r
the
cost
57,233
138
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on catalyst
life
with
and
without
pre-removal
particulates,
a
situation
that
should
be
experimentally
for
the
low
tunnel
air
particulate
loading of
yg/m^, it
probably
would
be cheaper
to
periodically
the
catalyst
rather
than
install
a suitable
partic-
device
such
as
an
electrostatic
precipitator.
of
catalyst
cost and
life data
does
not
allow
a firm
at
this
time,
but
assuming
a
3-year
replacement
at the
above-estimated catalyst
cost, plus 35%
the
labor
involved in
change-over,
the
annualized
catalyst
would
then
be
$4,775.40,
and
the
particulate control
is
eliminated.
The
write-off
period for
pollution
control equip-
will
vary
with
the potential corrosion
severity
of the
and system handled, but in
any
event
will be
faster
for
a
purely
mechanical unit such as a
blower and motor.
the comparatively
mild
conditions expected in
ambient-
catalytic
oxidation,
a
20-year
straight-line
period may be assumed. The capital and operating
for
catalytic
oxidation may
be summarized
as
follows:
TABLE
31
-
SUMMARY OF CATALYTIC OXIDATION
COSTS
60%
Mn0
2
/40%
CuO Ambient-Temperature
Catalyst
nnual Unit
Annualized
Annual
Fan
Total
Annual
Total
Catalyst
Capital Cost
Capital
Operating
Replacement
(Table
29)
Charges
Cost
Cost
(Table
30)
$9,434
$4,775
$4,980 $19,189
$4,095
Including 20%
for
taxes,
insurance
and maintenance.
For the
removal of small
amounts
of hydrocarbons
an air stream,
activated carbon
adsorption
is
the
method
choice,
primarily
because of its
selectivity
and
low-concen
capability.
A
number
of discussions
were
held
with
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engineering representatives
of
a
major activated
carbon
supplier with reference
to the practicality of
a
250,000
CFM
scale
of
operation,
which
was
known
to
be
roughly
10
times that of
a
large
industrial
installation.
The
con-
sensus
as
to
economic
feasibility
was
negative,
although
technically,
there
was no indication of
scale
problems
for
adsorbable
hydrocarbons,
although
capacity
was
questionable
On
a
preliminary
basis, removal
of
a
single
component
or
pollutant
group
from
the air
stream with
a
high-head
loss
fixed-bed operation is an
expensive
and less-than-i deal
method
of
partial
control.
carbo
lene
i
s o
t
h
pany,
or
fo
which
on he
w i 1
at
7
limit
to
th
data
deci d
i
s
o t
h
Compa
re
g
i
o
sente
ns
in
and
e
erm
d
ther
rmald
thes
xane
be
ad
ppm
(
ed
ca
e
pre
on th
ed
to
erms
ny,
a
n
of
d i
n
As
shown
tunnel
thylene,
ata
supp
e
will b
ehyde
at
e
compon
adsorpti
sorbed
n
6.86
x
1
paci
ty.
1
i
m
i
n
a
ry
e
hydroc
utilize
were
sup
nd
an
ex
hydrocar
Figure 2
in
T
air
a
i s
a
lied
e
no
the
ents
on
da
er 10
0-5
p
In
o
desi
arbon
n-bu
plied
trapo
bon
c
in A
abl
e
t pea
bout
by
Pi
ads
or
1
or
are
p
ta
,
a
lbs
si
a)
rder
gn,
p
comp
tane
by
P
1 a t i
o
oncen
ppend
27,
t
k
loa
7
ppm
ttsbu
pti on
2
ppm
resen
t
77°
carb
is
pr
to
ta
arti
c
o
s
i
t
i
adsor
i
1
1
s
b
n
of
t
r
a
t
i
ix
II
he
con
ding,
Bas
rgh Ac
of
et
conce
tint
F
and
on , so
obably
ke
a
c
u
1
a r
1
y
on
in
p
t
i
o
n
urgh
A
these
on
in
Fro
centr
excl
u
ed
on
t
i
v
a t
hylen
ntrat
unnel
1
psi
hydr
feas
onser
i
n
t
tunne
data,
c
t
i v
a
i
s
o
t
h
tunne
m
thi
ation
of
hydro-
si ve of
acety-
adsorpti
on
ed
Carbon
Com-
e,
acetylene
ion
levels at
air.
Based
a,
30
lbs
hexane
ocarbon
adsorption
ible,
although
at
vative
approach
he
absence
of
1
air, it
was
The
n-butane
ted
Carbon
erms
to
the
1
air
is
pre-
s
basis:
Activated
Carbon
Adsorber
Design
Part I: Adsorption
Cycle
:
From Figure
2,
Appendix II
at 7
ppm HC:
Capacity to
saturation
=
1.57
lb
n-butane/100
lb
carbon
Working
Charge,
at
50% of
saturation
capacity
=
0.785
lb n-butane/100
lb
carbon
From
Lee
(1970)
and
PACC0
data:
Face
Velocity
=
80
F
Area
of
Bed
Required
=
(250,000j.
=
3
j
2
5
ft
2
Bed
Depth:
In order
to
avoid the
use
of
a
two-
bed
system, and
the
extreme
capital
costs involved,
bed
depth was
selected
by
trial
and
error
to
yield
a
single-
140
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bed adsorber
capable
of
operating,
with steam regeneration,
within
a
24-hour cycle.
Design
is such
that
steam
regeneration can
be theoreti-
cally
accomplished
in
off-peak
load
time
period.
Bed
Depth
=
6
inches
Volume
of Bed
=
(3,125)
(1/2)
=
1,562
CF
Weight
of
Carbon
in
Bed
(at
30
Ib/CF bulk
density)
=
(1
,562)
(30)
=
46,860
lbs
Weight
of
Adsorbate
to
Breakthrough
=
(46,860)
(0.00785)
=
368 lbs
Lb/Hr
of
Hydrocarbon
(Table
27)
=
17.6 Ib/hr
Duration of
Adsorption
Cycle
368
)
=
20.8
hours
17.6)
From
Figure
1,
Appendix
II:
Pressure Drop/inch
depth
at
80 FPM
=
0.725
in.W.G.
Pressure
Drop
through 6-inch
bed
=
(0.725)
(6)
=
4.35
in.W.G.
The
pressure
loss through
the
fixed-bed
adsorber
is
virtually the
same
as
the
head
capacity
of
the
4.2
W.G.
blower
listed in Tables 29
and
30,
and
the
operating
costs
of
this
unit
may be added
to
those of
the
adsorption
equip-
ment
(capital cost
estimate
for
the
activated
carbon
adsorber
includes
the blower).
In the
absence of
actual system test
data,
steam
regeneration
cycle requirements
for
a
uniquely
low
concen-
tration
of
7 ppm
hydrocarbon
of varying
composition
can
at
best be
roughly
approximated. Mattia(56) presents
dsta
for
adsorption
of
a
20
ppm
solvent from a
20,000
CFM
stream,
together
with
steam regeneration time
curves
for
various
blowdown
rates. Taking
a
value
of
128
minutes
regeneration
from
the
Mattia
curve at
a
blowdown
rSte
of
2000
CFM, and
estrapol
ating
linearly
to the
tunnel air
adsorption
conditions
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CFM Blowdown Required
=
(20
ppm)
(20,000
CFM)
(2,000
CFM)
(7
ppm)
(250,000
CFM)
=
8,760
CFM
Lb
Steam/Regeneration, assuming
110%
blowdown for
vessel
heatup
:
=
(8,760)
(492)(128)(18)(1.1)
(359)(7l0)
=
42,900
lbs/cycle
Assuming
50%
operational
time
requirements:
No.
Cycles/Year
=
(
3
^
5
)p2)
=
182
cycles
where
adsorption
time
=
20.8 hours,
regeneration
time
='
2.1 hours
,
and heating-cooling
time
=
1.1 hours
oxidati
on
the high
space req
case
of
t
regenerat
and
cooli
duces
no
condensat
contami
na
stripping
thermal
i
conventi
o
appears t
a
p
p
1
i
c
a
t i
regenerat
of
techni
tions are
While the
and adsor
flow requi
uirement
p
he adsorpt
ion
e
q
u
i p.m
ng water,
secondary
ion
in
an
ted water
is used,
ncineratio
nal steam-
o
offer
th
on to
tunn
ion
data
r
cal
feasib
not avail
s
i
m
i 1
a
p
t
i
o n
b
red
in
roblems
ion
ope
ent
sue
etc. A
p
o 1
1
u t
i
adsorpt
st earn
the
hyd
n
costs
regener
e
fewes
el
air
equi red
i 1 i
ty
i
able.
r
fixe
oth ap
the
co
.
Thi
ration
h as
a
1
s
o
,
w
on pro
ion
cy
to
d i s
rocarb
must
ated
a
t
prob
contro
for
a
n the
d-bed
pear
ntact
s
i
s
whi
c
1
arg
hi
le
blem,
cle
p
pose
on
ca
be
ad
dsorp
1 ems
1
,
bu
more
const
proc
to
be
beds
parti
h
req
e ste
catal
stea
roduc
of.
n
be
ded.
ti
on
in
st
t
the
ri
no
rai nt
esse
tec
may
cul
a
ui re
am
b
yti
c
m re
es
a
If
h
burn
The
syst
rai
g
bas
rous
s
of
s of
ca
h
n
i
c a 1
give
r
rly tru
s
acces
oiler,
o
x
i
d
a
t
generat
hydroc
o t
i
n e r
ed but
sing e
em out
htforwa
i
c
a
d
s
o
determ
tunnel
talyti c
y
feasible
i
s e to
e
in the
sory
condenser
ion pro-
ion/
arbon-
t-gas
then
-bed
,
ined
above
rd
rption/
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
i n
s t
a 1 1 a
As
was noted
in
the
economic workup
on
fixed-bed
catalytic oxidation,
the
capacity
of
the
adsorption
system
required,
250,000
CFM,
far
exceeds
that
of any
unit
yet
built.
Extrapolation
of economic data
to
this range
is
ex-
treme,
and
extremely
uncertain.
Again using
HEW
AP-68C12)
curves
for
installed costs, and
extrapolating:
Installed Cost,
250,000
CFM
Adsorber
=
$295,000
142
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Capital
Charges
:
Assuming
15-year
life,
20%
taxes and
insurance
Annualized Capital
Charges
=
$23,600
Operating Charges
:
Steam
Costs:
Cost/cycle,
at
$1.00/M
lb
steam
cost
=
$42.90
Cost/Year,
182
cycles
=
$7,808
Blower Cost
From Table
30,
1
W.G.
=
$4,095
Total Operating
Costs
=
$11,903
Total Annual Capital
+
Operating Charges
=
$35,503
susce
the
e
carbo
the
r
parti
cated
f
orwa
Addit
of
re
pol
lu
ical
forma
this
Ac
pti ble
conomi
c
n
repla
ate
of
cul
ate
are
no
rd
vent
i
on
a
ly
movi
ng
tant
sp
1
ow-wei
ldehyde
time.
t
i
v a
t e d
to
bind
s
of
pa
cement
loss of
loading
t
encou
i 1
a t i
o
n
,
the
c
only th
ectrum,
ght
hyd
.
Thus
carbo
i n
g
an
rti
cul
are
in
adsor
How
raging
in ere
arbon
e
heav
and n
rocarb
,
this
n
adsor
d deact
ate rem
determi
p
t
i
o
n
c
ever, t
,
compa
ases
as
system
ier hyd
o sorpt
ons sue
proces
p
t i
o
n
i
v
a
t
i
oval
nate
a
p
a c
i
he ec
red
w
show
has
t
rocar
ion
c
h
as
s can
systems
are
particularly
on by particulates,
and
equipment
y_s_.
periodic
without information
on
ty at the
500
yg/m
3
onomics already
indi-
i
th the costs
of
straight'
n
in
Table
29 and
30.
he
limited
capability
bon fraction
from
the
apability for
the crit-
acetylene,
ethylene
and
not
be recommended at
Process
Feasibility:
Particulates
c
i
p
i
t
a
air.
sorpti
commer
handle
a
250,
di
rect
ment
r
doubt
gas st
500
ug
T
tors
In
co
on
me
ci al
gas
000 C
inqu
e
1
a t
i
expre
ream
/m
3
.
he
ca
(ESP)
ntras
thods
high-
f 1 ows
FM
ca
i
r
i
e
s
ve to
ssed
c o
n t
a
The
pa
city
an
are enti
t
to
the
for
tunn
voltage
e
in
the 5
pacity is
were
mad
the
tunn
as
to the
i
n
i n
g
the
reason
fo
d eff
rely
propo
el po
1 ectr
00,00
not
e
of
el ai
appl
1 ow
r th
l ci ency
adequat
sed cat
1 1 u
t
i o n
o s t a t
i
c
to
2,
at all
several
r
probl
i
c a
b
i 1 i
parti
cu
s
attit
of
e
e for
alyti
cont
prec
000,0
unusu
vend
em, t
ty
of
late
ude i
1 ectros
treatm
c
o
x
i
d
a
rol
,
1 a
i
pi
tat
00
rang
al.
Ho
ors
of
here wa
their
concent
s
not
d
tatic
pre-
ent of
tunnel
tion
or
a
d
-
rge-scale
on
units
e, so
that
wever,
when
ESP equip-
s
unanimous
units to a
ration
of
ifficult to
143
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determ
is
e
q
their
Pollut
commer
t
r a
t
i
o
only
4
stream
of ESP
normal
1 i
m
i n a
tive
e
p
o
1
a
t
i
i
ne.
al to
summa
ants
ci al
n
of
%
tha
. It
appl
ly
en
ry te
n
g
i
n
e
on
to
In
t
a
va
ry on
repor
ESP
u
parti
t
of
ther
i
c
a
t
i
count
sting
e r
i
n
g
the
he stan
1
ue
of
Contro
ted
an
nit
to
cul ates
an
unus
efore
a
on to
p
ered in
would
judgme
highly-
dard un
0.00021
1
Techn
extreme
be
0.00
report
ually
1
ppears
art
cul
tunnel
be
nece
nt
of t
dilute
its
o
9
gr/
i
q
u
e
s
ly
lo
5
gr/
ed
in
ow-co
that
ate
r
ai r
ssary
he fe
regi
o
f grains/CF,
500
ug/m
3
CF. HEW,
AP-51
013)
in
for
Particulate
Air
w
exit
loading
from
a
CF.
Thus,
the
concen-
ambient
tunnel
air
is
ncentration treated
gas
the
technical
feasibility
emoval
at
the
loadings
is
very
doubtful.
Pre-
to
modify present
nega-
asibility
of
ESP
extra-
n
of
particulate
loadings
Assuming a
150
to
200-fold dilution
of automotive
exhaust
in
tunnel
air,
the concentration
of particulates
in
the
exhaust
itself
will
be
of the order of
0.04
gr/CF.
This
latter concentration
is
in the range where
agglomeration and
inertia
removal are effective, and
exhaust source
control
of
particulates
has
already proven
to
be
technically
feasi-
ble, and is most certain
to
be
utilized
when standards
are
formulated. The
impetus
for
external
control
of particulates
therefore
would
not
seem
to exist
atthis
time. Despite the
present
lack
of any
data
on
particulate
collectibility
by
ESP,
or
the
physical nature and
properties of
the
particu-
lates,
an
exploratory economic analysis
of
this operation
was
carried
out.
The economic
workup
of
ESP was
carried
out using
the
procedures
outlined in HEW,
AP-
51
(113)
and the
cost
data
contained
in
this
publication
and
in
Walker(99)
4
Design
Capacity
(S),
ACFM
=
250,000
Assuming
50%
onstream
time
requirement:
Annual
Operating
Time
(H)
=
4,380 Hours
Purchase
Cost
(High
Efficiency
Unit)
=
$180,000
Instal
1 ati
on
:
Installation
Factor,
%
Installation
Cost
Purchase Cost
Total
Capital
Cost
Low
40
$
72,000
$180,000
$252,000
Typical
70
$126,000
$180,000
$306,000
High
100
$180,000
$180,000
$360,000
144
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Annual Capital
Charges
(C)
The
simplifying
assumptions used
in
estimating the
annualized capital costs,
in
HEW,
AP-51
were:
(a)
Depreciation
of
purchase and
installation
costs
over 15
years.
(b) Straight-line
depreciation
of
6-2/3%
on
installed
costs,
plus
(c)
Capital
charges
of
taxes, interest and
insurance
of
6-2/3%
of initial capital
costs,
to give
a total annual
charge
of
13-1/3%.
Additionally,
the
1968
equipment
costs
used
in
AP-51
were
uncorrected
to 1971
costs because
of
the
preliminary nature
of the
cost
estimates made.
(C)
=
(0.133)(Cost)
Low
(C
L
)
=
(0.
1
33)
($252,000)
=
$33,516
Medium
(C
M
)
=
(0.
1
33)
($306
,000)
=
$40,698
High
(C
H
)
=
(0.133)
($360
,000)
=
$47,880
Power
& Maintenance Costs
(assuming
no extra fan
power)
Low
Typi
cal
High
Power
Costs
(K),
$/kw-hr
Power Requi
rements
(J)
,
10 3|<w/ACFM
Maintenance
Costs(M),
$/ACFM
G
=
S(JHK
+
M)
where
G
=
annual
operating
&
maintenance
costs
S
=
design
capacity,
ACFM
J
=
power requirements,
kw/ACFM
H
=
annual
operating time, 4,380
hours
K
=
power
cost,
$/kw-hr
M
=
maintenance
costs,
$/ACFM
0.005
0.011
0.06
0.19 0.26 0.40
0.01
0.04 0.06
145
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Low(G
L
),
Typical
(G
M
),
and
High(Gu)
annual
operating
and
maintenance
costs
calculated
as above are
as
follows:.
G
L
=
$3,540;
G
M
=
$13,130;
6
H
=
$41,230
and,
Total Mean
Annual Cost
=
C|^
+
G
M
=
$53,828
Using
the
square root
of
the
sum
of
the
squares
of
the differences,
the
high (V^)
and
low(V
L
)
cost
variances
are
as
follows:
V
L
=
(
($7,182)
2
+
($9,590)
2
)
1/2
=
$11 ,940
V
H
=
(
($7,182)
2
+
($28,1
00)
2
)
1/2
=
$28,950
Therefore
:
Lower Cost
Limit
=
$53,828
-
$11,940
=
$41
,888
Higher Cost Limit*
$53,828
+
$28,950
=
$82,778
The
high
cost
variance
amounts
to more than
50%
of
the
mean
cost of
$53,828,
so that
the chances
of
exceeding
the
mean
cost
is
much
better
than
a
cost
under-run.
The
annual
ESP
costs
are a
good
deal
higher than
those
of
the
treatment
techniques
previously estimated,
and it may
be
con-
cluded
that,
in
addition
to
being
technically
doubtful,
ESP
is apparently
prohibitively
expensive
for
the
single-compon-
ent
application.
normal ly
two-stage
aerosol
s
units.
