*treaties: tribes · termination reached its aegis during the eisenhower administration .of the...

DOCUMENT RESUME

310 175 612 RC 011 603

TITLE Beyond Bows and Arrows. Resource Manual.INSTITUTION Civil Service Commission, Washington, D. C. Bureau of

Intergovernaental Personaal Programs.PUB DATE Nay 79NOTE 148p.; Prepared for the Dallas Region "Symposium on

the American Indian"

EMS P- E OF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS.DESCRIL 1S American History: *American Indian Culture: American

Indian Education: *American Indians: Civil Rights:Education: Employment: Federal Government: *FederalIndian Relationship: *Government Role: Health:Housing: Population Trends: Reservations (Indian):*Treaties: Tribes

IDENTIFIMIS *American Irlian History: Bureau of Indian Affairs:Cultural Contributions

ABSTRACTIn spite of their visible prominence and influence on

almost emery aspect of our society, Aserican Indians remain the leastunderstood group of people. To acquaint symposium participants withthe American Indian and to produce greater understanding, thisresource manual docuaents the historical treatment and present statusof Indians. Presented are: the constitutional status of American

,Indians, including soarces of federal power, tribal sovereignty,powers of tribal self-government, hunting and fishing rights,domestic relations, taxation, legal statas of Indian individuals,constitutional immunity, the 1968 Indian Bill of Rights, rights andprivileges of state citizenship, and wardship: American Indiantribes, Eskimo and Aleut groups for which the Bureau of IndianAffairs has responsibility: federal Indian policies from the colonialperiod through the early 19701s: administrators of U.S. FederalIndian Policy: Cosmissioners of Indian Affairs from 1832 to thepresent: important dates in federal Indian relationships: laborstatistics: employment: education: health: relevance of Indian life%* civilisation: housing: Indian population by regions: location ofAdian lands and communities: and Indian tribes and organization,including names and addresses of each leader. MCI

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,* Reproductions supplied by BURS are the best that can be.made *

* from the original locument. *

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,

U I DEPARTMENT OP NINON.EDUCATION A WELPARIENATIONAL. INSTITUTE Of

EDUCATION

02 THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO-DUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM

CO.THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN-ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONSSTATED DO NOT NECtSSARILY REPRE-

40 SENT OF F ICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OfEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

1111.11-

t

Cover: Will Sampson, Jr./Professional Actor

Cover Design: Jack Crittenden/ArtistAgency: Typography Plus

Layout: Doranne McLeMore/Designer

3

The, Intergovernmental

Personnel Programs Division

and the

Personnel Management Training Institute

Present

"BEYOND BOWS AND ARROWS"

Dear Participant,

The Dallas Region"Symposium,on the AmericanIndian" has been in theplanning stages for at leastthe last seven months. TheSymposium-was firstmentioned to me over a yearago during ty initial employ-ment orientation byMr. Tony Gutierrez. In allprobabilitil, the idea hasbeen around within our regionmuch longer. Tony and Ihave pursued our initialexchange of informationenabling us to sponsor thisSymposium with the ultimategoal of it being an educa-tional experience for allparticipants.

In almost every aspect oftoday's society, someinfluence of the AmericanIndian remains intact. One

would not need to look farin any major city to locatea street named after someIndian Tribe. The automobileand aircraft industries havechosen names of Indian Tribesto label their products. The

movie industry has beencapitalizing on the AmericanIndian for a long time. If

one were to initiate a listdenotirg the influence of theAmerican Indian, it wouldalmost be endless. Yet, in

spite of the visible promin-enqe of the American Indian,we remain the least underv-stood group of people. This

conclusion is based on mypersonal experience ofanswering questions like: Doyour folks still live in

teepees? Do you receive apay check from the government

every month? What is it likebeing an Indian ?. or can yousay something in Indian?

The purpose of theSymposium is to provide moreinformation to furtheracquaint its participants onthe American Indian.. As anexample and to answr acouple of the above mentionedquestions, we plan to explainfurther that nothing can besaid in Indian and that thereis no such thing as feeling"Indian". The reason beingthat "Indian" is a legal termused to refer to severalhundred tribes who, in manyinstances, have their ownindividual language. Wepropose to accomplish ourpurpose in two ways. First,

this Resource Manual willprovide reading materialswith other sources for morestudy. Secondly, ourSymposium speakers are allfrom the American IndianCommunit . They will besharing iliformation based ontheir individual experiences.

For any event of thismagnitude, a host of people,are needed to plan, coordi-nate and perform othernumerous duties. A specialacknowledgement is given toMr. Edward Vela, Jr.,Regional Director,Mr. Orman R. Wright, Chief,Intergovernmental PersonnelPrograms Division andMr. Bill Etheridge, Jr.,Director, Regional TrainingCenter for the opportunityand support given in'sponsoring this Symposium.A special thank you is

Introduction

extended to Mr. Tony Gutierre-Director, Personnel ManagementInstitute, and his staff forthe encouragement andcooperation given in theplanning stages and inproviding the technicalexpertise for getting thework completed. Ms. JeanneBowie, Mr. Jack Crittendenand my wife, Doranne, eachdeserve special acknowledge-ment for their contributionto the production of theprinted materials.

It is my hope that ourcollective efforts willbenefit each and everyparticipanf. I hope it willproduce a greater understand-ing between our communitiesand will provide us withsomething that will be ours"as long as waters flow andthe grass shall grow."

Sincerely,

tOt 771_ nQt-Lt_

Frank McLemoreCoordinatorIntergovernmental

PersonnelPrograms Division

11

32

56

57

59

61

73

85

UnIted StatesCommission on CivilRights

Staff Memorandum

American Indians andTheir FederalRelationship

Plus a partial listingof other U.S. IndianGroups

Federal IndianPolicies

from the Colonial Periodthrough the early 1970's

Administrators ofU.S. Federal IndianPolicy

Commissioners ofIndian Affairs

1832 to Present

Important Dates inFederal IndianRelationships

Federal Indian Policyand Labor Statistics:a review essay

EmploymentExcerpt From AmericanIndian Policy ReviewCommission Report

EducationExcerpt From American,Indian Policy ReviewCommission Report

Health of the AmericanIndian

Region VIII Task ForceReport

Table of Contents

114

116

121

126

130

131

HealthExcerpt From AmericanIndian Policy ReviewCommission Report

Relevance of IndianLife to Civilization

HousingExcerpt From AmericanIndian Policy ReviewCommission Report

Indian Population byRegions

(1970 Census Statistics)

Indian Lands andCommunities

Indian Tribes/Organizations

Dallas Region VI

1:35 Footnotes

144 Memos

United States Commission on Civil Rights

March 1973

Introduction

A thorough treatmentof the constitutionalstatus of AmericanIndians wou2d involvea complete analysis ofthe unique and compjexfield of FederalIndian law whichcannot be adequatelydescribed merely byreference to thenumerous treaties,statutory enactmentsof Congress, and courtdecisions or Federaladministrativedecisions.1 The legaland political statusof Indian tribes, therelationship of Indiansto their tribes and totheir States, and therelat:.7.1nship of tribesto the States and tothe United StatesGovernment haVe longbeen issues ofcontroversy. Tribeshave traditionallybeen viewed by Federalcourts as dependent or"tributary" nationsposseised of limitedelements ofsovereignty andrequiring Federalprotection.2 Congress

Staff Memorandum

Washington, D.C. 20425

Constitutional Status of American Indians

has alternatively viewedtribes as sovereignpolitical entities or asanachronisms whichmust eventually beextinguished. Theresult has been twoconflicting Federalpolicies--separationand assimilation, onedesigned to protectIndians from the restof society and toleave them with adegree of self-government withintheir own institutions,and the othercalculated to bringIndians withill thenainstream of Americanlife by terminatingspecial Federal trustrelationships andFederal programs andservices. Terminationreached its aegisduring the EisenhowerAdministration .of the1950's. The currenAdministration has takena strong stand againsttermination; in hismessage on Indianaffairs, July 13, 1970,President Nixon said:

Because terminationis morally andlegally unacceptable,because it prqducesbad practicalresults and becausethe mere threat oftermination tends todiscourage greaterself-sufficiencyamong Indian groups,I am asking theCongress to pass anew concurrentresolution. whichwould expresslyrenounce, repudiateand repeal thetermination policyas expressed by theHouse ConcurrentResolution 108 ofthe 83rd Congress.This resolution .

would explicitlyaffirm the integrityand rights tocontinued existenceof all Indian tribesand Alaskan Nativegovernments,recognizing thatcultural pluralismis a source ofnational strength.It would assurethese groups thatthe United StatesGovernment wouldcontinue to carryout its treaty and

trusteeshipobligations to themas long as thegroups themselvesbelieved that such apolicy was necessaryor desirable. (Itwould) affirm for -

the ExecutiveBranch...that thehistoric relation-ship between theFederal Governmentand the Indiancommunities cannotbe abridged withoutthe consent of theIndians.

. Sources of Fedral Power

The historicrelationship to whichthe Pres:Went refershas a somewhatconfusing background.The Federal Governmenthas exercised plenarypower over Indians foralmost 200 years.This power emanatesfrom three sources.First, the Constitu-tion grants to thePresident3 and toCongress4 what havebeen construed asbroad powers ofauthority over Indian.affairs. Second, theFederal courts haveapplied a theory of

guardianship andwardship to theFederal Government'sjurisdiction overIndian affairs.5And, finally, Federalauthority is inherentin the FederalGovernment's ownershipof the land whichIndian tribes occupy.6In Worcester v. Georgia,Chief Justice JohnMarshall recognized thatthe afforementionedpowers plus the power ofwar and peace "compre-hend all that isrequired for theregulation of ourintercourse with theIndians."7The treaty power was

the traditional meansfor dealing withIndian tribes from thecolonial times until1871, when recognitionof Indian tribes assovereign nations fortIlis purpose waswithdrawn by the IndianAppropriation Act,which provided that11 ....hereafter, noIndian nation or tribewithin the territory ofthe United States shallbe acknowledged or

recognized as anindependent nation,tribe or power withwhom the United Statesmay contract bytreaty...."8 Treatiesmade before 1671 werenot nulified by thatAct, but remain inforce until.supercededby Cbngropss. It is awell establishedprinciple ofconstitutional lawthat treaties have nogreater legal force oreffect than legisla-tive acts of Congress,and may be unilaterallyabrogated, or supercededby subseglent Congres-sional legislation,Until so abrogated,however, treaties withIndian tribes are partof the law of the landand are binding on theFederal Government. Incarrying out its treatyobligations the Federal

,Government occupies atrust relationshipwhich, according to theCourt in Seminole Nationv. United States,"should be judged by themost exacting fiduciarystandards."" As partof the law of Che landtreaties cannot beannulled in their effector operation by the actsof State governments.11

Tribal Sovereignty

In considering theconstitutional statusof Ame.:ican Indians adistinction must bemade between tribalentities and indvidualcitizens. As statedbefore, the legal statusof Indian tribes hasvacillated throughoutthis Nation's history inthe eyes of the FederalGovernment. Thenumerous treaties madewith Indian tribesrecognized them.asgovernments capable ofmaintaining diplomaticrelations of peace andwar and of beingresponsible, in a.political sense, fortheir violation. Whenengaged in war againstwhites, Indians were -

never treated as rebels,subject to the law oftreason,.but, "on thecontrary, were alwaysregarded and treated asseparate and independentnations, entitled to therights of ordinarybelligerents and subjectto no other penalties.12Hostile Indianssurrendering to armedforces were subject tothe disabilities andentitled to the rightsof prisoners of war.13

Tribal sovereigntywas originally formallyrecognized by ChiefJustice Marshall inWorcester v. Georgia:"The Constitution, bydeclaril treatiesalready :r.,de, as wellas those to be made, tobe the supreme law ofthe land, has adoptedand sanctioned theprevious treaties withthe Indian nations, andconseguentlY, admitstheir rank among thosepowers who are capab.leof making treaties."'That position, whichdetermined the FederalJudiciary's basicpolicy toward Indiantribes throughout -the19th century may becontrasted with theattitude of later courtdecisions such asMontoya v. UnitedStates:" wherein thecourt concluded that"the word 'nation' asapplied to theuncivilized Indians waslittle more than acompliment."

Today, the concept oftribal sovereignty iswidely misunderstoodand can only be meaning-fully discussed withregard to specificattributes or powers.

Clearly, tribalgovernments are not onthe same legal footingas independent nations;on the other hand, theyare widely recognized

4 as political units withgovernmental powerswhich exist, in somesense, on a higher levelthan that of the States.The contemporarymeaning of tribalsovereignty is definedin Iron Crow v. OglalaSioux Tribe'of FineRidge Reservation" asfollows:

It would seem clearthat the Constitution,as construed by theSupreme Court,acknowledges theparamount authorityof the United Stateswith regard to Indiantribes but recognizesthe existence ofIndian tribes as-quasi-sovereignentities possessingall the inherentrights of sovereigntyexcept whererestrictions havebeen placed thereonby the United States,itself.

In his 1940 editionof Federal Indian law,Felix Cohen summarizedthe meaning of tribalsovereignty in thefollowing manner:

The whole course ofjudicial decision onthe nature of Indian.tribal powers ismarked by adherenceto three fundamentalprinciples:

(1) The Indian tribepossesses, in thefirst instance, allthe powers of anysovereign state.

(2) Conquest rendersthe tribe subject tothe legislative powerof the United States,and, in.substance,terminates theexternal powers ofsovereignty of thetribe, e.g., its powerto enter into treatieswith foreign nations,but does not, byitself, affect theinternal sovereigntyof the tribe, i.e.,its power of localself-government.

(3) These powers aresubject to qualifica-tion by treaties andby express legislationby Congress, but, saveas.thus expresslyqualified, full powersof internal sovereign-ty are vested in theIndian tribes nnd intheir duly constituteqorgans of goverLment.17

Powers of TribalSelf-Government

Indian tribes arerecognized in Federallaw as distinctpolitical communitieswith basic domestic andmunicipal functions.This includes the powerto adopt and pperateunder a form of govern-ment of the tribe'schoosing, to defineconditions of t.ribalmembership, to regulatedomestic relations ofmembers, to prescriberules of inheritence,to levy taxes, toregulate property withinthe jurisdiction of thetribe, to control theconduct of members bytribal.legislation, toadminister justice andprovide for the punish-ment of offensescommitted on the reser-vation.18 AlthoughIndian tribes begantheir relationship withthe Federal Governmentas sovereign governmentsrecognized as such bytreaties and in legis-lation, the powers oftribal sovereignty

have been limited fromt,ime to time by theFederal Government. It

should be noted, how-ever, that the powerswhich tribes currently'exercise are notdelegated powers grantedby Congress but rather,are "inherent powersof a limited dependentsovereignty which hadnot been extinguishedby Federal action.What is not expresslylimited often remainswithin the domain oftribal sovereigntysimply because Statejurisdiction isFederally excluded andgovernmental authorimust be found somewhere.That is a principal tobe applied generally inorder that there shallbe no general failureof governmentalcontrol."19

The powers of self-government are normallyexercised pursuant totribal ,constitutionsand law and order codes.Normally, these powersinclude the right of atribe to define theauthority and the dutiesof its officials, themanner of their appoint-ment or election, themanner of their removal,and the rules they areto observe." Thisright, as with the

exercise of all.functions of tribalsovereignty, is subjectto Conyressional changeFor example, Federallaw has removed fromsome tribes the powerto choose their ownofficials and hasplaced the power ofappointment in thePresident and theSecretary, theInterior.4'

Indian tribes, havingthe power to mike lawsand regulationsessential to theadministration ofjustice and the prottion of persons andproperty also have thepower to maintain lawenforcement departmentsand cstirts to enforcethem: Some smallertribes have no courtsat all or maintain verytraditional customarycourts which lack formalstructure. Largertribes, such as theNavajo, maintain quiteadvanced law and ordersystems with well-equipped policedepartments, moderntribal codes and ahi.erarchv of trial andappellate courts over-seen by a tribalsupreme court.

NC

Generally, thejurisdiction of Indiancourts is exclusive asto matters involNingtribal affairs," civilsuits brought byIndians or non-Indiansagainst tribal membersarising out of mattersoccurring onthereservation,24and theprosecution ofviolations of thetribal criminal code. 25

Tribal jurisdictionoperates to theexclusion of Federaland State authority.Federal courts arewithout jurisdictionover matters involvingviolations of tribalordinances,26 as areState courts.27 Withregard to cases withintheir jurisdiction,tribal courts arecourts of last resort.Their decisions areappealable to neitherState or Federal courts.

Several importantlimitations have been

111111111V

Ill

placed by Congress ontribal jurisdiction.

*Under the 1968 Indian-)13Civil Rights Act-

tribes may not exercisejurisdiction oercriminal offenses.punishable by more thana $500 fine or 6 monthsin jail. Federal_courtLave jurisdiction to trand punish certain majooffenses such as murdermanslaughter, rape,etc., pursuant to kheMajor Crimes Act.2' Incertain instances,Congress has providedthat the criminal lawsand/or civil laws of aState shall extend toIndian reservationslocated in the State.30States which haveassumed responsibilityfor ''he administrationof justice on Indianland are commonlyreferred to as "PublicLaw E3() States."

Hunting & Fishing Rights

A current major issuearising from thelimitations on Stateauthority due to quasi-tribal sovereignty isthe hunting and fishingrights controversy inthe Northwest. It iswell settled that aState cannot enforceits game and fish lawswithin the boundaries

-.of an Indian reserva-tion.31 However, the

issue of State controlover on7reservationhunting and fishingshould be distinguishedfrom the question of theextent to which treatyrights pro_hibit Statesfrom interfering withhunting and fishing byIndians off reservations

Y In a confusing decisionthe United StatesSupreme Court recentlyheld that treaty rightsto "fish at a,11 usualand accustomed places"

. may not be qualified bya State but that theexercise of such rightsis subject to reasonableState consenNtion1 egis1 ation.i4

Domestic Relations

Indian cribes exercisea wide latitude of powerover the domesticrelations of tribalmembers. Tribesnormally conductmarriages and grantdivorces33 to theexclusion of State laweven though the Indiansconcerned are alsocitizens of the State.Indian customarymarriage and divorcehas generally beenrecognized by State andFederal courts.34

Tribes also have com-plete and exclusiveauthority to define andpunish offenses againstthe marriage relation-ship, although, as withother civil matters,Congress may make Statelaw applicable.

Taxation

An important poweressential to themaintenance of govern7mental functions is thepower of taxation. InBuster v. Wright,35 itwas held that tly, CreekNation had the power toimpose a license feeupon all persons, Indianand non-Indian, whotraded within theborders of that Nation.Tribal authority tolevy a property tax onall property within thereservation was upheldin Morris v. Hitch-cock.36 Indian tribesare currently recognizedby the United Statesas "units of localgovernment" for thepurpose of receivingFederal revenue fundspursuant to the RevenueSnaring Act ot 1972.

6 12

As a general matter,then, Indian tribes arerecognized by Federallaw as governmentalunits exercising a widevariety of governmentalfunctions, limited onlyby the assertion of

. Congressional plenarypower over Indianaffairs. Outside ofthe scope of thismemorandum is a.discussion of the wide.spectrum of Federaladministrative powerscurrently exercised overIndian affairs.

Legal Status ofIndian Individuals

By virtue of theIndian Citizenship Actof June 2, 1924, allIndians born in theUnited States arecitizens of the UnitedStates. As such, theyare also citizens ofthe State in which theylive,- even though theymay reside on areservation.37Although many IndiansacguiTed citizenshipprior to 1924, pursuantto various Federalstatutes, it was earlyheld that the provision

of the 14th Amendmr'..t contained in the tribalof'the United States -constitution and theConstitution conferring tribal law and ordercitizenship on "all code. By their ownpersons born or natural- weight the Bill ofized in the United Rights and the 14thStates, and subject to Amendment to the Unitedthe jurisdiction States Constitution dothereof" did not confer not impose limitationscitizenship on Indians.38 on tribal action andState and Federal thus, do not confercitizenship and tribalmembership are notincompatable;39 Indiansare citizens of Ulreeseparate politicalentities. As citizensof the Federal Govern-ment they are subject tothe laws of the FederalGovernment no matterwhere they may belocated. .Ao citizensof the tribal governmentthey are subject to thecivil and criminal lawsof the tribe when theyare on the reservationand :ithin its juris-dictLon (except, asstated above, in PublicLaw 280 States). Theyare subject to the lawsof the States while offthe reservation.

Protection in the TribalSetting-Constitutional

Immunity

In their relationshipwith the tribe, Indiansare normally protectedby a wide variety ofcriminal due process,civil rights and civilliberties protections

protections on tribalmembers. In the caseof Talton v. Mayes40for example, the SupremeCourt refused to applythe Fifth Amendment toinvalidate a tribal'law that established afive-man grand jury.In Giover v. UnitedStates,41 the courtstated that "the right _to be represented bycounsel is protected bythe Sixth and 14thAmendments. TheseAmendments, howeverprotect...this rightonly as against action -by the United States inthe case of the...Si;:thAmendment...and asagainst action by theStates in the case ofthe 14th Amendment."

Again, in the case ofNative American Churchv. Nava'o TribalCouricil2 it was heldby implication that atribal Indian cannotclaim protectionagainst illegal searchand seizure by tribalofficials. In 1954, anattempt to redresstribal invasions ofreligious freedom arosein a suit against theJemez Pueblo TribalCouncil and governorby Pueblo members,charging that they hadbeen subjected toindignities, threatsand reprisals solelybecause of theirProtestant faith andthat the tribal councilhad refused to permitthem to bury their deadin the communitycemetary and to build achurch on tribal land.43The court acknowledgedthat the alleged actsrepresented a seriousinvasion of religiousfreedom but concludedthat the acts were nottaken "under color ofany statute, ordinance,regulation, custom orusage of any State or

s. Territory" and thus nocause of action aroseeither under the

Federal Constitution orunder Federal civilrights acts. In Statev. Big SHbep, 44 theTenth Circuit refusedto concede theapplication of FirstAmendment protectionsthrough the FourteenthAmendment to Indiantribes,:

No provision in theConstitution makesthe First Amendmentapplicable to Indiannations nor is thereany law of Congressdoing so. It followsthat neither, underthe Constitution orthe laws of Congress,do the Federal courtshave jurisdiction oftribal laws orregulations, eventhough they may havean impact to someextent on fdrms ofreligious workship.45

1968 hdian Bill of Rights

These cases illustratewhat the ConstitutionalRights Subcommittee ofthe Senate Committee onthe Judiciary saw as a"continued denial ofConstitutional guaran-tees" to AmericanIndians, on the groundthat tribes are quasi-sovereign entities towhich general provisionsof the Constitution do

not apply. In 1961 thatSubcommittee instituteda lengthy investigationof the legal status ofAmerican Indians andthe problems theyencounter when assertingtheir Constitutionalrights in theirrelations with theState, Federal andtribal governments.This effort, largelyengineered by SenatorSam Ervin, Chairman ofthe Subcommittee,culminated in thepassage of the.CivilRights Act of 1968,46Title II of,whichconstitutes a bill ofrights for AmericanIndians. It providesthat Indian tribesexercising powers ofself-government shallbe subject to many ofthe same limitationsand restraints whichare imposed on Federal,State and local-governments by theUnited StatesConstitution. Twomajor exceptions arethat the Indian Bill ofRights provides theright to counsel beforetribal courts only atthe defendant's "ownexpense" and, although,religious freedom isprotected, the Act doesnot contain a prohibi-tion against theestablishment ofreligion by a tribalgovernment.

Rights & Privileges ofState Citizenship

While off theirrc?servations, Indiansare subject to the samelaws, both Federal andState, as are othercitizens. When broughtbefore State or Federalcourts they are entitledto the same Constitu-tional protections asother defendants. As ageneral matter,.Indiansare also entitled tothe same Federal andState benefits, programsand services as otherState and Federalcitizens. .From time totime, however, Stateshave attempted to denyIndians participationin State programs onthe grounds that theirentitlement to specialFederal programs madethem ineligible. A lawof the State of ,

California for,example,declared that a localpublic school boardcould exclude Indianchildren from attendingif ttle United StatesGovernment maintained aschool for Indians with-in the school district.The California SupremeCourt held that the lawviolated the State andFederal cons.titutions.47

One justificationcommonly used by Statesfor excluding Indiansfrom participation inState programs and

State services has,beenthat Indians do not paytaxes. The restrictedstatus of Indiz.n landrenders it immune fromState and local taxationand, with certainstatutory exceptions,income derived from theland is likewise non-taxable. Other local,State ahd Federal taxescommonly paid bycitizens, includingsales taxes, are paidby Indians. Indianspay State taxes on allnontrust property andare obligated for allfees and taxes for theenjoyment of Stateprivileges, such asdriving on State high-ways, and all othertaxes which reach t.heentire population."All attempts to treat

Indian citizensdifferently or toexclude them from Stateand local programsraise clear Constitu-tional questions. Asthe Chief Counsel ofthe Bureau of IndianAffairs stated in amemorandum datedJuly 8, 1953, concerningthe refusal of the Stateof North Dakota to admitand care for feeble-minded Indian childrenin State schools underthe same rules and

conditions applicableto the admission andcare of non-Indians,"such refusal (by theState) to treat Indiansin the same manner asnon-Indians would appearto deprive the Indiansof equal protection ofthe laws guaranteed bythe FourteenthAmendment to the FederalConstitution."

Wardship

There has been someconfusion regarding thestatus of AmericanIndians because of thecommon notion thatIndians are "wards" ofthe Federal Government.The Federal Governmentis a trustee of Indianproperty, not theguardian of individualIndians. In thissense, the term "ward"

4

is inaccurate. Indiansare subject.to a widevariety of Federallimitations on the

'distributioh ofproperty and assets andidcome derived fromproperty in Federaltrust. Land held intrust for an Indiantribe or for an Indianindividual may not besold.without priorapproval of theSecretary of theInterior or hisrepresentative (theBureau of IndianAffairsl. Relatedrestrictions limit thecapacity of an Indianto contract with aprivate attorney andlimit the heirshipdistribution of trustproperty. ManyAmericans erroneouslybelieve that as wardsof the Federal Govern-ment Indians must stayon reservations49 andthat they receivegratutious paymentsfrom the FederalGdvernment. Indians donot in fact receivepayments merely becausethey are Indians.

"Payments may be madeto Indian tribes orindividuals for loseswhich resulted fromtrety violations...individuals may alsoreceive government may own property andchecks for income from dispose of propertytheir land and resources, (other than that held

hold Federal, State andlocal office, aresubject to the draft,may sue and be sued inState courts,51 mayenter into contracts,

but only because theassets are held intrust by the Secretaryof the Interior andpayment for the use ofthe Lndian resourceshas been collected bythe Federal Govern-ment."50 Like Jthercitizens, Ineians may

in trust) and, asstated before, paytaxes. The largenumber of Federal andState laws and.pro-visions which in thepast denied Indianspolitical rights andpublic benefits haveeither been legisla-tively repealed, ruledinvalid by theJudicial branch orremain unenforced.

AMERICAN INDIANS AND THEIR FEDERAL RELATIONSHIPPlus a partial listing of other U.S. Indian Groups

This booklet lists allAmerican Indian tribes,Eskimo, and Aleut groups,for which the Bureau ofIndian Affairs hasdefinite,responsibility.It also incfudes thosetribes, bands, andgroups that have beenterminated from Bureauof Indian Affairsservices in.recent years,and those recognizedonly for purposes ofsettling'claims againstthe U.S. Government,such as those involvinginadequate compensationfor* land taken in thepast. In addition,Indian groups in certainother categories arealso listed.

The basic listing isby State. Following thename of the State, whichis given in Alphabeticalorder, is the Bureau ofIndian Affairs officethat has immediatejurisdiction over Indian,Eskimo, or AlelSt groupswith its address. Thetribes under it follow.Next.are tribes that

do not,receive Bureau ofIndian Affairs services.The Bureau of Indian

Affairs Area Office isthe highest rankingfield office in theBureau structure. Nextin Order,is generallythe Bureau of IndianAffairs Agency thatreports to it. It isusually located on thereservation it serves.'

-In the case ofAgencies and otherBureau offices of some-what.similar rank, theArea Office to whichthey report is indicated,to the right, inparentheses. -Theaddresses of all of theArea Offices in theBureau are listed at theback of the booklet.Throughout.the booklet

a code numbe.r followsthe name of each Indiangroup. It indicatesthe status of each as ofJune 1972. However,changes may occur at anytime. Here is what eachnumber means:

1. Indian or Alaska Nativeorganizations whose consti-tutions are approved by theSecretary of the Interiorunder Federal statutoryauthoi-ity of the IndianReorganization Act; OklahomaIndian Welfare Act; orAlaska Native Act.