I
more
appl
units
can
Further,
data
are
of
this
u
h i
g
h
-
v o
1
cost
situ
even more
above,
an
It
s
appl
i
,
low
such
t
was
i
c
a
b
1
not
b
the
1
avail
nit
i
age
E
a
t i
o
n
nega
d thi
hould
ed
to
-volt
as oi
real
e
to
e
use
arges
able
s abo
SP
un
for
ti ve
s uni
be
n
high
age
u
1
smo
i zed
the
t
d on
t-cap
is 10
ut
$3
it of
the
t
than
t
was
oted
ly
co
nits
kes
a
that
unnel
solid
aci ty
0,000
30,00
the
wo-
st
for
t
not
that
high
ncentrate
are
used
nd
genera
the low-v
parti
cul
s
,
w i
t
h
o u
two-stag
ACFM,
an
0,
as aga
same
capa
age
low-v
he
ESP un
reviewed
-vol ta
d emis
for di
1
air
ol
tage
ate pr
t
wash
e
unit
d
the
i
n s
t
$
ci
ty
ol
tage
it
c a
1
f urthe
ge
ESP
s
i
o n
s
,
lute li
condi
ti
units
oblem,
i
n
g
a d
a
for wh
i
nstal 1
190,000
Theref
preci
p
cul
ated
r.
units are
whereas
quid
o
n
i
n
g
might
be
but
these
p
t a
t
i
o n .
ich
cost
ed
cost
for
the
ore,
the
i
t a
t
o r
is
in
detail
146
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Based
on
data
provided by Western
Precipitation
Division
of
Joy
Manufacturing
Company, a
precipitator
volume
of 16,680
cubic
feet
was
estimated
as
necessary
to handle
the requirement
of
250,000
ACFM
at
a
5 ft/sec
linear
velocity.
can
of n
cham
devi
wet
tunn
the
an
i
atio
caus
drop
phen
be
e
cons
many
in
t
esti
tunn
the
part
W
be
used
ormal
c
ber
to
ce.
Ba
col
1
ect
el
for
tunnel
.
n
i
t
i
a 1
n mecha
e
of
th
s or
su
omenon
mpl oyed
idered
tunnel
he
even
mate
th
el
emis
c o
n
s
i d
e
i
cul
ate
h i
1
e
a
n
for
par
a pa
city
be
the
1
s
i
c
a
1
1
y
,
ion devi
treatmen
All
we
a
d
i
a
b
a t
i
n
i
s
m act
e
diffus
rface (s
associ
at
only
fo
for
cont
s
have
s
t
of
tun
e c a
p
a
b
i
s
i
o n con
ration
o
removal
umber
t
i
c
u
1
a
ranges
owest
becau
ces
of
t
of
a
t scru
c
gas
ual
ly
ion
of
weep d
e
d
wit
r exha
rol
of
pray
c
n e
1
f
i
1 i
t
i
e s
trol.
f
the
only.
avail
ments
have
d e
s
i
g
size
are
g
prese
hoi du
1 i
q
u
i
parti
drops
wi
th
ef
f
i
c
time
i
c
1
e
,
p
o
n d
i
7,300
90%
t
basis
A
able f
for
p
been
s
n prob
esti
ma
i
v e
n
i
n
t e
d
i
p
time
d
drop
cul
ate
,
the
the
in
i
ency
decrea
to 1
.
ng
vol
ft
3
,
o
75%,
chang
lthough t
or calcul
arti cul at
uccessful
lems,
and
te
for
sp
n
detail
n summary
depends
let
size,
removal
requi
red
crease in
1
eve
.
F
ses from
75
second
umetric
c
respecti v
the volu
es
from
7
here
a t
i
o
n
e rem
ly
em
thes
ray c
in
th
form
on
th
aero
e
f f i
c
res
id
aero
or
th
16.1
s
for
hambe
ely.
me re
,300
of
di
te co
and
head-
se
of
any
i
r
w
h
b
b i n
g
s
a
t u
r
h
i
n
d
e
wate
i
f
f
us
h
wet
ust
a
the
hambe
res
,
of
s
This
a
p
p
1 i
are
s
of
c
oval
,
ploye
e wer
hambe
e
App
in T
e
spr
sol
p
iency
ence
sol
p
e
90%
secon
a
5-
r
req
For
quire
ft
3
t
ffere
llect
head
loss
,
the
sort
i
ch w
devi
a
t
i
o n
rs
pa
r vap
ion).
cont
i
r
tr
i
n
-
1 u
rs to
and
i
uch
p
pres
c
a t
i
o
nt ty
ion
,
1 osse
high
humid
canno
ill
b
ces i
zone
rti
cu
or
aw
Bee
actor
e
a
t
i
n
nnel
prot
t
is
resen
ent
s
n of
pes
o
a
pre
s
i nd
est
t
i
f
i
c a
t
be
e re-
nhere
,
and
1
ate
ay
fr
ause
s,
th
g
,
an
atmos
ect t
of di
t
equ
e c t
i
o
spray
f
we
1
imi
icat
hrou
tion
used
i ntr
ntly
thi
coll
om t
of
t
ese
d
ca
pher
he
e
rect
i pme
n
i
s
cha
t col
nary
e the
gh-pu
prob
with
oduce
cont
s eva
e
c
t i
o
he
li
he
sa
units
nnot
e.
H
xhaus
i nte
nt f
1 i m i
mbers
1
ectors
survey
spray
t
1
em,
in
a
d
into
ai
n
por-
n
be-
quid
turation
can
be
owever
,
t
fans
rest to
r
gross
ted
to
to
everal
e
rossf
1
ow
the
met
d previo
e
used
t
r
volume
e
n
d
i
x II
able
32.
ay
rate
article
For
t
contact
article
removal
ds for
a
micron
p
ui
rement
a
decrea
ments
on
o
4,400
s
t
i m
a
spra
hods
usly
o
obt
s.
T
and
The
ratio
size
he
50
time
size,
leve
2
-mi
arti
c
s are
se
in
a
5-
ft
3
.
tion t e
y
chamb
of Ranz
for
i
n
d
a i n a
p
hese
ca
the
res
requi r
of wat
and
the
0-mi
cro
falls
o
at
any
1
,
the
cron
ae
le.
Th
67,000
ef
f
i
ci
micron
c
h n
i
q
er
re
and
ustri
rel
im
1 cul
a
ul
ts
ed
ch
e
r
/
a
i
requ
n
spr
ff
ra
gi
ve
conta
rosol
e cor
ft
3
ency
parti
ues
Wongv'
14
)
al
i
nary
t i
o
n s
are
amber
r
,
the
i
red
ay
p
i
d
1
y
n
ct
part-
res-
and
from
cle
As is
obvious
from Table
32,
the
governing
variable
for
particulate
removal
in
a
spray
system
is the
size
of the
particulate.
As was
indicated
earlier,
more
than
95%
of the
mass
of
automotive
exhaust
fumes
is
in
the
plus-1
micron
size
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148
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range.
Further,
a
spray
system
tends
to
increase
particle
size
by
agglomeration, so
that
a
degree
of
particle
growth
can
be
expected. Also,
in
the
normal
spray
system, the
liquid
is colder
than
the
gas,
and a
certain
amount
of condensation
on
the
aerosol particulates
will
occur,
increasing
the
particle
size.
The
chamber
sizes
required
for
the removal
of
plus-3
micron
particulates
from
250,000
CFM
of air
in Table
32
are
reasonable
and, given the expected particle
size
distribution,
the
use
of
spray
chambers
for
removal
of
particulates
from
tunnel
exhaust air
at
good
efficiency
(75-90%) apnears
to
be
technically feasible.
Because
water spray scrubbing was
under
consider-
ation
as
a
tunnel
exhaust
treatment
technique,
a
detailed
estimate
was not
attempted,
and
the preliminary
costs
were
calculated
under
the
assumptions and the
data
of
HEW,
AP-
51,
as outlined
previously. Using
the wet scrubber
cost
data
for
a 250,000
CFM
unit:
Annual Capital
Cost
:
Purchase
Cost
=
$32,000
Installation
Cost(0
100%)
=
$32,000
Total
Installed
Cost
=
$64,000
and
Annual
Capital
Cost
=
(0.
1
33)
($64
,000)
=
$8,512
Annual
Operating and Maintenance
Cost,
(G) :
G
=
S(0.7457HK(Z
+
Qh/1980)
+
WHL
+
M)
where
Val
ue
S
=
Design capacity,
ACFM 250,000
H
=
Annual operating time,
at 50%, hours/year 4,380
K
=
Power costs,
$/kw-hr
(typical)
0.011
Z
=
Contacting power,
HP/ACFM
(low)
0.0013
Q
=
Liquor circulation rate, gal
/ACFM(low) 0.001
h
=
head
required,
ft
of
water
(high)
60
W
=
Make-up
water,
gal/ACFM
0.0005
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L
=
Water
cost,
$/gal
x 10~3(typi
cal
)
0.50
M
=
Maintenance cost,
$/ACFM(low)
0.02
now
(Z
.+ Qh/1980)
=
0.00133
and
WHL
=
(0.005)
(4,380)
(0. 5
x
10
3
)
=
0.001096
G
•=
(250,
000)(0.7457)(4,380)(0.011)(0.00133)
+
(0.
0211)
=
$17,250
Total
Annual Cost
=
$8,510
+
$17,250
=
$25,760
The annual operating
and maintenance
costs
are on
the
high
side
because
of
the
use of
generalized
wet scrubber
cost
data.
The
spray
chamber is
the
simplest device
of
all
wet
contacting
units, but
the
absence
of specific unit operating
cost information
prevents
a more
rigorous
analysis.
If
more
definitive
costs are
required,
a
reassessment
of operating
costs
is recommended
for
a
specific
tunnel location and
a
localized
cost
structure.
Process
Feasibility:
Water
Solubles
pol
lut
formal
and
ca
hydroc
operat
these
ever,
remova
they h
of
eve
evalua
t
e
c
h n
i
sentat
feasi b
I
ants
dehyd
rbon
arbon
ion
w
compo
prope
1 of
ave
a
n
rat
tion
que
i
i
ve o
i
1 i
ty
nspec
i
n c 1
u
e
and
d
i
o x
i
s
are
ould
nents
rly-d
c a
r
c
i
lso
b
her
i
of we
s
exp
f
dil
may
ti
on
de th
aero
de.
eye
not
a
at
t
e
s
i
g
n
nogen
een
f
nsol
u
t
scr
erime
uted
be
on
of Table
e
oxygen
1
e
i
n
,
n
i
Other
th
irritant
ppear
to
he conce
ed
spray
s
of
the
ound
to
ble
gase
u
b
b
i
n
g
a
ntal
wor
automoti
1
y
indie
27
s
a
ted
troge
an
th
s ,
th
be
w
ntrat
cham
benz
\hU
s an
k
on
ve
ex
ated
hows
that the water-soluble
hydrocarbons,
primarily
n
dioxide, sulfur dioxide
e
fact
that
the
oxygenated
e
use
of
a
wet
scrubbing
arranted for
removal of
ion levels
indicated.
How-
bers have
the
capability
of
o-(a)-pyrene
typevllS)
ancj
irly
effective in the removal
).
The only
valid
basis
for
exhaust pollution
control
the
pollution
system repre-
haust. For
the present,
not
calculated.
The
primary indicators
of the
feasibility
of
wet
scrubber
or
spray
chamber
application
to
tunnel exhaust
cleaning are the size
of the
unit to
be required, and
its
probable
efficiency.
Spray
chamber capacities
and efficiencies
were investigated by
Pigford(80)
}
an d
mass gas
flow
rates of
2000
lbs/hr/ft^
were
reported
as
being
achievable
in cyclonic
150
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a
t
i
o
C
ft
v
bu
hea
su
f
i
c
q
u
i
1
cu
b
th
1
d
de
nee
un
nt or
n.
Fo
FH
wou
to ma
al
ent
ly
the
size
a
i 1 1 ex
not
ap
pol 1
u
1
th
an
T
ption
ch
equ
i
ency
i
b
r
i
u
m
1
a t
i
o
n
e
remo
e n
i
t
r
atter
ds
on
egree
fine
t
ion
of
be
reg
its w
cross
r
air
Id
re
tch
t
to a
size
re
no
terna
pear
tant
d
nui
it
h c
curre
,
the
qui re
he
20
vesse
of a
t
unc
1 to
impra
remov
sance
entra
nt co
base
a
cr
00-
lb
1 dia
two-
ommon
the
t
c
t
i
c
a
al
re
basi
1
core
sprays, or
in
counter-
ntactors
with
good
mist
elimi-
tactors
vnth good
mist
enmi-
ventilation
flow
rate
of 15
x
)SS-sectional
flow
area of
562
'hr/ft^ mass
rate.
This
area
i
o_
/hr/ft^ mass
rate.
meter
of
about
27 ft,
1
ane
tunnel
.
However,
in industry, and
since
unnel
proper, the
diameter
needed
1. Again, the benefits
of
ex-
further
definition
both
on
which
is
units of
it
could
qui
re
s
.
he
exten
show
tha
i
pment
,
is
a
d
e
q
r
e
1
a t
i
o
s
i
n
d
i
c
a
ved
by
w
ogen
and
compound
the w
a
t e
of
water
he
s
p
e
c
these
p
arded
as
sive
data
t
from 1
depending
ate
for
s
n
s
h i p s
at
te
that
a
et
scrubb
sul
fur
o
s
,
as
wel
r/gas
rat
recycl
e.
f
i
c
pol
1
arameters
uncertai
of
P
to 3
on t
olubl
the
11 of
ing
,
x
i
d
e
s
1
as
i
o ,
t
Exp
tant
,
and
n.
igford^
80
transfer
he design
e
gases
w
low
conce
the
oxyg
as
can a
The ex
that
of
a
he liquid
eri mental
removal
e
the
pres
'
on
units
.
Th
i
th
f
ntrat
enate
s
i
g
n
i
tent
dditi
temp
data
ffici
ent
f
spray
are
a
is con
avorab
ion 1
e
d
hydr
f
i
c
a
n t
of rem
onal m
eratur
are r
e
n
c
i
e
s
e a s
i
b
i
chamber
v
a
i
1
a
b
1 e
tact
le
vel
s
.
ocarbons
porti
on
oval
of
ateri al
,
e
,
and
equi red
as
a
lity
The
economics
of
spray scrubbing
have
been reviewed
the
previous section.
Feasibility:
Recycle
&
Compartmental
i
zati on
nves
i
o
n
s
wh
a
e
un
t
i
g
a t
i
o
,
in
w
ole
or
1
.
Fun
ccumul
a
theo
i n
s t
r
u
c
,
and
t
ffect
o
on leve
e
of
th
n
of
th
ich
the
part, t
damenta
t
i
o n
an
r e t
i
c a 1
t i v e
to
he
2260
f
diffe
Is,
as
Assuming
now
a
tunnel,
or
tunnel
section,
T,
followed
a treatment
process,
P,
for
the
removal of
CO at
an
effici-
of
E
r
:
151
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c
c
TUNNEL,
T
c
c
p
C
c
i
i
as*
__
1
t
1
W
C
E
C
RECYCLE,
R
where
F
=
fresh
air
rate,
CFH
R
=
recycle
air
rate, CFH
Wc
=
rate
of CO
generation in
T,
CFH
C
c
=
concentration
of CO
leaving
process,
P,
ppm
C'
c
=
concentration
of
CO
entering
tunnel,
T, ppm
CJ1
=
concentration
of
CO leaving
tunnel,
T,
ppm
Assuming
there
is
no CO
content
in
fresh
ambient air, and
taking
a
process,
effi ciency
of
90%:
R
+
F
=
15 x 10
b
CFH
Let:
x
=
R/F
=
Recycle ratio
Substituting
in
the
above equation:
F
=
15
x
10
6
(1
+
x)
At
steady-state
conditions,
CO
input
=
CO
output
from
system,
so:
and
FC
C
=
W
c
(1
-
E
c
)
FC
C
=
2260
(1
-
0.9)
C
c
=
226/F
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from
CO
balance
around the bleed
point:
(R
+
F)
C£
+
W
c
(1
-
E
c
)
=
(R
+
F)
C
c
(C
c
C
c)
=
1
5
2
x
6
l0
'
6
=
15-1
ppm
CO
lea
for
ted
in
CO
lea
simply
n
t
i 1
a
t
i
l val
ue
t u
n n
e
if
t
tunne
150
than
base
I
recy
c
a
p
e
1
i m i n
ex
val
ue
ving
val
ue
Table
ving
the
on
ra
s
of
ai
r
he
pr
1
CO
ppm
v
100%
val
ue
f
the
cle
a
al
,
a
ns
th
i s
t o n
ate
,
p
e
n s
i
s
of
t
the
tu
s of x
33.
the
tu
genera
te
of
recycl
above
ocess
concen
al
ue.
,
the
of 15
re
wer
ir
ope
nd
wou
an
wou
ef
fee
recycl
ve pro
he
re
nnel
from
Wit
ho
nnel
ti
on
15
x
e
ser
the
b
remov
t r a t
i
For
tunne
ppm
e
no
rati
o
1
d
on
Id
be
t
doe
e
cou
cess.
cycle
r
can
now
0.5
to
ut
any
is the
rate
(2
10
6
CFH
ves
to
ase
val
al effi
on then
any
pro
1
conce
CO
wit
piston
n in
tu
ly resu
the
ca
s
exist
Id
prov
atio
,
be
ca
4,
an
recycl
base
v
260 CF
.
It
increa
u e wit
ciency
only
cess
r
ntrati
h
any
effect
nnel
v
It
in
s
e
wit
,
and
e
to
b
x,
the
co
1
culated.
d
the
res
e
air,
t h
alue of 1
H
)
divide
is o
b
v
i o
se the
CO
hout
recy
is incre
becomes
e
emoval
ef
on
must
i
finite
v a
,
it
must
e n t
i
1 a t i
o
higher
p
o
hout recy
is
in
f
a
e
a
feasi
ncentr
This
ul
ts
a
e
cone
50 ppm
d by
t
s
that
conce
cle.
ased
t
qual
t
f
i
ci en
ncreas
1
ue
fo
be
co
n
i
s
c
1
lutan
cle.
t
impo
ble
al
ations
has
been
re
tabu-
entration
,
which
he
tunnel
any
and
ntrati
on
Further
,
o
100%,
o the
cy
of
e
above
r
re-
nd
uded
ompletely
t
con-
However,
s
s i
b
1
e
though
A glance
at
the
model
used for the
above
calculation
show
that
it
applies
equally
well
to
internal
recycle
between
sections of
a tunnel as
well
as
to
a
com-
tunnel
system.
Thus,
no matter where
the recycle is
the
pollutant
concentration
increase
will occur.
An
of
the
assumptions
made in
the
derivation of the
of
Table 33 show
that
these
are
not
limiting, and the
conclusions are
general
for
any
pollutant
generated
at
rate.