2. Indian or Alaska Nativeorganizations whose consti-tutions are approved by theSecretar of the Interioror his designated represen-tative under authority otherthan the Indian Reorganiza-tion Act; Oklahoma IndianWelfare Act; or AlaskaNative Act.

3. Indian organizationswithout written governingdoc/uments that are servedby the Bureau of Indian4dfairs.

4. Ptiblic Domain allot-

ments. Indian individualswho reside on these landsreceive Bureau of IndianAffairs services on the basisof the Secretary of theInterior's responsibilityover the land. %

5. Indian groups thatreceive assistance from theBureau only in mattersrelating to the settlement'of claims against the U.S.Government, such as thoseinvolving inadequate compen-sation for land taken in thepast.6. Indian groups no longer

entitled to Bureau of IndianAffairs services because ofspecific statutes.(Terminated groups.)

7. Others. Groups thathave never received Bureauof Indian,Affairs services.

8. Indian groups'that donot fit into any co. theabove classifications.Map code numbers preceding

the names of some of thegroups listed in this bookletmay be used in conjunctionwith a map which shows thelocation of the Indiangroups. Such map entitled"Indian Lands and RelatedFacilities, 1971, General,"is available from theSuperintendent of Documents,Washington, D.C. 20242,price 35 cents.

11 17

. Map code numbers areassigned to State reserva-tions (NuMber 1-26). Indiangroups without trust land(Number 30-67) and terminatedtribes and groups (Number80-90).

No c9de location numbershave been assigned to groupson Federal trust lands sincethese are generally recog-nizable by inspection of themap itself.

Alabama

(30) Creek Indian Community--,near Atmore (7) nocorporate land base

Creeks East of theMississippi (5)

Alaska

Asterisk indicates thatthe Indian group is also

- incorporated under State

law. .

Area DirectorJuneau Aroa OfficeBureau of Indian AffaireBox 3-8000Juneau, Alaska 99801

'The following groups,forimerly served by theSoutheast Agency, arenow directly under AreaOffice jurisdiction).

Angoon (1)*Craig (1)*Douglas (1)!Haines (Port Chilkoot) (1)*

Hoonah (1)*Hydaburg (.1)*

Kake (1)*Kasaan (1)Ketchikan (1)Klawock (1)*Cluckwan (Chilkat) (1)

Metlakatla (1)Petersbuig (1)*Saxman (1)*Sitka (1)*.Wrangell (1)*Pelican City (3)*Skagway (3)*Tenakee Springs (3)Yakutat :3)*

SuperintendentAnchorage AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs16th and C Sts., Box 120Anchorage, Alaska 99501

(Juneau Area Office)

Atka (1)Chanega (1) (destroyed by

earthquake)Kantak (1)Karluk (1)*Kenaitze (1)Nikolski (I)Perryville (1) .

St. Paul (1)*Tatitlek (1).Tyonek (1) .

Akhiok (Alitak) (3)

Akutan (3)Aleknagik (3)'Belkofsky (3)Bristol Bay (3)*Chignik (3)

Chignik Lagoon (3)Chignik Lake (3)Chistochina (3)Clark's Point (3)

Copper Center (3)Cordova (3)*Dillingham (3)*Egegik (3)Eklutna (3)Ekuk (3)Ekwok (3)English Bay (3)False Pass (3)Gulkana (3)Iliamna (3)Ivanof Bay (3)King Cove (3)*Koliganek (3)Kokhanok (3)Larsen Bay (3)Levelock (3)Matanuska (3).*Manokotak (3)*Mentasta Lake (3)Naknek (3)*Nelson Lagoon (3)Newhalen (3)New Stuyahok (3)Ninilchik (3)Nondalton (3)Old Harbor (3)*Ouzinkie (3)Palmer (3)Paulof Harbor (3)Pedro Bay (3)Pilot Point (3)Portage Creek (3)Port Graham (3)Port Heiden (3)Port Lions (3)*.St. George Island (3)Sand Point (3)*South Naknek (3)*Sterling (3)Togiak (3)*Twin Hills (3)Ugashik (3)Unalaska (3)*

'Valdez (3)*

12

SuperintendentBethel AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 347Bethel, Alaska 99559

(Juneau Area Officp)

Akiachak (1).Akiak (1)Grayling (Holikachuk) (1)

Kwethluk (1)Kwigillingok (1)Mekoryuk (1)Napakiak (1)*Nunapitchuk (1)Quinhagak (Kwinhagak) (1)

ShaOluk (1)Tuluksak (1)*Tununak (1)

Alakanuk (3)AnAak (3)Anvik (3)Atmautluak (3)Bethel (3)Chaloonawick (3)Chaneliak (3)Chefornak (3)Chevak (3)*Churarbalik--see Russian

Mission (Kuskokwim)Crooked Creek (3)Eek (3)Emmonak (Kwiguk) (3)*Farewell (3)Flat (3)Georgetown (3)Goodnews Bay (Mumtrak) (3)

Hamilton (3)Holy Cross (3)

. Hooper Bay (3)*

Kalskag (3)Kasigluk (3)Kipnuk (3)Kongigonak (3)Kotlik (3)*Kwinhagak--See QuinhagakLelida (3)Lime Village (3)Llower Kalskag (3)

Marshall (3)Medfra (3)McGrath (3)Mountain Village (3)Nepaimute (Napamute) (3)

Napaskiak (3)Newtok (3)Nightmute (3)Nikolai (3)Oscarville (3)Pilot Station (3)Pitkas Point (3).Platinum (3)Quinhagak (3) (also spelled

Kwinhagak)Red Devil (3)Russian Mission (Kuskokwim)

(3) (Native name isChurarbalik)

Russian Mission (Yukon) (3)

St. Mary's (3)*Scammon Bay (3)*Sheldon's Point (3)Sleetmute (3)Stony River (3)Takotna (3)Toksook Bay (3)Tuntutuliak (3)

SuperintendentFairbanks AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 350Fairbanks, Alaska 99701


Fort Yukon (1)&Inupiat (1)Minto (1)Point Lay (1)Stevens' Village (1)Tanacross (1)Tanana (1)&Tetlin (1)Venetic (1)

Allakaket (3)ARaktuvuk Pass (3)*Arctic Village (3)Barrow (3)*Barter Island (3)Beaver (3)Bettles (3)Birch.CreCk (3)Cantwell (3)Canyon Village (3)Chalkyitsik (3)Circle (3)Delta Junction (3)*Dot Lake (3)Eagle (3)*Galena (3)Hughes (3)Huslia (3)Kaltag (3)Koyukuk (3)Manley Hot Springs (3)Nenana (3)*Northway (3)Nulato (3)*Rampart (3)Ruby (3)Tok (3)

Wainwright (3)*

SuperintendentNome AgencyP.O. Box 190Bureau of Indian AffairsNome, Alaska 99762


Buckland (1)*Deering (1)*Zlim (1)*Gambell (1)*King Island (1)*Kivalina (1)*Kotzebue (1)*Koyuk (1)*Little Diomede (1)*Noatak (1)*Nome (1)*Noorvik (1)*Point Hope (1)*St. Michael (1)*Savoonga (1)*Selawik (1)*Shaktoolik (1)*Shishmaref (1)*Shungnak (1)*Stebbins (1)*Unalakleet (1)*Wales (1)*White Mountain (1)*

Ambler (3)*Brevig Mission (3)*Candle' (3)

Golovin (3)*Kiana (3)*Kobuk (3)*Northeast Cape (3)*Teller (3)*

DirectorSoutheast AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 1587Juneau, Alaska 99801

Tlingit and Haida (2) Undera contract with the Bureauof Indian Affairs, thefunctions of the SoutheastAgency as they relate toTlingit and Haida are nowperformed by the Tlingitand Haida Central Council.

Arizona

SuperintendentChinle AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsChinle, Arizona 86503

(Navajo Area Office)

Navajo Nation.(2) (in

Arizona, New Mexico andUtah)

(Districts and Chapters)

DIst. 4

Blue GapForest LakeHard RockPinon

Dist. 10ChinleMany FarmsNazliniRough RockTselani

Dist. 11LukachukaiRound RockTsailee-Wheatfields

(Arizona and New Mexico)

SuperintendentColorado River AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsParker, Arizona 85344

(Phoenix Area Office).

Chemehuevi Indian Tribe (1)

(in California).Colorado River Indian Tribes

(1) (in Arizona andCalifornia)

Fort Mojave Tribe (1) (in

Arizona, California, andNevada)

Subagency SuperintendentFort Yuma SubagencyBureau of Indian AffairsYuma, Arizona 85364

(Colorado River Agency,Phoenix Area Office)

Cocopah Tribe (1)Quechan Indian Tribe of the

Fort Yuma Reservation (1)(in California and Arizona)

SuperintendentFortApache AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsWhiteriver, Arizona

85941(Phoenix Area Office)

Whi:te Mountain Apacne Tribe(1)

SuperintendentFort Defiance AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Defiance, Arizona

86504(Navajo Area Office)

Navajo Nation (2) (in

Arizona, New Mexico, andUtah)

14 20=1111111111


DilkonIndian WellsJedditoLow MountainTeestoWhite Cone

P!ot. 14

Coyote CanyonMexican SpringsNaschittiTohatchiTwin Lakes

Not.. I"CornfieldsGanadoGreasewoodKinlichee.Klagetoh

SteamboatWide Ruins

PF.of.

Crystal (Arizona and NewMexico)

Fort Defiance (Ari.zona andNew Mexico)

HouckLuptonOak SpringsRed Lake (Arizona and New

Mexico)St. MichaelsSawmill

SuperintendentHopi AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsKeams Canyon, Arizona

86034(Ithoenix Area Office)

Hopi Tribe (1)Kaibab Bank of Paiute

Indians (1)

SuperintendentPapago AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsSells, Arizona 85634

(Phoenix Area Office)

Papago Tribe (Sells, GilaBend, and San XavierReservations) (1)

SuperintendentPima AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsSacaton, Ariz.ona 85247

(Phoenix Area,Office)

Ak-Chin Indian Community (1)Gila River Indian

Community (1)

CoordinatorSalt River AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsRoute 1, Box 907Scottsdale, Arizona

85251'(Phoenix Area Office)

Fort McDowell Mohave-ApacheCommunity (1)

galt River Pima-MaricopaIndian Community (1)

SuperintendentSan Carlos AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsSan Carlos, Arizona

85550(Phoeni4 Area Office)

San Carlos Apache Tribe (1)

SuperintendentShiprock AgencyBureau of.Indian AffairsShiprock, New Mexico



Arizona, New Hexico, andUtah)

(DistTicts and Chapters)

Dist, 9Mexican Water (in Utah and

Arizona)Red Mesa (in Utah and

Arizona)Teecnospos (in Arizona,

New Mexico, and Utah)

Piet. IPBeclabito (in Arizona and

New Mexico)Red Rock (in Arizona and

New Mexico).Sanostee (in Arizona and

New Mexico)

SuperintendentTruxton Canyon AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsValentine, Arizona 86437


Havasupai Tribe (1)Hualapai Tribe (1)Yavapai-Apache Indian

Community (Camp Verde) #(1)Yavapai-Prescott Community

Association (2)

15

Superintendent Other Groups in Arizona Tule. River Indian Tribe (1)

Tuba City Agency Tuolumne Band of Me-WukBureau of Indian Affairs Indians (1)Tubat

(31) Yaqui Indians of Arizonaity, Arizona 86045 (8) Alturas Rancheria (2)

(Navajo Area Office) P.L. 88-350 (Act of Cahto Indian Tribe of

Navajo Nation (2) .(in Oct. 8, 1964) Laytonville Rancheria (2)

Arizona, New Mexico and Pascua Village (yucson) Fort Independence Indian

Utah) Special Federal Community (2)

involvement in terms Pit River Home and Agricul-(Districts and Chapters) of establishing a new tural Cooperative Assn.

(X-L Ranch) (2)D143t. 1

villagee

Copper Mine Barrio Libre (South Berry Crek Rancheria (3)

Kaibeto Tucson) Big Pine Band of Owens Valley

.Lechee (32) Guadalupe (Phoenix) (7)Paiute-Shoshone Indians

Red Lake (32A) Tonto Apache, Payson (7) (Owens Valley ) (3)

Dis 2Cedarville Rancheria (3)

t Cortina Ranftheria (3)Inscription House California Dry Creek Rancheria (3)Navajo Mountain (in Utah El-Em Indian Colony (Sulphur

and Arizona)Shonto (in Utah and Arizona) Superintendent Bank) (3)

Central California Agency Enterprise Rancheria (3)

Dist. 3BroadwayCameronCoalmineTuba City

Dist. 6

Bird SpringsLeuppTolani Lake

Dist. 8Chilchinbeto (in Utah and

Arizona)Dennehotso (in Utah and

Arizona)Kayenta (in Utah andArizona)

Olijatoh (in Utah andArizona)

Bureau of Indian AffairsFederal Building2800 Cottage WaySacramento, California

95 825(Sacramento AreaOffice)

Cachil Dehe Bank of WintunIndians of the Colusa,Indian Community (1)

Covelo Indian Community(Round Valley Reservation)(1)

Fort Bidwell IndianCommunity (1)

Grindstone Indian Rancheria(1)

Kashia Band of Pomo Indiansof the Stewarts PointRancheria (1)

Manchester Band of PomoIndians (1)

Santa Rosa ;ndian Community(Kings County) (1)

Susanville Indian Rancheria(1)

Paiute-Shoqhone Indians ofthe Bishop Community (OwensValley) (3)

Paiute-Shoshone Indians ofthe Lone Pine Community(Owens Valley) (3)

Lookout Rancheria (3)sheep Ranch Ranche.ria (3)Shingle Springs Rancheria

(Verona Tract) (3)

(unoccupied)Yokayo (9) near Ukiah

icprilNatL7n PcvLiiri;

Upper Lake Band of PomoIndians (3)

Big Sandy Association (3)

2

Hopland Nokomis Association

(3)

Jackson Rancheria (3)Ligely Rancheria (no member-

ship) (1.32 acres ofcemetery remaining)

Middletown Rancheria (3)(Naded in originalRancheria Act PL 85-671but.has made no progresstoward termination.)

Rumsey Rancheria (3)Sherwood Ithlley Rancheria (3)Sycamore Valley Association

(Cold Spring;) (3)

Table Mountain Rancheria (3)

Terminatcd 19h8

(Category 6) (72 Stat. 619and 78 Stat. 390)Alexander Valley. Termination

effective 8-1-61Auburn. Termination effective

8-18-67Big Valley. Termination

effective 11-11-65Buena Vista. Termination

effective 4-11-61.Cache Creek. Termination

effective 4-11-61Chicken Ranch. Termination

effective 8-1-61Chico. Termination effective

6-2-67Cloverdale. Termination

effective 12-30-65Graton. Termination

effective 2-18-66Greenville. Termination

effective 12-8-66Guidiville. Termination

effective 9-3-65Indian Ranch. Termination

effective 9-22-64Lytton. Termination effective

8-1-61Mark West. Termination

effective 4-11-61Mooretown. Termination

effective 8-1-61

Nevada City. Terminationeffective 9-22-64

North Fork. Terminationeffective 2-18-66

Paskenta. Terminationeffective 4-11-61

Picayune. Terminationeffective 2-18-66.

Pinoleville. Terminationeffective 2-18-66

Potter Valley. Termination,effective 8-1-61

Quartz Valley. Terminationeffective 1-20-67

Redwood Valley. Terminationeffective 8-1-61

Robinson. Terminationeffective 9-3-65

Ru-fey's. Terminationeffective 4-11-61

Scotts Valley. Terminatiioneffective.9-3-65

Shingle Springs. (El Doradotract) Terminationeffective 7-16-66

Strathmore. Land Sold, deed'approved 9-29-67

Strawberry Valley. Termina-tion effective 4-11-61

Taylorsville. Land Sold, deedapproved 11-4-66

Wilton. Termination effective9-22-64

SuperintendentHoopa AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs.Hoopa, California 95546

(SacramentO AreaOffioe)

Hoopa Valley Tribe (2)Big Bend Rancheria (3)Hoopa Extension (3)Montgomery Creek Rancheria (3)Roaring Creek Rancheria (3)

Termination PendingCher-ae Heights Indian.Community of the TrinidadRancheria (2) (Constitutionrevoked)

Big Lagoon Rancheria (3)Resighini Rancheria (3) (no

. residents)

Terminatec' Since, 1968

(Category'6) (72 Stat. 619and 78 Stat. 390)Blue Lake. Terminationeffective 9-15-66

Cresceni; City.(Elk Valley).Termination effective7-16-66

Redding. Termination effective6-20-62

Rohnerville. Terminationeffective 7-16-66

Smith River. Terminationeffective 7-29-67

Table Bluff. Terminationeffective 4-11-61

DirectorPalm Springs OfficBure'au of Inaian Affairs587 South Palm Canyon

DrivePalm Springs, California

92262(Sacramento AreaOffice)'

Agua Caliente Band of MissionIndians (Palm Springs) (2)

et- 17

SuperintendentSouthern California

AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs6848 Magnolia Avervue,

Suite 8Riverside, California

92506(Sacramento AreaOffice)

Santa Ynez Band of MissionIndians (1)

San Pasqual Band of MissionIndians (1)

Cabazon Band of MissionIndians (2)

La Jolla Band of MissionIndians (2)

Mesa Grande Band of MissionIndians (2)

Pala Band of Mission Indians(2)

Pavma Band of MissionIndians (2)

Rincon, San Luiseno Band ofMission Indians (2)

San Manuel Band of MissionIndians (2)

wentynine Palms Band ofMission Indians (2)

Augustine Band of MissionIndians (3) (no residentmembers)

Capitan Grande Band ofMission Indians (3)

Cauyapaipe Band of MissionIndians (3) (no residentmembers)

Inaja-Cosmit Reservation (3)LaPosta Band of Mission

Indians (3)Los Coyotes Band of Mission

Indians (3)Manzanita Band of Mission

Indians (3)Mission Band of Indians of

Campo Community (3)Morongo Band of Mission

Indians (3)Pechanga Band-of Mission

Indians (3)Ramona Reservation (3) (no

members)Santa Rosa Band of Mission

Indians (3)anta Ysabel Band of MissionIndians (3)

Soboba Band of MissionIndians (3)

Sycuan Band of MissionIndians (3)

Torres-Martinez Band ofMission Indians (3)

Viejas (Baron Long) Group ofCapitan Grande Band ofMission Indians (3)

(Chemehuevi Indian Tribe (1)Colorado River Indian Tribes

(1) (in Arizona andCalifornia)



SuperintendentFort Yuma SubagencyBureau of Indian AffairsYuma, Arizona 85364

(Colorado River Agency,Phoenix Area Office)

Quechan Indian Tribe of theFort Yuma Reservation (1)(in California andArizona)

SuperintendentNevada AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsStewart, Nevada 89437


Washoe Tribe of Nevada andCalifornia (1) (WoodfordsCommunity)

Other Groups inCalifornia

Barona Group of Capitan Terminated Since 1958 (33) Pit River Indians,Grande Band of Mission (72 Stat. 619 and 78 Stat. Alturas (7) (no trust land)

Indians (3) 390) (34) Jamul Diegueno (7) (nearCahuilla Band of Mission Mission Creek Band of Mission San Diego) (no trust land)

Indians (3) Indians (6) Terminationeffective 7-14-70

SuperintendentColorado RiVer AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsParker, Arizona 85344


Colorado

SuperintendentSouthern Ute AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 315Ignacio, Colorado 81137

(Albuquerque AreaOffice)

Southern Ute Tribe (1)

18

Connecticut

(5) Paugusett (Goldtn HillReservation) (7)

(6) Pequot (Eastern PequotReservation) (7)

(7) Pequot (Western PequotReservation (Lantern HMI(7)

(8) Scaticook (SchagticokeReservation) (Kent) (7)

(35) Mohegan Community (7).New London County (no landbase)

Dlaware

(36) Moor Community (7) KentCounty (no land base)

(37) Nanticoke Community(7) Sussex County (no landbase)

Florida

ChairmanMiccosukee BusinessCommittee

P.O. Box 440-21Tamiami 5tationMiami, Florida 33100

(Washington Office,Director of South-eastern Agencies)

(23) Miccosukee Tribe ofIndians of Florida (1)(Tribe is performingservice formerly providedpy Miccosukee Agency,pursuant tc a contracteffective May 14, 1971.)

SuperintendentSeminole AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs6075 Stirling RoadHollywood, Florida 33024

(Washington Office,Director of South-eastern Agencies)

(24) Seminole Tribe ofFlorida (1)

(37-A) Nonertrolled Seminolesin Tamiami Trail Area (7).(eligible for membershipwith either-of the Floridatribeshavo no corporateland base).

Idaho

SuperintendentFort Hall AgencyBur'eau of Indian AffairsFort Hall, Idaho 83203

(Portland Area Office)

Shoshone-Rannock Tribes ofthe Fort Hall Reservation(1)

Northwestern sank of ShoshoneIndians (Washakie) (in

Utah) (4)

SuperintendentNorthern Idaho AgencyBureat. of Indian AffairsLapwai, Idaho 83540

(Portland Area Office).

Kalispel Indian Community(in Washington state) (1)

Coeur d'Alene Tribe (2)Kootenai Tribe of Idaho (2)Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho (2)

Officer in ChargeWestern Shoshone

SubagencyBureau of Indian AffairsOwSrhee, Nevada 89832 ,

(Nevada Agency,Phoenix Area Office)

Shoshone-Paiute Tribes ofthe Duck Valley Reserva-tion (1) (in Idaho andNevada)

Indiana

(38) Miami (7) at Peru,forming a community (rig,

.corporate land base) (notto be confused with theseveral hundred persons inthe area who are merely"descendants" for claims.purposes.)

Potawatomi Indians of Indianaand Michigan, Inc. (7)

lowa

Officer in ChargeSac and Fox Area Field

OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsTama, Iow 52339

(Minneapolis AreaOffice)

Sac and Fox Tribe of 'theMississippi in Iowa (1)

SuperintendentWinnebago Agency -

Bureau of Indian AffairsWinnebago, Nebraska

68071(Aberdeen Area Office)

0m4ha Tribe of Nebraska (1)(in Nebraska and Iowa)

Winnebago Tribe of(1) (in Nebraska(off-reservationIowa)

Kansas

Nebraskaand Iowa)lands in

SuperintendentHorton AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsHorton, Kansas 6.6439

(Anadarko Area Office)

Iowa Tribe (1) (in Kansas

and Nebraska)Kickapoo Tribe in Kansas (1)Sac and Fox Tribe of the

Missouri (I) (in Kansasand Nebraska)

Prairie Band of PotowatomiIndians (2)

Other Groups inKansas

(39) Chippewa and MunseeDelaware Community (7)Franklin County

(39-A) Wyandot Community (7)Wyandot County

Louisiana

SuperintendentChoctaw Agency .

Bureau of Indian AffairsPhi1adelphia,

Mississippi 39350(Washington Office,Director of South-eastern Agencies)

Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana(1)

Other Groups inLouisiana

(40) Choctaw Community, LaSalle Parish (7)

(41) Choctaw Community,Rapides Parish (7)

(42) Choctaw Community, St.Tammany Parish (7)

(43) Coushatta Community,Allen'and Jefferson DavisParishes (5),

(44) Houma Communities,Terrebonne and LafourcheParishes (7) (no corporateland base)

(45) Tunica Community,Aroyelles 1.'arish (7) (land

evidently not taxed byState)

Maine

Association of AroostookIndians (7)(46) Malecite (Maliseet)scattered families andgroups

(46-A) Micmac. Scatteredfamilies and groups.

(1 and 2) PassamaquoddyTribe (8)

(1) Indian TownshipReservation

(2) Pleasant PointReservation

(3) Penobscot Tribe (8)(Served by State)

Massachusetts

(4) Nipmuc Tribe (Hassani-misco Band (7)

Grafton Reservation(colonially derived)

Freetown Forest (noresidents)

(47) Nipmuc Community, near.WOrcester (7)(48) Wampanoag Community,Mashpee (7)

(49) Wampanoag Tribal Group(Gay Head Village) (7)

(not taxed by State)

Michigan

SuperintendentGreat Lakes AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsAshland, Wisconsin 54806


Bay Mills Indian Community(1)

Hannahville Indian Community(1)

Keweenaw Bay Indian Community(L'Anse Reservation) (1)

Saginaw Chippewa Indian Tribe(Isabella Reservation) (1)

20

9

Other Croups inMichigan

(50) Ottawa and ChippewaIndians of Michigan (8)Northern Michigan Ottawa

Assn. (7)Original Sault Ste. Marie

Band of ChippewaIndians, Inc. (7) Sugar

Island group ofChippewas and theirdescendants who areusing a portion of thetribal lands.held intrust for the1Bay MillsIndian Community.

(51) Pogagon Potawatomi (7)(no corporate land base)

(8A) Potawatomi of the Huron(7) (Ce.lhoun County)

Po.tawatomi Indians ofIndiana and Mictiigan, Inc.

(7)

Minnascits

SuperintendentGreat Lakes AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsAshland, Wisconsin 54806


Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe

(1) (in the State ofWisconsin and HoustonCotolty, Minnesaa)

SuperintendentMinnesota Agency .

Bureau of Indian AffairsP..0. Box 489Bemidji, Minnesota 56601


Minnesota Chippewa Tribe (1).

(six component reserva-tions)

Boise Forte Band (NettLake)

Fond du Lac BandGrand Portage BandLeech Lake BandMille Lac BandWhite Earth Band

Lower Sioux Indian Community(Morton) (I)

Prairie Island IndianCommunity (1)

Shakopee Mdewakanton SiouxCommunity (Prior Lake) (1)

Upper Sioux IndianCommunity (Granite Falls)(3)

SuperintendentRed Lake Agency.Bureau of Indian AffairsRed Lake, Minnesota

56671'(Minneapolis AreaOffice)

Fed Lake Band of ChippewaIndians (2)

Mississippi

SuperintendentChoctaw AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsPhiladelphia,

Mississippi 39350(Washington Office,Director of South-eastern Agencies)

Mississippi Band of ChoctawIndians (1)

Chitimacha.Tribe ofLouisiana (in Louisiana)(I)

Montana

SuperintendentBlackfeet AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsBrowning, Montana 59417.(Billing,s Area Office)

Blackfeet Tribe (1)

SuperintendentCrow AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsCrow Agency, Montana

59022(Billings Area Office)

Crow Tribe of Indians (2)

21 2.

SuperintendentFlathead AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsRonan, Montana 59864

(Billings Area Office)

Confederated Salish andKootenai Tribes of the

- Flathead Reservation (1)

SuperintendentFort Belknap AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsHarlem, Montana 59526


Fort Belknap IndianCommunity (1)

Turtle.Mountain PublicDomain Allotments (4)

SuperintendentFort Peck AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 637.Poplar, Montana 59255


Assinboine and Sioux Tribesof the Fort Peck Reserva-tion (4

Turtle Mountain.PublicDomain Allotments 14)

SuperintendentNorthern Cheyenne Agency

-.Bureau of Indian AffairsLame Deer, Montana 59043


'Northern Cheyenne Tribe (1)

SuperintendentRocky Boy's AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsBox.Elder, Montar;a 59521


Chippewa Cree Tribe of theRocky Boy's Reservation (1)

Other Groups InMontane

(52-A) Landless and non-enrolled Chippowas, Creesand Metis (7)

Great Falls (Hill 57)HaysWolf Point ;and other towns

and cities in Montana)

Nebraska

SuperintendentAlinnebago AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsWinnebago, Nebraska


Omaha Tribe of Nebraska (1)in Nebraska and Iowa)

Santee Sioux Tribe ofNebraska (1)

Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska(1) (in Nebraska and Iowa)(Off-reservation lands inIowa)

SuperintendentPine Ridge Agencytureau of Indian AffairsPine Ridge, South Dakota


Oglala Sioux Tribe of thePine Ridge Reservation (1)(only a minor part ofreservationsin Nebraska)

SuperintendentHorton AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsHorton, Kansas 66439

(Anadarko Area Otfice)

Iowa Tribe (1) (in Kansasand Nebraska)

Sac and Fox Tribe of Missouri(1) (in Kansas andNebraska)

'Other Groups InNebraska

(80) Ponca Tribe of Nebraska(6) (76 Stat. 937)Termination effective10-27-66

Nevada

Sup6rintendentNevada AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsStewart/ Nevada 89437 .