In
requeste
i
onal iza
u
n
d e r 1
y
i
idered
i
a (pol
1
use it
w
ted
at
t
late)
o
t
i
o
n wou
d
i
s t a n
c
t,
the b
ion
comp
the
lat
d
that
t
t
i
o
n
of
ng
assum
n
this
r
u t e d
)
a
i
ould
mak
he norma
r at
the
Id
be de
e,
and
t
a
s
i
c
ass
artmenta
ter
p
he
po
tunne
p
t
i
o
n
eport
r
int
e lit
1
poi
i
nle
termi
he
de
umpti
1
i
z
a
t
art of
s s i
b
i
1 i
1
air
t
s
of
th
was th
a
k
e
int
tie sen
nt of
m
t
(too
ned
by
sired
1
on
of
i
ion
of
the fea
ty
of
c
reatmen
e
contr
at
they
ermedia
se for
ax i
mum
soon)
,
pol
1 uta
i
m i
t
i n
g
ntake
1
the
tun
si
bi
1
ompar
t
be
ol pr
woul
te
in
this
pol
1
u
it wa
nt co
val
u
o c a t
i
nel
.
ity
prog
tmental i
exami
ned
ocesses
d
have
t
tunnel
air
i
n t a
tant
con
s
o
b
v
i
o
u
ncentrat
e.
Howe
on
was
o
The
two
ram,
it
z a
t
i
o n
of
One
of
previously
o
operate
location,
ke to
be
centration
s
that
the
ion
gradient
ver,
in any
ne
of a
two-
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o
£
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a
i
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in r-'
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o
m
o
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154
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ompartmental
izati on
requires the use
of
one control
process
installation, and
generalizing,
the
breaking of
the
tunnel
into
r^
treating
sections
requires
the use of
(n_-l)
process
nits.
The
estimated
annual costs
for the
various
pollution
processes
evaluated in this
study
are summarized
in
34.
This
tabulation
permits
a cost comparison
of the
control
techniques, and
in purely
economic
terms,
appears that
augmentation of
tunnel
ventilation
is
the
most
control
measure.
This
would be
particularly true
existing low
head-loss tunnel
ventilation
systems,
in
the
of
1
to
2
W.G.
However,
for
the higher
initial
head-
oss
tunnel
systems
above
2
W.G.
the
increase
in
annual
costs required for
significant flow augmentation
would
the
total
cost
of
this
method above
that
of catalytic
or
spray scrubbing.
As
indicated
in
Table
34,
when feasibility
factors
added
to the
economic
considerations,
then
there
appears
be
no
secondary
pollution control technique
with
the cost-
capability
of ventilation
blower
addition or
ubstitution
at the present time. However, the
desirability
additional
development
work
on catalytic
oxidation
and spray
crubbing
is definitely
indicated
by
the
data of
Table
34,
and
t is
recommended
that additional laboratory
and pilot work
155
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3
g
«/9-
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CO
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o
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C
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0)
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H
I
O
r—
CQ
rt
156
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these
operations
be undertaken. Based
on
the
process
eview
and
analyses
carried
out
in
this
study,
the
following
onclusions may
be
drawn:
1.
Both
exhaust
source control and
tunnel
ventila-
augmentation
appear to be either
more effective
or more
pollutant
control
strategies
than
secondary
pro-
essing
of
vehicular
tunnel
atmospheres. Projections
of
emissions under
presently-mandated
standards
and
controls
and
correcting
for
auto population
age, in-
a
reduction in
average
hydrocarbon
emission
from
660
to
156 ppm
in
the
period
1970-1980,
and
a
corresponding
eduction in average CO
emission
from
25,790 ppm
to 6,120
Thus, the
problem of
tunnel
atmosphere pollution
appears
be one
of
decreasing
severity,
and
secondary
controls
may
be
reguired.
2. Tunnel
ventilation
augmentation
appears to
be
and
technically
more
attractive
than
any
secon-
pollution
control process.
Both
catalytic
oxidation,
carbon
adsorption
control
operations are
fixed-bed
units
supplemental
blower
head additions
to
force
air
the
process.
This
creates the anomaly
that tunnel
augmentation
must
be
used in conjunction
with
fixed-bed
control
process, but
the
potential
direct
increase benefits
are
nullified
by the process
3.
AmbieHfc temperature
catalytic
oxidation appears
be
potentially the
most
attractive secondary control
pro-
Further development
is
reguired
to
assess its
capa-
for CO and
hydrocarbon
removal
at
the low concentrations
in
tunnel
air, and
to
yield
more complete
data
for
gn.
4. Spray
scrubbing
has apparent
application
to
the
of
gross tunnel
exhaust
emissions, and if localized
is
necessary
or desirable,
further study
of
the
full
of this
operation
should
be undertaken.
This
and
wet
scrubbing
methods
are not suitable
for
in-tunnel
because of the
accompanying
gas saturation
and
the
result-
in-tunnel
fog
possibilities.
5.
Investigation
of conventional electrostatic
for the
removal
of
the
particulates
from tunnel
showed this
process
to be of doubtful
feasibility
because
the
extremely
low
particle
concentration.
Further,
cost
showed
it
to
be
the most
expensive control
method
of
reviewed.
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6. A
study
of
recycle operations
shows
that
any
degree
of
processed
air
recycle
around
the
tunnel
or
any
part
of
the
tunnel
will
yield higher
in-tunnel
pollutant
concen-
tration
levels
than
would be the
case
for
once-through
air
ventilation.
However,
the
injection
of
fresh
air
into
a
tunnel
by the piston
effect
could compensate
for
the
build-
up
of pollutants.
Selection
of
Control
Techniques
to
be
Evaluated
Gen
has
been
and d
e v
i
mobile
e
the
effl
concentr
vehicle
ppm)
and
to
1500°
maximum
with n
e
a
is
o b
v
i o
niques
w
a
p
p
1 i
c
a
b
and
ces
f
xhaus
uent
a
t i
o
n
exhau
0.5%
F.
C
pol
1
u
r
amb
us
f
h i
c
h
'
le
to
era
is be
or
in
t
sys
gas s
of
p
st em
H-C
onver
ti
on
ient
om
th
have
tunn
Discussion
-
i n
g
don
d
u
s
t
r
i
a
terns
tream
i
ol
1
utan
i
s
s
i
o n
(5000
p
sely,
t
concent
tempera
is
comp
been
de
el poll
e on
1
ope
In
th
s at
ts
is
conce
pm)
a
unnel
ratio
tures
ari
so
vel
op
u
t
i
o
n
A
s i
g
pol 1
ut
ration
ese
ty
an
ele
high,
n t
r
a
t
i
nd tern
atmos
ns
of
r
a
n
g
i
n
that
ed rec
contr
n i
f i
c
ion c
s
,
po
p,es
o
vated
As
on ra
perat
phere
250
p
ng
f
many
ently
ol.
ant
amou
ontrol
t
wer
plan
f
pol
1
ut
tempera
an
examp
nges to
ures
ran
s
genera
pm
CO
an
om 20°F
of
the
are not
nt
of
e
c
h n
i
ts an
ant
s
ture
le
, m
3%
CO
ge f
ily
r
d
50
to
90
contr
nece
work
ques
d
auto-
ources
,
and
the
otor
(30,000
om
150°F
ange
to
ppm
H-C,
°F. It
ol
tech-
ssari ly
The
constraints
imposed
by
a
tunnel atmosphere
dictates
and limits
the
types
of
purification
processes
which
can be
used.
These
constraints
include:
1.
Relatively
low
ambient temperature
2.
Relatively low
pollutant
concentration
levels
3.
High
throughput
rates
4. Low
exit
concentrations.
Additonal constraints are
imposed depending upon
whether
the
tunnel atmosphere
is
to
be recycled (either
completely
or
in
a
compartmentalized fashion)
or
merely
exhausted
to
the
atmosphere.
In
recycle,
consideration must
be
given
to
cooling,
CO2
removal,
water
removal
and
perhaps
oxygen
make-up
These
constraints
are not
imposed where
the
air
is to
be puri-
fied
prior
to
exhaust to
the
atmosphere.
On
the
basis
of
recommendations
for
allowable im-
purity
limits
in tunnels
along
with the
current
Environmental
Protection Agency
national
air
quality
standards, removal
systems
for the following pollutants must
be
considered:
1.
CO
2.
H-C
3. N0-N0
2
4.
Particulates
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EPA
has
also
established
limits
for
SO2
and
photochemical
but
these
do
not
appear
to
be
problems
in
vehicular
based
on
measurements which
have
been
made.
i
tera
,
6
a
i
n
i
n
a
e 1
c
i
h
C5
s
th
Ca
ture r
based
two
ge
ese-co
carbon
0% MnO
g
3%
C
stand
st
res
ty
of
r
'
on
talyst
i
n
g
on
erefor
i venes
rbon Monoxide Remo val
Systems
i
a
1
1
y
p
veal
on
t
neral
pper
.
A
2-40%
0,1%
ard s
u
1
1 e
d
200
h
ly
50
s,
th
the
e
was
s
on
ed two
empera
cl
ass
oxide
revi
ew
CuO
c
H
2
,
pace
v
in
on
r
'
.
% conv
e
Mn02
basis
selec
di
1 ute
potent
ture
re
es
of
c
and
tra
by
Can
omplete
.1%
gas
e
1
c
i
ty
%
x
i d
a
However
ersi
on
-CuO
ca
of
both
ted
for
d
auto
qui
reme
a
t
a
1
y
t
i
n s
i
t
i
n
non and
1
y
x
i
d
1
i
n e
,
of
18,
t i n
of
,
at
s
of
CO
w
talyst
temper
smal
1
exhaust
romi s
nts a
c
oxi
met
a
Well
i
zed
bal
an
800
h
CO
a
ace
v
as at
appea
ature
scale
-
A
r
i no
m
nd
th
d
i
z
e
r
1
oxi
inq
(
a
gas
c e
n
i
r~
'
.
t
120
e
1
c
i
t
a
i
n
e
red
t
and
eval
e
v
l
e
w
eans
rough
s
i
nc
des
58)
1
mixt
troge
The
°C
at
ties
d.
be
throu
u
a
t
i
of
the
of
CO
re-
put
rate.
1
uded
n a c t
i
-
n
d
i
c
a
t
e
d
ure
con-
n
at
25°C
other
a
space
of
f these
more
ghput
rate
n
of
its
Hydrocarbons
x
i
v
r
h
am
2
,
r
ac
N
a u
s t
ng
bo
ds
mu
ally
us
th
on
,
h
to
be
ated
emova
e
a
v
i
e
b
i
e n t
anoth
emova
ti
vat
ly
wi
ment
ok
fo
0.
th
can
be
st be ess
oxidized
an the
in
igh
tempe
an i n
a p
carbon
ap
1
of
hydr
r
and mos
temperat
er
of
the
1
from
tu
ed carbon
th steam,
problems
r a
c
t
i
v a t
t
was
sel
used
e n t
i
a
1
hydroc
i
t
i
a
1
rature
ropri a
peared
ocarbo
t
of
t
ures
.
impur
nnel
a
is
th
and
t
are
mi
ed
car
ected
Catalytic oxidation
or
the
to
oxidize hydrocarbons,
ly
100% efficient
otherwis
arbons
may
be
more toxic
a
hydrocarbon. To
assure 10
s must
be used,
hence
oxid
te
means of
hydrocarbon
re
to
be
the most
promising
ns.
Activated
carbon
will
he
partially oxidized
hydr
Activated
carbon
will
als
i
ties
selected for conside
tmospheres. An
attractive
at
it
can
be
regenerated,
herefore
the
maintenance
nimized. Because of the
p
bon
for removal
of
both
hy
for
study
on
diluted
autom
rmal
after'
These
e the
nd/or
0% con-
ation
was
moval
.
technigue
remove
ocarbons
remove
rati on
feature
pre-
r
re-
romi sing
drocarbon
b
i 1
e
ex-
Oxi
des
of
Nj trogen
-
As
stated
earlier, activated
will
remove
NTTjT However, it is ineffective
for
removal
NO,
which
accounts
for ^80%
of
the
total
oxides of nitrogen
from
auto exhaust. Thermodynami
cally
,
the
conversion
NO
into
O2
and
N2 is favorable,
but
no
catalysts
have
been
which
will
effect
this decomposition at
reasonable
or
temperatures.
Unfortunately,
catalytic
removal
of
X
from
gas
streams
requires
a
reducing
atmosphere,
a
con-
ition which
does not
exist
in
polluted
tunnel air.
Conversely,
information
exists
which
indicates
that M0
can
be
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cata
repo
on
a
of
-
be o
trat
NO
s
fi
ca
Marb
that
remo
mate
acti
Howe
had
Pura
lytic
rted
c
t
i
v
a
60°F.
f
que
ions
eemed
t i o
n
on
Ch
Pura
ve
NO
rial
on
an
ver
a sup
f
i
1 w
al
ly
ox
that NO
ted
car
The
p
s
t
i
o
n a
b
in t u n
to
be
The
D
emi
cal
fil,
a
x
from
f
unctio
d
would
since o
ply
of
ould
be
i
d i
z
e
d
t
can
be
bon,
but
s s
i
b
i
1 i
1 e
a
p
p
1 i
el atmos
the
majo
OT
Techn
Division
chemi
sor
the
atmo
ns
by
ch
therefo
ther
met
this mat
eval
uat
o
the
o
x i
d
i
the
ty of
c a
b i
1
phere
r pro
i cal
of
B
bent
spher
emi
ca
re
ha
hods
e r
i
a
1
ed on
ni
tr
zed
t
proce
1 iqu
i
ty
i
s.
I
blem
Offic
org-W
imp re
e.
I
1
rea
ve
to
seeme
on h
di
1 u
ate
f
o
N0
2
,
ss
req
id
s c
n
1
i
g
h
n summ
of
tun
er in
arner
gnated
t
shou
c
t
i
o
n
be
re
d
impr
and, i
ted au
rm.
whi c
u
i
r
e
s
u
b
b i n
t
of
ary
nel
p
d
i s
c
u
Corpo
with
Id
be
rathe
pi ace
a c t
i
c
t
was
to ex
It
ha
h
cou
a
ga
q
anp
the
N
the
r
ollut
s s
i
o
n
ratio
KMnO
note
r
tha
d
per
al
an
deci
haust
sals
Id
be
s dew
eared
con
emova
ant
p
with
n
sug
4
mig
d
tha
n cat
iodic
d sin
ded
t
been
sorbed
poi
nt
to
cen-
1
of
uri
-
gested
ht
t
this
a
1
y
t
i c
ally.
ce
MSA
hat
Parti culates
Typical
means
of
removal
of par-
ticulates
from
gas
streams include mechanical
separators
such
as
cyclones,
wet
collectors,
electrostatic precipitation
and
filtration.
The efficiency
of
each
of
these
methods
depends
upon
such
factors as
particle
size, density,
concentration
and
electrical
resistivity
as
well
as
moisture
content
of
the
gas
and
physio-chemical
characteristics
of the gas.
Cyclone
separators
are not particularly
efficient
for the
size
range
(<1
y
to
5
y)
of particles in
tunnels and in
general
require
large energy
inputs
with
attendent
high pressure
drops.
With
the
present state-of-the-art
of
wet
collectors,
efficiencies
at the anticipated particulate
levels and
particle
sizes
in
tunnels
would
likely be quite
low.
Electrostatic
precipi-
tation
and
filtration
may
be
apolicable
to
the
problem.
How-
ever, since manufacturer's data are
available
for
these
types
of
particulate
removal
systems as
well
as
for
wet
scrubbing
systems, it
was
decided that no
laboratory
work
on particulate
removal
would
be performed.
Purification
Test System
3
Figure
31
is a
schematic
diagram of a
4300
ft
chamber
at
MSAR.
The
chamber
is leak-tight and is made
of
carbon
steel with the
inside
walls
coated
with aluminum
paint.
The
chamber is
fitted with
an
air
blower with a capacity
of
80
cfm.
Minor
modification
to
the
chamber included installat
of
an inlet
port
for
injection
of
auto
exhaust.
Major
modifications to
the
chamber
involved in-
stallation
of
monitoring equi
pment,
test
beds
and
a
gas
stream
heater (Fig.
31).
The monitors
which
were used
included:
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Temperature
Pressure
Relative humidity
Carbon
monoxide
Total hydrocarbons
(§)
Carbon dioxide
(7)
Oxygen
(8)
Particulates
(9)
Nitrogen
oxides
Q)
Air sample
for
GC
®®O®0(5>
Meter
Heater
Bed
I
©-
-Bed
II
^)©0®®©®
©©®®®®®s>-
© © ©
Test
Chamber
-
4300
ft
3
r^—
Exhaust
Inlet
FIGURE
31
-
AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST
PURIFICATION
TEST
CHAMBER
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Impuri
ty
CO
Total
H-C
C0
2
°2
H2.O
Instrument
MSA
Lira
Model
200
(IR)
MSA
Total
H-C
Analyzer
MSA
Lira
Model 200
Biomarine
0M-300
Analyzer
Motometer
RH
Indicator
Range
Particulates
Royco
Model
200
PC
NO-NO,
Wet chemical;
Saltzman
Method
0-300;
0-500
ppm
Ful
1
Seal
e
0-5;
0-15;
0-3D;
0-60
ppm
0-0.5%
0-100°/
0-100%
0-54
u
to
5.0
u;
100
particles/cc
0.01-10
ppm
A
fan was
installed
inside
the chamber
to assure
rapid
mixing
of the contaminated
gas.
In
most runs,
the
auto
exhaust
was
provided
by
a
1963
Chevrolet
Impala
with
103,000
miles on it;
the source
of
auto exhaust
for
the first two runs
was a
1967
Chevelle
with
33,000 miles
on it.
A
typical run was as
follows:
1. Run automobile engine
for
1.5
min; car
in
drive; accelerator
slightly
depressed;
brakes
on.
2. Circulate contaminated
air
for
5
min
to
assure
complete mixing
within
the
chamber.
3.
Turn
on
blower
and set
to
desired flow
rate.
4. Collect monitor
readings
at
various
in-
tervals
depending
upon
the
type of
removal
system
and
rate
of removal.
The
first
run
was
a
blank
run
to
determine
whether
the
test
chamber
and associated
equipment resulted in change
in con-
centration
of
any
of
the contaminants
during
circulation
without
any
purification
system on
line. The
results
in-
dicated
no
change in concentration
with
time
except
for
the
particulates.
Table 35 is
a
summary of the runs
which
were
made.
Results of
each run
are
discussed
in the
following
subsections
Run No. 1
-
Blank
Run No.
1
was
a
blank
run
although
a
fiber glass
mat
was
placed in one of the
purification
canisters
to
provide
a
pressure
drop
across
the system.
The
vehicle used
for
the
pollutant
source
was
a
1967
Chevelle
and
was
run
at
idle
for
5
min.
Small
differences
can
be
seen
in
the
CO
inlet (300
ppm)
versus
the CO outlet (285
ppm)
and
the HC inlet
(78
ppm)
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TABLE
35
-
SUMMARY
OF
PURIFICATION
SYSTEMS
Type
of
Bed
Wt.
lbs
Bed
Temp.
°F
Space
Velocity
hr-'
Res
1 dence
Time
sec.
Flow
CFM
Pres.s
,
Drop
1n
Water
Vehicle
Run
Time
Mln.
CO
ppm
H-C
ppm
NO
oom
HO
2
oom
CO,
y
-
Purification
lii Out
(n
Out
In Out
In
Out
In
Out
RH
Blank
HA HA HA
NA 82
3.3
5
300 285 78
61
0.051
0.048
0.029
0.011
0.10 0.10
85
Hopcal 1
te
(Cold)
12.0
92
17,100
0.21 84
3.6
2.5 280 215
1
41
0.14 0.006 0.069 0.08 0.12 0.12 52
12.0
92
12,100
0.30
60 2.0
...