Confederated Tribes of theGoshute Reservation (1)(in Nevada and Utah)

Duckwater Shoshone Tribe (1)Ely Indian Colony (1)Fort McDermitt Paiute and

Shoshone Tribe (1) (in,

Nevada and Oregon)Las Vegas Tribe of Paiute

Indian:3 (1)

Lovelock Paiute Tribe (1)Moapa Band of Paiute Indians

() )

Pyramid Lake, Paiute Tribe ofNevada (1)

Reno-Sparks Indian Colony ofN-v0a (1)

Summit Lake Paiute Tribe,Nevada (1)

22

Te-Moak Bands of WesternShoshone tndians (1) .

(Battle Mountain, Elko andSouth Fork)

Walker River Paiute Tribe ofNevada (1)

Washoe Tribe of Nevada andCalifornia (1) (CarsonColony, DresslervilleColony and WoodfordsCommunity)

Yerington Paiute Tribe(Campbell Ranch) (1)

Yomba Shoshone Tribe (1)

Paiute-Shoshone Tribe of theFallon Reservation andColony (2)

Ruby Valley (3)Winnemucca Colony (1)

Officer in ChargeWestern Shoshone AgencyBureau.of Indian AffairsOw?hee, Nevada 89832

(Nevada Agency,Phoenix Area Office)

ShostIone-Paiute Tribes of

the Duck Valley Reserva-tion (1) (in Nevada andIdaho)

SuperintendentColorado Riv.n- AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsParker, Arizona 85344




Nw Mxico

SuperintendentChinle AgencyBureau of.Indian AffairsChinle, Arizona 86503

(Navajo Aiea.Office)


Arizona, New Mexico, andUtan)


:le!. Li

Tsailee-Wheatfields (inArizona and New Mexico)

SuperintendentEastern Navajo AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsCiownpoint, New Mexico

87313(Wdvajo Area Office)

Nzkrajo Nation (2) (in


(nintricts awl Chapters)

AlamoCanoncitn(Raman--nder AlbuquerqueArea Office)

BecentiCcownpointDalton PaSsLake ValleyLittle WaterPueblo PaintadoStanding RockTorreon and Star LakeWh'itehorse Lake'

White Rork

,,et.

BacaBread SpringsCasamero LakeCheechilgeethoChurch RockIyanbitManuelitoMariano LakePinedaleRed RockRock SpringsSmith LakeThoreauTsayatoh

HuerfanoNageozi010 Encino

SuperintendentFort Defiance AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Defiance, Arizona

86504


Alizona, New Mexico, andUtah)

(Distli:ets and Chapters)

Crystal (Arizona and NewMexico)

Fort Detlance (Arizonaand New Mexio)

Red Lake (Arizona and NewMexico)

SuperintendentJicarilla AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsDulce, New'Mexico 87528

(Albuquerque Area1Dffice)

Jicarilla Apache Tribe (1)

% 23 29

SuperintendentMescalero AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsMescalero, New Mexico

88340(Albuquerque AreaOffice)

Apache Tribe of the Mescalero

Reservation (1).

SuperintendentNorthern Pueblos AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 580Santa Fe, New Mexico

87501(Albuquerque.AreaOffice)

Santa Clara Pueblo (1)Nambe Pueblo (3)Picuris Pueblo (3)Pojoague Pueblo (3)San Ildefonso Pueblo (3)San Juan_Pueblo (3)Taso Pueblo (3)Tesuque Pueblo (3)

Superintendent,Ramah-Navajo AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsRamah, New Mexico 87321



Ariona, New Mexico, and.Utah)

%small Chapter

SuperintendentShiprock AgencyBureau ot Indian AffairsShiprock, New,Mexico





Diet. 9Mexican Water (in Utah and

Arizona)Red Mesa (in Utah andArizona)

Rock PointSweetwaterTeecnospos (in New Mexico,Arizona and Utah)

Pist. /2

AnethBeclabito.(in Arizona

and New Mexico)Red Rock (in Arizona andNew Mexico)

Sanostee (in Arizona andNew Mexico)

Sheep SpringsShiprockTwo Grey Hills

Dist. 13BurnhamNenahnezadUpper Fruitland

SuperintendentSouthern Pueblos AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box-1667Albuquerque, New Mexico

87103(Albuquerque AreaOffice)

Isleta PUeblo (1)Laguna Pueblo (1)Acoma Pueblo (3)Cochiti Pueblo (3)Jemez Pueblo (3)San Felipe Pueblo (3)Sandia Pueblo.(3)Santa Ana Pueblo (3)Santo Domingo Pueblo (3)Zia Pueblo (3)

Governor, Zuni TribalCouncil

Zuni AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsZuni, New Mexico 87327


Zuni Tribe (1)

SuperintendentUte Mountain AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsTowaoc, Colorado 81334

(Albuquerque AreaOtfice)

Ute Mountain Ute Tribe (1)(in Colorado, New Mexico,

and Utah)

Now York

Special LiaisOnRepresentative

For "Tribes" of theIroquois Confederacy

Bureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 262-AIrving, New York 14081

(Washington Office,New York Coordinator)

2 4

(13) Cayuga Nation (3) (No

reservation of its own--.members live on CattaraugusReservation owned by the.Seneca Nation).

(9) Oneida Nation of NewYork (3)

(10) Onondaga Nation (3)(11) St. Regis Band ofMohawks (Akwesasne) (3)

(15). Tonawanda Band of SenecaIndians (3)

(16) Tuscarora Nation (3)

North Ciro line

SuperintendentCherokee AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsCherokee, North Carolina

28719(Washington Office,Direc'-or of South-easter. Agencies)

Eastern Band of CherokeeIndians (3)

Spec.ial Liaison Other Groups InRepresentative North Carolina

,FOT the Seneca NationBureau of Indian Affairs

(55) Coharie Indians (7)P.O. Box 500Salamanca, New York Sampson and adjoining

.

14779 counties

(Washington Office, (56) Indians,of Person County

brew York Ctrordinator) (7)

(57) Haliwa Indians (7)Seneca Nation (3) (Halifax and Warren

(12) Allegany Reservation Counties)(13) Cattaraugus (50) Lumbee Indians of NorthReservation Carolina (7) (Robeson and

(14) Oil Springs adjoining counties) (70

Reservation Stat. 154)(59) Waccamaw Communities

Other Groups In (7) Columbus and BrunswickCounties

New York

(54) Montauk Community (7)(Long Island) (no corporateland base)

(17) Poosepatuck (7) (Statereservation) (Long Island)

(18) Shinnecock (7) (Statereservation) (Long Island)

North Dakota

SuperintendentFort Berthold AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsNew Town, North Dakota


Three Affiliated Tribes ofthe Fort BertholdReservation (1)

SuperintendentFort Totten AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Totten, North

Dakota 58335(Aberdeen Area Office)

Devils Lake Sioux Tribe (2)

Superintendent.Sisseton AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsSisseton, South Dakota


Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe(2) (in North and SouthDakota) (only a minorportion in North Dakota)

SuperintendentStanding Rock AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Yates, North Dakota


Standing Rock Sirmx Tribe(2) (in North and SouthDakota)

SuperintepdentTurtle Hountain AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsBelcourt, North Dakota

59316(Aberdeen Area Office),

'Turtle Mountain Band ofChippewa Indians (2) (someallotments in Montana)

Oklahoma

SuperintendentAnadarko AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsAnadarko, Oklahoma 73005


Apache (Kiowa-Apache) (2)

Caddo Indian Tribe ofOklahoma (1)

Comanche Indian Tribe (2)Delaware Tribe of Indians

of Western Oklahoma (2)Fort Sill Apache Tribe (3)Kiowa (2)Wichita Indian Tribe of

Oklahoma (2)

SuperintendentArdmore AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 997Ardmore, Oklahoma 73401

(Muskogee Area Office)

Chickasaw Nation ofOklahoma (3)

SuperintendentConcho Agency -

Bureau of Indian AffairsConcho, Oklahoma 73.022

(Anadarko Area Office)Cheyenne-Arapaho Tribes of

Oklahoma (1)

SuperintendentOkmulgee AgencyBure#u of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 671Ckmulgee, Oklahoma 74447


A1abama-Quassarte TribalToim (1)

Xialegee Trlbal Town (1)Thlopthlocco Tribal Town (1)Cripek Nation of. Oklahoma (3)

,111MIMMIONMIENIIIIIIP"

SuperintendentOsage AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsPawhuska, Oklahoma 74056


Osage Tribe of Indians (2)

SUperintendentPawnee AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsPawnee, Oklahuma 74058

(Andarko 7:rea Office)

Kaw Indian Tribe of Oklahoma(2)

Pawnee Indian Tribe ofOklahoma (1)

Ponca Tribe of Indians ofOklahoma (1)

Tonkawa Tribe of Indians ofOklahoma (1)

Otoe-Missouria Tribe (3)

SuperintendentMiami AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 391Miami, Okrahoma 74354


Eastern Shawnee Tribe ofOklahoma (1)

Miami Tribe of Oklahoma (1)Seneca-Cayuga Tribe ofOklahoma (1)

Peoria Tribe of Indians ofOklahoma (1) (TerminationPending) (70 Stat. 937)

Wyandotte. Tribe of Oklahoma

(1) (Termination Pending)(70 Stat. 893)

Quapaw Tribe of Indians (2)Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma

(6) (70 Stat. 963)Termination effective 1959

SuperintendentShawnee AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsShawnee, Oklahoma 74801


Absentee-Shawnee Tribe ofIndians of Oklahoma (1)

Citizen Band of PotawatomiIndians of Oklahoma (1)

Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma (1)Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma

(1)

Sac and Fox Tribe of Indiansof Oklahoma (1)

SuperintendentTahlequah AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 459Tahlequah, Oklahoma

74464(Muskogee Area Office)

United Keetoowah.Band ofCherokee In(41,.ns in

Oklahoma (1)Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma

(3)

SuperintendentTalihina AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 187Talihina, Oklahoma 74571


Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma(3)

SuperintendentWewoka AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 1060Wewoka, Oklahoma 74834


Seminole Nation of Oklahoma(2)

26

Orgon

SuperintendentNevada AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsStewart, Nevada 89437


Fort McDermit Paiute andShoshone Tribe (in Nevadaand Oregon) (1)

SuperintendentUmatilla AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsPendleton, Oregon 97801


Confederated Tribes of theUmatilla Indian Reserve-tion (2)

Superintendent'Warm Springs AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsWarM Springs, Oregon

97761(Portland Area Office)

Confederated Tribes of theWarm Springs Reservationof Oregon (1)

Burne Paiute Indian Colony(2)

Other Groups InOregon

(84) Klamath and ModocTribes and Yahooskin Bandof Snake Indians (6) (68

Stat. 718) Terminationeffective 8-13-61

(85) Western Oregon Indians(6) (68 Stat. 724)Termination effective8-18-56Confederated Tribes of

the Grand RhondeCommunity

Confederated Tribes ofSiletz Indians

AlseaApplegate CreekCalapooyaChaftonchemphoChetcoChetlessingtonChinookClackamasClatskanieClatsopClawwewallaCoosCow CreekEucheesGalie CreekGraveJoshuaKarokKathlametKusotonyKwatami or SixesLakmiutLong Tom CreekLower CoquilleLower UmpquaMaddyMackanotinMary's RiverMultnomahMunsel CreekNaltunnetunneNehalemNestuccaNorthern MolallaPort OrfordPudding RiverRogue RiverSalmon River

SantiamScotonShashtaShasta CostaSiletzSiuslawSkilootSouthern MolallaTakelmaTillamookTolowaTualatinTumwaterTututuiUpper CoquilleUpper UmpquaWillametteYamhillYaquinaYoncalla

Pennsylvania

'(19) Senecas of CornplanterReservation (8) (no

population) (stateestablished) (Some acreayeexists which hos not been .

condemned by the KinzuaDam. The CornplanterSenecas now live with theSeneca Nation of New York,or elsewhere. Voted notto reject the IndianReorganization.Act of1934.)

Rhod Island

(61) Narraganset Community(7) Narraganset Church--Washington County.(Colonially derived;formerly state supervised.Some acreage left (non-taxable) around chucch.)

27 33

South Carolina

(22) Catawba Tribe (6)(State reservation remains)

= (73 Stat. 592) Terminationeffective 7-1-62

(6I-A) Summerville Indians(7), Dorchester andColleton Counties

South Dakota

SuperintendentCheyenne River AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsEagle Butte, South


Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe(1)

SuperintendentCrow Creek AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 616Fort Thompson, South


Crow Creek Sioux Tribe ofFort 713lompson (2)

SuperintendentLower Brule AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsLower Brule, South


Lower Brule Tribe of theLower Brule Reservation(I)

SuperintendentPine Ridge AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsPine Ridge, South


Qglala Sioux Tribe of thePine Ridge Reservation(1) (in South Dakota andNebraska)

SuperintendentRosebud AgencyBureau of rndiar.Rosebud, South Dakota


Rosebud Sioux Tribe (1)

SuperintendentSisseton AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsSisseton, South Dakota


Sisseton-Wahpeton SiouxTribe (2) (in North andSouth Dakota) (only aminor portion in NorthDakota)

SuperintendentStanding Rock AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Yates, North Dakota


Standing Rock Sioux Tribe(2) (in South Dakota andNorth Dakota)

SuperintendentYankton AgendYBureau of Indian AffairsWagner, South Dakota

57380(Aberdeen Area Of.fice)

Yankton Sioux Tribe ofIndians (2)

SuperintendentFlandreau SchoolBureau of Indian AffairsFlandreau, South Dakota


Flandreau Santee Sioux Tribe(1)

Texas

(25) Alabama and CoushattaTribes of Texas (6) (68

Stat. 762) Terminationeffective .7-1-55

State reservation in.Polk County (MostCoushattas live nearbut off the reservation)

(26) Tiwa Indians of Ysleta,Texas (7) (82 Stat. 93)(El Paso County)

t 28

Utah

SuperintendentFort Hall AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Hall, Idaho 83203


Northwestern Band ofShoshone Indians(Washakie) (4)

SuperintendentNevada AgencyBureau of Indian, AffairsStewart, Nevada 89437


Confederated Tribes of theGoshute Reservation (1)(in Nevada and Utah)

Superintendet'Shiprock AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsShiprock, New Mexico





Dist.

Mexican Water (in Utahand Arizona)

Red Mesa (in Utah andArizona)

Teecnospos (in New MexicoArizona, and Utah)

SuperintendentTuba City AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsTuba City, Arizona 86045

(Navajo Area Office)




Navajo Mountain (in Utahand Arizona)

Shonto (in Utah andArizona)

Chilchinbeto (in Utah andArizona)

.Dennehotso (in Utah andArizona)

Kayenta (in Utah andArizona)

n)jatoh (in Utah andArizona)

SuperintendentUintah and OUray AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs'Fort Duchesne, Utah

84026 .

- (Phoenix Area Office)

Ute Indian Tribe of Uintahand ouray (1)

Skull Valley (3)

SuperintendentUte Mountain AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsTowaoc, Colorado 81334


Ute Mountain Ute Tribe (1)(in Colorado, New Mexico,and Utah--(Utab portion--scattered tracts occupiedby the Allen Canyon Utesnear Blanding, Utah.)

Other Groups in Utah

(82) Southern Paiutes atCedar City, Utah (7) (A

group of informallyorganized Southern PaiuteIndians with no trust landbase. They reside onproperty owned by theMormon Church.)

Paiute Indians of Utah (6)(68 Stat. 1099) Termina-tion effective 3-1-57(88) Indian Peaks(89) Kanosh(90) Koosharem(91) Shivwitz

(92) Affiliated Ute Citizensof Uintah and Ouray (6)(68 Stat. 868) Terminationeffective 8-27-61.

. Virginia

(63) Chickahominy Communities, (7) (Providence Forge andCharles City)

(20) Mattaponi (7) Statereservation

(21) Pamunkey (7) Statereservation

(64) Potomac Community (7)

(Fredericksburg)(65) Rappahanock Community

(7) (Caroline, King andQueen Counties)

(66) Upper Mattaponi (7)(The town of CentralGarage in King WilliamCounty)

29

Washington

SuperintemientColville AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsCoulee Dam, Washington


Confederated Tribes of theColville Reservation (2)

SuperintendentNorthern Idaho AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsLapwai, Idaho 83540


Kalispel Indian Community(1) (in Washington)

Superintendent.Spokane AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsWellpinit, Washington


Spokane Tribe (2)

SuperintendentWestern Washington

AgencyBureau of Indian Affairs3006 Colby AvenueEverett, Washington


Hoh Indian Tribe (1)Lower Eiwha Tribal Commu-

nity (1)makah Indian Tribe (1)Muckleshoot Indian Tribe (1)Nisqually Indian Community

(1)

Port Gamble Indian Community(I)

PuyalluP Tribe (1)Quileute Tribe of Indians

(1)

Skokomisti Indian Tribe (1)Squaxin Island Tribe (1)Suquamish Indian Tribe (1)Swinomish Indian Tribal

Community (l)Tulalip Tribes (1)

Confederated Tribes of theChehalis Reservation (2)

Lummi Tribe of Indians (2)Quinault Tribe of Indians (2)Shoalwater Bay Indian Tribal

Organization (2)Nooksack Indian Tribe (3)Sauk-Suiattle Indian Commu-

nity (3)Upper Skagit Indians (3)

Chinook Indians.(5)Cowlitz Indians (5)Duwamish Indians (5)JameAown Band of Clallam

Indians (5)Kikiallus Indians (5)Lower Skagit (5)Samish Tribe of Indians (5)San Juan Tribe (5)Snohomish Indian Tribe (5)Snoqualmie Indian Tribe (5)Steilacoom Indian Tribe (5)Stillaguamish Indian Tribe

(5)

.SuperintendentYakima AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsToppenish, Washington


Yakima Indian Nation (2)

Wisconsin

SuperintendentGreat Lakes AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsAshland, Wisc.onsin 54806


Bad River Band of the LakeSuperior Tribe of ChippewaIndians of Wisconsin (1)

Bay-Mills Indian Community(1) (in Michigan)

Forest County PotawatomiCommunity (1)

Hannahville Indian Community(1) (in Michigan)

Keweenaw Bay Indian Conpunity(L'Anse Reservation) (1)

(in Michigan)Lac Courte Oreilles Band ofLake Superior Chippewa

- Indians (1)Lac du Flambeau Band of LakeSuperior Chippewa Indians(1)

Oneida Tribe of Indians ofWisconsin (1)

.Red Cliff Band of LakeSuperior Chippewa Indians(1)

Saginaw Chippewa IndianTribe (Isabella Reserva-'tion) (1) (in Michigan)

Sokaogdn Chippewa Community(Mole Lake) (1)

St. Croix Chippewa Indiansof Wisconsin (1)

Stockbridge Munsee Community(1)

Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe(1) (in Minnesota andWisconsin)

30

Othr Groups inWisconsin

(67) Brotherton Community(7) Winnebago and CaaamutCounties

(93) Menominee Tribe (6)(68 Stat. 250) Terminationeffective 4-30-61

Wyoming

SuperintendentWind River AgencyBureau of Indian AffairsFort Washakie, Wyoming

82514(Billings Arga Office)

Northern Arapaho (3)Shoshone (3)

Area Offices

Aberdeen Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs820 South Main St. *

Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401(Nebr., N..Dak, and S. Dak.

Albuquerque Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs5301 Central Ave. NE.P.O. Box 8327Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87108

(Colo., N. Mex.)

Anadarko Area OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsFederal Bldg.P.O. Box 368Anadarko, Okla 73005

(Kans. and Western Okla.)

Billings Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs316 North '26th St.

Billings, Mont. 59101(Mont7 and Wyo.)

Juneau Area OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 3-8000Juneau,' Alaska 99801

(Alaska)

Minneapolis Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs831 Second Ave. SouthMinneapolis, Minn. 55402

(Minn., Iowa, Mich., andWisc.)

Muskogee Area OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsFederal Bldg.Muskogee, Okla. 74401

(Eastern Okla.)

Navajo Area OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsP.O. Box 1060Window Rock, Ariz'. 86515

(Ariz., Utah, and NewMex.)

Phoenix Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs124 West Thomas Rd.P.O. Box 7007phoenix, Ariz. 85011

Portland Area OfficeBureau of Indian Affairs1425 Irving St. NE.P.O. Box 3735Portland, Oreg. 97208

(Oreg., Wash., and Idaho)

Sacramento Area OfficeBureau of Indian AffairsFederal Office Bldg.2800 Cottage WaySacramento, Calif. 95825

Director, SoutheasternAgencies

Bureau of Tndian Affairs1951 Constitution Ave., NWWashington, D.C. 20242

New York CoordinatorBureau of Indian Affairs1951 Constitution Ave., NWWashington, D.C. 20242

Federal Indian Policies

...from the Colonial period through the early 1970's

Our country's firstadministrator ofFederal Indian policies,Henry Knox, said at thetime of his appointmentas a Cabinet officer inGeorge Washington'sAdministration:

"That the civiliza-tion of the Indianswould be an operationof complicateddifficulty; that itwould require thehighest knowledge ofthe human characterand a steady perse-verance in a wisesystem for a seriesof years, cannot bedoubted. But to denythat, under a courseof favorable circum-stances, it could beaccomplished, is tosuppose the humancharacter under theinfluence of suchstubborn habits as .

gto be incapable ofmelioration orchange."

In the early colonialperiod the Indiansrepresented a strongbalance of power betweenthe forces of Spain,France, and Englandand were thereforetreated as sovereignnations until the issueof North Americandomination was settled.

Until 1755, the indi-vidual English colonieshad no coordinated

The leadership ofBenjamin Franklin is ofhistorical importance to

policies on Indian the development of thisaffairs. During that and subsequent periods ofyear the British devel- Indian affAirs. He

oped an Indian policy proposed, at the Albanydesigned to: (1) protect Congress of 1754, that-the Indians from oppor- all colonial Indiantunistic traders and affairs be centrallyspeculators; (2) negoti- administered. The Frank-ate boundary lines by lin plan was a forerunnertreaties; (3) enlist the of later centrallyIndians on the side of administered Britishthe British in the French Indian policy under theand Indian War; and two superintendents and(4) exercise as much of centralized Indiancontrol as possible over policy under the newfur trade. American Government.King George III in 1763 The outbreak.of hos-

proclaimed: "The.several tilities between thenations or tribes of Americans and the,nations, with whom we British in April, 1775,are connected, should not pitted tribe againstbe molested or disturbed tribe and,producedin the possession of strenuous efforts forsuch parts of,our domin- Indian alliances 1.)yions and territories, as, both colonial and imnot 11.7.ving been ceded to, perial governments.or purchased by us, are The young Americanreserved to them, or any revolutionary govern-of them, as hunting ment attempted to wingrounds." the friendship of the

The proclamation by Indians through treat-King,George III defined ies; But most of thethe "Indian country" to tribes supported Georgebe administered by two III, and even tribalsuperintendents, one neutrality was countednorth and one south, and a success by theset aside,"reserved colonists.lands" for the Indians.The two superintendentstook on the role ofdiplomatic agents nego-tiating with the varioustribes by means of aseries of treaties.

32

4

Low

The Continental Con-gress, in one of itsfirst actions, named aCommittee on IndianAffairs in 1775. Thiscommittee produced areport a month laterwhich prompted theCongress to set up"three departments of'Indians" - the North-ern, Mddle, andSouthern. The Con-gress coritinued many cfthe policies of Colonialtimes as well ascreating new ones.Included among the out-standing Americansserving as commission-ers of the IndianDepartments wereBenjamin Franklin andPatrick Henry in theMiddle Department, andGeneral Philip Schuylerin the Northerm Depart-ment.

The Indian Commiss,ion-ers were given author-ity "to treat withthe Indians...in,order to preservepeace and friendshipwith them and toprevent their taking '

part in the present

commotions." The firstnegotiation was withthe Six NatiOns(Mohawk, Oneida,Onondaga, Cayuga,Seneca, and Tuscarora)in July, 1775, andcaLled for employmentof two b:lacksmithAamong the Indians andthe opening of trade.The first of 370

Indian.tribes to beconcluded during thenext century was withthe Delawares onSeptember 17, 1778.This treaty held outthe possibility thatan Indian state mightlater be establishedas one of the statesin the new country.This idea reappearedmany times as anultimate goal forIndian policy,without substantialresult.

During the Revolu-.tionany War, theIndian commissionersacted primarily asdiplomatic Agents,negotiating withvarious Indian tribesto gain theirallegiance. Theirwork was kept underthe authority of theCongress until a yearafter the war ended.

a

The Beginning ofForced Reinovel

In 17R4 the Congressof the Confederationplaced the administra-tion of Indian affairswithin the WarDepartment, with theSecretary of Wardirected to placearmed militia at thedisposal of the Indiancommissioners "fornegotiating treatieswith the Indians."

The Northwest Ordi-nance of 1787 wasimportant inestablishing the'framework forsettlement beyond theAlleghenies and inshaping Indian policy.It provided that:

"The utmost goodfaith shall alwaysbe observed towardthe Indians; theirland and property,rights and liberty,they shall never beinvaded or disturbedunless in just andlawful wars author-ized by Congress;but laws founded injustice and humanityshall from time totime be made torpreventing peacL id

friendship withthem."

33 39

Over the next 50years, the new Nationand its governmentgrew stronger. Lawsregulating the tradebetween whites andIndians were added tothe books, and anetwork of Indianagents and subagentswas establishedfollowing a reportrelating to militaryadministration oftrade practices withIndians. The reportcalled for legislation"to ensure faithfuldisbursement ofpublic money" and toenforce "prompt settle-ment of accounts."

In 1824, Secretaryof War John C. Calhounhad begun to tietogether all FederalIndian activitiesunder an Indian

. Affairs Agency. Hesaw the Federal roleas providing for: (1)

appropriations fortribal annL...ties to bemade to tribes forlands they had lost;(2) examination ofIndian claims ielatingto trade Laws; (3)

bookkeeping; (4)

correspondence withIndian superintendentsand agents; and (5)administration of afund for the civil-ization of Indians.

Meanwhile the system-atic forced removalof Indian groups fromthe choice easternlands to the westernwilderness across theMississippi had begun.Nearly all theCherokees in the lowerAppalachian area weredriven across themountains to settle inthe Indian.Territory.This territory, carvedfrom the Louisiana .

Purchase, was createdby President ThomasJefferson, whoexpressed the hopethat the remoVal ofIndian groups fromheavily wIttledeastern regions wouldcontribute to theiradvancement.The "removal" policy

had been precipitatedby activity in the late1820's within the Stateof Georgia. TheCherokee Tribe in thatState, a highlyadvanced civilization,had adopted an Indianconstitution: appealsmade by the Cherokeeseventually resulted ina U.S. Supreme Courtdecision nullifying

Georgia's action.Chief Justice John

Marshall's decisionrecognized that earlierCongresses had passedlaws "which treat(Indians) as nations"and "as distinctpolitical communities,having territorialboundaries."

The Indian RemovalAct of 1830 establishedprocedures forvoluntary exchange ofeastern Indian landsfor new westernacreage that was to be..held by the tribesunder perpetualguaranty from theFederal government.

In 1834 Congress gaveregular and permenentstatus to the.IndianAffairs office and itbegan carrying outPresident AndrewJackson's directive toremove all Indiansliving east of theMississippi River tonew western 'ands.These removz . policiesrelied more onmilitary force thandiplomatic treaty.

34

The Five CivilizedTribes -- Cherokees,Chickasaws, Ch9ctaws,Creeks, and Seminoles--were pressured bynegotiations and threatof force to movewestward to the newIndian Territory.Although some membersof these Tribesresisted, moSt becameestablished in the newlands and were amongthe first citizens ofOklahoma when statehoodwas proclaimed.

Otber Indian tribesfrom the northeast andGreat Lakes regionsalso were subjected tothe removal policies.Removal was justifiedby the FederalGovernment as a meansof protecting theIndians from repeatedencroachments ofeastern white settlers.The Government policybitterly divided thecountry--in theCongress, among thereligious groups, inthe press, and amongIndians themselves.

"In the consummationof this grand'andsacred object rests thesole chanee of avertingIndian annihilation,"argued Commissioner ofIndian Affairs ElbertHerring, in 1832. -

Another IndianCommissioner, GeorgeMahypenny, 1854, urgedthe abandonment of theremoval policy.

"By alternate persua-sion and force,"Manypenny said, "someof these tribes havebeen removed, step'bystep, from mountainsto valley, and fromriver to plain, untilthey have been pushedhalf-way across theco,ntinent. They cango no further. On theground they now occupy,the crisis must be met,and their futuredetermined.

Many of those peoplewho sympathized withthe plight of thesurvivors of Easterntribes who were nowsettled west of theMississippi, thoughtthey were doing thesepeople a good turn byremoving them fromcivilization's pathuntil they douldacquire the skills andknowledge necessaryfor assimilation.

35

The Start of IndianEducation Programa

A number of separatetreaties with Indiantribes had set theprecedent for placingresponsibility forIndian education in thehands of the Government.One of the first ofthese treaties was withthe Oneidas, Stock-bridges, and Tuscarorasin 1794. Two yearsearlier the famedSeneca Chief,Cornplanter, visitedPresident Washington,asking the Governmentto "teach our childrento read and write andour women to spin andweave." A Federaldirective to providethe "blessings ofcivilization".toIndians throughtreaties was issued inthat year. .

A "civilization fund"was contained in a lawpassed by Congress in1819 which appropriated$10,000 annually toIndians. All fundsprovided by this actwere channeled throughreligious and missiongroups combined laterin the 1840's 'to launchthe first Indian board-ing school system. Notuntil 1860 was thefirst non-missionFederal Indian schoolstarted. (Congression-al Acts of 1896, 1897,and 1917 eventuallyestablished that nofurther Federal fundsfor education could goto sectarian schools.)

Civil AdministrationBagins In Mid-Con*ury

Repeated effortswere made in the Jack-s,- .an period torvegularize FederalIndian administrationthrough legisiation.The War Department'shead of Indian Affairsreported in 1828, thatthere'were "fruitfulsources of complaint"due to the lack of anorganized system. In1834 Congress passed aTrade and IntercourseAct setting up anOffice of IndianAffairs, and modern-izing trade practicesas the result of areport in 1829 by twoexperienced Indianaffairs specialists,Lewis Cass and WilliamClark.

Both Clark (of Lewisand Clark Expeditionfame) and Cass had beenterritorial governorsin Indian country formany years and Clarkalso had been super-intendent of Indianaffairs at St. Louis.Cass was to becomeSecretary of War in1831. Their reportcalled for new legisla-tion "to ensure a .

faithful disbursementof the public money"and "to enforce astrict accouritabilityand a prompt settlementof accounts."

Noting the increasedlands to be supervisedby a still-growingUnited States, and theneed for establishingpeaceable relationswith the Indians,Treasury SecretaryRobert J. Walker voicedthe sentiment of manywho advocated transferof. the Bureau of IndianAffairs from the WarDepartment to a newDepartment, soon totake shape as theDepartment of theInterior.Walker said: "The

duties now performed bythe Commissioner ofIndian Affairs are mostnumerous and important,and must be vastlyincreased with thegreat number of tribesscattered over Texas,Oregon, New Mexico andCalifornia, and withthe interesting pro-gress of so many of thetribes in Christianity,knowledge, and civiliza-tion. These'duties donot necessarilyappertain to war, butto peace, and to ourdomestic relations withthose tribes placed bythe Constitution underthe charge of thisGovernment."

NaNIEMEN.

By 1849, with crea-tion of the Departmentok the Interior, theBureau of Indian'Affairs passed frommilitary to civilcontrol. Its workcofisisted of attemptsat "civilizing" the

'Indian people by train-ing them for farming ortrades. In 1862,Secretary of the Inte7rior Caleb Smithrcommended a "radicalchange in the mode oftreatment of Indians"to regard them as"wards" of theGovernment. Consequen-tly, the Bureau,'sefforts were often inconflict with militarypolicy and it sometimesbecame the uneasy andunhappy buffer betweenthe Indians and theU.S. Army.

The Call For Peace

The removal policyhad succeeded in largemeasure with the FiveCivilized Tribes be-cause they envisionedan Indian nation, fulli

sovereign and federatedBut many of the PlainsIndians resisted allmilitary moves torelocate them.' Theypossessed the whiteman's horse and gun andfought bitterly againstfurther encroachmentson their lands andtheir way of life.Tensions grew between

Indians and whites inthe western territoriesin the late 1850's andthroughout the 18604s,as the railroads beganmoving west, culmi-nating in a series ofIndian "uprisings" anda Congressional demandthat peace prevail inIndian country. Afterthe Civil War, Congressauthorized establish-ment of an Indian PeaceCommission, comprisingfour civthans andthree military leader'sincluding IndianCommissioner NathanelG. Taylor and GeneralWilliam TecumsehSherman.

I5eace Commissionfield trips had dis-closed considerablecorruption among Indianagents. Its report of1867 stated: "Therecords are abundant toshow that agents havepocketed the fundsappropriated by theGovernment and driventhe Indians to starva-tion." It blamedIndian agent corruptionor incompetence forcreating Indianincidents, notably the1862 Sioux uprising inMinnesota.

Two separate actionswere taken by theFedera.1 Government toproduce reforms inIndian policy. In 1869a Board of IndianCommissioners was namedand charged by Congresswith the responsibilityfor advising theSecretary of theInterior on mattersrelating to Indianaffairs. PresidentGrant at the same timerequested religiousorganizations tonominate Indian agencysuperintendents. TheBoard of Indian Commis-sioners, lacking anypolicy-making authority,was continued until1933, when it wasabandoned by PresidentFranklin D. Roosevelt'sexecutive order,nominating of Indian

"=11.010mimmimmili

37

Bureau agents byreligious groups wasdiscontinued a fewyears after,it wasbegun.

In 1867.and 1868 theIndian Peace Commissionnegotiated the last of370 Indian treaties.These required tribesof the Upper GreatPlains, the Southwest,and the Northwest tosettle on variousreservations in theWest. The last treaty,signed 'with the NezPerce of Oregon onAugust 12, 1868,removed the tribe to anew reservation inIdaho.The U.S. Congress, on

March 3, 1871, finishedthe Indian treatyperiod with a clausetacked to a Congres-sional appropriationfor the Yankton Indians:

hereafter noIndian nation or tribewithin the territory ofthe United States shallbe'acknowledged orrecognized as anindependent nation,tribe, or power withwhom the United Statesshall contract bytreaty."

e

Ironically, it was amixed-blood SenecaIndian, Eli S. Parker,said to,be the grand-son of the warrior Red'Jacket, who presidedover the Indian Bureauwhen the last chapterin the history oftreaty-making waswritten? Parker was aprofessional engineer,recognized authority onthe Iroquois League andpersonal secretary4 toGeneral Ulysses S.Grant in the Civil War.

e

The Rservation System

Twenty years ofintermittent warfarefollowed the signing ofthe last Indian treatybefore the last of theWestern Indians weremoved to 'reservations.Geronimo's surrender inthe southwest in 1886and the battle ofWounded Knee in SouthDakota in 1890 followednumerous Federalmilitary victories inthe southwest, Dakotasand Oregon, and.markedthe end of seriousresistance to re-location policies.The reservation

system brought a newset of woes to theIndians, as the Govern-

ment pressured theminto relinquishingcustoms and culture.Chieftainship, which.

had been encouragedsince Colonial days asa means of tribalcontrol, was not attack-ed directly. Instead,chiefs were by passedwhile law ind order wasdelegated to tribalpolice forces andCourts of IndianOffenses. The resultwas a gradual breakdownof tradition upon whichthe Indian had alwaysleaned heavily, withnothing to replace it.

Native religions werediscoura4ed, someceremonies forbidden,and Christianmissionaries encouraged.Particularly viciouswere the attacks uponIndian "prophets" whichculminated in thebattle of Wounded Kneein 1890.

k, 3 8

Commissioner FrancisWalker (1871-73) setthe tone of the "forcedreservation" period,which lasted until 1887stating that, when thereservation systembegan, "it was express-ly declared that theIndians should be madeas comfortable on, anduncomfortable off,their reservations asit was within the powerof the Government tomake them; that such ofthem as went rightshould be protected andfed, and such as wentwrong should beharassed and scourgedwithout intermission."

Those Indians who"went wrong"-such as'the Apaches underCochise in the early1870's, the Sioux ledby Crazy Horse andSitting Bull in themid-1870's, and the NezPerce with Chief Josepha short while later-were "harassed andscourged without inter-mission," conqueredeventually and returnedto reserva'tions.

4

Those Indians who"went right," were, asWalker promised,"protected and fed"

, through a new practiceof furnishing dailyfood rations and cloth-ing to Indians,instituted as a by-product of the Indianpeace treaties of thelate 1860's and con-tinued by the IndianBureau until well intothe 1920's.

The rations practicewas the forerunner ofspecial aids forIndians which continueto this day. Thegiving Of rations wasdefended by Commission-er Walker:

"Can any principle ofnational morality bedearer than-that whenthe expansion anddevelopment of a civil-ized race involve therapid destruction ofthe only means ofsubsistence possessedby members of a less ,fortunate race, thehigher is bound as asimple right to providefor the lower somesubstitute.for themeans of subsistencewhich it has destroyed?That substitute is, ofcourse, bet realized,

not by systematicgratuities of food andclothing continuedbeyond a presentemergency, but bydirecting these peopleto new pursuits whichshall be consistentwith the progress ofcivilization upon thecontinent."There were contrary

views, too. IndianAgent, V.T.McGillicuddy, on thePine Ridge Reservationin South Dakota, latercommented.

"What reason orinducement can beadvanced why an Indianshould go to woY-k andearn his own living bythe sweat of his brow,when an indulgentGovernment furnisheshim more than hewants to eat andclothes him fornothing?"The "wardship"

approach prevailed,with the pace set bySecretary of theInterior Caleb Smith.Education for farmingand trades became agoal.

39

A start in providinghealth services to .

Indians had come in1832 through.funds

_authorized by Congressfor smallpox vaccina-

-tion of certain tribes.By the 1870's healthservices had bxpandedto icclude medicaldoctors on variousreservations in an'effort to combat theravages of disease_that were Caking aheavy toll of theIndian population. .

As the 19th Centurycame to a alose,steps had been takento launch programs ofeducation and landresource development.Two vocationalschools--HaskellInstitute in Kansasand Chilocco IndianSchool in Oklahoma--opened in 1884; and-five years later abroader educationprogram was institutedat the Carlisle IndianSchool in Pennsylvania.

On the land develop-ment side, some tribalgroups were encouragedto enter intolivestock grazing,although theseenterprises were nothighly successfulamong.the nomadicgroups, and overgraz-ing and loss of stockwere common. Someirrigation of Indianlands was attempted--as early as 1876 onthe Colorado RiverReservation inArizona--but thisproject was laterabandoned. Even intothe 20th Century,irrigation andconservation measureon Indian landsLagged behind thenational efforts as awhole.

Th Land AllotmntPeriod

All of these Indianprograms, the initialphases of the broad"civilizing" process,came at the height of along Indian Bureau andCongressional push forhelping Indians tobecome "self-supporting" by allowingthe Indian lands to be

subdivided to indivi-dual Indians throughwhat is known asallotment inseveralty--orindividual ownershipof small pieces of

Dating back to 1633,when the General Courtof Massachusetts Colonyprovided for Indians toreceive "allotmentsamongst the English,"there had been slowlygrowing advocacy of anallotment policy forIndians.

It was in the 1850'sthat the FederalGovernment reached itspeak in Indian landtitle extinguishmentand began to spell outmore clearly in thenext 30 years agrowing preference forthe allotment policywhich at last wasapproved by Congressin 1887.

"In no former equalperiod of our historyhave-so many treatiesbeen made, or suchvast accession of landobtained," CommissionerGeorge Manypenny saidin 1857. Through 52separate treaties from1853 to 1857 a totalof 174 million acresof Indian land wasacquired by the UnitedStates Government.

40 4 6

Many allotments of landwere provided throughtreaty to individualIndians, -and Boor thenext 30 years eachsucceeding Commission-er of.Indian Affairs(except Francis A.Walker in the 18701s)fdvored the policy ofsubdividing the largetribal-held lands intosmall pieces ownedindividually.The Indian Allotment

Act, introduced inCOngress by Sent.aorHenry L. Dawes ofMassachusetts, waspassed in 1887. Itsintent was toassimilate the Indianby giving him indivi-dual ownership ofbland, as opposed tothe collective land .

use and possessionpracticed by mostIndian groups.Under the plan, sma:1pieces of triballand--from 40 to 160acres--wouId beallotted to Indianfamilies orindividuals. Within25 years, in a mannersimilar to that ofthe Homestead Act,

the Indian, ifadjudged "competent,"would be given theland to use as he sawfit and would alsoacquire un citizen-.ship status. However,before the 25 yearshad elapsed, theBurke'Act (1906)permitted thoseIndians adjudged"competent" to acquireownership at once.

The result of nearly50 years of the-allot-ment policy wis toreduce the Indian landholdings from over 140million acres in 1886to under 50 millionacres in 1934.Thousands of Indiansreceivinq these allot-ments sold them to non7Indians who had thefinancial means andbusiness abilities todevelop the lands.

This sale or rentalof land tended toincrea6c the Indian'sdepundence upon Govern-ment 5upport.. In manycses ren*al income wastoo small or sale fundssoon exhausted and the.Indian was forced toturn back to theGovernment forassista,nce. In addi-tion, the (lemands ofthis newly imposedcivilizatimr: wore oftencontrary to Indian cul-ture and createdpsychological conflictsthat still persist.

In the'first decadeof the 20th Century theBureau of Indian Affairsembarked on further landdevelopment programs--inestablishing services ofconservation, reclama-tion and forestry--alldesigned to complementexecution of theallotment policy.

The Road To Citizenship

The determination ofIndian "competency" wascarried out as part ofFederal Indian policywell into the 1920's,and was highlighted bya 1917 "Declaration ofPolicy" by CommisionerCato Sells and InteriorSecretary Franklin Lane,which'stated; "Thetime has come fordiscontinuing guardian-ship over all competentIndians and giving evencloser attention to theincompetents that theymore speedily achievecompetency."

41

To determine whetheran Indian is "as com-petent to transipct hisown business as theaverage white man," apractice-of issuing"certification of com-petency" was establish-ed', and a network of"competenc!, commis-sions was created.

This approach washailed by Commission-er Sells as indicatingthat "the competent.Indian will no longerbe treated as halfward and half citizen."Because of the growingnumber of Indians whoobtained citizenshipthrough allotment andbecause of a nationalappreciation for therecord of Indianvolunteers in WorldWar I, the IndianBureau began a pushfor full Indiancitizenship. In 1924Congress passed theIndian CitizenshipAct, granting citizen-ship to all Indians whohad not previouslyacquired it.

The Attack on theAllotment System

Increasing publicagitation for reformsin the administrationof Indian affairs ledInterior SecretaryHubert Work in 1926 torequest the Instituteof Government Research(the Brookings Institu-tion) to study-theFederal Indian policies.He asked for recommend-atibns that would"embrace the education,industrial, social andmedical activitiesmaintained among theIndians, their propertyrights, and theirgeneral economic condi-tions." An institutestaff headed by LewisMeriam produced thelengthy document in1928 to be known as theMeriam Report whichcalled for these basicIndian policy reforms:

1. "Establishment ofa professional andscientific Divisionof Planning andDevelopment to hastenagricultural advances,vocational guidance,job placement, andother aspects ofeconomic developmenton the reqervations.

2. "A materialstrengthening oi theschool and reservationforces that are indirect contact withthe Indians and areresponsible fordeveloping and im-proving their economicand social conditionthrough education inthe broadest sense ofthe word" by deemoha-sizing the boardingschool practice oftaking children out oftheir tribal environ-ment and acceleratingdevelopment o: a dayschool system on thereservations.3. "Maximum practicaldecentralization ofauthority" from thecentral office to thelocal agency offices,plus better salariesfor Indian Bureaupersonnel and enlist-ing more Indians intocareer Indian ad-ministration.

42 4,8

Of the allotment law,the Meriam Reportcharged:

"When the Governmentadopted the policy ofindividual ownershipof land on thereservations, theexpectation was thatthe Indians wouldbecome'farmers. Partof the plan was toinstruct and aid themin agriculture, butthis vital part wasnot pressed with vigorand intelligence. Italmost seems as if theGovernment assumedthat some magic inindividual ownershipof property would initself prove aneducational civilizingfactor, butunfortunately thispolicy has for themost part operated inthe opposite direction."Individual ownershipin many instancespermitted Indians to

sell their allotments Indian Reorganization Periodand to live for a time 1934-1961on the unearned incomeresulting from thesale. IndiVidualownership broughtpromptly all the legislation in 1934-thedetails of inheritance, Indian Reorgarazationand frequently the Act).sale of the property It brought a halt toof the deceased the process Of allotment,Indians to whites so prohibited unrestrictedthat the estate could sales of Indian land,be divided among the and provided forheirs. To the heirsthe sale broughtfUrther unearned in-

The Congress respondedto the Meriam Reportwith passage of reform

come, thereby lessen-ing the necessity ofself support."

The report also pro-

acquisition ofadditional lands bytribes and individuals.It created a foundationfor tribal economicself-sufficiency by theestablishment ofcposed that Indians be onstitutional tribal

permitted leasing rights governments, the exten-

in order to add enoughsion of credit from

land to their own allot- Federal funds, the

ments to make an fostering of tribal

efficient farm or ranch, enterprises, and the

This policy would institution of modern

counteract the easier conservation and-

tendency to lease these resource development

same la o actices. The keynotends to whites, a -rpolicy which deterred became cooperation be-

active land management tween Indian tribes and

by Indians. Furthermore, the Federal Government

leasing to whites "gave to achieve change with-

the Indians unearned in- out forcing it.

come to permit the The new Wheeler-

continuance of a life of Howard Act marks adecisive shift ofidleness," the study

concluded, direction of AmericanIndian policy, andendeavors to give theIndians not only abroad measure ofeconomic assistance butalso those "nationalrights of man" mentionedby President Roosevelt'in his letter of

43 4,9

endorsement sent toCongress, it stops farshort of the ultimategoal. It is merely abeginning in the processof liberating andrejuvenating a subju--gated and exploited raceliving in the midst ofan aggressive civilize-

. tion far ahead,0 materially speaking, of

its own."From the perspective

of two decades later,the Committee on Organi-zation of the ExecutiveBranch of Government(Hoover Commission)summarized the impact ofthe Meriam Report andthe resulting 1934'Indian ReorganizationAct as follows:

"In the yearsimmediately followingthe Meriam Reportthere was markedprogress in profes-sionalizing theIndian Service throughbetter personnel,improved methods, andhigher professionalstandards. Indianeducation wasmodernized and astronger and .bettercoordinated economicprogram got underway.

In the 1930's these the practice of educa-activities were ting Indian children incarried forward the public schoolvigorously. The system. The Arts andIndian Reorganization Crafts Board revivedAct (IRA) has given interest in native.further impetus to the crafts as a means ofeconomic- program by livelihood for Indianauthorizing enlarge- people.ment of Indian lands, The Indian Extensionextending the leading Service program beganfunction, and providing modern tech-establishing a policy nical assistance toof scientific range Indians in the fields ofand forest management." conservation, irriga-

The IRA also paved thetion, grazing and

way for.revival ofy- g.

credit program wastribal organization, and launched with aestablishment of tribal revolving loan fund.law. But the big develop-Aside from the ment of the whole period

wneeier-tiowara Act,other significant Indian

was the start of tribal

legislation of theself-government, with

1930's included theseveral hundred

Johnson-O'Malley Act ofreservation tribal

1934 and the creation ingroups determining by

1935 of an Indian Artspopular vote to govern

and Crafts Board withinthemselves in ademocratic manner with

Interior.The Johnson-O'Malley

Act provided Federaleducational funds toassist States and localdistricts, and broughtabout an expansion of

modern constitutions.Today's tribal councilform of Indian govern-ment largely stems fromthis Act, although anumber of Indian tribeshad maintainedconstitutional self-government prior to 1934,and still others reject-ed the self-governingfeature contained in theIndian ReorganizationAct.

44

Effects of World War II

World War II, to agreat extent, changedboth the Indian way oflife and Federal Indianpolicy directions.Nearly 70,000 Indian menand women left reserva-tions for the first timeto go into militaryservice and defense in-dustries. The Indian,record in both instanceswas wi4ely praised.

The war produced bothnew skills and a greaterdegree bf culturalsophistication than hadever before beenachieved by largenumbers of Indians. Butit also brought post-wardemands for assistancein Indian vocationaltraining and relocation,for expanded educationand for reservationeconomic development.

The post-war periodbrought on the "areaoffice" system ofdecentralized IndianBureau administration.Many developmentprojects--roads,irrigation and buildingconstruction--wereresumed in 1946, 'afterbeing stalled duringthe war.

The fifteen-yearpost-war period also sawe(1) greatly increasedprograms to aideducation of theNation's largest tribe,the Navajos. (A studyin 1947 showed thatnearly 75 percent of allNavajo children werenot in school); (2) aten-year economicdevelopment andrehabilitation fund forthe Navajos and.Hopis tobring much neededcapital investment tothis poverty-strickenregion of the southwest-,

(3) development ofFederal Indian programsof employment assistanceincluding vocationaltraining and on-the-jobtraining to Indianworkers; (4) a start onIndian adult educationfor those Indians who,had missed the elemen-tary educat.idn now beingexpanded for theirchildren; and (5) thebeginnings of an Indianindustrial developmentprogram to encourageprivate business andindustry to locate inIndian areas.

Establishmnt ofIndian Claims CommissiOn

The Indian ClaimsCommission was createdin 1946 to permitIndians to,file suitsagainst the Government.*The Commission receiveda total of 852 claims, in370 petitions enteredduring the five yearsallowed for filing. Any"identifiable" groups ofIndians within,theUnited States or Alaska--then still a territory--could take their claimsto this Commission. It"was empowered to hearand adjudicate suitsarising from claims inlaw or equicy; tortclaims; claims based onfraud, duress, uncon-scionable consideration,mutual or lateralmistake; claims basedupon fair and honorabledealings not recognizedby existing rules or lawor equi,ty; or claimsbased on the taking ofland without payment ofthe agreed compensation.Commissioner Collier

and others hoped thesettlement of claims

45

would enable the Indiansto become socially ahdeconomically assimilated .

into the fabric ofAmerican life. ByNovember 1969, aboutone-half of the claimshad been adjudicated,and settlementsexceeding $305 millionmade. Although- in someinstances the judgmentsresulted in a per capitadistribution of funds,many tribal awards haveremained largely intactwith the money"programmed" forcommunity and economicdevelopment.Congress has directed

. the Commission toi complete the .ok of

hearing and determiningthe claims before it byApril 10, 1972.

New Trends of tits 1950's

Revival of pressuresfor Federal terminationof trusteeshipresponsibilitiesoccurred with the HooverCommission's recommenda-tion that programs bedeveloped to terminate"the trust status ofIndian lands."Among members of the

Hoover Commission'scommittee on Indianaffairs was John Nichols,who became IndianAffairs COmmissionerin 1949.

House ConcurrentResolution 108 of the83rd Congress in 1953led to passage in thenext few years of anumber of terminationbills. Introduced byRepresentativeWilliam H. Harrison ofWyoming and by SenatorArthur V. Watkins ofUtah (who later becameChairman of the IndianClaims Commission), thetermination resolutionread in part:

"It is the policy ofCongress, as rapidlyas possible, to makethe Indians withinthe territoriallimits of the UnitedStates subject tothe same lavas andentitled to the sameprivileges andresponsibilities asare applicable toother citizens ofthe United States,and to granf themall the rights andpre.rogativespertaining toAmericancitizenship

On June 17, 1954 theMenominees of Wisconsinbecame the first tribeslated for terminationof Federal trusteeship.The tribe had a largeinvestment in forestlands and tribalsawmill. TheMenominee Reservationwas to be fullyremoved from Federaltrust status onDecember 31, 1958,although laterCongressional Actsdelayed final termina-tion untilApril 30, 1961.

Other tribes"terminated" by law inthis period were theKlamaths and WesternOregon.Indians; foursmall bands in Utah;the Alabama-Coushattasof Texas; the PoncaTribe of Nebraska theUintah and Ouray UteMixed Bloods of Utah;the Wyandottes, Ottawas,and Peorias of Oklahoma.Termination proceedingshave,been moving on apiecemeal basis underlegislation passed in1958 for the Indianrancherias throughout

46

the State of CaliforniaStrong opposition to

termination from amongsome Indian tribes andethers led to astatement by InteriorSecretary Fred Seaton,who declared in 1958:"It would beincredible, evencriminal, to send anyIhdian tribe out intothe mainstream ofAmerican life untiland unless theeducational level ofthat tribe was one .

which was equal to theresponsibilities whichit was shouldering."The 1950's produced

several other importantnew legislativedirections affectingIndian policy:

1.. Indian lands inthree States and partof two others werebrought under StateCivil and criminaljurisdiction by an Actof August, 1953,

2. The prohibitionwas lifted against thesale of alcoholicbeverages to Indiansoutside Indian countryand a local optionsystem was establishedwithin reservations,also in 1953;

3. The Division ofIndian Health wastransferred effectiveJuly 1, 1955, from theBureau qf IndianAffairs to the U.S.Public Health Service.Notable progress hassubsequently been madein reducing the Indianlife span, andcurtailing theseverity *of manyillnesses.The record in Federal

Indian relations overtwo decades wassummarized in the late1950's by the notedanthropologist andPulitzer Prize winningauthor, the lateOliver LaFarge, asfollows:"The progress has

been great, and it hasbeen spotty. Youcannot make over a racein 25 years, despitewhat the allotmenttheorists believed. It

takes,more than onegeneration to make thejump from a home inwhich no English isspoken, where thethinking is the same asit was 300 years ago,to full competence inour alien and complexway of life. If, whilethe Indians arestruggling desperatelyto make the greatadjustment, the lastremnants of their landbase are lost to, them;

if, as they fear, theIndian ReorganizationAct will be junkedsome day, theirstruggle will behopeless. It is theGovernment'sresponsibility toenable (Indians) tokeep and use what theyalready have, to allowthem an ordinarychoice, and not theflaf alternatives ofmigrate or starve."

New Direction in the 1960's

A "New Trail" forIndians leading toequal citizenhiprights and benefits,maximum self-sufficiency, and fullparticipation inAmerican life, becamethe keynote foradministration of theprograms for ,theBureau of IndianAffairs after theclose of fiscal year1961.This keynote was '

provided ip a reportto the Secretary of theInterior Stewart L. .

Udall, by a specialtask force on Indianafrairs, which hcappointed inFebruary, 1961.

To move toward theaccomplishments ofthese goals, the taskforce recommendedless emphasis on thepurely custodialfunctions of theBureau, greaterconcentration oftime, energy, andfunds on fosteringfuller development ofboth the human andnatural resources onIndian reservation.Probably the most

important singlerecoMMendation was ashift in programeffiphasis away fromtermination ofFederal trustrelationship.This was coupled,

however, with a.recommendation that'eligibility forspecial services bewithdrawn from Indianswith 5ubstantialincomes and superioreducational experi-ence who are ascompetent as mostnon-Indians to lookafter their own.affairs.

An administrativereorganization wasaccomplished--not only

in Washington but inarea offices andagencies-combining inone new Division ofEconomic Developmentall operating unitsdirectly concernedwith economicdevelopment. Theresources functions ofthe Bureau werebrought into clOserrelationship with theindustrial developmentwork and .ehe revolvingcredit program. Inthe Washington office,the new division alsoincltded a programplanning staff and aspecialist in housing.In later years, thehousing activity wastransferred to theDivision of CommunityServices.A program to improve

Indian housing, aproduct of the 1960's,opened up Indianreservations to thehousing agencies tonon-reservation areas.Indian tribesestablished localhousing authorities asa first step inqualifying for Federalhousing assistanceunder the programs ofthe Department ofHousing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD).The Indian hbusingprogram is slowly andsteadily gaining afoothold on thereservations.

To alleviate Indianunemployment, theBureau also increasedattention to jobopportunities,through expandedprograms in adultvocational training,voluntary relocationof Indians.foremployment in urbancenters, industrialdevelopment on or nearthe reservations, andincreased use ofIndian labor by theBureau on needed workin road maintenanceand construction,repair and maintenanceof bulidings, andconstruction ofbuildings andutilities, all ofwhich provideci.theIndians valuableconstruction training.Projects launchedund,pr the 1963Accelerated PublicWorks Program onnearly 100 reservationsprovided useful workfor thousands oftribal members andcontributed importantlyto the protection anddevelopment of Indiantimber stands andother physicalresources.