205
190
41
41 0.04 0.02 0.10 0.12 0.12 0.12 52
Ac tt vated
Carbon
8.0 92
17,100
0.21
84
3.0
2.5
300
+
300
+
84
22 4.03
4.47
1.38
0.24 0.24
90
8.0 92
4,100 0.88
20
3.0
300
+
300
+
60
20 3.16 3.68
1.05
0.23 0.23 90
8.0 92
8,200
0.44
40
--- ...
300
+
300
+
60
20 0.23 0.23
90
Purafll
12.0 90
17,100
0.21 84
2.0
1.5 357
320
56
47 0.93
0.30
0.44
1.26
0.11
0.11 85
12.0
93
8,500
0.42
42
0.5
...
320 320
48
38 0.26 0.10 0.63 0.57 0.11
0.11 85
20 hr total
12.0
95
17,100 0.21
84
2.0
...
270 270
25
24 0.00
0.00
0.018 0.018 0.10
0.10
85
Hopcal
1
te
(Hot)
1
.0
95
9,500
0.04
38
18.2
1.5
287 230
til
53 1 .55
0.89 0.14 2.49 0.13 0.13
65
1.0
96
4,700 0.08
19
8.8
235
223 59 55 0.13
-.13
64
700
watts
Input
1.0
175
4,700
0.08
19 10.7 220
30
O'l
38 1.43
0.15
0.30
0.66
-.13
0.16 63
1650
watts
Input
1.0 240
4,700 0.08 19
12.0
...
117
3
50 29 1
.48 0.69
0.44
0.22
0.14
0.16
61
Hopca
1 i
te
Silica
gel
2.0
1.0 90
4,700 0.08
19
11.9
1 .5 500 480 61
61 0.56 0.52 0.12
0.23
0.09 0.08
89
Hopcal
i
te
0.25
167
18,800
0.02 20
3.6
1.5
203
147
50 47
0.10
0.10
86
1635
watts 275
18,800
0.02
20
6.0
147
20 43 30
0.91
l.Ot
0.20
0.02
0.11
0.12
life
1635 watts
227
28,200 0.015
30 6.1
141
63
4 2
36
o.ll 0.12 8b
2620
watts
260 28.200
0.015
30
6.4 124 38
31
29
0.99
1
.09 0.15
0.03
0.11 0.12
85
1080
watts
276
9,400
0.04 10
1.8
102
8
38
24 0.89
0.61 0.13
0.02 0.10 0.11
84
Parti cula
te
Filter
65%
effi-
ciency
Resu
ts
void;
face
vel
>dty
too h1g
Particulate
Filter
99.5%
ef
f 1
dency
Res
ilts
void face ve oclt)
too
hi
Jh
60% Mn02
+
40%
CuO
750
watts
1
86 2,350
0.16
10 3.3 1.5 349
346
53
53 0.39
0.51 0.04
0.06
0.11
0.11
201
2.?50
0.16
10 4.0
i2 L
?97
52
5?
0.41 0.89
0.03
0.00
0.12 0.12
1700
watts
247
2,350
0.16
10
4.4
325 297
S3
52
0.47 0.94
0.02
0.00
0.12
0.12
Charcoal
+
1 94 11
,750
0.03
50
5.6 487
474
4 67J
50
23
70
0.36
0.22
0.22
0.14
0.04
0.10
0.10
Hopcal
1
te
0.11
0.10
750
watts
134 11
,750
0.03
50 5.6
4
36 426
4T4
2
18
T7
....
0.10 0.10
0.10
2620 watts 265
11,750 0.03 50 5.9
356
351
T37
23
17
T7
0.10 0.10
0.12
2620 watts
261
4,700
0.08
20
2.0 318
318
-*TJ-
22
17
TE
0.10
0.10
0.12
2700 watts 311
2,350
0.16 10
2.0
293 293
T7
2?
15
TT
0.16 0.10
0.22
0.08 0.00
0.10 0.10
0.02
Charcoal
+
Moisture
Tolerant
Hopcal
1
te
1700 watts
1100
watts
600
watts
1
2
93
4,700
0.08 20 2.6 1.5
445 445
T59
48
23
23
0.52
0.28
o.n
0.09 0.00
0.1 0.1
o 7T
68
0.41
280 4,700 0.08 20 2.9
400 395
4
23
77
0.33
0.21
0,62
0.09
0.00
0.10 0.10
6.61
0.14
240
4,700 0.08 20
3.9 290 290
32
21
70
0.12
0.12
071
185 4,700
0.08 20 3.2
248 248
8
31
21
76
0.20 0.13
0.03
0.04 0.00 0.12
0.12
O.o2
0.14
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versus
the
HC
outlet (61
ppm).
This could
be
attributed
to
physical sorption on
the
fiber
glass mat.
A
slight
reduction
in
NO
and
a
large
reduction
in
NO?
concentration
was
also
noted, but problems
existed
with the NO-NO2
analyses
at
that
time,
so
these differences may
not
be
real.
The
difference
in the concentration of particulates
greater
than
1 micron,
550/cc
versus
60/cc
was
probably
due to
the
filtration
effect
of
the
fiber
glass mat.
Run
No.
2
-
Cold Hopcalite
CuO
c
for C
could
30% C
run a
idle
(resi
obser
under
outl
e
NO
to
the
(0.06
time
it
ap
I
nit
atalyst
r
at 25°C
be 1 ocat
uO cataly
t
92°
F.
time was
dence tim
ved
for
C
go
x i
d a
t
NO
was
N0
2
.
Fu
utlet N0
2
9
ppm).
of 0.30
s
peared
th
i al ly
eport
(77°
ed
so
st
wa
Again
2.5 m
e
of
or
ion
i
0.006
rther
(0.0
At
a
ec)
at
NO
,
it
was
ed by
Can
F).
No
c
H
p
c
a
1
i
t
s
s
u b
s
t
i
t
,
a
1967
in.
At
a
0.21
sec)
HC.
The
n
that
th
ppm.
Th
veri
f
i
ca
8
ppm)
wa
space
vel
the
CO
an
was
b e
i
n
intend
non
an
ommerc
e
,
a c
u
t
e
d i
Chevel
space
,
no s
oxides
e
i
n
1 e
is
w
u
t
i
n
s
high
oci
ty
d HC w
g
part
ed
to
use
the 60% Mn02-40%
d Welling
to
be
effective
ial
source of
this
catalyst
oprecipitated
70% f1n02~
n
its place.
The
bed
was
le
was
used at
idle, but
velocity
of 17,100
hr
1
ignificant
reduction
was
of nitrogen
did
appear
to
t
NO
was
0.14
ppm
and
the
Id
indicate
oxidation
of
f
this is the fact
that
er
than
the
inlet
NO?
of 12,100
hr '
(residence
ere not
changed,
but
again
ial
1
y
oxidized
to
NO2.
Run
No.
3
-
Activated Carbon
Chevrolet
under load
used
as th
scale,
but
removal
a s
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
NO2
level
22 ppm
(74
from
1
.
38
and downst
was typica
odorless,
downstream
are the
mo
ional
test
4,100
(RT
Again
a
ma
the
NO2
wa
hydrocarbo
the
fact t
In
th
Impal
a
condi
e
puri
it is
At
a
s
ant re
The
% remo
ppm
to
ream
1 of
t
F
i
g
u
r
sampl
re tox
s
at
s
=
0.88
jor
fr
s
remo
ns
at
hat
a
s
run
,
was
us
t i
n s .
f
icati
known
pace
ve
d
u c
t
i n
H-C
con
val
)
an
zero
p
f
the
t
he
odor
e
32 is
e
showi
i
c
and
pace ve
sec)
w
action
ved.
T
these 1
portion
as
in
ed
as
Cocon
n
medi
that
c
1
oci
ty
was
centra
d
the
pm. T
est
be
s
in
t
a chr
ng tha
more
1
c
i
t
i
ere ma
of the
he
app
ower
s
of th
al
1
su
a
pol
1
ut
bas
a.
Th
harcoa
of 17
bserve
tion w
N0
2
co
he
str
d
for
unnel
s
omatoq
t the
dorous
es
of
de
on
hydro
arent
pace v
e
heav
bsequent
runs,
a
1963
utant source
and
was
run
ed
activated
charcoal was
e
CO concentration
was
off
1
is
ineffective
for CO
,100
hr
1
(RT
=
0.21 sec),
d
in
the
H-C
level
and
the
as reduced
from
84
ppm
to
ncentration
was
reduced
earn
was
tested
upstream
odor.
The upstream
odor
while the
downstream
was
ram
of an
upstream
and
heavy
hydrocarbons
(which
)
had
been
removed.
Addit
8,200
(RT
=
0.44 sec)
and
the
same
pollutant
charge,
carbons
,
67%
and 100%
of
reduced
removal rate
of
elocities
is
due
only
to
ier
hydrocarbons
had been
164
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Light
Hydrocarbons
Chromatograph
Hewlett
Packard
Model
5750
dual
column.
Columns
-
6*
x
1/0
stainless
steel
10% UC-W98
Carrier gas
-
Helium
40
cc/mln
Temperature
-
30°C
temp, program
to
230*C
at
20°C/min
Sample
-
^230
cc
of air.
Hydrocarbons
trapped
on
12
x
1/0
stainless
steel
pre-column
at
-197°C
packed with
45-60
mesh
Chromosorb
P
Detectors
-
Flame Ionization
Light
Hydrocarbons
Start
temperature
program
(Room
temp,
to
230°C)
IL
-*A-
Start
temperature
program
Upstream
of
Carbon
Bed
FIGURE
32
Sample
Downstream
of
Carbon
Bed
REMOVAL
OF
HYDROCARBONS
BY
ACTIVATED
CARBON
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removed during
the
the
ratio
of
light
Run
No.
4
-
Purafil
earlier
part
of
the test
to
heavy
hydrocarbons.
thus
increasing
strat
conce
as
we
sec)
68%.
hydro
The
s
morni
trati
was
d
did
n
that
been
57%.
e
of
ntrat
11
as
hydro
At
a
carbo
ystem
ng
, a
on ha
own
t
ot ap
those
remov
Purafil acts
as
a chemisorbent
using KMn04
on a
-sub
activated
alumina.
Purafil
had
no
effect on
the
CO
ion
but
did
reduce
part
of
the
hydrocarbon
fraction
NO.
At
a
space
velocity
of
17,100
hr
1
(RT
=
0.21
carbons
were
reduced by
18% and NO
was
reduced
by
space velocity
of
8,500 hr
1
(RT
=
0.42
sec)
ns
were
reduced
by
21%
and
MO
was
reduced
by
61%.
was
allowed
to run
overnight
and the
following
fter
a
total run time
of
20
hrs,
the
NO concen-
d
been reduced
to
zero
and
the
NO^ concentration
o
0.018.
After 20
hrs
of
operation,
the
Purafil
pear
to
be
removing
any
hydrocarbons,
indicating
hydrocarbons which
are
reactive
with
Purafil
had
ed. Total reduction
in
hydrocarbon content
was
Run
No.
5
-
Hot
Hopcalite
ef
f
i
c
smal
1
NO
wa
and
t
duced
moved
42%.
ture
to
be
for t
trate
CO
an
Thi
iency me
reducti
s
reduce
he hydro
by
90%.
(97%
re
The
beh
is
diffi
as
e f
f
he first
. It sh
d
HC
res
s
run
asure
on in
d by
carbo
At
moval
a
v i
o r
cult
c
i
e n
t
time
ould
ulted
was
m
d
at
v
CO
(2
43%.
ns
wer
240°F,
)
and
of
th
to
exp
How
indie
be
not
in
an
a
d
e
wit
ari ous
0%)
and
At
175°
e
reduc
the CO
the hyd
e
oxide
lain
si
ever,
t
a
t
i
n
g
p
ed
that
i
ncrea
h
hot Hopcalite
with the
temperatures.
At
95°F,
a
HC
(13%)
was observed, while
F,
the
CO
was
reduced
by 86%
ed
by
30%.
The
NO
was
re-
was
nearly
completely re-
rocarbons were
reduced
by
s
of nitrogen at
this
tempera-
nce
NO
removal
did not
seem
he
removal
of
NO2
was
observed
ossible
oxidation
to
the n
i
the
significant reduction
in
se
of
C0
9
from
0.13%
to
0.16%.
Run
No.
6
-
Silica
Gel
-Hopcal i
te
In
this
run,
a
silica gel
bed was
installed
upstrea
of
the Hopcalite bed
in hopes that
Hopcalite
would
be effec-
tive at
ambient
temperature
if
the
stream
were free
of
moistu
No
significant improvement
was
noted
in
the
removal
of
CO,
HC
or
NO/NO2.
More
effective
drying
agents
might
be
considered,
but
for
a
system
to
be economical, the
dryer
must be regen-
erable.
Those
dryers which
can
be
used
only once
and
then
discarded
would increase
both
the
replacement
and
maintenance
costs.
Of course, these costs have to
be
weighed
against
the
cost
of heating
the
air
stream
to
^225°F,
in the
case
of
Hopcalite.
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R
un
No.
7
-
Hopcalite
This
run
was
made
with
a
0.25
pound
Hopcalite
bed
as
opposed
to
the
1.0
pound
beds
used
in earlier
runs.
At
identical flow rates,
the
residence
time
was
reduced by
a
factor
of
4
while the
space
velocity
was
increased
by
a
factor
of
4.
At
a
space
velocity
of
4,700
hr
-
1
and
a
residence
time
of 0.08
seconds
used
in
earlier runs,
the
exit
concentration
CO was
<1.5%
(3
ppm) of
the
inlet concentration
(117
ppm);
this was
accomplished
at a
temperature
of
240°F.
In
this
run,
with
a
lower
residence time and
a
hiqher space velocity,
the
CO
was reduced
by
only
86%.
Runs
8 and
9
-
Filter
Media
These
two
runs
were
made
with
particulate filter
media
with efficiencies
of
67%
and
99%
for 0.3 micron particles
The
results
from these
two runs
were
considered unreliable
be-
cause
of
the high
face velocity
at
the filter,
and the face
velocity could
not
be
reduced
due
to
the performance
charac-
teristics of the
air blower. Therefore,
manufacturers
data
will
have
to be used
for
prediction of filter performance.
Inquiries
were sent
to
manufacturers
of
electrostatic pre-
cipitators,
also.
Run
No. 10
-
MnQ
?
-CuQ
This
run was
made using
an
admixture
of
60% MnO
and
40%
CuO
as
described
by
Cannon
and
Welling.
The
two
materials were
mixed,
about 10%
water was
added
and
the
moist
mix
was pressed
into
a
solid
cake.
The
cake
was dried
and
then
sieved to
4-8
mesh
granule
size.
The
test
showed
little
activity of
the
catalyst for
CO.
Run
No.
11
-
Charcoal
Plus
Hopcalite
formanc
The cha
but
in
the
cha
is conv
cool ing
the
opt
system,
and
the
charcoa
chromat
were
re
This
e
of
tw
rcoal
b
actual
rcoal
b
erted
t
was
pr
imum
co
At
31
charco
1 al so
ographi
moved.
run
o se
ed
w
prac
ed
d
o NO
ovi d
nf
i
g
1°F,
al
r
remo
c an
was
1
ecte
as
lo
tice,
ownst
2
in
ed fo
urati
the
emove
ved
a
alyse
made
d
met
cated
i
t
w
ream
the
H
r
the
on co
CO
wa
d
ess
frac
s
ind
to de
hods
upst
ould
of th
opcal
Hope
uld
n
s
red
entia
ti on
icate
t
e
rm i
n
e
of
tunne
ream
of
be
more
e
Hopcal
ite bed.
a
1
i
t
e
be
ot
be
us
uced
by
lly 100%
of
the
h
d
that
t
the
overall per-
1
air
purification,
the
Hopcalite
bed,
sensible
to
locate
ite
bed since
NO
However, since no
d
outlet
stream,
ed
in the
test
greater
than
90%
of the
NO2. The
ydrocarbons
;
gas
he
heavy
hydrocarbons
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Run
No.
12
-
Charcoal
Plus
Moisture
Tolerant
Hopcalite
This
run
was
made
with
moisture tolerant
Hopcalite
since
it
is less
susceptible
to
powdering than
standard
Hopcalite, thus
providing
a
lower
pressure drop
across
the
system.
Information was
acquired
during this
run
on
the
effect
of
temperature on
CO removal
and
the
results
are
shown
in
Figure
33.
These results indicate
that
at
a
space
velocity
of
9400
hr l,
a residence time
of 0.04
sec
and
a temperature
of
225°F,
complete
removal
of
CO
can be expected.
Purification Systems
for Tunnels
demo
tunn
meth
cant
uati
tunn
eval
shou
stud
of
t
Th
nstrated
el
atmos
ods to
t
degree
on of
sy
el
air.
uation
o
Id
be ke
ies were
his
fact
e 1
ab
that
phere
unnel
of
sy
stems
An
e
f
the
pt
in
made
,
som
orato
the
s.
A
atmo
stem
requ
a r
1
i
e
cost
mind
prio
e
add
ry
wo
techn
p
p
1
i
c
spher
scale
i red
r
sec
requ
that
r
to
i t i
o
n
rk
perfo
ology ex
a
t
i
o
n
of
e
p
u r
i f i
-up
as
w
for
hand
tion
of
i
rements
the fea
the
labo
al comme
rmed
under
this
program
ists for
purification
of
these principals
and
cation
requires
a
signifi
ell
as
an
economic
eval-
ling large
volumes
of
this
report includes
an
for
such
systems,
but it
sibility
and
economic
ratory
studies. Because
nts are
warranted.
First, ambient
temperature
catalytic
oxidation
proved to
be
an
unattainable
goal.
The laboratory
studies
indicated
that
a
temperature of
^225°F would be
required
for
oxidation
of CO
using the best
commercially
available
catalyst.
As
a result of
this temperature
requirement, an
engineering
design estimate
of
size
and
heat
requirements
for a
200,000
cfm
unit with
a
regenerative heat
exchanger
was
made. The results
were
as follows:
Heat
requirements
-
1.63x10^
Btu/hr
No. of
plates
in heat exchanger
-
200
Size of plates
-
80
ft
x
20
ft
Spacing between
plates
-
1/8
in.
Velocity through
plates
-
22 ft/sec
AP
across
heat
exchanger
-
4.7 in. H2O
The
second
comment
concerns
the use
of
electrostatic
precipitators
to
remove
particulates. Inquiries
were
sent
to
a
number
of manufacturers of
electrostatic
precipitation
units
requesting performance
characteristics
and
price.
In
regard
to performance
characteristics,
the
answers
varied from
-
it
cannot
be
done
by electrostatic
precipitation to
our
units
will
reduce the
particulate loading from
5 mg/m
3
down
to
0.1
mg/m
3
. Prices
ranged
from
^$81,000
for
a
50,000
cfm unit
and
$164,000
for
a 250,000
cfm
unit to $1,000,000
plus
for
a
250,000
cfm unit.
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169
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M0
X
and hydrocarbons
-
activated
carbon
The
electrostatic
precipitator
would be
periodically cleaned
by
back
washing; this could be
done during
an
off-peak
time.
Activated carbon would require periodic
regeneration
with
steam. The catalyst
should
have
a
lifetime
of several
years
i
properly protected
from
particulate contaminant, particularly
lead. The
electrostatic precipitator
upstream
of the
catalyst
bed
should provide
this protection.
The question
arises as to the anticipated
lifetimes
of
all
the
purification
system
components,
as
well
as
the
re-
generation frequency and
maintenance
requirements.
These
questions
cannot be
answered
at this
time. It is
recommended
that a
small
scale (perhaps
5000
cfm) system
be fabricated
and
tested under
actual
tunnel
conditions.
The information
acquired
from
such
tests
would reveal
not
only
the removal
efficiency of
the
system
but
also
the
lifetime
of the
com-
ponents and the required maintenance
and regeneration
fre-
quency.
ini
t
syst
powe
quir
tain
sign
vent
must
sour
be
r
esta
ial
c
em
wi
r
req
ement
ing t
i
f
i c a
i 1
a
t
i
comp
ces
,
equi
r
blish
It
i
a
p
i
t a
11
be
ui
rem
s
and
he qu
ntly
ng
ai
ly wi
then
ed
an
ed
as
s
appa
1
cost
high,
ents w
press
a
1
i
ty
1
ess
e
r syst
th
EPA
p
u
r
i
f
i
d syst
a
res
rent
of
a
In
ill
a
ure
d
of
ai
xpens
em.
stan
c
a
t
i
o
ems
t
ul
t o
as
a
vehi
addit
1
so
b
rop a
r
wit
i ve
t
Howev
dards
n sys
o
per
f
thi
result o
cular
tu
ion
to
t
e
high
d
cross th
h i
n the
o
increa
e
r
,
if
i
for
emi
terns
on
form
thi
s
study.
f this
nnel
a
he
cap
ue
to
e
syst
tunnel
se
the
n
the
s s
i
o
n
the
ex
s
trea
study
i
r
p
u
r
i
ital co
the
hea
em.
Fo
,
i
t
wo
size
o
future
,
from
st
haust s
tment
h
that
the
f
i
c a
t
i
o
n
st,
the
ting re-
r
main-
uld
be
f
the
tunnel s
ationary
tack
will
ave
been
170
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TUNNEL
INSTRUMENTATION
of
atmosp
i
nstrumen
impuri
tie
combined
used in
t
instrumen
mentati
on
spectrome
appl
icabi
quality
o
f
ol lowing
The
heric
t a t
i
o
s
in
class
he 1
a
tati
o
runs
ters
lity
f
veh
cons
1.
present
emphasis
on air quality
and
monitoring
pollutants
has
accelerated the development of
n
capable
of
continuous
monitoring
of low
level
the atmosphere.
Many
of
these
instruments
have
ical,
chemical and physical
analytical techniques
boratories
with automated industrial process
n.
The resulting
array
of available instru-
the
gamut of
sophisticated
computerized
mass
to simple
rugged
temperature
indicators.
The
of these
instruments
in
monitoring
the
air
icular
tunnels must be
considered
within the
traints
:
adequate sensitivity
and specific
response
to
the pollutants
of
interest,
2.
operation
and
maintenance requirements,
3.
capabilities of
operating
and
maintenance
personnel
,
4.
real-time
data
output,
5.
reliable and
reproducible operation.
Table 36
summarizes
the types of
instrumentation
which
are currently
available
for monitoring vehicular
ex-
haust
impurities. This
table
shows the
principle
of operation
along with
approximate
cost ranges
for
each
type
of
monitoring
system.
Carbon
Monoxide
Two
general
types
of instruments
are
available
for
continuous
monitoring
of CO.
These are the
Hopcalite type
and
the
non-dispersive
infrared
type
of instrument.
In
general,
the Hopcalite
type
has been used
almost
exclusively
in
tunnel
monitoring
applications.
This
instrument
is
rugged,
inexpensive,
simple and
requires
very
little
maintenance.
The
non-dispersive
infrared type of
instrument is
more
expensive
171
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and
does
require
a
more
sophisticated type
of
maintenance
program.
However, the
NDIR instrument has faster
rise and
response time characteristics:
Initial
Rise
Response
Time
(sec)
Time
(sec)
Hopcalite
100
20
NDIR
10
3
Furthermore,
the
NDIR
instrument
has
lower
sensitivity
(2
ppm
±
2
ppm)
compared to the
Hopcalite instrument
(10
ppm
±
5 ppm).
Either
instrument
can be
used
to
automatically
control
venti-
lation
rates
by feeding
the signal
output
to
an
automatic
fan
control
system.
For
general monitoring
of
tunnel
atmospheres,
adopt-
ing
a
manned
tunnel limit of
75
ppm and an unmanned
tunnel
limit
of
500
ppm,
the
Hopcalite
system
should
continue
to
satisfy
the
monitoring
requirements.
If
in-tunnel
purification
is
required,
where
the
CO
outlet
from the purification
system
must be
at
or
near
zero,
then
the
NDIR
system
should
be used
due
to its lower
limit of detection.
The
same
reasoning
holds
true for the
case
of
purifying
the
tunnel
exhaust
air
where
the
outlet
concentration
set
by
EPA
is less than
10
ppm
CO.
Smoke
or
Haze
Smoke
or
haze
in
tunnels
is
a
nuisance factor and
with
the
increased
use
of
diesel
powered
trucks
and
buses
smoke
has
become
a
problem
in
tunnels.
Because
the CO/smoke
ratio
is
different
in
gasoline
powered
vehicles
versus
diesel
powered
vehicles,
no correlation can
be made between the two
contaminants.
In
conversations
with
control room
operators
at
the tunnels
which
were visited, these personnel have
learned
to anticipate
the increase in
diesel
traffic and the
concommi
ttant increase
in
smoke
level and
therefore
increase
the ventilation
rate
regardless
of
the
CO
monitor
readings.
An
outstanding
example of
this
1s
the
evening rush hour
diesel
bus traffic from
New
York
City.
No
tunnels
in
the U.S. have installed
smoke
meters,
but
a
few
in
Europe have(^)
installed such
Instruments.
Since
there
is essentially no information
available
on
the
performance
of
smoke
meters
1n
tunnels, no
recommendations
can
be
made
on
an
acceptable
smoke monitoring
system.
It
is
recommended
that typical instruments be
evaluated
in
a
tunnel
environment to determine the
applicability of
these
instruments
for
monitoring
smoke
in
tunnels
and
to
determine
the effects
of
the
tunnel
environment
(fog,
oil mist, par-
ticulates) on
the
performance
characteristics and
maintenance
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requirements for
such
instruments.
Other
Monitors
Nitrogen
Oxides
-
Simple,
reliable
monitors for
oxides
of
nitrogen
at
the
levels
anticipated have been de-
veloped recently.
Most
of the
monitors currently
on the
mar-
ket
use
a
gas
phase
chemiluminescent
reaction
principle.
Typical ranges for these
instruments
are
0-0.
02
ppm,
0-0,2
ppm
and
0-2
ppm.
These
are
ranges
which would
be
applicable
for
monitoring N0
X
in vehicular tunnels,
Some
models can
differentiate
between
the NO
and
NO2
content
of
the atmos-
phere.
Total Al
dehydes
-
Aldehyde
monitors
currently
on
the
market
are based
on wet
chemical
techniques
requiring
chemical
reactants to
be
used
in
the
instrument. Although
the
instruments
are
automated
frequent replacement
of
the
reactants is required. Furthermore,
current
models
are
not
specific for formaldehyde
which accounts
for
the
major
fraction of aldehyde
emissions
from
auto
exhaust.
The
EPA
is funding
work on
a
formaldehyde monitor and an
acceptable
instrument
may be
available in
the
future.
Carbon
Dioxide
and
Oxygen
-
Monitors for
these
constituents need only be considered
if
recycling
of
the
tunnel
atmosphere
is
used
instead of
ventilation.
Carbon
dioxide
can be
reliably
measured
using
NDIR
which
is specific
for
CO2.
Oxygen monitors
generally are
based on the para-
magnetic
characteristics
of
O2. Instruments are
commercially
available which
are
specific
for
03,
rugged and require
littl
maintenance.
Recommendations
for Tunnel Instrumentation
It is recommended that
measurement
of
CO
in
tunnels
be
continued
on a
routine
basis. For
both
manned
and unmanne
tunnels, the Hopcal
i
te-type
device
should serve as
a
reliable
means
of
monitoring
CO
concentration.
In
the case
of
auto-
matic control
of
tunnel
ventilation
equipment,
the
NDIR
or
Hopcalite
instrument can
be
used
to
control
ventilation
rates.
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If the
tunnel
air
is to
be
recycled,
the NDIR
type
of
instrument
should
be used
since
a
lower
level of
detection
can
be attained
and the
response time
is
better.
Monitors
for smoke or
haze
should
be
installed
in
tunnels,
particularly
those subjected
to
heavy
diesel
traffic.
At the
present
time
no recommendations
can
be
made
on
the
specific
type
of
instrument
which
should
be
used.
Specific
types
of
instruments
should be
tested under actual
tunnel
conditions
with the
objective
being
to
select
an
optimum
type
of instrument.
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CONCLUSIONS
As
a
result
of
this
study on
vehicular tunnel
ventilation
and
air
pollution
treatment,
the
following
conclusions
have
been
made:
1.
The
major
impurities
in
tunnels
with
respect
to
safety
and
comfort
level
are
CO, N0
X
,
HC
and
particulates.
CO
levels may run
as
high
as
350
ppm
during
rush hour
traffic.
N0
X
and HC,
particularly
partially
oxidized
HC,
are
generally in the
few ppm range,
a
level
high
enough
to
cause eye irritation
and
odor.
Particulates have
been
found at
the
2-5
mg/m^ level
which
causes
a
re-
duction in visibility.
Other
impurities
are
present
in
tunnels
but
these
are
present
at levels
which
are
not
harmful
or
irritating
to the
tunnel worker or
transient.
Lead
and
cadmium,
two
air
contaminants
which
are
of current
con-
cern
with
respect to
public
health
and
welfare, are
orders of magnitude
below
the standard Threshold Limit
Values.
2.
Concentrations of various impurities
as
a
function
of
vehicle
velocity,
type
of
vehicle,
road
gradient, ventilation
rate
and so
on can
be predicted
by
a
computer
model
developed
under this
program.
A
copy of
the
program
on
punched
paper tape
has
been
delivered
to
DOT.
The
information derived from
the model
can
be
used
to
estimate
ventilation
requirements
and
to
indi-
cate
optimized
locations
for
tunnel
impurity
monitors.
3.
Recommended
limits
for
comfort
and
safety levels
for
CO, N0
X
,
HC and
particulates
have
been
set as a
result
of
this
study.
These limits
have
been
catagorized
according to
safety
levels
for
manned
and unmanned
tunnels as
well
as
comfort levels for
unmanned tunnels.
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Manned Unmanned
Tunnel
s
Pollutant
Tunnel
s
Safety Level
Comfort
Level
CO 75 ppm 500
ppm
1000
ppm
NO
37.5
ppm
37.5
ppm
25
ppm
N0
2
HCRO
10
ppm
5 ppm
1 ppm
6
ppm
6
ppm
N.R.
U)
articulates
10 rag/m*
5
1
mg/m~
(1)
N.R.
-
No
recommendation
due
to
insufficient
information.
The levels which
quite
frequently
tunnels.
have been
selected
are
exceeded
in manned
A review
of
the
literature indicates
that
the
technology
exists to
purify
tunnel air
either
on
a
recycle
basis
or on
a
ventilation exhaust stack
gas
basis.
Recommended methods include:
CO
-
Catalytic
combustion
with
Hopcalite
at
250°F.
Conversion
of NO
to
NO?
oxidation.
Sorption of
activated
charcoal.
Activated carbon.
Particulates
-
Electrostatic precipi-
tation.
N0
X
-
HC
-
by
catalytic
N0
2
on
Altho
rathe
eval
u
vol urn
on a
that
opera
and
latio
route
ugh
t
r tha
ation
e of
hypot
both
ting
that
n
rat
to
b
his was
n
a
desi
of
the
gases
to
hetical
capital
costs
wo
when
pos
es
are
t
etter
tu
a
feas
gn stu
proces
be ha
tunnel
equipm
uld be
sible
9
he
les
nnel
a
ibility
dy
,
econ
ses
for
ndled,
b
,
indica
ent
cost
quite h
higher
s
expens
ir
qua
study
omi
c
the
ased
tes
s
and
igh
venti-
ive
ty.
As
has been done
in the past,
CO
should
be continuously monitored
and
used
as
an
indicator
for ventilation rates.
Con-
sideration should be
given
to
the
use
of
non-dispersive infrared
CO
monitors
rather than
the
Hopcal
i
te-type
monitors
because
of
the
faster
response
and
rise
time of
this
type
of
instrument.
In
178
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addition
to CO, smoke or
haze should
be
monitored,
also,
particularly
in
those
tunnels
which have a
heavy
con-
centration
of
diesel traffic. Instru-
mentation
would
also
be
required
if
purification systems
are
used to
assure
that the
various
components
of the
system
are functioning
properly.
We
believe there are three areas which
require
additional
study:
1.
Various smoke meters
should be tested
under actual
tunnel conditions
to
establish the
reliability
of such
instrumental
on.
2.
A
prototype
purification system
should
be
tested
under actual tunnel
conditions
to
establish
lifetime
of the
components
and
maintenance
and
replacement
frequency.
3.
Study of
air
recirculation
at
portals
should be
done
to
determine
the
extent
of
and
means
for
minimizing
or
preventinq
reci rculati
on.
179
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APPENDIX
I
FINAL
REPORT
-
INDUSTRIAL
HEALTH
FOUNDATION
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FINAL REPORT
Subcontract
No.
D-24437
under
Contract
No. FH
11-7597
TUNNEL VENTILATION
AND
AIR
POLLUTION
TREATMENT
Prepared
for
MSA
Research
Corporation
Evans City, Pennsylvania
March
31
,
1971
H.
M.
R.
T.
D.
C.
J.
A.
M.
C.
Bowman, Project
Director
P.
deTreville,
M.D.
,
Sc.D
Braun,
M.D.
Jurgiel
Carey
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APPENDIX
I
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II.
Work
Statement
III.
Tunnel
Pollutants
A.
Measured
Concentrations in
Tunnels
B. Health
Effects
C.
Other
Physiological
Effects
D.
Synergism
E.
Criteria
for
Recommending
Limits
F.
Time-Concentration
Effects
IV.
Conclusions
and
Recommendations
V. References Cited
List
of Tables
Table
1
-
Emission
Factors
Table
2
-
Automobile
Exhaust
Products
Table 3
-
Exhaust
Gas
Analysis
Table
4
-
Exhaust
Constituents
Table
5
-
Measured
Tunnel
Contaminants
Table
6
-
CO in Air
and Toxic
Symptoms
Table
7
-
COHb and
Symptoms
Table
8
-
CO
Time-Concentration-Effect
Table
9
-
Effects
of NO2
on
Man
Table
10-
SO?
Concentration
and
Response
Table
11-
Aldehyde
Toxicity
Table
12-
Tunnel
Contaminants
vs
Existing
Limits
List of Illustrations
Figure 1
-
Figure
2
-
CO
Exposures
Percent
COHb
Effect)
and
Effects
(CO
Time-Exposure
Page
212
212
213
215
216
226
228
228
230
231
237
213
214
214
215
215
217
218
218
220
222
223
232
235
236
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I.
INTRODUCTION
This
report
represents
a
culmination
of the
efforts expended by
Industrial Health
Foundation's (IHF)
staff
personnel
and
science advisors
in
eliciting
the
physiological
effects
of atmospheric
contaminants
generated
by
vehicular traffic
whether
alone
or
in synergism
and the
relation
of those effects with
time-concentration
exposures.
Wherever
possible,
criteria are
developed
for
recommending
desirable
time-concentration
limits along
with
the
reasoning
behind
such criteria.
The
bases
limited to, effects
tunnel
employees.
are
directed
toward,
but not
necessarily
on
vehicular
tunnel
transient
users and
II.
WORK
STATEMENT
The
work statement
as
described in the subject
subcontract is quoted
below:
A.
Using
its best
efforts
within
the time
and
funds
allotted,
based
on
information
provided
by
the
Con-
tractor,
the
Subcontractor will classify
each impurity gen-
erated
by
vehicular
traffic
into
a
category
which will
identify
the
effect of
each impurity
upon the various
tunnel
users, i.e.,
transients
as
well
as
maintenance
personnel.
For each,
the
degree
of toxicity, irritation
and
visibility
reduction shall
be established with
consideration
of concen-
tration
levels
and
exposure
times.
An
attempt
will
be
made
to rate
odors in
a
relative basis.
Typical
impurities
will
include
but
not
be
limited
to:
1. CO
2.
C0
2
3.
NO?
4.
Other
oxides
5.
Sulfates
6. Nitrates
7.
S0
2
of
nitrogen
8. Aliphatic
aldehydes
9.
Polycyclic
hydrocarbons
10. Particulates
11.
Benzene
soluble
organics
12.
Lead and other
metals
13. Gasoline additives
14. Asbestos
B. The
Subcontractor shall
develop criteria for
recommending desirable
and
allowable time concentration
limits
of
the pertinent
impurities
for
the maintenance
of a
safe
and
comfortable tunnel
atmosphere for
various
conditions
with due
consideration
to
operating
personnel as
well
as
the
traveling
public.
Reasoning
behind the
criteria
shall be
formulated.
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C. Consideration
should
be
given
to
the
possible
synergistic
effects
of one
impurity in
the
presence
of
another
impurity.
The effect
of
pressure (sea level,
5,000
ft and
10,000
ft) shall be
considered
for
those
contaminants
whose
pulmonary behavior is
dictated
by
pressure.
III.
TUNNEL
POLLUTANTS
The
primary
emphasis
in
determining
the
materials
to
be studied
in
this
program
is
on those
vehicular
exhaust,
blow-by and evaporative
products
emanating
from
both
gasoline
and
diesel
powered vehicles reported
to be identified
and
measured in vehicular
tunnels.
The secondary
but also important consideration is
the full
spectrum
of exhaust
blow-by
and evaporative products
from
gasoline and
diesel motors whether
in
or
out of vehicular
tunnels.
(Y
There are
several
references
bution
to atmospheric
pollution. Rossano
factors for
gasoline
and
diesel
engines (in
gal Ions) (Table
1
)
to
,yehicul
ar
contri
-
listed
the emission
pounds per
thousand
Pol
lutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides
of
sulfur
Ammoni
a
Organic
acids
Particulates
TABLE 1
Emission
Factors
Gasoline
Engines
Diesel
Engines
4
0.3
gm
2910
524 (b)
113
9
2
4
11
10
0.4
gm
60
(a)
180
222
40
N.A.
(c)
31
110
(a)
Includes
blow-by emissions, but
not
evaporative
losses
(b)
Includes
128.
lb/1000
gal. blow-by
emissions
(c) Not available
Rossano's
tabulation
does
not
mention
carbon
dioxide,
nitrogen,
water
vapor,
oxygen
or lead compounds as
have
been
listed
by
Goldsmith
and Rogers(2)
who
presented
the
automobile
exhaust
products
(Table
2)
as
a
per
cent
of
concentration
with
minimum
and maximum
values.