The declaration ofwar on poverty, firstenunciated by PresidentJohnson in his State ofthe Union message to'the Congress inJanuary 1964, wasfollowed by hisassurances to triballeaders that Indianpoverty was to be amajor target. TheBureau of IndianAffairs was fullycommitted.in thebattle to drivepdverty from AmericanIndian reservationcommunities. Educationand economic develop-ment were the majorfronts in the war onpoverty.This period saw

substantial progressin involvement ofother agencies of theFederal Government inproviding meaningfulprograms among theIndian people. Theyincluded the Depart-ments of Labor;Commerce; Health,Eslucation, andWelfare; Housing andUrban Development;and Office of EconomicOpportunity.

The programs for thedisadvantaged underthe EconomicOpportunity Act of1964 have provided theIndians an opportunityto participate in andcontrol their ownprograms. Theheaviest activitieshave been in programsfor community actionand youp training.The Bureau, together

with other Federalagencies launchedselected Indianreservation programszo step-up the pace onthe economic develop-ment process on 39Indian reservationsand waged a concen-trated effort tostimulate economic andsocial change forIndians.

In 1966, the.Indianpeople were in theforefront of publicattention. That year,Robert L. Bennett, anOneida Indian, wasappointed Commissionerfor the Bureau ofIndian Affairs. Thepeople-orientedapproach was apparentin the stated policyof CommissionerBennett. He espousedgreater Indianinvolvement indecision-making andprogram execution. Ariew era of FederalIndian relations was

emerging with theBureau taking theform of a coordina-ting and advisoryagency, rather thanthe sole primaryagency concerned withdevelopment of thehuman and economicresources of Indiancommunities.

Early in 1967, a 16member NationalIndian EducationAdvisory Committeewas appointed toassist in schoolprogramming and toimprove communicationsbetween the schoolsand the'Indian peoplethey service. TheCommittee has deviseda set of guidelinesfor the orderlytransfer for Bureauschools to localIndian boards ofeducation. Majorfinancial support willcontinue to come fromthe Bureau undercontracts with theIndian tribes. Indiansare now participatingin planning for theeducation of their ownchildren, both on manypublic school boardsand for Bureau schools.

49

For the first time,.in the fall of 1967,34 kindergartens wereopened for Indianchildren under theauspices of the Bureau.These were the firstto be funded by theBureau and complements'the Head Start programof 0E0. To reachthose adult Indians

_ who for variousreasons had little orno education andtraining, the Bureaubegan a breakthrougheffort in employmentassistance with theestablishment of"whole family"residential trainin,,-centers, whichattempts to fit theentire family tourban life.

A historic specialmessale on goals andprograms of theAmerican Indians wassent to the Congressby President Johnsonin March of 1968which proposed "a newgoal--a goa] that endsthe old debate abouttermination of Indianprograms and st-ssesself-determinaty n, agoal that erases oldattitudes ofpaternalism andpromotes partnershipand self-help." Themessage continued:

"Our goal must be: Astandard of livingfor Indians equal tothat of the countryas a whole, freedomof choice--anopportunity to remainin their home1an3, ifthey choose, withoutsurrendering theirdignity, and anopportunity to moveto the towns andcities of America ifthey choose, equippedwith skills to live inequality and dignity;full participation inthe life of modernAmerica, with a full.share of economicopportunity and socialjustice."

Indian involvementin decision-making wasm'ade an integral partof policy planning bythe issuance of anExecutive Order whichestablished a NationalCouncil on IndianOpportunity to review'Federal programs forthe American Indians,make broad policyrecommendations, andto ensure that programsreflect the needs anddesires of the Indianpeople, including thosewho live in urban areas.The Vice President wasappointed as Chairmanand council membersinclude a cross-sectionof Indian leaders andhigh Governmentofficials.

The President'smessage and the Senatepronouncement in SenateConcurrent Resolution11 of the 90th Congress,clearly enunciated forthe first time since1953, a declaration ofpurpose toward theAmerican Indians andthe Alaska Natives.These pronouncementsalso took affirmativeaction to reverse theunilateral terminationpolicies since HouseConcurrent Resolution108 of 1953.

Prsidnt.Nixon ReaffirmsSpcial Relationship

During the 1968Presidential campaign-ing, President-electRichard M. Nixonpresented to theAmerican public some ofthe guidelines for theFederal Indian policyhis administrationwould pursue. Hereaffirmed the specialrelationship betweenthe Federal Governmentand the Indian peopleand emphasized thattermination would notbe a policy objective.

Mr. Nkxon also statedthat the right ofself-determination ofIndian people would berespected And theirparticipation inplanning their owndestinies would beactively encouraged."We must recognize thatAmerican society canallow many differentcultures to flourish inharmony and we mustprovide an opportunityfor those Indianswishing to do so tolead a useful andprosperous life in anIndian environment.':The right of Indianpeople to direct theaffairs of theircommunities has becomethe keynote for policydecision-making in theNixon administration.

In August 1969President Nixonappointed Louis R.Bruce, an Indian ofSioux-Mohawk descent,the new Commissioner ofIndian Affairs.Mr. Bruf.le is the thirdIndian to be appointedCommissioner since theBureau of Indian Affairs.was established in 1824.With the approval ofthe, President,CoMmissioner Brucesubsequently announceda realignment of thetop management positionsat the BIA centraloffice and appointed anew executive staff,composed of 14 Indians,

one Alaska Native, andfour non-Indians. MoreIndians than ever beforein Bureau history nowhold managementpositions.

President Nixon'sspecial Message to theCongress on July 8, 1970regarding Indian affairsestablished futureFederal Indian policy.Along with more specificproposals forlegislation, the messageaffirmed the historicrelationship between theFederal Government andIndian communities,guaranteed that it wouldnot be abridged withoutIndian consent, an,proposed that Indiancommunities be allowedto take over control andpperation of Federally-funded Indian programswhen they chose to doso. The Presidentadded, "It is long pastthe time that the Indianpolicies of the FederalGovernment began torecognize and build uponthe capacities andinsights of the Indianpeople...the time hascome to break decisivelywith the past and tocreate the conditionsfor a new era in whichthe Indian future isdetermined by Indianacts and Indiandecisions."

In his messageiPresident Nixon calledfor self-determinationfor Indian peop,lewithout the threat oftermination of the trustrelationship over Indianlands and the servicesguaranteed to Indianpeopl,e along with thisrelationship. WhilePresident Nixon'smessage is the seconddelivered by thePresident of the UnitedStates, it is the firstto be implemented bylegislation. Among hisrecommendations, thePresident asked for:- A new ConcurrentResolution that would"renounce, repudiateand repeal" thetermination policyoutlined in HCR 108 ofthe 83rd COngress.- Support for voluntaryIndian control ofIndian programs withthe necessary technicalassistance from theGovernment to facilitate_transfers ofresponsibilities;- restoration of thesacred lands near BlueLake to the Indians ofTaos Pueblo;

516

- support for Indiancommunities to take overIndian schools, toestablish Indian schoolboards, to receive fundsand to contract for theoperation of schools;- economic developmentlegislation through the"Indian Financing Actof 1970" to enableIndian leaders toarrange for thedevelopment and use ofnatural resources;- improved governmentefforts to deliverservices needed toassist Indians living inurban centers;- establishment of anIndian Trust Counsel '

Authority "to assureindependent legalrepresentation for theIndians natural resourcerights" and to avoidconflicts of interestwithin governmentagencies;

- the creation of a newoffice within theDepartment of theInterior--AssistantSecretary for Indianand Territorial AffairF

The.first of thePresident's recommen-dations to become lawwas the act restoringBlue Lake and the48,000 acres ofsui.rounding land to theTaos Pueblo Indians ofNew Mexico. This act issignificant because itreturns lands to anIndian tribe that hadbeen taken and used forother purposes. Formerpractice had been tomake cash settlementsalone in compensationfor land taken.

In keeping with thePresident'srecommendations andproposals for legisla-tion, Commissioner Bruceand his Indian executiveteam began working torestructure the BIA atall levels so that itspolicies and programswould reflect thethinking and feelings ofthe majority of Indianpeople. Five policygoals were announced inNovember 1970 to guidethe Bureau in its newadministration of Indianaffairs;.- transformation of BIAfrom a management to aservice organization;- reaffirmation of thetrust status of Indianlandi- making the BIA AreaOffices fully responsiveto the Indian peoplethey serve;

- providing tribes withthe option of takingover any or all BIAprogram functions withthe understanding thatBureau will provideassistance or resumecontrol if requested todo so;- working with Indianorganizations to becomea strong advocaLe ofurban Indian interests.

The idea of self,:determination--theright of Indian tomake their own choicesand decisions--isbecoming a reality asIndian people begin toassume the authority tomanage their ownaffairs. Since theannouncement of the newBIA goals, tribes havechosen to undertakeincreasing responsi-bility for serviceprograms previouslyadministered byFederal agencies.

BIA Service and SupportAgency

In its new role as aservice and supportrather than a managementorganization, the BIAis encouraging andassisting tribes intheir assumption of .program operations.

52 6

The Zuni Tribe of NewMexico assumed theresponsibility fordirecting BIAactivities at the puebloin May. 1970.. Almost ayear late17, the BIAsigned a contract withthe Miccousukee'Tribeof Florida empoweringthem to administer BIAprograms on thereservation, includingall.education and socialoperations. BIA fieldtechnicians andadministrators areworking directly withthese two Indian groupsto assist with thedevelopment andimplementation ofprograms to meet the

* expressed andparticular needs of thetwo Native Americancommunities.The recent emergence

of a strong andpositive attitude onthe part of Indianpeople that they canand will have betterlives has becomehistorically important.Indians of all ages,representing all tribesundertaking unprece-dented efforts toovercome the problemscqpfronting them.

Evidence of this newattitude is apparent inthe establishment of theNational. TribalChairmen's Association(NTCA), a neworganization of elected.tribal chairmen.Created in April 1971,NTCA set up a15-member commission

'to advise the BIA onnational Indian policy.Through this grqup,reservation Indians canpresent a single, unitedvoice in shaping thefuture of Indianaffairs.

NTCA is Rot the onlyvoice being heard atthe decision-makinglevels in Indianaffairs. As the urbanIndian population hasgained dn numbers, otherIndian organizationssuch as the NationalCongress of AmericanIndians and the AmericanIndian Movement havebeen instrumental inbringing recognition tothe Indians inoff-reservationcommunities.

Since World War II/when thousands ofIndians left thereservations formilitary service or forwar time jobs, a steady'off reservationmovement has been takingplace. This was givenan additional boost inthe early 1950's withthe initiation of theBIA EmploymentAssistance Programwhich assisted Indiansin locating pe;manentemployment innon-reservation areas.The urban Indianmovement of the 1950'sand 196.0's has resultedin an estimated 350,000Indians living off thereservations today.

In his message to theCongress on nationalIndian policy, PresidentNixon pointed out thatalthough the "BIA'sresponsibility does notextend to Indians whohave left thereservation", this factis "not always clearlyunderstood. As a resultof this misconception,Indians living in urbanareas have often lostout on the opportunityto participate in otherprograms designed fordisadvantaged groups."President Nixon directed

the Office of EconomicOpportunity (0E0) tolead efforts to helpurban Indian leaderswork toward solutionsto their problems.0E0 announced in May

1971 that it had joinedwith the Departments ofHealth, Education andWelfare (HEW), Housingand Urban Development(HUD), and Labor tocreate a Model UrbanIndian Center Programto provide specialassistancb to the .

growing'urban Indianpopulation. Federalgrants totaling some$880,000 will be usedto upgrade Indiancenters in Los Angeles,Minneapolis, Gallup,and Fairbanks, and toestablish a centralresearch technicalassistance andcoordinating officein New York City.As a result of

experience gained invarious tribal, Stateand Federal programsthere is presently atrained and educatedIndian leadershipevailable to staffmanagement positions atlevels where decisionsare made regardingIndian affairs. Indian3.aders are working ingovernment agencieshaving programs thatserve Indians both onand off the reservation.

The Indian deskconCept, afterexperimentation'andsuccessful operationin OEO, has beenextended to theDepartments of CommerceLabor, Agriculture,Justice, HUD, and HEW.

In February 1971 anIndian was appointedConsultant on IndianAffai.rs to the SenateCommittee on Interiorand Insular Affairs.In March an IndiAnwoman was appointedSpecial Assistant forIndian Affairs to theSecretary of theInttrior. Over 50percent of the BIAemployees are Indianalthough a much smallerthough steadilyincreasing percentageare employed inmanagement levelpositions. Eight ofthe 16 members of theNational Council onIndian Opportunity areIndians. Other Indiansare taking leadershipin the establishment ofsuch projects asDeganawidah-'Quetzalcoatl Universityfor Indians andMexican Americans nearDavis, California.

An Indian futuredetermined by Indianacts and Indiandecisions, PresidentNixon states as a goalin his historic Julymessage. In the lastfew years the FederalGovernment has come torecognize that Indianscan and should supplythe leadership fortheir people. MaximumIndian involvement andcommitment will help toachieve the goals ofpresent Indian policy.

Commissioner Brucewelcomed 1972 byannouncing plans for amassive re-direction ofthe BIA's programs forthe future. In a pressconference on January12, 1972, CommissionerBruce and AssistantSecretary of theInterior HarrisonLoesch unveiled afive-point programentitled "A Way to Goin 72'. The newprogram designed toassist Indians towardself-determinationplans for reservationby reservationdevelopment, re-direction of the BIAemployment assistanceprogram, resourcesprotection, reservationroads improvements, andincreasing tribalcontrol over Indianeducation.

The five-pointprogram includes areversal of a 15 year-old policy of.trainingIndians to work inurban areas off the

, reservations. Instead,the new plan proposesthat the $40 millionemployment assistanceprogram be centered onthe r2servation for thedevelopment of a local.labor force. Theprimary objective ofthe new stiategy is tostart the developmentof a total viableIndian economy on thereservations."De:loping Indianeconomics does not meanreally locating non-Indian industry closeto or on thereservations so thatthese corporations canenjoy a cheap laborsukply. It means thedevelopment of trulyIndian economic systemsso that a dollar once.earned by an Indiancitizen can be spentand kept movingthroughout an Indianeconomy, thus develop-ing that economy andmaking a maximumimpact upon.that

community I wantto see Indian economieswhere dollars movefrom Indian hand toIndian hand and are notdrained out by thosenon-Indian cities thatdevelop and grow andfeed upon Indianreservations," statesCommissioner Bruce.

Each of the fivepolicy points isdirectly related tothe goal .of self-determination. In thereservation byreservation developmentprogram, each tribeformulates its owncomprehensive economicdevelopment plans. Anew Indian Water RightsOffice is designed toprotect Indian waterand land rights fromencroachments byFederal and privateinterests. Increasednumber and quality ofroads on thereservations is essen-tial to optimumeconomic, social andeducational development.The presenL $30 millionallocated for roadconstruction will bedoubled in thenextfiscal year, accord,ingto Secretary Loesch.The final point isaimed at making Indi'aneducation trulyreponsive to the needsof Indian children andparents.

A new tool forincreasing skilledmanpower and managerialknow-how was establihedon Reservations in FY1971. The IndianAction Team Programincludes classroomwork, shop application,and on-the-job ex-perience that enablesblue-collar workers toprogress toward ajourney man level.

t i

loty t z

ryti p VI .1* 1,1 f

NursEllio

556 7

Henry Knox*Thomas PickeringJames McHenry

Samuel DexterHenry DearbornWilliam EustisJohn ArmstrongJames MonroeWilliam H. Crawford

John C. Calhoun**James Barbour**Peter B. Porter**John H. Eaton**Lewis Cass**

Administrators of U.S. Federal Indian Policy

178917951796

18001801 .

1809

181318141815

18171825

182818291831

George WashingtonGeorge WashingtonGeorge Washington and

John AdamsJohn AdamsThomas JeffersonJames MadisonJames MadisonJames.MadisonJames Madison and

James MonroeJames Monroe .

John Quincy AdamsJohn Quincy AdamsAndrew JacksonAndrew Jackson

*Knox had served as "Secretary in the War Office" since-

1784.. Prior to that, from 1775 on, Indian affairs hadbeen carried on by Indian Commissioners from threedepartments, responsible to the Continental Congress.

**On March 11, 1824, Calhoun named Thomas L. McKenney, who

had served from 1816-22 as Superintendent of Indian'Trade under the War Department, to be the "head' of theBureau of Indian Affairs within the War Department.McKenney served in this capacity'under SeCretaries

Calhoun, Barbour, Porter, and Eaton, until replaced by

Samuel S. Hamilton on September 30, 1830. Hamilton, in

turn, was succeeded by Elbert Herring in 1933, who a

year later became the first Commissioner of Indian

Affairs by an Act of Congress.

6

Commissioners of Indian Affairs

Year ofAppointment

1832 to Present

President

Elbert HerringCarey A. Harris

.T. Hartley Crawford

1832

1E06

1838

Andrew JacksonAndrew Jackson andMartin Van Buren

Martin Van Buren,William H. Harrison,and John Tyler

William Medill 1845 James K. Polk andZachary Taylor

Orlando Brown 1849 Zachary Taylor andMillard Fillmore

Luke Lea 1850 Millard FillmoreGeorge Manypenny 1853 Franklin PierceJames W. Denver 1857 James BuchananCharles E. Mix 1858 James BuchananJames W. Denver 1858 James BuchananAlfred B. Greenwood 1859 James BuchananWilliam P. Dole 1861 Abraham Lincoln and

Andrew JohnsonDennis Cooley 1865 Andrew JohnsonLewis V. Bogy 1866 Andrew JohnsonNathaniel G. Taylor 1867 Andrew JohnsonEli S. Parker 1869 Ulysses S. GrantFrancis A. Walker 1871 Ulysses S. Grant

ta Edward P. Smith 1873 Ulysses S. GrantJohn 0; Smith 1875 Ulysses S. Grant and

R. B. HayesEzra A. Hayt 1877 Rutherford B. HayesR. L. Trowbridge 1880 Rutherford B. Hayes

57

-emomemmilmeNalli

Year ofAppointmnt

Hiram Price

John D. C. AtkinsJohn H. OberlyThomas J. MorganDaniel M. BrowningWilliam A. Jones

Francis E. LeuppRobert G. ValentineCato SellsCharles H. Burke

Charles J. RhoadsJohn Collier .

William A. Brophy

John R. NicholsDillon S. MyerGlenn L. EmmonsPhilleo Nash

Robert L. BennettLouis R. Bruce

President

1881 James Garfield andChester A. Arthur

1885 Grover Cleveland1888 Grover Cleveland1889 Benjamin Harrison1893 Grover Cleveland1897 William McKinley and

Theodore Roosevelt1904 Theodore Roosevelt1909 William Howard Taft1913 Woodrow Wilson1921 Warren G. Harding and

Calvin Coolidge1929 Herbert Hoover193 Franklin D. Roosevelt1945 Franklin D. Roosevelt

and Harry S. Truman1949 Harry S. Truman1950 Harry S. Truman1953 Dwight D. Eisenhower1961 John F. Kennedy and

Lyndon B. Johnson

1966 Lyndon B. Johnson1969 Richard M. Nixon

6

Important Dates in Federal Indian Relationships

1633 First land allotment policy established (by General Cot4t of Massachusetts Colony,

acting to provide land allotments among Indians).1754 English colonies met at Albany Congress to discuss unified colonial Indian policy.

1763 King George III proclamation setting aside "reserved lands" for Indians.

1764 Plan for Imperial Department of Indian Affairs.1775 Continental Congress named Indian commissioners in north, middle, and southern

departments.1775 First negotiation betcieen Indian commissioners 4rid Indian groups (Six Nations).

1778 First Indian treaty signed (with Delaware, September 17).

1784 Congress assigns War Office to provide militia in assisting Indian commissioners

negotiating Indian treaties.1789 Congress gives Indian authority to War Department; later it passes first

appropriations for Indian affairs and designates territorial governors asex-officio Indian superintendents under War Department.

1794 First Indian treaty providing education for Indians (Oneidas, Tuscaroras andStockbridges).

1796 Establishment by law of Indian trading houses, operated by government.

1803 Louisiana Purchase from France, vast lands inhabited by Indians.

1806 Creation in War Department of an Office of Superintendent of Indian Trade, toadminister Federal Indian trading houses.

1815-25 Post-war treaties with tribes north of Ohio River resolving trading areas andbeginning removal to new western lands.

1817-18 First Seminole War in Florida.

1819 Congress enacts "civilization fund"--first Federal Indian education program.

1819 Final Florida boundaries resolved with Englan0; Indian lands involved.

1822 Act abolishing Indian trading houses and Office of Indian Trade, "lso naming newOffice of Superintendent of Indian Affairs at St. Louis fdi- western lands.

1827 Adoption of Cherokee Constitution; Georgia legislature nullifies it.

1829 Cass-Clark Report in regularizing Federal Indian administration.

1830 Passage by Congress of Indian Removal Ace.

1832-42 Federal Government conducts removal of "Five Civilized Tribes" from southeastStates to new western territories.

1834 Acts creating an Office of Indian Affairs, coordinating Federal Indian adminis-

tration, and modernizing Indian trade administration.

1845 Entry into Union on Republic of Texas.1845-48 Mexican War.1849 Act transferring Bureau of Indian Affairs from War Department to new Department

of the Interior.1853 Gadsden Purchase, acquiring new Indian lands from Mexico.

1867-68 Indian Peace Commission negotiates final treaties with Indians (last of 370,Indian treaties on August 13, 1868 with Nez Perce).

1869 Act creating Board of Indian Commissioners (lasting until 1933).

1870-86 Federal Indian policy, backed by military support,.places final Incqahs on

reservations; practice of giving Indians food and clothing rations started.

1871 Act abolishing all Indian treaty-making.1887 Dawes Severalty Act, establishing official land allotment policy.

1902-10 Start of Federal Indian reclamation, forestry, conservation programs.

1906 Burke Act, amending Dawes Act on allotmgnt, describing Indian "competency."

1924 Act giving Indians citizenship.and right to vote.

1924 Indian Health Division established within Indian Bureau.

59

1928 - Meriam Report published (after 2-year study), emphasizing new Indian reforms.

.1934 New Indian legislation, including Indian Reorganization Act (IRA), ending

allotment policy, providing for tribal self-government, launching indian credit

program; and Johnson-O'Malley Act, spreading out Federal India n admipistration

to many agencies.

1935 Act setting up Indian Arts and Crafts Board (established in 1936).

194H Hoover Commission recommends transfer of Indian Bureau to Federal Security A incy.

1953 House Concurrent Resolution 108 calling for termination of Federal trusteesh p

over the affairs and property of Indian tribes and groups.

1954 First of several acts calling for termination of Federal trust status over Indian

lands (Menominees of Wisconsin).

1954 Act transferring Indian Health Division from Indian Bureau of Public Health

Service (transfer made in 1955).

1961 Interior Secretary Udall names Task Force on Indian Affairs, reporting later in

year with long-range recommendations.

1961 Federal housing assistance programs opened up to Indian reservations.

1962 Interior Secretary Udall names Task Force on Alaskan Indian Affairs, ieporting

later in year.

1964 Economic Opportunity Act programs provide Indians opportunity to participate in

and cOntrol their own 'programs.

1966 Appointment of Robert L. Bennett, an Oneida Indian, as Commissioner of Indian

Affairs.

1968 President Johnson's special message dealing exclusively with Amcrii:ui Indians and

Alaskan Natives, a historic first.

1968 By an Executive Order, National Council on Indian Opportunity, under Chairmanship

of the Vice President, established. Indian involven!ent in decision-making made

an integral part of policy planning.

1969 Appointment of Louis R. Bruce, a Sioux-Mohawk Indian of New York, as commis:iio

of Indian Affairs.

1970 President Nixon's special message dealing exclusively with American Indians and

Alaskan Natives sets forth a legislative program and expresses the idea of self-

determination without the threat' of termination.

1970 Forty-eight thousand acrers of land including Blue Lake returned to the Taos

Pueblo,.the first time a sizeable piece of land has been restored to an Indian

group1972 The Employment Assistance or relocation program redirected to enalfle Indians t()

be trained for work on reservations.

60 60

Federal Indian Policy and

Labor Statisticsa review essay

Commission's report to the Congress objects to the lack ofuniform definitions of Indians and Indian unemployment,and recommends new procedures for the 1980. census

Mary Ellen Ayres

Decause issuesconcerning the AmericanIndian are so old andstill unresolved, andbecause the Indianheritage is wovendeeply into the :abricof American life,social scientists are..likely to be interestedin the final report ofthe American IndianPolicy Review Commis-sion, submitted to theCongress last year.The Commission was thefirst top-levelinvestigative commis-sion in Indian affairssince the Institute forGovernment Research,which produced theMeriam keport in 1928.The Commission wasformed in 1973, follow-ing 3 years of.protestactivity by AmericanIndians. Three demon-strations in particular--the occupation ofAlcatraz Island, theTrail of BrokenTreatit),s protest.Washington, D.C., andthe demonstration atWounded Knee--captvednational and interna-tional headlines.

st,

A joint'congressionalresolution gave theAmerican Indian PolicyReview Commission amandate "to conduct acomprehensive review ofthe historical andlegal relationshipstulderlying the Indians'udique ties with theFederal Government inorder to determine thenature and scope ofnecessary revisions inthe formulation ofpolicies and programsfor the benefit ofIndians." The legisla-tion acknowledges thatFederal Indian policyhas "shifted andchanged" throughout the20th century, "withoutapparent rationaldesign and without aconsistent goal toachieve Indian self-determination."

The Commission wasmade up of five AmericanIndians, representing aspectrum of Indiancommunities and condi-tions, and seven

Senators and Congressmen--the majority repre-senting States withlarge Indianpopulations.52 TheCommission submitted itsreport to the Congresson.May 17, 1977, anddisbanded. Wherelegislation is requiredto bring about therecommendations of theCommission, the matterwill be referred toappropriate committeesof the Congress, wheredefinitive reports arerequired within 2 years.The final report makeg

206 specific recommenda-tions, ranging over anumber of issu. TheCommission mentions.inits report a significantproblem which couldhamper the implementa-tion of itsrecommendations: thelack of comprehensive,accurate statisticaldata on Indians.

When an AmericanIndian tribe was placedon an Indian reservationabout 50 to 100 yearsafter the first

Today, some of theIndiand on tribal rollsno longer live onreservations. SomeIndians solved their

Europeans landed in what problems with theis now the United States, newcomers to thethe name of each,member continent at any earlywas probably put down on date, without beinga roll which very likely placed on reservationsexists to this day--a Their names do notbit yellowed--in theNational Archives andRecords Service. Someof the names on theselists are Indian names:Isminat makpahs, Bahooh key ichis, Ah keychis. Some reflect themergingeven then--ofthe European andaboriginal worlds:Bull Over the Hill,Yellow Coyote, AntelopeTrail. others areindistinguishable fromthose found today in .

the American mainstream:Virginia.Pearson, PaulHill, Effie N. Davis.From-this highlypersonal census, withsocial implications thatcontinue 'to this day,stems one case for aspecial relationshipbetween the U.S.Government and theAmerican Indians.

appear on tribal rolls.This situationcontributes to the gapsand inaccuracies ofstatistical.data onIndians--statisticsthat could be the basisfor charting conditionsplanning programs, andmeasuring progress inIndian affairs. Butthe basic reason forthe questionablestatistics, theCommission argues, isthat no clear cut,generally accepteddefinition of an"Indian" exists.

Data Dficincis

The Federal Government,State governments, andthe Census Bureau allhave different criteriafor identifying a personas an "Indian."Federal criteria areinconsistent from oneagency to another. Forexample, a State thatwishes Federalfinancial help fer theeducation.of Indiansreceives it only forthe people in itsprogram who can proveat least one-gum:terIndian blood. Toreceive preference inhiring as an Indian,enrollment records froma federally recognizedtribe have been required.Under regulations on lawand order, anyone merely"of Indian descent" isconsidered an Indian.State criteria fordeciding who is or isnot an Indian are evenless consistent. Whenseveral SCates withlarge Indian populationwere asked about theirguidelines, two acceptedself-declaration, fourcounted individuals asIndian if they were"recognized in theconiMunity" as such, fiveused residence on anIndian reservation'ascriterion, and onerequired at least one-quarter Indian blood.