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TABLE
2
Automobile
Exhaust
Products
Per
Cent
of
Concentration
(Vol.
/Vol.)
Constituent
Minimum
Maximum
Aldehydes
0.0 0.3
Carbon
monoxide 0.2
12.0
Hydrocarbons
0.01
2.0
Oxides of nitrogen
0.0
0.4
Sulfur dioxide
See note
1
See
note
1
Carbon dioxide
5.0
15.0
Hydrogen
0.0
4.0
Lead
compounds
See
note
2
See
note 2
Nitrogen
78.0
85.0
Oxygen
0.0
4.0
Water
vapor
5.0
15.0
1.
Depends
on
sulfur content
of
fuel
2.
Depends
on
lead additives
Atkinson
et al'^)
presented
a
tabulation (Table
3)
showing
exhaust
gas
analyses
from
gasoline
and
diesel engines,
quoting
from
a Swiss
report
by Stahel et
al , in
undiluted
exhaust.
TABLE
3
Exhaust Gas
Analysis
Gasoline
Diesel
Formaldehyde
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of
nitrogen
Sulfur
dioxide
Carbon
dioxide
Caplan'
'
presented
a
gas
chromatographic
analysis
of
exhaust
gas
hydrocarbons
for
a
specific engine
operating
condition
and fuel,
primarily to
exhibit
the
complexity
of
identification
and
potential effects.
About sixty
components
are listed with
approximate concentrations. Elliott
et
an
5
)
showed
a
list
of
constituents (Table
4)
of
internal
combustion
engine exhaust
gases,
divided
into
major (greater
than
1%)
and minor (less than
1%)
constituents.
7
ppm
1 1 ppm
40
20
30,000
200-1000
600 400
60 200
132,000
90,000
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TABLE 4
Exhaust
Constituents
Major
Minor
Water
•
Oxides of
sulfur
CO2
Oxides of nitrogen
N2
Aldehydes
O2
Organic acids
H?
Alcohols
CO
(a)
Smoke
CO
(b)
H
2
(b)
(a)
Spark
ignition engine
(b) Diesel engine
A. Measured
Concentrations
in
Tunnels
A
compilation
of
contaminants measured
in
five
tunnels
was
presented in
the
first
quarterly progress
report
of this
program
(p.
11)
by MSA
Research
Corporation.^)
The list
is
not complete and
any
attempt
to
compare
the
tunnels
is
inappro-
priate
since the
conditions
under
which
the
values were
obtained
were not comparable.
The
ranges of
values measured
for
the
contaminants
are
given
in
Table 5.
TABLE
5
Measured
Tunnel
Contaminants
Contaminant
CO 54-170
ppm
N0
2
0.05-0.43
ppm
NOv
0.2-1.63
ppm
Aldehydes
0.05-0.12
ppm
SO?
0.04-<0.05
ppm
Total
Particulates
0.424-2.350 mg/m
3
Polycyclic hydrocarbons
Pyrene
0.04-1
.20 yg/m
3
Benzo(a)pyrene
0.03-0.69
yg/m
3
Coronene
0.03-0.53
yg/m
3
Benzperylene
0.09-0.99
yq/m
3
Metals
Lead
9.5-44.5
yg/m
3
Iron
9.5-23.4
yg/m
3
Zinc
2.2
yg/m
3
Cadmium
0.04-0.6
yg/m
3
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Additional
identified vehicular tunnel
pollutants
include
carbon
dioxide;
anthanthrene
;
f
uoranthene
;
several
metals
such
as
titanium,
and
salts.
Although not
tants,
mention
should
be
pollution whether or
not
mented.
chromium, vanadium,
nickel;
asbestos
in the inventory
of
chemical
pollu-
made
here
of
noise and
thermal
measurements
of
them
have
been
docu-
B.
Health Effects
The
primary
concern
of the
work
scope
of
this
effort
is stated
as
the
classification
of each
impurity
generated
by
vehicular
traffic
to
identify
the
effect
of
each
impurity on
the
various tunnel
users (transient
and
employed).
There is
a
wide
variety
of source
material
and
information
regarding
health
effects
of
many of the
contami-
nants reported
to
be found in
vehicular
tunnels
and
those
emanating
from
vehicles, resulting
in
a
variety
of versions.
Unfortunately there
are
many voids
in
dose-response
data.
Hence,
not
all
of
the
tunnel
contaminants
can
be
discussed
with the same
degree
of
confidence
regarding their
health
effects.
Later
in this
report
we
will attempt to
develop
time-concentration
effects
for
as
many
of the
contaminants
as
available
information
will allow.
1.
Carbon Monoxide
There
are many
treatises on
the subject
of carbon
monoxide,
its
health
effects and
its
control
in the literature.
Sievers
et
al
(7a,
8) stated
that examination of
a
group
of one-
hundred
fifty-six
Holland
Tunnel
traffic officers exposed
throughout
a
period
of
thirteen
years
to
an occupational
CO
exposure
averaging
70
ppm did not
reveal
any
evidence
of
in-
jury
to health attributable
to
carbon monoxide. Their eight-
hour
day was
divided
into alternating two-hour
periods of
service at tunnel exits
or
plazas
and
in
the
tunnel.
For
those who
were
non-smokers,
data
indicated
that
on the average
1.71
per cent of
their
hemoglobin
was
combined with carbon
monoxide. For those
who
smoked
more than one
pack of
cigarettes
a
day
data
indicated
5.35%
of
their
hemoglobin
combined with
carbon monoxide.
These
were
values
for men who
had
not
been
on duty in
the
tunnel
recently.
According to von Oettingen
,
'
9a
)
Henderson et al
gave
a
relationship
between CO
in
the
air
and toxic
symptoms
(Table
6).
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TABLE 6
CO
in
Air
and
Toxic
Symptoms
CO (ppm)
TOO
400-500
600-700
1000-1200
1500-2000
4000 and
above
Concentration
allowable
for
an exposure
of several hours
Concentration which
can
be inhaled for
1 hour without
appreciable effect
Concentration causing
just appreciable
effects
after
1 hour
of
exposure
Concentration causing
unpleasant but
not dangerous
symptoms
after 1
hour
of
exposure
Concentration dangerous
with exposure
for
1 hour
Concentrations
which
are
fatal
in exposures
for
less
than 1 hour
One
of
the
initial
symptoms
of CO
poisoning
is
headache
which
is associated
sooner
or
later
with irritability,
fatigue and
progressive
weakness.
One
of
the
most
characteristic findings in acute
CO poisoning
resulting
in
unconsciousness is a
complete
amnesia
for
the
time of
the
accident.
observ
recove
contro
comb
in
any
co
cause
any st
functi
concen
or
obj
has
al
any si
9b,9c)
Psychoses
as
sequelae of CO poisoning
have
been
ed
repeatedly. Usually they develop
after apparent
ry
from the
acute
exposure.
Despite
some
degree of
versy, evidence is lacking
1)
that
CO
as
such
or
in
ation
with
other compounds
remains
in
the
tissue
for
nsiderable
time,
and
2)
that
concentrations
of
CO
which
no acute subjective
or
objective symptoms
will
affect
ructure of the organism
in
such
a way
as
may lead to
onal
or
permanent
injury.
It
is
generally
believed
that
trations
of up
to
100
ppm of CO in air cause
no
subjective
ective
toxic effects
even
with
continued
exposure.
It
so
been
demonstrated
that such exposure
will
not
cause
gns
or
symptoms
of
chronic
CO
poi
soning.
(7a
,7b
,7c
,8
,9a
,
Carbon
monoxide
exerts
its
effects
on
man
by
com-
bining
with
the
hemoglobin
of the
blood
and
interrupting
the
normal
oxygen
supply
to the body
tissues.
Although
this
resultant
deficiency is
a
reversible
chemical
asphyxia,
never-
theless,
damage
done
by
severe
anoxia
from
any
cause
may not
be
reversible.
(10)
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Table 7
reflects
the
symptoms caused
by
various
amounts of
carbon
monoxide
hemoglobin in the
blood.
HO]
TABLE
7
COHb and
Symptoms
Blood
Saturation
%
CO
Hemoglobin
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
Symptoms
No
symptom
Tightness
slight
he
blood ves
Headache a
Severe
hea
dimness
o
and colla
Same
as
ab
bill ty
,
i
pul
se
Above
plus
convulsi
o
Above
plus
and
res
pi
Weak
pulse
respirato
s
aero
adac
sel
s
nd
t
dach
f vi
pse
ove,
ncre
ss
forehead,
possible
he, dilation
of cutaneous
hrobbing
in temples
e,
weakness, dizziness,
si
on, nausea,
vomiting
more collapse possi-
ased
respiration
and
coma
with intermittent
ns
depressed
heart action
ration and
possibly
death
and
slow
respiration,
ry
failure and death
The degree
of
harm
from
carbon monoxide is
a
product
of
concentration
times
the
length
of
exposure.
Henderson and
Haggard(H)
proposed
the
following
equation
(Table
8)
as a
rough
guide
in
estimating
probable effects
-
it
does
not
apply
to
exposures
longer
than
a
few
hours.
TABLE
8
CO
Time-Concentration-Effect
Hours
X
PPM
Effect
300
600
900
1500
No perceptible
effect
Just
perceptible
effect
Headache and
nausea
Dangerous to
life
Satisfactory evidence has
not been
presented
to
indicate that any
permanent ill
effects
in
men
or
animals
are
to
be
expected
from
a
single
acute
exposure to
carbon
monoxide
where
the
exposed
person
or
animal
remains
conscious through-
out
.
(9a
,9b
,9c)
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data
in
Table
exposure
level.
Figure
1
presents
a series
8,
which
relate
effects
of
curves
,
based
on
of CO
with
time and
The
signs
and
symptoms of acute
CO
intoxication
, .
only appear
with
carboxyhemogl
obin (COHb)
levels above
101.
^'^
These
levels
are
apparently hardly ever
found
in
subjects
ex-
posed to
traffic
exhaust.
Fisher and
Hasse(13a)
reported
that
in
moderate
CO
poisoning produced
by
inhalation
of
CO
in
con-
centrations
of
200
to
540
ppm
over
a
period of 40
to
60
minutes,
the
labyrinth
in most
instances
showed
an
increased
excitability,
as
indicated
by
the lowering of the threshold
for electric
stimuli.
poi som
loss in
and
inc
where C
COHb
wa
vision
than 30
worl
d'
not
imp
of
carb
bon
mon
hemoglo
will
ac
be
no u
quite
s
Ze
ng
i
n
the
Zo
rease
exp
s
mea
above
%.
P
lite
air
h
on
mo
oxide
bin
i
tuall
ptake
low.
nk03b)
twel ve
higher
rn<14)
d
psych
osure
w
sured.
1000
etryH
rature
eal
th.
noxide
are
no
n his b
y
excre
,
and i
I?
reported
that
chronic
carbon
monoxide
cases
showed
a
slowly
increasing
hearing
frequency areas .
reported increased sensitivity
to
noise
ic
irritability
in
blast
furnace workshops
as
experienced.
Ten to
twenty
per
cent
C.K.
Drinker(lS)
reported
dimness
of
m for
one
hour
associated with COHb
greater
concludes from an extensive
review of
the
that
carbon
monoxide
doses below 50 ppm
do
Miranda
et
alH7a)
state
that the
effects
from
smoking and exposure
to
ambient
car-
t
additive.
If
a
person
has
7%
carboxy-
lood and
is exposed to
25 ppm of CO, he
te CO.
If
exposed
to
50
ppm, there
will
f
exposed
to
100
ppm, the uptake will
be
The
Aero
Medical
Association^^)
states
that
the
tolerance for
COHb
in the
blood is less
at
high
altitude
than
at
sea
level;
for
example,
3%
COHb
at
15,000 feet
produces
effects
equal to that
caused
by
20%
COHb
at
sea
level.
A
tabulation
relating
CO
exposure
concentration
and time
to
reach
7%
COHb
at sea
level
when light work
is
being done
showed
100
ppm
requiring 88
minutes,
300
ppm
requiring
29
minutes,
and
500
ppm
requiring
18 minutes to
reach 7%
COHb.
According
to
the
Documentation
for
Short
Term
Exposure Limits,
08)
a concentration
of
1000 ppm CO
could
exist without creating physiologically
unacceptable
conditions
when
exposed
to
such
a level for as
long as
ten
minutes.
This
is roughly
comparable to Henderson's
equation.
1
)
Data
in
Reference
18
relate carboxyhemogl
obi
n
levels
with
CO
concen-
trations and
exposure
time. They
are
consistent
with
data
shown
in
Reference
17a
in which
equations
are
postulated
for
COHb
determination
and suggest
that if
the
COHb level
in
the
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person
who
is
normally
healthy
is
maintained
below
14%,
this
is
a
physiologically
acceptable
level.
2.
Nitrogen
Dioxide
reported
Disease
does
no
ppm
have been
Industrial
ited
States
Men observed
working
6
to
8 hours daily
in
nitric
acid recovery
and
fortification
plants, where
exposures
ranged
from
5
to
30
ppm
and
averaged 10
to
20
ppm, for
periods
up
to
18 months,
evidenced
no
significant ill
health
nor
were
any
characteristic
adverse
effects detected
by periodic medical
examinations.
U0)
The
Association of Casualty
and Surety Companies
(Chemical
Hazard
Bulletin)
states
that
10
to
20
ppm can
be
endured
with no
discomfort.
The
Los
Angeles County Air Pollution
Control
District
established
a
concentration
of
3
ppm
for
the
first alert.
5
ppm
for
the
second
alert,
and
10
ppm for
the
third
alert.
(19)
Cooper
et
al,(20)
i
n
reviewing literature
on the
effects of NO2
on man, developed
a
tabulation
which
is abstract'
ed
in Table 9.
They
also
state
that there
is
no
evidence for
any
carcinogenic effects
of
NO2
in
man and
that
there is
too
little evidence on
which
to
base
any
conclusions
regarding
NO2
adsorbed on
particulates.
They
conclude that
this
is an
area
requiring
long-term
research
experiments
before
any
definitive
data
will
be available.
PPM
0.2
0.5
1-3
TABLE 9
Effects of
NO2 on
Man
Effect
or
Comment
Calculated
limit for
space
travel
Submarine
maximum
for
90
day dive
Odor
threshold
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PPM
5
5
10
10
10
13
20
TABLE 9
cont.
Effects
of NO2
on
Man
Effect
or
Comment
20
25
30-
35
35
50
80
100
300
-400
Thresho
day,
5
Exposur
volunt
60 Minu
exposu
Maximum
Normal
showi
n
8
Volun
i
rri
ta
c
g
n i
t
Workers
to
lev
months
Emergen
Emergen
Workers
severa
Emergen
7 Human
pulmon
In
3
to
the ch
Produce
in
vol
Few min
and
de
Id
1
i mi
day
wk
e
of
on
eer
for
te
emer
re
permi
t
vol unte
g
pulmo
teers
t
i n
;
4
ion;
al
in HN0
els
ave
showed
cy
expo
cy
expo
expose
1
years
cy
expo
volunt
ary
dis
5 minu
est
d marke
unteers
utes
ex
ath
t for
occupational
exposure
(8
hr
)
e
asthmatic
and
one
pilocarpinized
five
minutes;
no effects
noted
gency exposure
level
for occupational
ted in submarine for one hour
ers exposed for
60 minutes
-
not
nary
function
impairment
3
had
eye
irritation;
7,
nasal
,
pulmonary
discomfort;
6
olfactory
1
predominantly
slight
3
recovery
plants
reportedly
exposed
raging up
to
20 ppm for up
to 18
no
ill
effects
sure
limit
for 30 minute
exposure
sure limit for
15
minute
exposure
d in
30-35
ppm
of
nitrous
gases
over
had no
ill
effects
sure level for
5 minutes
eers
exposed
for one minute;
3
had
comfort
and nasal
irritation
tes volunteers
got
tightness
of
d
irritation
of
larynx and cough
posure will cause
bronchopneumonia
In
animal
research
Gross
et
al'^1)
concluded that
long-term
exposure of
hamsters
to NO2 did
not
cause
emphysema
at an
average
concentration
of 22
ppm
(ranging
from 10
to
34
ppm)
exposed
for
two
hours
per
day, five days per
week for
three
consecutive
weeks.
3.
Sulfur
Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide
is
an
irritant
gas;
6
to
12
ppm
causes
immediate
irritation
to nose
and
throat.
About 20
ppm
is the
least amount irritating
to
the
eyes.
(10)
its
inhalation
affects
chiefly the upper respiratory
tract,
trachea
and
bronchi
The
strong
sensory
stimulation
often causes
spasm
of the
glottis
which
protects the deeper
passages.
Recovery
from
the
effects
of
short
exposure is
rapid.
(22)
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Association
of
Casualty
and
Surety
Companies
. .
(Chemical
Hazards
Bulletin
1952)
show the
data
in Table
10.
t'
8
'
TABLE 10
so
2
-
PPM
3-5
8-12
10
20
50-100
400- 500
SO2 Concentration
and
Response
Response
Least
Least
i
rri
Maxim
long
Least
eye
Maxim
1
ho
Dange
dete
amou
t a
t
i
urn
co
ed
ex
amou
1
r
r i
t
urn
co
ur ex
rous
Sim and Pattle^
23
equivalent
to
30
ppm for 10
either
clinically
or
by
me
air
flow.
With
dosages
of
resistance
increased
sign
if
the
people
exposed.
ctable odor
nt causing
immediate
throat
n
ncentration
allowable
for
pro-
posure
nt
causing
coughing and
immediate
ation
ncentration
allowable for
1/2
to
posure
for
even
short exposures
)
reported that with
dosages
minutes
little
change
was
noted
surement of
lung
resistance to
50
ppm
for
10
minutes
the lung
icantly
above
normal
in
50%
of
SO2
at
higher,
b
i
1 i
ty
S0
2
.
I
reply,
able
ev
levels,
thus
fa
on the
to have
menon
d
Batti
signific
do
not
to
respi
n
d
u
s
t
r
i
a
The
sea
idence d
as
thes
r
failed
health
a
,
on the
oes
not
gel
1
i
ant le
presen
ratory
1
expe
rch
fo
ocumen
e
are
.
If
n d
d
i
s
basis
appear
21)
st
vel
s
t
dire
inf
ec
rience
r
an
a
ting
a
encoun
urban
ease
of
av
to
in
ates
rangi
ct
ev
tion
prov
ccept
toxi
tered
pol
lu
f
exp
a
i
1
a
b
vol ve
that
ng
f
idenc
deri
v
i
des
able
colog
in
u
tion
osed
le in
S0
2
populati
om
0.5
to
e
of
i
n c
ing from
a
definit
rationale
ical
rele
rban air
has
a
mea
p
p
u
1
a
t
i
formation
in
its me
ons
exposed
to
2
ppm and even
eased
suscepti-
the
effects of
e
negative
,
or
for
reason-
vance of SO?
pollution,
has
surable effect
ns,
as it
appears
,
this
pheno-
c
h
a
n i
s
m
S0
2
,
in
its
various
forms
and
metabolic products,
does
not
accumulate
in the
human system
and
does
not accumulate
in
the
atmosphere.
(25)
There is
a
threshold
level
below
which
no
detectable
response to
S0
2
that
might conceivably
be
health-
related
occurs.
This
threshold
response is 1 to
2 ppm in
the
most
sensitive
individuals.
4.
Aliphatic
Aldehydes
and
Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde and
acrolein have
been
identified
as
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components
of
automobile
exhaust
fumes.
Others may be
present
such as
crotonaldehyde
and
saturated
aldehydes.
In
general,
the
toxicity
of the saturated
aldehydes
decreases
with
increasing
molecular
weight.
The
unsaturated
aldehydes
are
extremely
irritating.
The
irritant
nature
of
aldehydes,
from
human experience, provides
sufficient
warning
to
prevent
serious health effects.
This
may
explain
the
paucity
of
information
regarding
the experimental toxicology of chronic
aldehyde exposure.
(26)
The systemic
toxicity of
formaldehyde
is relatively
low.
It
irritates the mucous
membranes via hardening the
tissues on local
contact.
All
organic
aldehydes
are
reported
to be irritant.
The
toxic
effects of
acrolein consist
chiefly
in strong irritation
of the
skin
and exposed mucosae. No
other chronic
ill effects
have
been
reported.
(22)
The
relative
acute
toxicity
of
aliphatic aldehydes
tabulated by
Skog,
reported
in reference
26, is
shown in
Table
11.
TABLE
11
Aldehyde
Acrolein
Formaldehyde
Crotonaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Propi
onaldehyde
Butyraldehyde
Aldehyde
Toxicity
Rat
Inhalation LC
gn
(ppm)
(30
min)
131
815
1,396
20,572
26,164
59,160
In
posure
to
20
to
30
seconds,
of
30
seconds,
the
ppm
experience of Barnes
and
of
formaldehyde produced
irritation of the nose and
and sneezing
in 1 or 2
minutes
Speicher(
'
ex-
lacrimation
in 15
throat
at
the end
Sim
and Pattle(^3)
exposed
human
volunteers
to
vapors
of
several aldehydes
for
from 5
to
30 minutes.
For-
maldehyde
caused irritation of
mucous
membranes
and
lacrima-
tion
at
13.8
ppm; acrolein
was
violently irritating
and
lacrimatory
at
.8 and
1.2
ppm,
crotonaldehyde was
irritant
and
lacrimatory
at
4.1
ppm;
acetaldehyde
produced slight
irritation
to
the
upper
respiratory tract
at
134
ppm; pro-
pronaldehyde, butyraldehyde and
i
sobutyraldehyde
were non-
irritating at
concentrations
of
134 ppm,
230
ppm and 207
ppm,
respectively.
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Henderso-n
and
Haggard^' '
state that
1
ppm
acrolein
in air
is
immediately
detectable,
that 5.5 ppm
causes
intense
irritation
and
that
10
ppm
is
lethal
in
a
short
time.
Elkinsv
28
)
reports
that
5-6
ppm
causes
eye
irritation
in
persons
acclimatized
to
formaldehyde
and
at lower
concentra-
tions
in those not
acclimatized.
Five
ppm
prevents
respiratory
injury,
but
not
irritation. Cases
of
itching
eyes have
been
noted
at
concentrations
of
1 to
2
ppm.
5.
Hydrocarbons
Although
polycyclic
hydrocarbons
produce tumors
when painted
on the
skin
of susceptible animals,
their
inhala
tion has
resulted
in
no
experimental
lung
cancer
6.
MetalsO°)
MV
A variety
of
metals
have been
reported
as
having
been
found
in
vehicular
tunnel
atmospheres,
all
in
ug/m^
quantities.
Their
physical
nature
has not
been elicited,
but
none
of
those reported
even approaches the
TLV
(time-
weighted
average
for
eight
hours per day,
five
days
per week,
exposure)
.
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b.
Chromium
-
Chromium
salts, including
Cr203,
are
ascribed
a
low
order
of toxicity and
have
caused
no
significant
industrial illness.
On the
other
hand,
chromates
are
reported
to
be
systemically
toxic
and
carcinogenic.
c.
Copper
-
Repeated
exposure
to
Cu fume
levels up
to
400
yg/m3
caused no
complaints and
brief
exposures to
con-
centrations of 1 to
3
mg/nw resulted
in
no other discomfort
than
a
sweet
taste.
d.
Iron
.
iron
-
Siderosis, or iron pigmentation,
is
reported
to
occur at
exposure
levels
above 10
mg/m
3
of Fe
oxide fume, which
is
a
relatively
low order
of toxicity.
Physical examinations and tests
of work
capacity
of welder
with Fe pigmentation
show that it causes little
or no
disa
ity.
s
bil
e.
Nickel
-
Apart
from the
possible malignant
effects of
nickel carbonyl
,
dermatitis
constitutes the only
other
serious
nickel
exposure
hazard.
f.
Titanium
-
The
physiological history
of
Ti02
is one
of
inertness. No significant
pulmonary alterations
were
observed among workmen
employed
in enclosed
workshops
with
Ti
O2
dust.
g.
Vanadium
-
In
a
study
to
test
experimentally
in animals
the suitability of
a
threshold
limit for V0O5 of
500 yg/m
3
recommended
by
the
Russians,
it
was
found
that
dogs,
rats, guinea pigs,
and
rabbits
tolerated
V2O5
dust
exposure
at
this
level
for
6
months
of daily 6-hour
exposures
without evidence
of
histological
change
referable
to
inhalation
of the dust.
No effects
except
lowered serum
cholesterol
levels
were
seen among vanadium
processing
workers
in
Colorado
who
were
exposed to vanadium
levels of from
100
to
300 yg/m
3
.
h.
Lead
-
Inorganic lead has not
been
reported
as
a cause of
acute
reactions
even
at
the
highest
airborne
con-
centrations.
No harmful
effects to
humans have
been
reported
at the highest ambient
concentrations. Measured
concentrations
of organic
lead are very
low,
so
low in
fact
that
it
is
not
necessary
to
consider organic
lead
as
a
practical
constituent
of
the atmosphere.
(30)
7.
Particulates
Hoffman
et
al^
29
)
discussed
the
analysis
of
the
exhaust
tar
from gasoline
engines.
Among
about
30
isolated
and
identified polynuclear
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(PAH) were
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10 components
which
are carcinogenic
to the
experimental
animal.
It must,
however,
be
here
reiterated,
as stated
by
Goldsmith and Rogers,
(2)
that carcinogenic activity
has
only
been
detected
with
dermal application.
No
experimental lung
cancer
has resulted
from
inhalation
of these
compounds.
Lyons(31)
reported
PAH
compounds
in
diesel
exhausts
of
which
several
are
reportedly
carcinogenic to
experimental
animals
via dermal
application.
Waller et
al
(
32
)
ma
de
observations on the
size
and
shape
of
particles in the atmosphere
of London
and
a
number
of
samples
were
collected in
the
Blackwall
Tunnel. Nearly
all the
particles
were small
smoke aggregates, with
a
mass
median
diameter
of 1
micron.
The
forms
were typical of
those
produced
by
the
incomplete
combustion
of hydrocarbon
fuels.
All
were
small enough to stay in
suspension
indefinitely
and
they were well
within the
respirable
size
range.
The
maximum
concentration of
smoke
occurs
when the number
of
diesel
vehicles
is
highest.
C.
Other
Physiological
Effects
1.
Irritation
Eye
irritation
is by
far
the most noticeable
and
obnoxious symptom
of smog
as
far
as
the
public is
concerned.
The identity
of the
exact
compounds
produced in smog reactions,
which
are responsible
for eye irritation,
have
not
been
established.
Formaldehyde,
acrolein,
and peroxyacyl
nitrate
(PAN)
have
been
variously
reported as
being involved, but
there
is
no
general
acceptance
of
this. Actual
measurements
in
the
Los
Angeles
atmosphere
have
failed
to
demonstrate
that
such compounds
are
present
in sufficient
amounts,
alone
or
together,
to
cause eye
i rri
tation.
(33)
Oxides of
nitrogen
are
suspected
of
contributing
to
eye
irritation
caused
by
vehicular
exhaust
but
insufficient
specific
information
has been
developed to
formally
indict
them.
The
low molecular weight aldehydes,
formaldehyde
and acrolein, cause eye reaction at as
low
as
0.01 ppm
ex-
posure
level,
which
is
below
the
odor
threshold
for
both.
However,
acrolein produces
only
mild sensory
irritation at
0.25
ppm
while formaldehyde
produces
mild
irritation
of
the
eyes and nose at
2 to
3
ppm. The
higher
aliphatic
aldehydes
have much
higher
irritation
thresholds.
Aromatic hydrocarbons
(benzene,
toluene,
xylene,
etc.) can
cause
irritability but
not
without
chronic
exposure
or
relatively
high acute
exposure.
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Exposure-
to
the
levels of
paraffin
hydrocarbons
found
in
automotive
exhausts,
particularly in vehicular
tunnel
atmospheres,
are
likely
to
be
entirely free
from
any
irritant
effect.
The
oxides of sulfur
may
cause
throat
irritation,
but such
is
not likely
to
be
encountered
in
tunnel
atmospheres
unless
there is
a
significant
build-up
of
oxides
of
sulfur.
The same
may
be said
for
oxides of
nitrogen.
Carbon monoxide,
while
not an
irritant
in
the
true
sense
can
cause
headache and
irritability.
Carbon
dioxide,
which
has
not
heretofore been
mentioned
in
this
report, is a product
of
automotive
exhaust.
Its
only
significant effect,
if
in large enough
concentration,
is
as
a
toxicant contributor
to
respiration difficulty and
as
such
could
add to the
respiratory
burden
of
ill persons.
Such levels are
virtually
impossible to
attain
in
tunnel at-
mospheres.
Information
on
irritant
effects,
other
than
logic, of
polycycllc hydrocarbons
is inconclusive and
ient
on which to base any comment.
2.
Odor
dermato-
i nsuf
f
i
c
There
have been
many
conflicting
reports
related
to
the specific
sources and
causes
of odors
which
have been
purported
to result from
vehicular
exhaust, to
the
point
that
there
appear
to
be more
areas
of lack
of
agreement
than
of
agreement. For example,
acrolein
and
formaldehyde,
which do
have
low
odor
thresholds,
have been cited
as
contributors
to
automotive
exhaust
odors.
The
is
reported
to be from 0.05
to
is reported
to
be from
0.21
to
source.
(34)
odor threshold
for
formaldehyde
1.0
ppm
while
for acrolein
it
1.8 ppm,
depending on
the
The present
state
of
knowledge
is too
scanty
and
contradictory to
utilize the
available
data
on
odor
thresholds
with any
degree
of
confidence.
The odor
of NO2
is
characteristic
and
distinct
in
concentrations
as
low
as
5
ppm.
SO2
has
an
easily noticeable
odor at 3 ppm, while
some
can
detect
at
concentrations
as
low
as
0.3
ppm
(probably more
by
taste
than
by
odor).
CO,
of
course, is odorless.
Because
of the
chemical
complexity
of
the
particu-
lates,
odor is
not a
likely
means
of
identification
nor
would
it be
one of
the
attributes
to
consider
controlling.
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3.
Visibility
Addressing
these
remarks to vehicular
tunnel
atmospheres,
we
can
for the
most
part
ignore
photochemical
smog because
of the
minimum amount
of
radiant
energy
avail-
able.
The
visibility
problem(s) then
relate
to clarity
of
the atmosphere,
i.e.,
suspended
particulates (smoke)
and those
tunnel
contaminants
which
affect
visual
acuity,
whether
through
lachrimatory
or
other
processes.
Concerning
particulates, not only do
they
alone
contribute
to
visibility reduction, but
the
added
effect
of
droplets
(vapors) of
the
oxides of
nitrogen, the
oxides
of
sulfur and the
unburned
hydrocarbons
from
blow-by,
evaporation
and incomplete
combustion
contribute
to
a
haze effect.
Reduction
of
particulates,
which
in themselves
may
not be significant
health hazards,
would
reduce the plating
out effect of
vapors on
them.
D.
Synergism
The
first thought might
well
be
photochemical
reactivity, but
in
tunnel atmospheres
this
is
minimized.
There
are,
however,
interacting
forces,
as
for
example
the
effect of carbon monoxide on
normally healthy
tunnel
users
or
employees
vs. the
effect
of CO on heavy
smokers
and/or
on those
who have
cardiopulmonary
deficiencies.
Addition
ally,
there
can
be
the
effect
of
humidity
on
the
exhaust
products
and
their relative
toxic,
irritant
or
nuisance
value,
and
the
difference
in
effects
of
exhaust emissions
at or
near
sea
level
vs.
those
at higher elevations.
Although
not
chemical pollutants,
both noise and temperature
can
have
effects
on tunnel users and employees.
It has
been reliably reported that
carbon.
monoxide
is
not
oxidized by
ozone
at
ordinary temperatures
on mpi
.(35)
E.
Criteria for Recommending Limits
There
are several bases
for
concern
and
consideration
of
desirable improvements
in
the
ambient
atmosphere
in
operative
vehicular tunnels: health, safety,
comfort,
traffic
flow,
maintenance, disaster control,
ease
of
facility
design
and
construction,
effect
on
the outside
atmosphere,
aesthetics
and economics,
and
perhaps
others.
There are
probably
as
many
defensible
ways
to
rank
these
bases
as
there are people
of
differing
backgrounds and
interests
who
set
themselves to
the
task
of such
ranking.
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The rationale
used in
our
deliberations
is
that
the
health of the
transient users
and
of
the tunnel work
force are
necessary
prerequisites
to virtually all
the
others.
If
these
are
considered
as
the
top
priority and are
adequately
effected,
then safety
and
disaster
control will
be more
readily
effected
as
second
priority
subjects.
If the second
priority
items
are
well
under control,
then maintenance
of
the
tunnels
and
traffic flow
will
be made
easier
as
third priority con-
siderations. It
is
difficult
to
divorce
economics
from
any
of
the
bases because
of
the
obvious
and necessary
intermeshing.
Consequently,
economics, although
here
relegated
to a
relatively
low
order
of
priority,
must be
considered along with
each
of
the concerns
here
listed.
Closely
related to
economics
is the ease of
facility
design
and
construction,
whether it
is
to improve
existing
tunnels
or
to
construct new
tunnels.
While
comfort and aesthetics
are quite desirable,
they
are assigned the lowest
priority
of
those
elements
of
concern
in
this
listing since
their
consideration
and
imple-
mentation will
require the
utilization
of
funds which must
first
be earmarked
for
concerns
of
higher
priority.
Based
on
an
extensive review
of
literature
and
data,
both
published
and
unpublished,
there
are several gaps
in
information
and
data which preclude
any
possibility
of recom-
mending
unequivocal
criteria for
setting
limits
or
establishing
standards
for vehicular
tunnel atmospheres.
Throughout this
report,
reference has been
made
frequently
to
threshold limit
values,
short term
limits,
contaminant concentrations in
parts
per
million, milligrams
per
cubic
meter
or
micrograms
per cubic meter.
There
have
been references to
measured
as
well as
to
estimated values.
Not
all
the
values are
readily
comparable
one with
the
other
since the bases for
establishing limits, for example, are
quite different
even
within the
same
set
of
limits such as
TLV's.
Consequently,
any attempt to
develop
time-dose
relationships
for tunnel contaminants will of
necessity
be
empirical
at
best
and of
extremely limited
use.
A
representative example
will show
this
problem
quite clearly.
There
have been proposed
for
carbon
monoxide
a threshold
limit value,
short
term limit
and
emergency
exposure limits
by
the
Pennsylvania
Department
of
Public
Health.
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CO:
TLV
STL
EEL
50 ppm
(8
hr
day
-
5
400
ppm (15 minutes)
400 ppm
(60
minutes)
800 ppm
(30
minutes)
1500
ppm
(10
minutes)
day
week)
The
TLV and
STL
are purportedly
safe
limits which
will result in no
deleterious
health effects
to the
normal
person.
They
do
not
take into
account
those people
who
have
health
deficiencies.
The EEL
values were
established
for
military and
space
short
term inhalation
standards
at
which
some
degree
of
intoxication,
though
temporary,
may
result.
F.
Time Concentration Effects
A
reasonably valid assumption is that,
for
transient
tunnel users
and for tunnel
employees
who
alternate
periods of
work in
the
tunnel
with
periods of
work
outside
the
tunnel,
if
the pollutant
concentration
in the tunnel does
not
exceed the
TLV
for
that
pollutant,
the
probability
of
n_o adverse
health
effect
from
that
pollutant
is
very
high.
We
may
go
further
and
assume
that
normally the short
term
limits
can apply as
far
as
transient
users
of
the tunnels
are concerned.
However,
here we may
be assuming
too
much
if
there
are
long traffic
delays which would exceed the short
term limit
peri
od.
The Community Air Quality
Guides for
Al
dehydes
(34)
presents
a
series
of
concentrations
for
formaldehyde
and the
effects
experienced.
Comparing
them with TLV and STL,
we
find
the
following:
HCH0:
TLV
STL
AQG
5
5
2-3
4-5
10
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
(5
minutes)
-
repeated 8 hour
exposures;
mild
irritation;
discomfort
-
tolerate
up
to
30 minutes;
lachrymation
-
borne
with
difficulty; pro-
fuse
lachrymation
Here
again,
any
attempt
to
develop meaningful
time-
concentration
relationships
is
fraught
with
hazard
and
uncer-
tainty.
Figures
1
and
2
are
graphic
representations
of
data
concerning
time-concentration
relationships
for
carbon
monoxide
Even here
the
data
in the
literature are
not
fully
consistent.
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In summarizing
important engineering
developments
from
1965-68,
(in
Volume
1
of
Industrial
Hygiene
Highlights
)
Bloomfield quotes
and
endorses Miranda
as
follows:
High
altitude, coupled
with the presence
of
carbon monoxide,
serves
to
deprive the
blood
of its
oxygen
carrying
capacity.
An
evaluation
of the physiologic
and ventilation
control
problems
associated
with
a
1.6
mile tunnel at
an
elevation of
11,000 feet
was
made
in
order
to
develop
recommendations
concerning
tunnel
ventilation
and tunnel use.
It
was
recommended
that:
1.
The CO
concentration
in
the
tunnel
be
maintained below 25
ppm
with one
hour
averages no
higher
than
50 ppm,
and short
term
peaks no
higher
than
75
ppm.
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2.
Signs
be
placed
on
the
route
to warn
sensitive
individuals
of the
dangers
of
high
elevations
and
smoking
and
to
suggest
possible
alternate
lower
routes
.
3.
Oxygen
masks be
provided
at
the tunnel
for emergency
use.
4.
Construction workers involved
in
building
the tunnel
be
screened
for
cardiopulmonary
abnormalities,
as
well
as
blood
dyscrasias (sickle
cell
anemia).
They
should
also
be
acclimatized to the
high
altitude
through
progressively
increased
exercises.
(38)
An
additional
practical
and
easy
to adopt
measure
would be
installation
of
an
audio-visual
warning
(based on
either
CO quantitation
or
SOP
or
both) which
would
require
turning
off auto
ignition
in
case
of
traffic
stoppage.