62 68

The result of this isdata that lack compara-.bility and cannot becombined.

The difficulty of.Indian data collection-is compounded by the'fragmented jurisdictionover Indians. Health i

services, agriculturaland other developmentalassistance, businessloans, housing aid, landdevelopment, and otherprograms--although alldirected to Indians--are handled by differ-ent government agencies.Thus, statistics thatwould reflect the Indiancondition are scattered.There is, at pregent,no central clearinghousefor the data.Despite the imperfec-.

tions of Indianstatistical informationthe report of theAmerican Indian PolicyReview Commission hascollected a wealth ofdata. The socialstatistics by theCommission and cited inthis article comeprimarily from the 1970census. The concept ofrace used by the Bureauof the Census does notdenote any scientificdefinition of thebiological stock, butrather indicates whatrace a person identifieswith. For persons ofmixed parentage who areunsure of their classi-fication, the race ofthe person's father isused.

Plsidnce Texas receive someFederal assistance. Twoadditional tribes arerecognized in a limitedfashion. There are also24 State Indian reserva-tions, 219 NativeAlaskan villages orreservations, and evensome urban reservationssuch as Aqua Caliente inPalm Springs, Calif.Federal reservation land'is generally held intrust for a particulartribe and there is nogeneral law that will'permit the tribe to sellsuch land. Reservationland is usually freefrom real property taxesand the income from thisland is also generallyexempted from taxation.

However, State andFederal reservationstatistics do not beginto tell the wholeAmerican Indian sto y.'An estimated 32,000Indians exist without

Of all of the States,Vermont has the smallestIndian population (229),although more than 25,percent of all Indians(792,730) live in theNortheast and, contraryto popular belief, morethan half live outsidethe Western States.North Carolina, forexample, has the fifthlargest Indian popula-tion (44,406) in thecountry.Only 28 percent of

all U.S. Indians liveon land reserved to-theIndians--reservations.These reservations rangein size from the 15.4million acre Navajoreservation in theSouthwest withapproximately 125,000tribal members, to theone-quarter acre GoldenHill Reservation inConnecticut with sixcitizens. A total of289 tribes and bendslive on 268 "federallyrecognized" reserva-tions or otherwisedefined "trust areas" in26 States. Nine "State-recognized" reservationsor otherwise defined"trust areas" In 26States. Nine "State-recognized" reservationsin New York and one in

636 9

'either Federal or Staterecognition. Somebelong to tribes thatwere never recognized bythe Federal Government,others to tribes whoseFederal status was"terminated" by legis-lation during the 1950'sand early 1960's. Thesetribes or communitiesare scattered across theUnited States and

without its own reserva-tion or land, or a"terminated" tribe. Thelargest number of urbanIndians (23,908) live inthe Los Angeles-LongBeach area, followed byTulSa, Okla. (15,983),Oklahoma City (12,981)San Francisco-Oakland(12,041), and Phoenix(10,127) . The CensusBureau lists 30 Standard

incluide the Mohegan Metropolitan StatisticalCommunity in Connecticut, Areas with large Indianthe Montauk Community on populetions.Long Island, theNarrangansett Communityin Rhode Island, theHouma Community ofLouisiana, the Yacqui The Commission'sIndians of Arizona, and report states: "Fromothers. the standpoint of

The largest percentage .personal well-being, theof American Indians live Indian of America ranks

Income & Health

neither on reservationsnor in communities, butin cities. More than46 percent of allIndians (335,738) wereurban residents in 1970,double the number in1960, These Indians maybelong to a State orfederally recognizedtribe, a community

at the bottom ofvirtually every socialstatistical indicator.On the average, he hasthe highest infantmortality rate, thelowest longevity ratethe lowest level ofeducational attainment,the lowest per capitaincome, and the .pooresthousing and transporta-tion in the land."

As noted, Indianincomes are lower thanthose of the U.S.population, with 34percent of all Indianshaving an annual incomeof $4,000 or less,compared with 15 percentof the total porulation.Only 22 percent of allIndians earn $10,000 ormore, compared with 47percent of the U.S.population. Statisticson health care, ingeneral, do not la(4 asbadly as those forincome. Since theIndian Health Servicebegan in 1955, mortalityrates have declined andlife expectancy hasincreased. Between 1955and 1971, for example,the Indian infant deathrate decreased by 56percent and the maternaldeath rate by 54 percent.Deaths from tuberculosis,gastritis, and influenzapneumonia declined 86,88, and 57 percent,respectively.

But health ca'reremains a seriousconcern of :Indians.Although life expectancyincreased from 60 year!.in 1950 to 65.1 years in

1970, it remains thelowest of any populationgroup. The Indian deathrate from accidents wasthree times the nationalaverage in 1971, as werethe Indian mortality'rates for cirrhosis ofthe liver, tuberculdsis,and gastritis; Althoughdeath rates havedecreased, the incidenceof certain diseases(such as strep throat,scarlet fever, andinfluenza) hasincreased substantially.The Indian Health

Service serves thoseIndians enrolled in afederally recognizedtribe--the same groupserved by the Bureau ofIndian Affairs.Generally, these Indianslive on or near areservation. Althoughthe Commission's reportdoes not make the, point,presumably these healthand life expectancyfigures apply to thisgroup of AmericanIndians. However, thecensus data (used moregenerally 'throughoutthe report) include bothIndians on the reserva-tion and those in thegeneral population.

Since the health prob-lems of Indians onreservations arebelieved to be greaterthan those of urbanIndians citingreservation figures inthe report withoutexplanation mayillustrate the danger ofgeneralizing from databased on one definitionof an Indian.

Education & Employment

Educational levels ofIndians. compare poorlywith the largerpopulation, and thisweighs against Indianswhen they seek work, theCommission's reportindicates. Of all themen in tlie UnitedStates, 74 percent areemployed, but only 56percent of all Indian

men are working (table1). Although Indianwomen are not as oftenunemployed as Indianmen, they are oftenunderemployed--earning$4,000 a year or less.In addition, they areless likely to earn the$10,000 a year that isat least a beginningtoward a living wage,according to theCommission.

Poverty is more severeamonglIndians who livein rural areas thanamong city dwellers.This includes impover-ishment in terms ofhousing, sanitation,and transportation.Rural Indian women facethe greatest difficul-ties, because they rankbelow all urban womenand rural and urban menin education, income,

Education & Employment of Indians 1970

Characteristic'Indian

menAll

men

Indinwomeii

All

women,

Education:Completed grade school 63.0 73.0

Completed high school 34.0 54.0 3').0 r.)5.:r

Completed college 3.5 I2.6' J..5 7.0

Median number of years 10.5 12.1 10.5 12.1

EmploymentUnemployed 11.6 3.9 10.2

Employed 56.0 74.0 31.0 10.0

Income $4,000 per yearor less 55.0 31.0

Income $10,000 per yearor more 8.5 25.2 1.5 3.2

Median income $3,509 $6,614 , 404

65 71.

and employment. Sixty-eight percent of rural'Indians have incomes of$4,000 a year or lessand only 4.3 percenthave annual incomes of$10,000 or more.

The unemployment ratescited in the table of11.6 percent for Indianmen and 10.2 peneent forIndian women (based uponBureau of the Censusdata) do not saIisfy theCommission, because onlythose persons who haveactively soughtemployment are .included.The Commissimi contendsthat since a reservationgenerally affords fewjobs, many persons donot actively seek whatdoes not exist, andtherefore do not showup in the unemploymentfigures.Because statistics on

American Indians arenot always accurate orup-to-date, the trueextent of Indianunemployment and povertyis not known, accordingto the Commission'sreport. In addition, itis impossible toestablish clearly, atthis time, whetherprograms directed towardimproving the lives ofAmerican Indians arehaving significantsuccess.

Unmployment & Training

The Commissioncontends that the sizeof the Indian labor poolon reservations isunknown. Bureau ofIndian Affairs unemploy-ment statistics, itcharges, are "based on,at best, arbitrarycriteria; at worst,impressionistic judg-ments by local agencypersonnel...The agencydoes not take a house-hold survey to establishthese figures but merelyadjusts the previousyear's figures toreflect any changes itthinks may.haveoccurred." However,despite the problemswith the Indian incomeand unemploymentstatistics from theCensus Bureau and theBureau of IndianAffairs, they are usedby the Department ofLabor to determineIndian fund allocationunder the ComprehensiveEmployment and TrainingAct.

A major difficultywith the available datais that the two agenciesuse different defini-tiphs of unemployment. .

The Census Bureaudefines an unemployedperson as ond who hasbeep seeking work withinthe 4 weeks precedingthe interview, while theBureau of Indian Affairsalso includes personswho are hot seeking workbut are employable. Asa result, the Bureau otIndian Affairs figuresshow a larger laborforce and higher ratesof unemployment. Theyjustify their definitionby the nature of jobsearch on the reserva-tion, where'there isalmost perfect jobinformation.

66

The Commissionsuspects that the censusfigures are under-estimates, the Bureauof Indian Affairsfigures overestimates,and the truth somewherein between. Theysuggest, "possibly forthe 1980 census thequestion should bemodified for theAmerican Indians. Theyshould be asked, "Whenjob opportunities occurdo you seek them?" Thedifferences over unem-ployment figures may beaddressed by the nine-member PationalCommissron on Employmentand UnemploymentStatistics created bythe Congress to studythe Government'ssystem of collectingjob data.American Indian

.reservations are adependency environmenttoday, the Commissioncharges, implying thatthis status contributesto the low income andpoor health of Ind.ians.

As an example ofdependency, the Commis-sion cites a GeneralAccounting Office reportthat ndtes that althoughthe gross reservationproduct of one tribe hadincreased by 89 percentfrom $20.3 million in1968 to $38.5 million in1972, the bulk of theincrease was in Govern-ment expenditures. .

However, the percentageof Federal fundsallocated to welfare andunemployment paymentshad decreased. Says theCommission, "Thesefigures are encouraging.If additional opportu-,nities for training andeducation in theeconomies such asbusiness management andnatural resources(development) wereavailable, Indian tribeswould have an increasedcapacity for developinga self-sufficienteconomy."

Education and trainingshould be intermeshedwith reservationdevelopment, says theCommission. Thisincludes developingskilled workers in manyareas, includiftgtechnical experts,administrators, andmanagers. Counselingthat will support thisgoal is also necessary.A difficulty with the

present trainingprograms is that most ofthem have involvedblue-collar occupations.The inadequacies ofsecondary education onthe reservation haveprobably been a majorforce pushing youngIndians toward tradeschools. The fewprofessional trainingprograms have focused onteaching, the sOcialsciences, and, to aleSser extent, law andhealth; the hardsciences, such asenginering, business, .

and administration, havebeen neglected.

However, the Commis-sion's report points outthat the greatestbarrier to increasedemployment on reserva-tions is simply lackof jobs, "...it is ,

unfair to criticizethese (training) .

programs if IndiancommunitieS do nothave an iAventory ofwhat skills are mostneeded. In addition,it is futile to trainworkers when there is nopossibility of obtaining -

employment."

The Commissionrecommends that,theBureau of LaborStatistics collectaccurate, unifo,rm, andconsistent statisticseach year on-the Indian.labor force on everyFedeTil and Stateresel'iation, as wellas data on what jobs areavailable on eachreservation by type ofeconomic activity, andwhich jobs'are held byIndians. The Bureau ofIndian Affairs and the.Department of Labor arecurrently required tokeep accurate anddetailed statistics onevery participant infederally fundedemployment and trainingprograms. The Commis-sion suggests that theparticipants' subsequentjob status be monitdredfor at least 5 years.The Commission furthersuggests that theseprograms be coordinatedwith the tribal develop-ment programs and theEconomic DevelopmentAdministration, whichwill specify the laborrequirements for theirprojects. The Bureauof Indian Affairs andthe DepartMent of Laborshould institute thenecessary training forthe projects v.ell in

advance.

The final reportinstructs the Office ofManagement and Budget toinsure that.'(1) anapproach is-developed tocoordinate Federalefforts at the reserva-tion level, (2) contin-uous evaluations aremade of the effect thatFederal programs have onthe standard of livingon reservations andinformation systems aredeveloped to supportsuch evaluations, and(3) annual reports aresubmitted to theCongress on progressmade in improving thestandard of living'ofreservation Indians andon any legislativechanges necessary toimprove the effective-ness of Federal programs

Th 1980 Cnsus

One of the task forcereports (number 10)contains specific recom-mendations concerningthe Bureau of the Censuscount of American

and Complete enumerationof American .Indiansduring the 1980 census,Congres4 should directall Federal departmentsand agencies to utilize.this definition:"American Indian orIndian" means anyindividual who is amember, or a descendantof a member, of a NorthAmerican tribe, band, orotherwise organizedgroup of Native peoplewho are indigenous tothe continental UnitedStates or who otherwisehave a special relation-ship with the UnitedStates or a State,through treaty, agree-ment, executive order,or statute.

According to the. report, the term "race"should be replaced with."ethnic group" and theuse of the term "mixedIndian" in censusquestionnaires,tabulations, and reports,should be abandoned.

The Bureau of theCensus should maketabulations--both

Indians. The Census routine and special--ofcount is of far-reaching "American Indianimportance to statisti- communities" as definedcians and to social by the population-scientists. For example,statistics on laborforce, employment, andunemployment are derivedfrom census data. Thetask force reportindicates that, for thepurposes of a successful

68

clustering of AmericanIndians within geo-graphic boundaries ofFederal and Statereservations, federallyresricted or triballyowned lands, and withinurban and rural areas.

Suggestions to theCensus Bureau forplanning and executingthe 1980 census includeusing local Indianpeople, wheneverpossible, for advancepublic relations andrelated information anddata collection,cooperating with localcommunity governmentsand organizations,revising classificationsfor tribes and otherIndian groups, and,whenever possible, using100 percent enumerationof selected Indiancommunities. Therecommendation thatIndians make the countof other Indians mightbe.brought about throughexisting job placementprogram*, which couldpinpoint prospectiveIndian census takers andeven train them.

The task force alsorecommends that theCensus Bureau consider aspecial 1935 census ofthe American Indianpopulation involvingselective tabulationsand limited-purposepopulation surveys, tobe conducted in coopera-tion with the variousIndian communities.These efforts should becoordinat'ed between theIndian communities andwith such Federalagencies as the Bureauof Indian Affairs, theDepartment of Labor, theDepartment of Health,Education, and Welfare,and the Department ofHousing and UrbanDevelopment. A specialcensus would correctany.significantdeficiency found in the1980 census, or anyprior censuses, whichhampered the successfuladministration offederally funded pro-grams by Indiancommunity governments ororganizations. It wouldalso provide full andadequate information tothe Indian communitygovgrnments or organiza-tions and the Federalagencies.

Although the methodsto be used in making the1980 census are as yetunknown, special surveywork for any populationis expensive and timeconsuming. Not all thestatistical work demand-ed by legislation is .

presently being done byreporting agencies

.because of lack of time,money, and staff. Tohring about any survey,report, or statisticalwork i?eyond that alreadybeing undertaken, itseems that the.Congresswould have to establishthe Indian data as highpriority and appropriateconsiderable money toaccomplish the resultsit agrees are necessary.

69

EvaluatingtheRepod However, solutions to is no standard defini-current problems will tion of an "Indian;"

Planners who deal with continue to begin at the the statistics in the

American Indians .

local level because the

. frequently contend that history of American

each Indian tribe is so Indian tribes and their

unique that taking an experiences with non-

overview or establishing Indians vary, and

9verall guidelines in because States, local

Indian affairs is almost governments, and the

impossible. The report courts are oftenof the American Indian involved. Every issuePolicy Review Commission that has arisen or mayand the task force arise is not addressedreports refute such an by the Commission.argument and outline the Statistical researchattitudes and hopes of people may feel some

_ the Indian community as frustration with whata whole. The contribut- they view as-imprecisioning Indian authors in statistical presenta-include leaders from . tiong of the finalacross.the Nation who report. Although the

cannot be discounted as g eneral statement is

representatives of small made that most of the

factions. The report is Indian employment andunerriployment data citedare from the 1970 census,some data in the censusare for Indians age 14and 15 years, some for16 years'and over, somefor all ages, and so on.The Commission's reportdoes not make clearwhich figures are used.It also does not pin-point the time periodto which the materialapplies.

Although the point ismade that statistics onAmerican Indians can bemisleading because there

a research tool ofimmeasurable valueduring the presentperiod of misunderstand-ing between Indians andnon-Indians on variousissues in a variety ofgeographic locations.Overall policy towardthe American Indians.will continue to bedeveloped at the Federallevel, and legislatorswho are concerned withthis as well as bureau-crats who seeanthropoldgy texts asscant help in relatingto modern-day Indianswill find the reportsinvaluable.

report are cited in someinstances withoutindicating what group ofIndians are representedby them. Therefore, touse the data in thereport, it may benecessary to do consid-erable research toisolate appropriatefigures and insure thatthey are consistent.

70

SignificantRacommondations

A dozen of the 206recommendations in thefinal report indicatesome of the major pointsand capture the basicintent of the Commissionmembers:

1. That the Congressrequire the AssistantSecretary of IndianAffairs to provide a '

comprehensive annualreport on Indianmatters, containingcurrent and accuratedata.2. That the Congressdirect all executiveagencies to act inaccordance with theprinciple: the trustresponsibility toAmerican Indians is anestablished legalobligation thatrequires the UnitedStates to protect andenhance Indian trustresources and tribalself-government and toprovide economic andsocial programs toraise-the Indians'standard of living andsocial well-being tothe level of the restof the American people

T. That the long-termobjective of FederalIndian policy todevelop tribal govt:rn-ments into fullyoperational govern-ments with the samepowers and respon5i-bilities as otherlocal governments.4. That a Departmentof Indian Affairs oran independent atjencybe created toadminister all Indianmatters now taken careof by other agencies.5. That the Congressprovide funds andtechnical assistance'for the preservation,consolidation, andacquisition of Indianlands upon which tobuild tribal futures.6. That the Bureau ofIndian Affairs and theDepartment of Labor berequired to coordinatetheir employment andtraining programs withtribal developmentprograms and theEconomic DevelopmentAdministration, andthat education bereleciant to needs.

Pi+

7. That the (_!ongre:;%enact Ir.gi!Aation toaid tribal governmentin ar-;:;umirl,; tA,r;

responsibility foreducation.

That appropriateservices be providedfor off-reservationIndians, when feasible,through urban Indiancenters.9. That a process beset up by which ter-minated Indian tribesmay be restored to thestatus of federallyrecognized Indiantribes.10. That the Congressaffirm its intentionto recognizeIndian tribes aseligible for the.benefits and protec-tions of generalIndian lei.slationand polic7.

71

11. That the Congressrequire mandatorytraining in Indianhistory, legal status,and cultures of allgovernment employeesadministering anyIndian program fundedin whole or in part byFederal funds. .

12. That the Congressappropriate funds toassist school systemsin developingeducation.al programsin Indian affairs.

American Indians:problems & policy

7,2

Volume 1, 1977,624 pp., $ki.

Eleven task forces,composed almost entirely ofIndians, contributedresearch to the finalreport and published theirown reports, as follows:

No. 1. 7,

"

No. 2.

No. 3. . i,/'

;

No. 4. Federal, State andTribal Jurisdiction

No. 5. Yelort on IndianEducation

No. 6. Indian HealthReport

No. 7. Reservation andResource Dev,lopmentProtection

No. 8. Rviort on Urbanand Rural Non-heservdtionLndians

No. 9. Vol. 1 Law:ft-vision ,20J ,:odification

No. 9. Vol. 2 Affendf!ceo thE, Ffna! !le; ort

No. 10. ler,inated and*;cn-Fcdepal:j 2coojn!;:ed

:na7.zno

No. 11. 1: zn

Two special reports pub-lished by the Commission are

2a0k Fon!&',

JPt ON A:askan Natfoc:ssues, and S:e.:!:aZ

1-UPC.114 (,)f :ndlan

Nznajement. L7tudiy.

All of the above publica-tions are available from theSuperintendent of Documents.

7 2

0

Employment

Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report

Labor Force Participatio'n and Unemploymnt 53

BREAKDOWN - MEN

ilY;,1%; ,"11

"Mcile Indians riLiod 10 dnd over also have anunemploymort rdtc (11.()) three times higher thanthe U. tot,r1 tritc."

"The unomrloyment !ate for urban males ((3 .4-) is

more than twice the n.tional average."

"Unemployment tor uroan Indian mon varies from 7.1in urban k!klahcmr t a high of 22.5 in ut ban

Washinqt."

"Indidn have the lowest rat0 of malt labor forcepart i ij at i ii in t , (2nly ,of

men 1* Vtar. t doe dnd c,v(2r art in the labor force,14 1)clow total avcraue."

" ( I&n&I '! .11 t 1," 11+,4'1. ()It) rate for urbanIndians ha:; hy tlio !AS t deCadewh t ik t i ii al I ntli an men has increased

hy c n 1,.'

" t 1 1 ik,, 1 y t itt 111:-; 1 a, .1.: of job %)}14.+1 tuni t y

)mi r t t :

addsi,lalat ion shift from iural to urban

dtt.a:,"

"The I't ,1! ar t i rat i ul init0 , urban1.... al ....I.:11111a t ht !hit 1 uTi,i 1 1 eve I for

all men '7

BREAKDOWN.- WOMEN

-"At Io.:

twicethe unems 1(i men t tate tor Ind ian wOmen is

!)1 .111 wk)m(!r;."

"Th(. linemflont !AteK !ft!' Indiar; WoMe!r1 jo not differsh,11.1 ani ruial altnough theiat(' ;Y I 114 Ilrbal, dleas."

"The temale torce ;.al'tiil .ation rate

is 1,)wcr t11,111 tho nutilJtid] average for all women."

'''1'1 iihin. fOTT11#' lahci t-cu-ce, participatl:m rate is

424 1' ar.,,,v tht, Natiunal average for. women."

73

The figures given onthe preceding page,reveal that althoughurban Indianunemployment rates fallsignificantly belowthose of rural Indians,unemployment rates forboth far exceednational rates.Without a doubt,

concerns about Indianemployment reflectingthese statistics,pervade urban Indianlife.A response to a

survey conducted bythis task force, aswell as numerous state-

_ 'ments made by Indianpersons across thecountry during thecourse of hearings

. placed the need forincreased or improvedemploymerq above other

D4concerns.Increased employment

opportunity for Indiansliving in urban areas,as reflected by greaterrates of labor forceparticipation, has notourtailed highunemployment amongurban Indians. Wherejobs exist, Indiansenter the labor forcebut continue to havedifriculty in securingemployment.

Although low levelsOf education are oftencited among reasons forthis high unemployment,a 1974 H.E.W. study

. states, "Despite thecomparability in levelsof education completed,Indians have far more'unemployment comparedto the totalpopulation."

The report suggeststHat low employment maybe due more toinadequate vocationaltraining, a result of.a limited facilitiesin rural reservationareas where themajority of urbanIndians reccive theireducation.'

Rates Of Unemployment 56

Male

Female

SuralIndiaN

14.0%

10.6%

VrbanIndiar

9.4%

9.9%

.0m0.010010a

5.1%,

NOTE: Unemployment rates among urban Inotian males are 2.4times greater than rates for the national male

population.

The rate of unemployment among urban Indian femalesis 4.8% greater than the rate for the nationalfemale population (5.1%).

74 80

As Task Force # 8'shistorical review ofthe Bureau of IndianAffairs, (BIA)Employment AssistanceProgram indicates,there have been highlycontroversial questionsraised regarding thedevelopment of policieswhich have resulted inthe implementation ofthis program.Testimony andrecommendations made byIndian personnelinvolved withemployment programsoutside the Bureau ofIndian Affairs, specifyadditional problems;

1. Employmentassistance skills areoften not saleable.

2. Employmentassistance skills arenot in demand.

3. Employmentassistance programshave not encouragedintensive follow-up andcareer development.

These problems andadditiohal concernswhich question existingBIA Employment Assist-ance policies that viewclients in terms ofoutviacementstatistics, begin toreveal need fordifferent and perhapsmore comprehensiveemployment assistance..

Upon arrival in urbancommunitites, Indianpersons are faced withinnumerable probleMs ofadjustment. As withmost individuals whomove from ruralcommunities to urbanareas, problems inlocating housing,meeting new friends andadjusting to the urbanenvironment areplentiful. Unlike mostindividuals, however,American Indianadjustments mustinclude increasedstress on languageusage (often a changefrom native speaking orbilingual communities);changes in culturalvalues, and perhapsmore visibly, changesfrom an economicallylower standard ofliving. That Indiansmove to citiesprimarily to seekemployment, placesadditional inpetus onthese adjustments.Unfamiliarity withemployment sPekim,avenues and processasbegin a succession ofobstacles. Existingemployment agencieshave few counselorsfamiliar with Indianproblems. Affirmativeaction hiring of Indianpersonnel within theseagencies is oftenminimal.

Indian persons mayhave difficultycompleting applicationforms,57 handlingpersonal interviews andthey may not be awareof their employmentrights.As noted previously,

Indians lack adequateskills. With greaterproportions of Indiansarriving in urban areasfrom rural reservationcommunities, Indiansoften lack skills whichlimited,and low levelreservation employmentopportunities cannotprovide. Althoughrecent tribal andfederal programs havebegun to institutereservation economicdevelopment and Indianpreference hiringpolicies, rates ofunemployment onreservations are still,staggering.More often than not,,

the rural Indianarrives upon an urbanIndian scene withseverely limitedeconomic resources.His success in vyingfor unskilled positionsin competitive labormarkets is oftendependent upon his workattitudes, and personalappearance.

Cultural attitudesabout competition, timeand ideal workingrelations are left toplay significantroles--often to thedetriment of theprospective Indianemployee. (See sectionon non-Indian communityattitudes.)

Initial lack of fundshinders the purchase of,clothing appropriatefor types of work(clerical, managerial,etc.) Lack of funds,furthermore, inhibitspossession of adequateand reliable means oftransportation; areliable car to get toand from work, busfares, etc. Addition-ally, Indians seekingemployment may not havepermanent addresses or.telephone numbers wherethey may be notifiedabout pendingemployment. (Seesection on housing.)Many of these

Troblems, even ifovercome, result inemployment atparticularly low levelsof employment,characterized by lowpay, seasonal orunskilled labor. Thesefactors may contributeto Indian employmentstereotypes:instability,unreliability, poorattitudes, poorattendence, etc.

When such attitudesexist, non-Indianemployers, particularlyin the private sector,see no imperative tohiring of Indianpersons.

As testimonyindicates, low paying,monotonous andunskilled jobs mayencourage feelings ofbeing trapped,.discouragement andgenerally, feelingsthat one had beenplaced in lowereconomic and spcialstatus by employers crsociety in general.Certainly, theseproblems can occurwhere Indians facediscriminatoryattitudes as well.

Other testimonystates that suchfeelings may contributeto a tendency of manyIndians to leave work,often without notice, toreturn home to attendtraditional ceremonies

on reservations and inIndian communities.Certainly, feelings ofalienation can increasethe need forsocialization,particUlarly amongother persons familiarwith such problems.(See section onproblems ofalcoholism.)

Employment patternsof urban Indiansparticularly'those ofshort-term, low payingnature, increase theneed to have both adultmembers of familiesemployed. This isaccomplished atadditional cost (forday care, transporta-tion) and marginalbenefit. In terms offamily disintegrationand frustration thecosts may beimmeasurable.

Findings

A primary reasonIndians leave,rural andreservation communitiesfor urban areas, inaddition to federalpolicies encouragingthem to do so (seehistorical summary) , isthat they wish bettereconomic opportunities,they leave primarily toseek employment.

76 82

National statisticaldata reveals that allIndians suffer highrates of unemployment.Testimony reveals

that urban Indians havedifficulties obtainingemployment because:

1. They lack skillsthat reservation ruralIndian communityempl.oyment can rarelyprovide.

2. Vocationaleducational opportuni-ties are limited,existing opportunities,BIA employmentassistance trainingprograms are notsaleable.

3. They lackinformation on how tofind jobs, where tolook, what employersexpect, how to benterviewed, etc.

4. They.lack ifiitialHI:ids for the purchaseof uniforms, equipment,and reliable means oftransportation to andfrom work.

. They are victimsof discriminatorypractices where overtdiscrimination does notexist, employers of theprivate sector see noimperative toward thehiring of Indianpersonnel.

77 a

Education

Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report .

Conflicts betweenIndian people and whitesociety regarding theeducation of Indianchildren have beenhistorically consistent.Initial attempts toeducate, or "civilize"the Indian child placedextreme hardship on hisparents, the communityhe lived in and most ofall--the child. (Seehistorical review.)

During early periodsof Indian-white contact,Indian children wereoften forcefully takenfrom their families anddelivered to off-reser-vation schools far fromtheir homelands. Therethe rndian child faceda series of demoralizingexperiences, his hairwas cut, his traditionaldress taken away, andunder fear of punish-ment--he was prohibitedfrom speaking hisnative language andpracticing nativereligion. Among themost serious of these'lardships, however, wasthe fact that theseevents occurred outsidethe control of theIndian parent and whenthe Indian childreturned, he and hisparent were all toooften culturalstrangers.

Testimony aftertestimony reveals that

by far, the desire tohave greater controlover the education ofhis child heads the listof urban Indianeducational needs.

Current statisticsindicate that Indianeducational achievementlevels are rapidlycatching up with U.S.

education levels, 58 butas much of the testimonystresses this is only apart--be it a signifi-cant part of manyeducational objectivesthat must be served.The following are basicneeds identified inareas of education:

Schooling completed, by Age & Sex, for59U.S. Total and Urban & Rural Indiana

/1141.Z7

7

7)!ift..0.:(1!-,14m1,1

16-24 11, 12'r, 23'., 89. 11% 19%8 Years of 25-34 11 17 35 10 17 34

35-44 19 29 52 15 26 4845-64 33 40 63 30 36 6065 + 61 69 84 55 61 81

School orLess

High SchoolGraduates

4 or MoreYears ofCollege

16-24 66 48 26 71 48 30

25-34 72 58 39 71 53 36

35-44 61 45 25 61 46 24

45-64 46 37 19 49 38 19

65 + 24 18 7 29 22 8

16-24 6.5 1.9 O.? 6.1 1.4 9.425-34 19.0 8.9 .0 1?.1 5.8 1.935-44 17.5 7.8 2.4 8.9 5.0 1.245-64 10.8 5.6 2.0 7.1 4.1 1.765 + 6.3 4.1 0.6 4.9 3.7 1.1

NoTE: This table reveals that although the percentage ofeducational attainment levels of urban Indians arebetter than those of rural Indians, and that inlower levels of education they are catching up withaverage attainment levels of the U.S. population,the percentages of Irban Indian attainnr. levelsfall significantly behind at the high school andcollege level.

78 8AIM

. Need for More Parental Involvement Opportunities in Existing Educational Systems

As noted earlier,there have beenhistorical inhibitionson Indian parentinvolvement in theeducation of theirchildren. Testimonyindicates however, thatthese opportunitiesstill form a significantproblem.

In urban areas,indian people seldom.find themselves inpositions to favorablyinfluence the educa-tional policies andpriorities of city-wideschool boards, districtschool boards or stateboards 4 education.Indiahs in the urbansetting are a minorityof minorities and haveachieved little successin making their needsknown.Special programs

targeted for Indianchildren, Johnson-O'Malley and Title IVof the SecondaryEducation Act of 1972,have begun to provide awedge in allowingparentad involvement,but even these fallshort. Among the mostcommon complaints are:

1. Target programs. for Indian educationalneeds have often beenmisManaged or misused.

2. Target programs,inadvertently, arebeset with compllcatedpolicy and r-.gulation.

3. Tacget programfunding is unstable.

4. 'Target programgoals and objectivesare pre-determined bypersons or groups farremoved from the Indiancommunity.

5. Target programfunding is limited.

Indian'parents andcommunity leaders inurban areas haveconsistently urged thatIndian parentcommittees andadministrators of suchtarget programs begiven:

1. Technical assist-ance in understandingcomplicated regulationsand funding processes.

2. Stable fundingbases upon which theycan be assured ofeducational continuityfor the Indian childrenparticipating in theprograms, and uponwhich coordinationamong other Indiangroups can exist with-out fear of inter-groupcompetition for limitedfunds.

3. More viable roin target programpoliey tormation.

Testimonies indicatethat obtaining initialfunding for targetprograms can beespecially difficulttor urban groups. Theyare often forced intocompetition withreservation groups, ormust seek endorsementfrom unresponsiveeducational systems for,program implementation.Application for fundin'f:has been noted to be ofparticular difficulty,high levels ofexpertise and tremen-dous amounts of energymust be directed towardthe applicationprocess. As aconsequence, fund-seeking in and ofitself, becomes apriority all too oftenat the expense of othe-educational goals.

79Nrommintworwr ANIII101110

Ned for morChild Care Centers

With greaterproportions of Indiansfalling in low incomecategories, andiflereasing proportionsof female heAds ofhouseholds," it is nosurprise that qualitychild care centers wasa commonly expressedneed among urban Indiancommunities.

Educational statis-tical reports indicate.that although federaland local pre-schoolprograms (Headstart andothers) have involvedsignificant numbers ofrural Indian communitystudents, such programssuffer little use byIndians in urbancommunities. Thisdeficiency furtherdefines the need forincreased opportunityin this area. Pre-schools and Headstartprograms when properlyinstrumented haveprovided a means toalleviate problems oflanguage and pooreducational adjustmentof the minority andindigent child.

Program eligibility forsuch programs includechildren of the urbanIndian poor, but urbanIndians do notparticipate to thefullest extent. Thismay be a result ofcostly regulation, assome testimonyindicates or a resultof a desire forspecifically Indian-oriented programs.

Nonetheless, as anH.E.W. report states,"On the basis of theirhigh incidence ofpoverty and languagedisability the 3-4 yearold urban Indiansqualify for programssuch as Headstart, yetonly 11% are enrolledin any.program."61Administrators of

existing child careprograms urged that inaddition to the needfor more adpquatefunding support, day

care centers might wellbe able to meet currentneeds were it possiblefor them to sharefacilities withexisting Bureau ofIndian Affairs programs.Particulae fadilityneeds include: trans-portation vehicles andspace.

Furthermore, childcare programadministrators urgedthat Indian children begiven access to IndianHealth Servicefacilities and servicesfor regular dentalchecks, and physicalexaminations. Theinitiation of such goodhealth measures, theystated, would no doubtassure the developmentof good healthmaintenance for thechild's family as well.

Enrollment in School for Pre-School A ed Indiens62

' 1,

U.S. Total .

Indian Total

Urban Total

Rural Total

NOTE: This table reveals that attend nce ih pre-,-;chooIaye level educational programs fallu be1ow that ofU.S. average and notably below rural Ilianaveraye.

80

Among special daycare needs for Indianchildren reported were:

a. Additional audio-visual equipment

b. speech therapy,and special educationprograms,

c. psychologicalservices,

Among special daycare program needsreports were:

a. Increased parentalinvolvement

b. employment ofIndian staff, and theirsubsequent upgradingvia formal/informleducation programs in,child development,family living, day careadministration, childhealth, etc.

It is important tonote that the extent ofparental involvement inday care programs inactive communities havebeen two-fold:

1. Child service.Involves extensivecommunication betweenthe child's parents,his instructors, andadministrative personnelof the center regardingthe need of theindividual child--hiseducational, healthfuland eMotional growth.

2. Day Care Adminis-tration and PolicyFormation. Includesparental involvement insome of the day-to-dayadministrative concernsIncludes communityeducation activities toinvolve the Indianparent in a unifiedcommunity advocacy forthe child care ceater,as well as for relatededucational needs forhis child.

Ned for Indian CulturAwareness in Existing

Education Systms

Indian parents notewith much anguish, thatin addition to thei-acial based harassmentmany of .their childrenreceive from otherstudents in urbanpublic schools, thechildren are oftentaught by instructorsthat are insensitive,poorly informed aboutIndian heritage andculture, and arebasically incompetentto provide suchservices.But instructors and

fellow-student short-comings are only a partof the problems Indianstudents face--as onespokesman states:

"The books within theeducation system stillstereotype us, mock us

and tell inaccutatestories of the AmericanIndians."63Parents indicated a

desire for cultureawareness programs forthe non-Indian, as wellas for their ownchildren. Severalparents noted that werethere sufficientemployment opportunitiesavailable on reserva-tions, and were itpossible for theirfamilies to haveremained in moretraditional Indiancommunities, theeducation of theirchildren would haveincluded traditionalIndian types ofeducation. Theseparents, therefore,felt that courses aboutIndian heritage andculture, at a minimum,should be incorporatedinto existing educa-tLonal programming andrequirements in publicschools attended byIndian children.

Indian- parents andadministrators urgedprompt affirmativeaction in hiring ofteachers, counselorsand administrativepersonnel. Theyfurther urged thatschools assume moreviable roles in seeking

special Indian educa-tion programs (Johnson-O'Malley; Title IV),and in assuring thatfair and unbiasedtextbooks be utilizedin the education oftheir children.Among course

requirements, otherthan cultural heritagecourseS, Indian parentsurged that supplementalcourses in Indianaffairs, and reserva-tion policy-making hemade available.

Particular counselingneeds include: collegepreparation, financialaide processes ;iliatribal educationalgrant processes forhigh school,agedstudents, as well -assensitive personneland academic counseling.

Adult Education Moods

Although many Indiansmigrating to urbanareas from rural Indiancommunities are recenthigh school graduates,there are stillnumerous adults inurban communities thatneed and desire basicadult education.

Presently, the Bureauof Indian Affairsoffers programs inAdult Basic Educationon reservations, buteducators in urbanInaian communities

point out that on-reservation program.lack many basic Suppnrtfunctions (adequatetransportation to andfrom classes, childcare, etc.) and hay('relatively high kr--pupil costs thatinhibit the fullutilization anddevelopment of theeprograms.

Urban Indian adulteducation program,conversely, thougha better position tooffer more compreht,T!supportive service(child-care, tr,inH:,tation,to facilities,instructors, etc.)often find therlisl-ineligible for P.I.H1-needed BIA fundit';.:textbooks, teach(,texpenditures, etc.

01611.0.1".=1010

I'

I

Existing urban Indianeducation classes

overcro.,:dod, andirc (!uicklyindiNfiduals, oftenrec(.nt arrivals fromreseivatiun communities,who dusire to improveba:tin in English.AI; man': c)t, tho:,;t:

!; I At. er return

to rc,:x'rv:ition!-; nd11 return hac:k to

,iftcr1(1:1 : i'f

'!IL 'HI . 9 11 rht:11

1,1!,10r-rn,:r.11,y; i t_11 need

c(A)rinati(in With

adult t,dneatiionPut duc

01,.r:A-et,l-

tio: of c.,n-rf-;orvation!/(:1-.1 Hilf-it. this

Enrollment in Saool for Indians by Age 65

PopOationGroup

Tot-i

Indian Total

Urban Total

kural Total

111.1.1.41

Age 45-4

:4,yrE : Th is t il I ,.,

propw t

positive I-the colle,.;e

however, ,,,.L;

is an rxc,A11-,

have ccmv1c,trI

Age 14-17Mule fcAale

82 88

IP-24

FentiZc

The rate ofenrollment by Indianyouth 14-17 years oldis virtually the samein both urban and ruralareas indicating thatin both these areasyoung persons areremaining in school atthe saTe rate. Yet acomparison of the yearsof schooling completedby young Indians livingin urban and ruralareas shows greatdisparity. If thedisparity is not due toa greater dropout rateamong rural Indians--'and current enrollmentfigures suggest thatthey are not droppingout at a greater ratecompared to urbanIndians--the imbalancecould be explained by

the fact that thoseIndians living inrural areas who havecompleted school haveleft rural areas forurban locations. Bydoing so, the overallpercentage of highschool graduates amongrural Indians decreasesand the percentage amongurban Indiansincreases."66

Consumr Education

information aboutgeneral day-to-day urbanliving and thislimitation contributessignificantly tofeelings of powerless-ness, etc. To someextent the need forconsumer educationpervades every area ofconcern underexamination by thistask force. Particularsections on Housing,Legal Aid, Employment,etc. will attempt todeal with these

Without a doubt, urban independently--but suchIndians, particularly treatment .cannot bethose migrating from ' understated in thisrural Indian communities, general area of concern.possess limited

83

Findinos

There is an historicallack of Indian parentparticipation in theeducational processesof Indian children.

In urban areas Indianpeople are seldom in aposition to meaningfullyinfluence theeducational policies ofexistinp schoolsystems, as Indianparents form a smallproportion of the urbanpopulation.

A. Parents, inaddition, have urged:

1. That they bebe given technicalassistance to enablethe development ofIndian educationaltarget programs (JOM,Title IV) , andfacilitate pareptparticipation inpolicy formation andgrant processes.

2. That additionalfacilities for childcare be developed andthat child healthmaintenance pr6gramsbe an integral partof child careprograms.

3. That culturalsensitivity andcourse relevancy be

encouraged inexisting educational.systems.

B. EducationalAdministrators haveurged:

1. That Indianadult educationprograms in urban andrural areasparticularly thoseservicing bilingualpersons, coordinateprograms wherefeasible and initiatea sharing ofresources.

2. That thedevelopment ofpolicies encouragingcoordinative, ratherthan competitiveefforts between localIndian educationtarget programs beinstituted.

C. A variety offindings, as noted inthis section (Education);Ind others, health,'lousing, employment,etc., indicate thatthere is need'amongurban Indians forsensitive availabilityof consumer educationcovering all aspects ofurban living.

84

Who Are TheAmerican Indians?

An American Indian is. anyone who declareshimself an Indian andis accepted as such byhis peers. Throughoutthis paper, the term"American Indian" willbe used to includeAmerican Indians,Alaska Natives,Eskithos, and Aleuts.The 1970 U.S. Censusreports that there are827,000 AmericanIndians in the country."(NOTE: The U.S. Censusfor 1970 underreportedthe, number of Indians inthe United States.)However, the term"American Indian"-doesnot refer to asgeneti-cally homogeneous groupof people. Thesepeople are diversegenetically and havewidely differentcultures andexperiences. Inaddition, personsrecognized as Indiansmay have non-IndiananceStry. In 1968,one-third of all birthsclassified as Indianhad one Indian parent.67Approximately one-

half of AmericanIndians are living offreservations.

Health of The American Indian

Region VIII Task Force Report

Information about themis sparse but theirhealth needs must beconsidered if anyimpact is to be madeupon the health ofAmerican Indians as atotal group.The other half of the

Indian population,living on reservations,has maintained much ofits traditionalreligion, socialor9anization, languageand values, and isgenerally described aspoverty-stricken.Howeveri it isimpossible to Makevalid generalizationsthat will apply to' allreservation Indiansbecause there arewell-to-do and poor,urban and ruraldwellers within asingle reservation.Between reservationsthere are differencesin climate, generalincome, naturalresources and culture.

In Region VIII, whichconsists of Colorado,Montana, North Dakota,South Dakota, Utah, andWyoming, there are anestimated 98,000Indians. They live on23 reservations thatare fully or partlylocated in the region,as well as in towfts andcities throughout the ,

region. In the Denvermetropolitan area thereare an estimated 8,000to 10,000 Indians, apopulation roughlydouble the official1970 Census figure of4,348 Indians residingin the Denver StandardMetropolitan StatisticalArea. (See NOTE above.)

Levels of ProblemsRelating to.Health

Good health resultsfrom a variety offactors such assanitation (safe, waterand air and adequatewaste disposal) ,adequate protectionfrom the elements(housing and clothing),nutritionally adequatefood, and an availablehealth delivery systemthat protects against

85

contagious diseases byimmunization, providesfor early detection andtreatment of disease,provides healtheducation to promotepractices that willprevent diseases, andgives services in aculturally acceptableway.

Some American Indianshave problems in .

securing any of theabove conditions. Adiscussion of Indianhealth problems mustthen discuss and makerecommendations aboutlevels of problems.For example, much ofthe morbidity is due topoor housing andsanitation, which isdue to poverty, whichis due to lack of jobswhich is due to theeducational system andthe clash of Indian andnon-Indian culturalvalues.

There are widedifferences in the keyhealth indices between_Indians and non-Indiansand unique healthproblems that'seem toaffect Indians muchmore often or severelythan other populations.This constitutes thefirst level of problemsand the health deliverysystem must attempt toaddress thesedeficiencies.

The second leveldeals with somespecific health needssuch as dental care,family planning and anadequate diet. Thethird level ofconsideration has to dowith making theservices accessible andacceptable by removingbarriers Of distance,culture and poverty.Finally there is theleciel of very-basicproblems of sanitationand housing.The extensive

interaction of thevarious factors in thevarious levels mustalso be appreciated.For instance, poorsanitation andcrowding combine withpoor nutrition to causea high rate ofinfectious disease.Distances to servicesand the strangeness oftheir settings andmethods mitigateagainst early care.Late carc increases the

, likelihood of death orpermanent disability,reduces the chances ofquality survival andtends to assure therepetition of the cycleof poverty.

Each of these layerswill be discussed inmore detail later inthe report.

Health ServicesFor Indians

4There are two main

systems for health caredelivery to Indians.The most organized andprominent of these isthe Indian HealthService.

Indian Health Service

The Snyder Act,passed in 1921,provided for healthservices for allIndians. However,since sufficient moneywas never appropriatedfor service to allIndians, anradministrative decisionwas made that serviceswould be providedmainly for Indiansliving on or near areservation. Thelegality of thisdecision has beenquestioned.

qr 86

The Indian HealthService (IHS) acquiredthe responsibility forIndian Health from theBureau of IndianAffairs (BIA),Department of theInterior, in 1955. IHShas a broad range ofhealth programs andoperates hospitals,health centers,itinerant clinics and,in addition, contractswith State andcommunity hospitals,public health depart-ments, and privatephysicians and deutistsfor care." Nearly500,000 Indians receivecare from IHS.

The, charge to IHS isto plan and implement atotal health program.In addition toenvironmental healthservices, acute andchronic diagnostic andtreatment services andhealth,educationactivities, there are arange of other specifichealth programsincluding the following:The maternal and

child health programincludes paternity careand family planning,with the recentaddition of nurse-midwives in somelocations to extend andaugment these services.'Well-child clinics.provide preventive carefor infant andpreschool children

while the school-agechild is served by theschool health program.The dental programstarted about 12 yearsago.on an incrementalplan and is making useof dental assistantswith extendedresponsibilities.

Since otitis mediawas the.leadingreportable diseaseamong Indians in 1970,there were specialmonies-allocated for aconcentrated attack onthis problem, and eacharea office has aspecial otitis mediaprogram."

IHS, in cooperationwith Federal agenciessuch as the Bureau ofHealth ManpowerEducation, NationalInstitutes of Health,and the Office ofEconomic Opportunity(0E0), has beeninvolved in trainingIndians for professionand for a variety ofaide positions.

The 712 communityhealth representativesnow working as Tribalemployees on Indianreservations have beenvery helpful inimproving healthservices. They providehealth education, .

outreach, and educationabout sanitation, andthey help developresources to meet needsfor transportation andother services.

Involvement of theIndian community hasbeen another emphasisof the IHS program. In1972 there were 30intertribal healthcommittees, 8 areaIndian health boards,200 reservation healthcommittees, 200community healthcommitt'ees and one,national Indian HealthBoard.

The achievements ofIHS during the past 12years have beenimpressive. Anincreased budget from$40 million appropri-ated in FY 1955 to$168 million for healthactivities and $44.5million forconstruction of healthcare facilities in FY1973 has helped IHSimprove its service.

87

One indication ofimproved Indian healthis the drop in theinfant death rate from62.5 per 1,000 live

, births in 1955 to 32.2per 1,000 live birthsin,1967. During thesame period t.he U.S.infant death ratedropped from 26.4. per1,000 live births to22.4 per 1,000 livebirths. The maternaldeath rate for Indianwomen also decreased,from 82.6 per 100,000live births in 1958 to33.9 per 100,000 livebirths in 1967; thetotal U.S. rate was37.6 deaths per 100,000live births in 1958 and28.0 per 100,000 livebirths in 1967.67

141,9 a th Ca re f o r

Off-Reservation IndiansIndians living near

reservations aro mostapt to get their healthcare from IHS. Theother off-reservationIndians must use theusual sources of healthcare, including private

physicians, dentistsand hospitals or publicclinics and hospitals.The same problems ofinaccessibility,impersonal treatment,eligibility restric-tions, long waits,frighteningsurroundings, etc.,await the Indian asawait all of oursocioeconomicallydisadvantaged as theyattempt to availthemselves of care.A few off-reservation

Indians who liveprimarily in urbancenters have a chanceto utilize separateIndian centers. Thesecenters are fairly newto the city scene andgenerally provide avariety of socialseiwices, butoccasionally have somehealth servicesavailable.The Denver Indian

Center is funded by 0E0and provides a varietyof social services toIndians, especiallythose who are newlyarrived in Denver.These services includereferral for jobplacement and housing,small loans, ogalassistance, freeclothing, food baskets,grocery orders,4sewingand cooking classes,and escorted trips tothe welfare departmentto secure food stamps.

In addition to theseservices which help theIndian Secure thenecessities of life,the center providessome help with medicalcare. Indians arereferred to medical anddental resources, andare accompanied toclinics in local healndepartments and publichospitals in order tohelp guide them throughthe process of gettingmedical care. Thecenter also operates awell-baby clinic oneday a week."

An Indian center wasestablished in Dallasabout 1969. Thiscenter assists Indiansin finding employmentand housing, tnuscontributing to somebasic needs thataffect healt,h. Thecenter also provides aprescheel program andsponsors a youthorganization forIndians. At this time,no health activitiesare provided, although .

the need isrecognized.71An Indian health

center has been,established in SanFrancisco to serve anestimated 45,000fildians in the Ray Area.

(The U.S. Census statesthat there were 12,011Indians in San

Such Indian Cente.rs,then, are beginning toprovide some health

Life expectancy forIndians.born in 1967 isabout 64 years. This

Francisco-Oakland care specifically for is the same as the lifeStandard Metropolitan urban Indians. The expectancy far allStatistical Area in number of centers, nonwhites, but it is1970.) The centerprovides general healthservices, includingdental and emergencycare. The staffrbcently completed ahealth survey and willpublish its findings.

In Seattle, WashingtonIndians haveestablished a healthclinic with spacedonated by the PublicHealth Service Hospital.It is currently fundedfrom a variety ofsources, including theState Department oTHealth, the RegionalMedical Program, andother Department ofHealth, Education, andWelfare sources., Theclinic staff representsa variety ofdisciplines--a socialworker, two outreachworkers, a pharmacyassistant, two dentalassistants, a dentalclinic coordinator,and a medical cliniccoordinator. Theseservices are augmentedby professionalvolunteers. Inaddition, the NationalHealth Servrce Corpshas provided the clinicwith a physician, adentist and a nurse.71

however, is still verylimited.

Health Problems ofReservation Indians

Morbidity and MortalityStatistics about the

' state of health ofAmerican Indians areavailable mainly fromthe Public HealthService and covermainly reservationIndians.

significantly below the71 year span forwhites.67

The leading causes ofdeath for Indians andthe rates of deaths dueto these causes in 1967are listed below, alongwith the comparablerates for the totalU.S. population:67

All causesAccidentsDiseases of the heartMalignant neoplasmsInfluenza and pneumonia excludingnewborn

Certain diseases of early infancyVascular lesions affecting thecentral nervous system

Cirrhosis of the liverHomicideDiabetes mellitusSuicideTuberculosisGastritis, duodenitis, enteritisand colltis, except diarrhea ofthe newborn

Congenital malformationsAll other

(NOTE: Rates do not add to totalsof rounding.)

''CP 100,000

tota7

Hb3.8 935.7180.9 57.2

140.0 364.570.9 157.2

53.5 28.849.4 24.4

48.8 102.4

38.9 14.1

19.9 6.8

19.4 17.717.0 10.816.3 3.5

14.5 3.8

13.2 8.3181.2 136.0

shown because

Accidents are themajor cause of deathin Indians and a majorcause of death for allage groups except theneonate.67 At present,information is notavaitable classifyingaccidents as tolocation, age ofvictims, or circum-stances.

The Aberdeen, SouthDakota Area Office,responsible for Indianhealth in a seven-State area, reportsmortality fromadcidents for calendaryears 1969-71 asfollows:

U.S. (,111 ta(7t.$)

'from cirrhosis of theliver, the seventhleading cause of death,is 38.9 per 100,000 a-scontrasted to 14.1 per100,000 for the,totalU.S. population.Whether the cirrhosis isof an infectious originor secondary toalcoholism, it con-stitutes a major causeof death and disabilityamong Indians.

Morbidity statisticsare available for tha_

200.0 111.4 88.6 total Indian54.2 26.2 28.0 population but not for

These data do notseparate, home, highway,and industrialaccidents; motor vehicleaccidents associatedwith alcQhol have beenmentioned as,the leadingcause of death amongIndians.The 1967 death rate

from diabetes mellitusamong Indians was 19.4per 100,000 population,compared to a 17.7 per100,000 rate for theU.S. total, 17.3 for theU.S. white po)ulation,and 20.8 for all U.S.nonwhites." To accountfor the higher ratein Indian populationscompared with thewhite population, thereis ca. poorly documentedbut general belief thatIndians have somedifferences from otherraces in carbohydratemetabolism.

MN!

The importance ofdiabetes mellitus inmaternity patients andits relationship toinfant mortality isbeing studied at thePhoenix Indian MedicalCenter with supportfrom the NationalInstitute of Arthritis,Metabolism, andDigestive Diseases andthe Indian HealthService.While cardiovascular

diseases are importantcauses of death foeIndians, the rates aremuch lower than for thetotal U.S. population.Infectious diseasescause greatermortality among Indiansthan among the totalpopulation.

It is furtherimportant to note thatthe Indian death rate

age groups. The leadingreportable diseases in1968 were, in order offrequency; otitis media;gastroenteritis; stropsore throat, etc.;pneumonia, excludingnewborn; inf1uenz,17gonorrhea; trachoma;chickenpox; mumps; anti,dysentery, all forms.'The Public HealthService OrientationManual for 1971 liststhe leading Indianhealth problems inthe following order;communicable diseasesamong children,accidents, mentalhealth, nutritionaldeficiencies, alco-holism, problems ofaging, andenvironmental healthconditions. The.manual states that mostillnesses are due to

90 96

infectious diseases(gastroenteritis,dysentery, influenza,pneumonia, tuberculosis,otitis medial trachoma;measles)./3

Maternal death ratesin the United Statesshow the followingtrends for Indiansand other populationgroupings.°7

Year Maternal deaths per 100,000 live birthsIndian U.S. total U.S. white U.S. nonwhite

1967 33.9 28.0 19.5 69.5

1966 54.6 29.1 20.2 72.4

1964 74.2 33.3 22.3 89.9

1962 89.7 35.2 23.8 95.9

1960 67.9 37.1 26.0 97.9

1958 82.6 37.6 26.3 101.8

The downward trendin maternal deaths inthe United Statesis apparent. Maternaldeath rates for Indiansare generally.two tothree times hi§herthan the rates for thewhite population,although they aresignificantly lowerthan the rates for allnonwhites.

Family Planning

The low birth weightrate for Indians, whilehigher than the rate for

the white population, ismuch lower than the rate,for all nonwhites. In1967 about 8 percent ofthe liveborn Indianinfants weighed 2,500grams (5-1/2 pounds)orless compared with 7percent for whites an414 percent for allnonwhites.67

More pertinent to*this report is thefollowing informationfrom IHS concerning lowbirth weight rates:

Alitamtne1111111104,1mwe

Population YearPercent lowbirth weight Total births

Billings Area 1971 6.9 1,051

Aberdeen Area 1971 7.3 3,911

North Dakota 1971 6.3 538

South Dakota 1971 8.2 1,334

Indians, U.S. total 1963-67 7.9 109,134

91

The 1967 infantmortality rate forIndians was 32.2 deathsper 1,000 live births.

A comparison with otherpopu14tion groupings ispresented in thefollowing table:

PopuLaZonInfant deaths per

Year 1,000 live births

U.S. Indian tota167 1967 32.2

Neonatal 15.3Postneonatal 16.9

U.S. white tota167 1967 19.7

Neonatal 15.0

Postneonatal 4.7

U.S. nonwhite tota167 1967 35.9

Neonatal 23.8

Postneonatal 1'2.1

Aberdeen area 1967-71 24.8

Neonatal 12.2

Postneonatal 12.6

Nava j0110 1966 45.7

As can be seen, theIndian infant has asgood a chance as thewhite infant ofsurviving the neonatalperiod (birth througli27 days). In the post-neonatal period (28days through 11 months),Indian infants are at arisk 4 times as great

as white infants and 50percent greater thannonwhite infant,s as awhole..67 Postneonataldeath rates for Indianinfants are droppingbut still are, muchhigher than they shouldbe.