There
in
tunnels
also
tunnel
s
are
certain
other
to
be considered,
methods for
improvement
either for existing or new
1. Pre-employment physical
examinations
for tunnel
employees
and
frequent
periodic
physical
examinations
to
document
any
or no
changes.
2.
Develop
traffic
control
systems
which
will
activate during serious traffic tie-ups
or
tunnel
area
dis-
asters.
3.
Develop driver
education
programs
for sound
guidance
specifically for tunnel
traffic
driving.
4. Develop improved methods for
detecting pollutants
identifying
and quantifying
them.
5.
Develop
appropriate
research
programs to
fill
the
gaps and to
determine
the effects
of
several
levels
of
pollutant
concentrations for several time
periods.
6.
Develop
appropriate
research
programs to
deter-
mine
the
nature
and
extent
of synergistic
effects.
7.
Develop
suitable
methods for
reducing
suspended
particulates
in
tunnels.
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8.
Determine
the
true
priorities for
tunnel
atmos-
phere
improvement
considering
health,
safety,
engineering
design
and
maintainability.
9.
Initiate
a
program to
determine
the
accident
rates
in
tunnels
over
an
extended
period
of
time
with partic-
ular emphasis
on
the causes of the accidents.
10.
Initiate
a
program
to
determine
the
contribution
of tunnel
equipment, materials
and
road bed
erosion
to the
pollutant
inventory.
11. Study
the tunnel
lighting
to
consider
the
optimum
lighting
for
users
and employees.
Undoubtedly,
the
1971 Automotive
Air
Pollution Research
Symposium sponsored
by
the Coordinating
Research
Council,
Inc.,
on
May
3-5,
1971,
at
the
Ambassador
West Hotel, Chicago,
Illinois
will
present additional
data
and
concepts which should
be
taken
into
consideration
when they become
available
along with the
contents
of
this
report.
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FIGURE
1
-
CO
EXPOSURES
AND
EFFECTS
lOOOr
Hours
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FIGURE 2
-
PERCENT
COHb
(CO
TIME-EXPOSURE
EFFECT)
100Q
90C
80C
700
600
-
500
400
300
200
100
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V.
REFERENCES
CITED
1.
Rossano,
Jr.,
A.T.
Air
Pollution
Control:
Guidebook
for Management.
Environmental
Sciences
Service
Division,
E.R.
A.
,
Inc.
,
1969,
p
16.
2.
Goldsmith,
J.R. and Rogers, L.H. Health
Hazards
of
Automobile
Exhaust.
Public
Health
Report,
June, 1959,
p
552.
3.
Atkinson,
F.S.;
Pursall
,
B.R.;
Statham,
C.F.
The
Venti-
lation
of Vehicular Road
Tunnels.
J.I.H.V.E.,
September,
1962,
p
197.
4. Caplan,
J.D.
Causes and Control
of Automotive Emissions.
Proc. Instr.
Mech.
Engrs., No.
7,
1962-63,
p
246.
5.
Elliott,
M.A.;
Nebel
,
G.J.;
Rounds,
E.G.
The
Composition
of
Exhaust
Gases from Diesel,
Gasoline and Propane
Powered
Motor Coaches.
J.A.P.C.A.,
August,
1955,
p
103.
6. First
Quarterly Progress
Report
(Contract
FH
11-7597-DOT).
MSAR,
October,
1970.
7a.
Sievers,
R.F.;
Edwards,
T.I.; Murray,
A.L.;
and
Schrenk,
H.H.
Effect of
Exposure
to Known Concentrations
of
Carbon
Monoxide. J. A.M. A., Feb.
21,
1942,
p
585 ff.
7b.
Johnstone,
R.T.
and
Miller, S.E. Occupational
Diseases
and Industrial
Medicine
.
W.B.
Saunders
Co.,
Philadelphia,
1960,
p
110.
7c.
Ross,
W.D.
Practical Psychiatry for Industrial
Physicians
.
C.C.
Thomas,
Springfield,
111., 1956,
p
249.
8.
Sievers,
R.F.;
Edwards,
T.I.; and Murray,
A.L. A
Medical
Study of
Men Exposed
to
Measured
Amounts
of Carbon
Monoxide
in the
Holland
Tunnel
for
13 Years. Public
Health
Bulletin
No.
278,
U.S.P.H.S.
,
1942.
9a. von Oettingen,
W.F.
Carbon
Monoxide: Its
Hazards and
the
Mechanism
of Its Action. Public Health Bulletin
No. 290,
U.S.P.H.S.
,
1944,
p
50.
9b.
Grut,
A. Chronic CO Poisoning .
Enjer
Munksgard,
Copen-
hagen,
1949
(quoted
in Patty,
Vol.
II,
2nd
ed.,
p
931).
9c.
Lewey,
F.H.
and
Drabkin, D.C.
Am.
J.
Med.
Sci
.
208:502,
1944. (Quoted
in
Patty, Vol.
II,
2nd
ed.,
p
93277
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10. Patty,
F.A.
Industrial
Hygiene
and
Toxicology,
Volume
II
.
Interscience
Publishers, New
York,
1962.
11. Henderson,
Y. and
Haggard,
H.W.
Noxious
Gases
.
2nd
Edition.
Reinhold, New
York,
1943.
12.
deBruin,
A. Carboxyhemoglobin Levels
Due
to
Traffic
Exhaust.
Arch. Environ.
Health,
Sept.
1967,
p
384
ff.
13a.
Fisher,
I.
and
Hasse, A. The
Danger
of
CO
Poisoning
in
Motor
Vehicles.
Arbeits physiol.,
p
249,
1932-33.
13b.
Zenk,
H.
Carbon Monoxide
Poisoning
in
Otological
Industrial
and
Medical
Expert Testimony
Practice.
Int.
Arch, fur
Gewerbepathol ogie und
Gerverbehygiene
,
p
432
ff.
, May,
1964.
14.
Zorn,
H.
The Diagnosis
of Carbon Monoxide
Poisoning.
Russ. Med.
Ind.,
p
325 ff
.
,
May-Aug.,
1964.
15.
Drinker,
C.K.
Carbon Monoxide
Asphyxia
.
Oxford
Univer-
sity
Press, New
York,
1938.
16. Petry,
H. Chronic
Carbon
Monoxide
Poisoning.
Arbeitso-
nedizin
,
p
1
ff
.
, 1953.
17a. Miranda,
J.M.;
Konopinski, V.J.;
and Larsen,
R.I.
Carbon
Monoxide
Control
in
a
High Highway
Tunnel.
Arch.
Environ.
Health,
July,
1967,
p
16
ff.
17b.
Aero Medical
Association. Aviation
Toxicology
.
The
Blakiston
Co.,
1953,
pp 12-13.
18. Short
Term
Limits
for Exposure
to
Airborne
Contaminants:
A
Documentation.
Penna. Dept. of Health,
Division of
Occupational
Health.
19. Thienes,
C.H. and Haley,
T.J.
Clinical
Toxicology
.
Philadelphia,
1964,
p
259.
20. Cooper,
W.C.
and
Tabershaw,
I.R.
Biologic
Effects
of
NO?
in
Relation
to
Air
Quality
Standards. Arch.
Environ.
Health,
April,
1966,
p
522
ff.
21.
Gross,
P.;
deTreville,
R.T.P.;
Babyak,
M.A.;
Kaschak,
M.
and Tolker,
E.
Experimental
Emphysema.
Arch.
Environ.
Health,
Jan.
,
1968,
p
51
ff.
22. Sollmann,
T.
A Manual
of Pharmacology
.
Philadelphia,
1942,
p
145.
238
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23.
Sim,
V.M. and
Pattle,
R.E.
Effect
of
Possible
Smoq
Irritants
on
Human
Subjects.
J.
A.M.
A.,
Dec.
14,
1957,
pp
1908-13.
24.
Battigelli,
M.C. Sulfur
Dioxide and Acute
Effects of
Air
Pollution.
J.O.M.,
Sept.,
1968,
pp
500
ff.
25.
Robinson
and
Moser. Global Gaseous
Pollutant
Emissions
and
Removal
Mechanisms. Presented at 2nd
Clean Air
Congress,
Washington,
D.C.,
Dec,
1970.
26.
Motor
Vehicles,
Air
Pollution, and Health. A
Report
of
the Surgeon
General
to the
U.S.
Congress. June,
1962.
27.
Barnes,
E.C.
and Speicher, H.W. The
Determination
of
Formaldehyde
in Air.
J.
Ind. Hyg.
Toxicol.
24:10,
1942.
28. El kins.
The Chemistry
of Industrial
Toxicology .
New
York,
1959.
29.
Hoffmann,
D.
;
Theisz,
E.
and
Wynder,
E.L.
Studies
on
the Carcinogenicity
of
Gasoline Exhaust.
J.A.P.C.A.,
April
,
1965,
p
162 ff.
30.
Community Air Quality Guides
-
Lead.
A.I.H.A.
Journal,
1969,
p
95
ff.
31.
Lyons,
M.J.
Vehicular
Exhausts:
Identification of
Fur-
ther
Carcinogens of
the
PAH
Class. Brit.
J.
Cancer,
1959,
p
126
ff.
32.
Waller,
R.E.;
Commins,
R.T.;
and
Lawther,
P.J.
Air
Pollution
in
Road
Tunnels.
Brit.
J. Industr.
Med.,
1961
,
p
250 ff.
33.
Hamming,
W.J.
and MacPhee,
R.D.
Relationship of
Nitro-
gen
Oxides
in Auto Exhaust
to
Eye
Irritation
-
Further
Results of Chamber
Studies.
Atmospheric
Environment,
1967,
p
577
ff.
34.
35.
36.
Community
Air
Quality Guides
Journal
,
1968,
p
505
ff
Aldehydes.
A.I.H.A.
CO:
Its
Hazards
and
the
Mechanism
of
Its
Action. Public
Health Bulletin
No.
290,
1944,
p
166.
Dinman,
B.D.
Pathophysiologic
Determinants
of
Community
Air
Quality
Standards
for
Carbon
Monoxide.
J.O.M.,
Sept.,
1968,
p
446
ff.
239
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37.
Middleton,
J.
T.
Air
Quality
Criteria.
Scientific
Cornerstones
of
the
1967 Air
Quality Act. J.O.M.,
Sept.
,
1968,
p
535
ff.
38.
Bloomfield,
B.D.
1.
Industrial
Health
p
112-113.
Industrial
Hygiene
Highlights,
Volume
Foundation,
Pittsburgh,
1968,
240
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APPENDIX
II
Pollutant Removal Process
Calculations
from Final
Report
-
Patent
Development
Associates, Inc.
(See
page
8l)
241
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APPENDIX
II
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
I.
Calculations
of
Average Emissions
of
CO
and
Hydrocarbons
from
Automobiles
in
1970,
1975,
and 1980
II. Thermal Incineration
III. Spray
Chamber
Calculations:
Particulate
Removal
List
of Illustrations
Figure 1
-
Pressure Drop
Through
Carbon
Beds
Figure
2
-
n-Butane
Adsorption
Isotherm
on
BPL
Carbon
Page
243
246
247
250
251
242
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CALCULATIONS
OF
AVERAGE
EMISSIONS
OF
CO
AND
HYDROCARBONS
FROM AUTOMOBILES
IN
1970,
1975
AND
1980.
A. Automotive age
percentiles
calculated
from
Blum
(1967).
B.
Emission
data taken
from Ai r
Pol
1
ution
,
Vol
.
Ill
,
A.C. Stern (ed.)
p 76,
(1968).
YEAR
1970
1970
AUTOMOBILE
POPULATION:
Vehicles 1954
to
1964
-
63.40%
with
emission
standards
of:
HC
=
900 ppm
CO
=
32,000
ppm
Vehicles 1964
to
1969
-
36.60% with
emission
standards
of:
. HC
=
275
ppm
CO
=
15,000
ppm
therefore,
average
automobile
exhaust
during
1970
will
have:
HC
=
900
x
0.634
+
275
x
0.366
=
560
+
100
=
660
ppm
CO
=
32,000 x
0.634
+
15,000
x
0.366
=
20,300
+
5,466
=
25,790 ppm
YEAR
1975
1975
AUTOMOBILE POPULATION:
Vehicles
1959
to 1964
-
17.08%
with
emission
standards
of:
HC
=
900 ppm CO
=
32,000
ppm
Vehicles
1965
to
1969
-
46.32%
with
emission
standards of:
HC
=
275 ppm
CO
=
15,000
ppm
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Vehicles
-1970
to
1974
-
36.60%
with
emission
standards
of:
HC
-
180
ppm CO
=
10,000
ppm
therefore,
average
automobile
exhaust
during
1975
will
have:
HC
=
900
x 0.1708
+
275 x
0.4632
+
180
x
0.366
=
153
+
127
+
68
=
348
ppm
CO
=
32,000 x 0.1708
+
15,000
x
0.4632
+
10,000
x
0.366
=
5,460
+
6,950
+
3,660
=
16,070
ppm
YEAR
1980
1980 AUTOMOBILE POPULATION:
Vehicles
to
1964
-
1.34% with emission
standards of:
HC
=
900
ppm CO
-
32,000 ppm
Vehicles
1965
to
1969
-
15.74%
with
emission
standards of:
HC
=
275
ppm
CO
=
15,000
ppm
Vehicles 1970
to
1974
-
46.32%
with
emission
standards
of:
HC
=
180
ppm CO
=
10,000
ppm
Vehicles 1975 to
1979
-
36.60% with
emission
standards
of:
HC
=
50 ppm CO
=
5,000
ppm
therefore, average automobile
exhaust
during
1980 will have:
HC
=
900
x
0.0134
+
275
x
0.1574
+
180
x
0.4632
+
50 x
0.3660
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=
12
+
43
+
83
+
18
=
156 ppm
CO
=
32,000 x
0.0134
+
15,000
x
0.1574
+
10,000 x
0.4632
+
5,000
x
0.3660
=
430
+
230
+
4,630
+
1
,830
=
6,120
ppm
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II.
THERMAL
INCINERATION
Based on HEW,
AP-51
Assume Direct
Flame, with Heat
Exchange
Annual Capital
Charge
Installed
Cost (with Exchanger)
=
$220,000
Annual Capital Charges
=
(0.
1
33)
($220
,000)
=
$29,260
Annual
Operating
& Maintenance
Charges
(G)
G
=
S[l95.5
x
10-6
phk
+
M
+
HFl
Val ue
S
=
Design Capacity,
CFM
250,000
P =
Gas
pressure
drop,
inches
1
of
H
2
H
=
Annual
operating
hours
4,380
K
=
Power
costs,
$/kw-hr
0.011
M
=
Maintenance
cost,
$/ACFM
0.06
F
=
Fuel
Cost,
$/Hr/ACFM
0.23/1000
G
=
250,000
[(195.5
x
1
0
6
)
(
1 )
(4
,
380)
(0.
01
1
)
+
0.06
+
(4,
380)(0.
23/1000)]
=
250,000
LI. 0768]
=
$269,200
Total
Annual Cost
=
$29,620
+
$269,200
=
$298,460
Major part
of operating
cost
is in fuel cost.
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III.
SPRAY
CHAMBER CALCULATIONS: PARTICULATE
REMOVAL
Spray
density
Water droplet
size
Particulate
size
Removal
efficiency
Nomencl
ature
-
20 lb
water/100
cu
ft
air
-
500
microns
-
1 to
5
microns
-
(a)
90%
(b)
75%
Pa
=
density of
air
at
70°F
Pw
=
density of
water
at
70°F
pp
=
density
of
particulate
V
=
viscosity
of
air
Dp
=
diameter
of
particulate,
cm
D c
=
diameter
of
collector
drop,
cm
C
=
drag
coeff
i
cient
v
=
terminal
velocity
of
spherical
particle
settling in
air
at
70°F,
cm/sec
¥
=
inertia
parameter
t
=
holdup
time,
sec
N
=
concentration
of
spray
droplets
per
unit
volume
of
air
n
=
efficiency
of
impaction
fraction of
particles
remaining
N
=
concentration of
spray
droplet/unit
volume
of
air
20
lb
water
1000
cu
ft
air
20
lb
x
454.5
gm/lb
1000
cu
ft
x
28317
cc/cu
ft
=
3.14
x
10
4
gm/cc
Volume
of
one
drop
of water (500
microns
in diameter)
=
1/6
tt
D
c
3
n
no
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CASE I
=
6.55
x
10
5
cc
Weight
of one
drop
of
water
=
6.55
x
10
5
cc
x
0.981 gm/cc
=
6.41
x
10
5
gm
therefore
N
-
4.90
drops
of
water/cc
of
air
.:
Dust
Removal
Efficiency
=
90%
1°
-
0.1
IrTT
X
ln
-5
drops
°f
water/cc of
air
n
no 100
For
a
unit
volume
of
dusty
air,
the
time rate
of
change of
particle
concentration in
the
spray
region is:
dn
It
nvNnirD
c
V4
Integrating
,
Jl =
exp(-tvNnirD
2/4)
no
u
In
0.1
or
-2.05
tn
In 0.1
,
-2.05n
2.3026
2.05n
1.125
Terminal
velocity,
v,
of
spherical particle
of
unit
density settling in air
at
70°F
=
213.4
cm/sec
For spherical
particle
when
terminal
velocity
is
known
_C
Re
^
gy(fiP-pa
)
3p*a v
J
=
0.0170
From
Perry,
(1963)
C
=
1.24
and
Re 74.45
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Now,
the
inertial
parameter,
V,
vu
=
Cpp v
D
p
2
18y
D
C
H
<F
=
1.63
x
TO
6
Dp
2
MV*
=
[1.63
x 10
6
D
p
2
]V2
=
1.275
x
10
3
D
n
Dp
Microns
n»
efficiency
of
impaction
R
=
D
p
/D
c
0.1275
0.2550
0.3825
0.5100
0.6375
0.07
0.355
0.54
0.64
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
CASE
II : Dust Removal
Efficiency
=
75%
n
no
0.25
or In 0.25
or t
25
=0.25
100
exp(-2
tn)
-2.05
tn
In 0.25 _
-2.05n
2.3026
x
0.6020
2.05n
0.68
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X
o.
UJ
o
Q
UJ
03
7
6
5
4
3
~
2
—
u.
o
1.0
0.9
u.
0.3
0.7
O.S
n
o
O.b
c:
o
0.4UJ
tn
z>
(/>
0,3
<r>
UJ
cc
a.
0.2
0.U
FIGURE I
PRESSURE
DROP
THROUGH
CARBON
BEDS
SOURCE
-Y0C0M
*
(1970)
3
4 5 6
8
10 20 30 40 50 60
80 100
LINEAR
VELOCITY,
FT./MIN.
*
Yocum,
J.
E. and
Duffee,
R. A., Chem. Eng.
77,
No.
13,
160-168,
June
15,
1970.
250
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FIGURE
2
n-BUTANE
ADSORPTION
ISOTHERM
ON BPL
CARBON
79°F.
0.2
2x10 4
8
IxlO
4
6
8
Ix
BUTANE PRESSURE,
PSIA
GPO 9
29-931
251
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