With this informationin mind, we shouldconsider the majorcauses of death inIndian infants. Theleading cause of deathin the Indian neonateis immaturity; mortalitydue to this cause in1966 amounted to 3.1deaths per 1,000 livebirths, the same as thewhite rate.67 In viewof the relatively lowpercentage of Indianinfants born at lowbirth weight and thehigh percentage ofdeaths in the first 28days due to immaturityand its complications,a careful study ofmaturity of Indianinfants at birth shouldbe conducted.

Postneonatal deathrates indicate thespecial vulnerability ofIndian thfants. Thefollowinl, table comparesrates for Indian andU.S. total populationin 1966.67

Tstne:)n44: i(7:1q1c te

Causes

1,000 !vc bipthe7%,

Respiratory diseases 7.1 2.5

Digestive diseases 3.6 .5

Accidents 1.9 .8

Infective and parasitic diseases 1.6. .3

Congenital malformations 1.3 1.1

92 th;

k

OEM, pininimin~

The birth rate for Indian cultural values The IHS dentalIndians in 1968 was 38.5 may interfere with .

program has establishedper 1,000 population; adequate family planning guidelines for planning,the rate for whites was services and in some setting objectives and16.6, and the rate f94 tribes there are goals, and carrying outall nonwhites, 24.2.°1 Ireligious or cultural dental care to Indians.The Indian birth rate objections. It is Such programs are basedis considerably higher reported that in one on data regardingthan,the nonwhite rate. Sioux tribe, a husband epidemiological:factors

In 1963 and 1964, a who found that his wife such as climate,study was done at the was taking the pill accessibility, methodsIHS Hospital in Gallup, threw the supply away. of water delivery toN.M., concerning the use Nonetheless, Indians are, communities and theof intrauterine-contra- generally well aware of ability to fluoridateceptive devices (IUD), the need and desira- the water which are

The IUD wai demonstrated bility of good family important considera-to be a successful planning. More efforts tions in planningmethod of family need to be made to such programs. New

.

.planning for the large provide a full range of careers are being 6

group of women who were family planning services established in themainly illiterate and in conjunction with .

field of dentalnon-English-speaking general health care for therapy. Efforts areand who were having families, being made to traintheir first experience the dentist to be thewith birth contrgl and manager of a programfamily planning." Dental Care as well 4§ thd provider

In many BIA high of care." About 12schools, courses on years ago an

ilta care s afamily life education Den incremental programinclude information major ne:1 f^r Indians. was started with the

tthhow aabout family planning. Surveys s youngest children, andt'fBlhe acfeeIn addition, most of among t by 1973 most children

d Fo. e (v pl` Blk .

these high schools an had been enrolled in altdidians peroonaoffer Teen-Age Self In maintenance program.de s a aor oraImprovemqnt courses and iseas i mj l While the dental

doblem an ismental health counseling, health pr program is good, thereeason fr thoeWhen a school on a the main r is not enough money to

N h rt ad lo ahigae nw geavajo reservation extend the service toth areattempted to provide at which tee all reservation Indians:lost. Gingivitis isfamily planning common, along with a

counseling to teenagegirls, however, both high rate of debris

BIA and parents objected. accumulation.Virtually all the WhiteMountain Apachepreschool childrin whoweresexamined hadsignificant dentaldisease.72

93

Nutrition

Malnutrition isanother health problemof 'Indians,,especiallythe children. The book"Nutrition, Growth andDevelopment of NorthAmerican IndianChildren" rev.Lewed anumber of studies onIndian childrendiagnosed clinically orbiochemically as havingmalnUtrition. Theincidence ranged from.001 percent to 14percent of hospitalizedchildren, withmalnutrition beingdiagnosed as generalmalnutrition, anemia orweights below the normfor chronological age.Nutrition surveys usingthe norms of the Iowaand Boston Standardsreveal a preponderanceof children fallingwell below t4e normalgrowth rate."

In ine Billings areaduring 1967-68, therewere 31 childinpatients diagnosdas nutritionallydeficient and 341 casesof anemia in children.Twenty-four of theformer cases wereattributed to neglectby mothers who wereeither alcoholic orincompetent. Informa-tion from the Aberdeenarea revealed a highincidence of infantand preschool anemia.

Studies show thatother Americans havebeen getting tallerand heavier with eachgeneration but Indians

have not. Onlyexperience with goodnutrition wi1l show ifAmerican Indians arecurrently reachingtheir genetic potentialfor height. Dietarysurveys have revealedmild to markeddeficiencies in theintakes of calories,calcium, riboflavin,vitamin A, and vitatinC that were substanti-ally below thoseconsidered to meetnormal needs. The

survey of Blackfeet andFort Belknap Indians ofMontana, the DakotaStudy of eight BIAboarding schools, andthe study of AlaskaNatives showeddeficient intakes ofvitamin A and C andcalcium and, exceptamong the Eskimos,borderline proteinintakes.The cause for

malnutrition amongIndians is complex.Eating patterns areaffected'by foodacculturation,limitations in foodavailability, changesin breast-feedingpatterns, and poverty.All American Indians,

including the Alaska .

Natives, have beenforced into extensivefood acculturationbecause of loss oflands, disappearanceof game, and riuntingrestrictions. Newfoods introduced bytrading posts as aresult of modern foodtechnology andadvertising campaignshave often been low innutritive values.Flour, sugar, coffee,salt, lard, soda pop,Kool-Aid, candy, and

94

crackers are foods withpoor nutritive valuethat have replacednative foods. Such ahigh carbohydrate dietalso has implicatiodsfor the extent ofdental disease.

Frequently thetrading post is theonly source of foods,and fruits andvegetables are notavailable. When'thetrading post or grocerystore is many milesfrom home, transporta-tion difficult, andrefrigeration absent,high carbohydrate foodsare apt to be chosen. .

Welfare recipients mayget commodity foods onmany reservations butavailability depends oncurrent surplus and thelocal administration. .

The number of foods4eemed surplus issteadgily. decreasing.Many of the surplusfoods are unfamiliar toIndians, and if thewomen are not taughthow to prepare them,,they will not be eaten.Furthermore, commodityfoods.are generally notgood sources of vitaminA and C.

Another seriouseffect of accultura-tion of food habits isthe increased use ofbottle feeding ratherthan breast feeding.In Alaska it is commonto breast feed butfrequently only untilthe child is 2 monthsof age. Also, a studyfound a substantialnumber of infants over12 months of age onbreast milk or formulawithout supplementaryfoods. Navajo motherswere breast feedingslightly over one-thirdof their infants, andamong the Micmac,Ojibwa, and Iroquois,breast feeding hasdeclined both inpopularity and durationwith canned milk beingsubstituted almostuniversal Thedecline in breastfeeding,is'a problembecause Indian mothersmay substitute formulawhich is hard toprepare sanitarily.

The role of breastfeeding in immunologi-cal development isstill poorly defined.Nonetheless it is knownthat in developingcountries.as womerrbecome sophisticatedand stop breast feeding,both malputrition andinfant mortalityincrease.76

The extreme povertyof most Indians isanother factor in theirpoor nutritional status.The average Indianfamily of five on areservation is livingon an annual incomeof below $2,000. Manyfamilies are receivingwelfare but the pay-ments vary from Stateto State. In Montanathe monthly allowancefor a family of five is$226 and in Wyoming it.is $215. The cost of anutritionally adequatelow-cast diet iscomputed at $131.24 permonth for a family offive.76-The consequences of

poor nutritional statusare highly significant.With reduced nutritionstatus, a child is moresusceptible to disease,and the course of thedisease is apt to bemore difficult. The

preschool and school-aged child may reflectpoor nutrition byretarded growth. Othercomplications of statesof chronic undernutri-tion are lowered energyand lessenedconcentration andattentiveness in thelearning situation. Ifthe child has had apoor physical and .

nutritional start, wecan expect his achieve-ment to be poor.

Sanitation and Housing

On the lower Grease-wood Reservation inArizona, 596 (74percent) of the 808inhabitants werestudied. The averagefamily size was 5.5persons; 44 percent-of.the families lived inone-room hogans, 29'percent in primitivetwo-room houses, and 27percent in houses ofthree or more rooms.

Thirty-five percentlived in houses withoutsanitary facilities.Another 41 percentlived in homes withpoorly constructedouthouses. Twenty-twopercent had indoortoilets.. A fewfamilies had wells,usually some distancefrom their homes.74On the Fort Apache

Reservation in Arizona,the families of.200preschool children werestudied. Three-forthsof the familiesincluded six or morepersons; the majoritylived in dwelling unitsof four or less rooms.One-third had indoortoilets; 85 percent ofthe families usedcommunity piped water,11 percent'used waterfrom aprings, streams,and lakes; and theremainder from wells,cisterns or unknownsources.72

The lack of a safewatetmsupply andgenefElly poorsanitation is a majorcause of infectionmanifested asgastroinWtinaldisease." The Indiansin Region VIII mustcontend with verysevere- weather, and forthem, adequate housing

is particularlyimportant for health.In fact, the combina-tion of unsafe water,inadequate housing andheating, exposure toharsh elements, poordiet and lack ofinformation abouthygiene results in anunusually highincidence of infectiousdisease within theIndian population. ..

Construction of watersupplies and wastedisposal facilitiesare included as part,,ofIHS responsibility."Some major efforts havebeen made to bringIndian sanitdtionfacilities up tostandard but muchremains to be done.77

Some efforts had helenmade to provideadequate housing on thereservation but problemsarose. In one instancethe Indians failed topay their housing notesto the Tribal HousingAuthority because theywere 'not used to payingfor housing, and iosome cases theirincomes were too low topay for housing alongwith their other needsand wishes. Since thissolution did not work,many Indians willcontinue to live inunsafe housing withpoor sanitation until abetter solution toproviding,housing isfound.

*.

' Simply supplying moreadequate housing is notthe total answer eitherWhen.families move tobetter housing,rnfamiliarity with thenew housing andequipment (stoves,heating units, sewagedisposal) causesaccidents. Unfamiliar-ity and fear mayprohibit the Indianfrom using the newfacility effectively,thereby negating thesolution of theproblem for which thenew housing was.,rovided. For example,fear of using the gasheater may mean thefamily is stillexposed to the cold.

A number of otherproblems exist thathave major and directbearing on the Indian'sability to utilizehealth services.

Poverty

Underlying the poorhousing and sanitationas well as-many otherproblems affectinghealth care for Indiansis the problem ofpoverty. As noted. theaverage Indian family.of five on a reservationis living on an annualincome of below $2,000.

Welfare payments aregenerally too low toprovide for minimalneeds. Unemploymentin March of 1970 forIndians 16 years of ageand older was 40percent compared withthe nationa1,4verage of4.4 percent.'4Attempts have beenmade to establish smallmanufacturing andtourist businesses.onsome reservations,but so far this,has notbeen enough to providethe needed number ofjobs, especially inthe'light of theincreasing *Indianpopulation.

Distance and,Communication Problenis

The accessibility ofservices on thereservations is hamperedby the great distancesand the communicationproblems.

Many patients have todepend on hitchhikingor costly rides fromneighbors to get tohealth facilities.Such dependencyfrequently makes itimpossible to keepappointments.

The Rosebud Reserva-tion (s.p.) tried toestablish a bus system.The attitude of theIndians was that thisservice was a tribalservice.and should beprovided for them free .

of charge. Theytherefore refused topay. the fares tosupport the system andit failed. Phones arescarce on the reserva-tions, although thereusually is one avail-able somewhere in eachof the communities ofany size.

There are still size-able portions of theolder Indian Fopulationthat'do not'speak'English. Althoughinterpreters are usedin the health facilities,there may be much lostin the translation.Landuage barriers arejust an example of thecultural differencesbetween Indian usersand non-Indian providers.

Indian Health ServiceProblems

The Indian WealthService has never hadenough funds to provideall of the necessaryhealth care to thereservation Indian.Some well-conceivedprograms cannot be fully,implemented and other'needed programs simplycannot be undertaken.Some of the facilitiescannot accommodateadditional health staffthat might becomeavailable to increaseservices.

The staff nowavailable to providehealth care are quitelimited in numbers.In one instance it isreported that a singlepublic health nurse isresponsible for 9,000,patients. Lack of fundsprecludes hiring ,

additional staff,_professional or sub-professional. Recruit-ment of professionalmanpower is particularlydifficult because.of theisolated and remotenature of the reserva--tion locations. Onceoh the reservations,INS staff suff.er frombordom and isolationjust as the Indians!themselves do. Thepending termination of'the physician draft willkely increase the

difficulty of recruitingAysicians.

The monies allottedfOr hospitalization ofpatients At off-reservation facilitiesis also inadequate.Every effort is made toutilize Federalhospitals (VeteransAdministration,military, PublicHealth Service) becauseof the lower hospitalper diem cost.At times the attitude

of Indian healthpersonnel, whether theyare Indian or non-Indian, can be detri-mental to theacceptability of serviceWhen non-Indian staffmembers come to remoteIHS locations, there issome orientationprovided as to culturaldifferences, but thisis not generally givenby Indian employees.IHS staff are then aptto live in a separatearea with superiorhousing and a totallydifferent life stylefrom the Indians theyhave come to serve.Little time can be spentin familiarizing thephysician who is on a2-year assignment withthe local Indian culture

This isolaiion andlack of culturalorientation is apt tolead to inappropriaterecommendations fromthe health providersto Indian patients.For instance, the .

physician may relate atreatment schedule tothree meals a day whenthe family pattern doesnot include three regu-lar meals.

Cultdral Barriers

There are additionalcultural barriers whichinterfere with theeffective delivery ofhealth care to Indians.IHS facilities may seemstrange and foreign tothe Indian users. Thereare limited numbers ofIndians employed in thehealth disciplinesresponsible for deliv-ering care; and, whenIndians are employed,they tend to be at thenonprofessional andlower-paying levels.

.04

There are 38 Indianphysicians in the UnitedStatesl but only fourwotk for IHS. Basichostilities that mayremain between Indiansand non-Indians hinderfull utilization ofservices.

Certainly the IHS hasmade a concerted effortto develop a liaisonrole by way of thecommunity healthrepresentatives. Thesuccess of that efforthas already beenmentioned. There is-increased'involvementof Indians in makingtha hard decisionsaround their healthservices. Moreintertribal committees

Furthermore, there maybe some problems. aroundthe attitudes of thehealth professionalsthemselves, who aresimply not used to theidea of consumerinvolvement in makingdecisions about healthpolicy. The directorof the National IndianHealth Board hasexpressed the hope thatthe local boards wouldbecome more thanadvisory.

Jurisdictional Disputes

One large additionalset of barriers to thedelivery of lwalth careto Indians is created

and health boards are by jurisdictionaldeveloping but it would disputes.appear that many of them The Administration's.do not as yet have real policy holds thatauthority, nor do their reservation Indians asmembers understand bona fide.U.S. citizenstheir responsibilities should obtain healthin terms of deciding on services from State andhealth programs. local sources, but thatAdditional education the Indian Healthmust be undertaken to Service is responsiblealhow such bodies to as a residual resourcefunction as policy- for insuring that healthmaking boards. services are available

and provided to Indians.

The Indian people havetaken the positiori thatmedical care is a treaty _

right and the respon-sibility of the FederalGovernment alone, sothat rec.Piving healthservices from State andlocal programsconstitutes a threat of .

termination to them oranother example of the.Federal Government'sshirking ,itsresponsibility.

On the other hand,States and local healthprograms and particu-.larly State medicaidprograms are reluctantto extend 'coverage to ,

reservation Indianssince they also considerthemselves as residualresources for Indians.Such jurisdictionaldisagreements havetended to result infailure to maximizelimited health careresources to the bestadvantage. Further,these disputes pluslimited fund's often'result in IHS pdliciesthat cause problems forIndians.

IHS is accused of "redtape" policies thatinterfere with theutilization of carewhen those policiesactually are designedto conserve inadequatedollars. Examplesinclude apparentlyrestrictive criteriafor eligibility for ZHScare, and therequirement forpreauthorization whenan IHS recipientrequires care in anon-Indian setting.Generally the State

*.lealth departments'maternal and childhealth programs (MCH)have assumed Chat IHSis responsible for andtaking care of most ofthe ba6ic MCH servicesfor reservation Indiansin the State. Statecrippled children'sservicd (CC) agencieshave provided servicesto reservation Indiansin a number ofinstances.A February 1971

report indicated thatthe following Statesspent MCH and CC fundsfor health services toIndians; Coloradoexpended $15,000 forIndians, of which$7.000 was MCH money;

!t.

Montana spent $18,414for hearing aids, careof cleft palatechildren, and CCservices, primarily forhearing problems. InLewis and Clark County,Montana, 56 Indianfamilies were served inthe Children and Youth(C&Y) project. InNorth Dakota, 56Indians receivedservices, whichincluded mastoidoperations, for $13,233;in South Dakota it isestimated that 10percent of the CC moneyis spent for Indians;four of South Dakota's12 CC clinics are on.ornear reservations. InUtah, during'1970, 59Indians were cared forin the CC program and2.3 percent of clinicvisits were by Indianswith an estimatedexpenditure pf $19,000.

In addition, Utah hasa contract with SanJuan County forgeneralized service,including familyplanning for the NavajoIndians. Wyoming spent$12,000 for hearingaids, cleft palatechildren, dental healthand other services.

Health Problem etOff-Raservatlon Indians

The health prob'ems .

of off-reservationIndians, who aregenerally in urbanareas, are very littledifferent from theproblems of reservationIndians. There are,however, some areas inwhich differentiationof reservation andurban Indians is not avery clear cut one, asIndian populations moveback and forth fromurban to reservationsettings. Oneconsultant told us thata fairly typicalpattern would be asfollows:An Indian family

moves to an urbansetting, locateshousing and a job, andappears to settle down.Often homesicknessfollows and the familyremembers the pleasikntparts of reservationliving. The family isthen apt to return tothe reservation, givingup the job and housingsituation. After aperiod of time back onthe reservation, thefamily discovers thatthe nostalgia is notreality. At that pointthey accept theadvantages of urbanliving and move back tothe city and again haveto locate housing andemployment.

100 106.

Morbidity and Mortality

efts.. -We do not currently

have specific statfs-. tics about the healthof urban,Indians. Anumber of efforts areunderway to qbtain suchdata.A study conducted in

the Seattle area foundthat suddentinfantdeath syndrome.(SIDS)occurs up to four timesas often in Indianinfants 141 in whiteinfants."

Poverty

Because unemploymentis so widespread onreservations, manyIndians go to thecities looking for jobsand a better life. TheIndian is apt #o beunskilled and the typeand quality ofeducation available tohim has not preparedhim for competition inthe city; therefore, hecan generally expect toobtain only low-payingjobs.The Indian needs help

in finding a job and

may run into difficul-ties with the usualsocial serviceresources, e.g.,employment placementand job counseling.First, he does not knowthat the resourcesexist; second, he isdistrustful of thewhite man's institu-.tions; Und last someState social servicedirectors andemployment departmentdirectors do notproVide services toIndians because theythink bhat the BIA hasthis responsibility.

Sometimes the Indiancannot find a job or islaid off, or thepressures of city lifebreak up fithe family.The urban Indian nowfaces the many problemsof getting welfareassistance, such as,Does he know welfare isavailable, where it isavailable, how he cancope with provingeligibility? Does thewelfare departmentthink this is a DIAresponsibility? Is.theworker prejadiced? Inmany instances, if anIndian applies to anagency for assistance,he is reffered toanother agency becauseof the misconceptionthat Indians receivespecial privileges fromthe Federal Governmentand are nmehow takencare of."

Indians have reporteddifficulties in gettingfood stamps. They have _

no experience with thisprocess on thereservation becausefood stamps are notavailable there,although commodityfoodi are. Theinability to get foodstamps may seriouslyhamper their getting anadequate diet.

Transportation andCommunication

Diatances and trans-portation problems areperhaps as real for theoff-reservation Indianas for those on thereservations. Healthcare resources, oncelocated, are apt to bea considerable distanceaway and publictransportation in urbansettings is hardlyre9ponsive to anyone'soeeds. Communication1.6 easier in the urbansetC.ng as phones aregenerally available. '

The urban Indiancommunity, thoghscattered, sets up aneffective person-to-person communicationsystem.

Housing

The low-income urbanIndian may have as muchdifficulty in buyingadequate housing andmay face similarproblems with sanita-tion, safe water supply,ard unfamiliarity withnew equipment as hisbrothers on thereservation. InAddition, the urbanIndian may face racialprejudice in findinghousing. In March 1973a Denver TV stationshowed a documentaryentitled "Why Did.Gloria Die?" Theheroine of the story,Gloria, had been onwelfare and her friendstold of inadequate heat/rain that leaked in,electricity that wasturned off, and otherproblems. OtherIndians recounted'stories of beingturned away whenlooking for housing ifthe "Indian-looking"husband accompanied thewife on the house-hunting trip. Thesettings for thistelecast wereMinneapolis, Detroit/and the midwesternregion.'

Obtaining Health Care

The Indian who comesto live in the cityfaces new problems inseeking health dare.Familiar with receivingfree health servicesfrom IHS facilities, hemust now learn to finda physician and buyhealth services.Finding a satisfactoryphysician in a new cityis a problem for manyU.S. citizens.The indigent Indian

usually does not useMedicaid because of hislack of knowledge aboutthis source ofassistance, his feax ofthe white man'sinstitution and becauseof pride. He may findit difficult to proveeligibility, and thewelfare agency maythink he is ineligiblebecause IHS is takingcare of him.

If the Indian goes toa public facility, hemust learn to useidentification cards,to respond to questionsabout income andexpenditures in order

to prove eligibilityand to cope with part-payment mechanisms.In addition, he has thenew experience ofmingling with patientsof other ethnic groupsand may be additionallyhandicapped withtransportation problemsand languagedifficulties.

Long waits in clinicsand the impersonalityof the clinic staff arecomplaints of the urbanIndian. He may alsobecome confused about.jurisdictionalboundaries for deliveryof service, such as thepossibility of being'eligible for servicesif he lives on one sideof the street but notif he lives on theother.

Cultural Barriers

Most off-reservationand some reservationIndians must useprivate hospitalfacilities. The staffsof urban hospitals areusually completelyunknowledgeable aboutcultural differences,community resources/and special Indianneeds. Consequentlythe services offered.may not be acceptableto the Indian user.

1 102 . (18

Medical practice in theUnited States inprivate offices andparticularly in clinicsis characterized byimpersonality, longwaits.for service, andbrief explanations.For the Indian, whoselife Style is based oninterpersonal relationsthis can mean culturalshock.


Jprisdictionaldisputes, alreadymentioned above,further disrupt theavailability of healthcare for the urbanIndian.There are some .

signiificant problems. concerning payment byIHS for care providedto patients who haveleft the reservation.As a matter of fact,one tribal affairsofficer stated thatthere is a definitepolarization im regardto use of IHS dolarsbetween Indians .who

. remain on thereservation and those

who leave. Some tribalhealth leaders havevoiced strong opposi-tion to IHS having topay,for care for themembers who are no'longer on thereservation when thosefunds have to come fromthe contract healthservices budget. Onthe other side, ofcourse, the Indian whohas left the reserva-tion may need thiscoverage to obtain care.

There seems to be agreat deal-of confusionabout Indian students .

who gre eligible forIHS coverage butapparent,ly are expectedto- return to IHSfacilities for such .

care. Some IHS staffmay feel that studentswho are away from thereservation are notfull-time residentseligible for IHS care.The students themselveshave great difficultyin getting transporta-tion,to service unitsfor health care, andmay not be able to pay

for private care.Additional problemsthat students haverelated include thedifficulty of gettingeyeglasses, dentalcare, and phychiatricservices. Suchproblems are obviousbarriers to themaximum utilization ofeducational opportuni-ties by Indianstudents.

Suggested Solutions toIndian Health Problems

The first suggestedsolution to Indianhealth problems is thatIndian people bemaximally involved inthe identification ofthe health problems,their causes andalternative solAtions.Experts from variousFederal agencies, suchas IHS and othercomponents of theDepartment of Health,Education, and Wel1are,,Ahe Department ofHousing and UrbanDevelopment, the U.S.Department ofAgriculture (USDA), andothers, should providetheir expertise inexploring with theIndian people therelationship of various

levels of problems tothe poor hpalth statusof Indian people. TheIndians themselves,with this additionalexpertise available,should establishpriorities among thespecific healthproblems to be remediedand participate indecisions about whichalternative solutionswill be attempted.

Some of the problemsidentified in thisreport are not yetfully explored orunderstood. Continuedefforts to understandthe problems and tnformulate solutionbshould,be an ongoingactivity.

Accidents

In view of theprominence of accidentsas the major cause of.death for Indianpopulations, werecommenftd that areaoffices, service,unitsor urgin Indian centersdo a major study of theindidence of accidents,breaking them down intohome, motor vehicle andindustrial accidentsAnd specificallystudying the nature ofaccidental injuries and

deaths for agegroupings. Suchinformation would allowthe development of aspecific accidentprevention effort tocurb this major causeof morbidity andmortality among Indians

Morbidity and Mortality

The special effortsto combat otitis mediashould be continued.Other causes ofmorbidity tend to bedue to infectious .

diseases which areaggravated by the poorliving conditions,crowding, lack ofhealth information, andlimits of available andacceptable care.Suggested solutions forthese problems arepresented later in thissection.

About 8 percent ofliveborn Indian infantsweighed 2,500 grams orless compared with 7percent for whites and14 percent for allnonwtites, as noted.Although.this low birth

. weight rate does notseem unduly high,Indian infants have asignificant neonataldeath rate due toipmaturity andprematurity. Thereneeds to be somecareful assessment ofclinical gestationalstatus and comparisonwith estimatedgestational age to tryto determine the trueincidence of immaturityin Indian infants whomay have larger thanexpected birth weightsfor gestational age.Maternity patient's

carbohydrate metabolismshould be carefullyexplored in view of thefact that infants ofdiabetic mothers areapt to weigh more thanexpected for gestation-al age but are lessmature than expected.

The reported highincidence of SIDSshould be documentedfor Indians. Efforts

to inform 1HS staff andthe Indian people aboutSIDS and its naturewould be particularlyimportant if there areexcessive numbers ofIndian infant deathsfrom this cause. Allhelp-givers who are aptto come in contact withthis situation need toknow the fpcts aboutSIDS so as to dispelthe guilt associatedwith such unpxplaineddeaths. As researchprogresses to definethe cause or causes ofSIDS there should beparticular efforts toapply the researchfindings to Indianpopulations.

Strengthening Maternaland Child

Health Services

Special emphasis .

should be placed on thehealth care for mothersand children because"prevention is the mostlogical and economicalapproac4 to healthcare," 19 While-mothers and childrenare affected bywhatever affects thehealth of the familyand the total popula- .

tion, and though thebiological demands ofreproduction and ofgrowth and developmentmake them especiallyvulnerable to health '

haiards, they are theJ'Amillmimmisormnow

group whiCh mostreadily responds topreventive measures.In countries whichplace a high value onthe child, as well ason the benefits ofprevention, maternaland child healthservices form the basicstructure around whichadditional familyhealth services areestablished.

Since we are address-ing the needs of alow-income populationwho can look back ongenerations ofdeprivation, it isimportant to assist theIndian population instrengthening their

,basic MCH program. Asin developing countries,such a program shouldbe. the most inclusivepossible and should beundertaien second onlyto improved sanitationand adequate watersupply. An MCH programimprovement might wellrequire the following:

1. Reorder prioritiesin IHS so that maternaland child healthactivities make furtherimpgct on Indianmorbidity and mortality

2. Significantlyincrease the healthcare dollars so ttlatacute care needs can'continue to be metwhile MCH program isstrengthened.

3. Maximize theacceptaNlity,accessibility,appropriateness, andavailability of MCHservices to Indianfamilies.

4. Eliminate boardingschools in the interestof mental and probablyphysical health. It is'generally agreed thatchildren, especiallyyoung children, farebetter living in familyunits with theirparents where they canreceive protection,love and guidance from

' parental figures.Institutional settingsare generallydetrimental.

5. Include familylife educlation in itsbroadest sense in thecurriculum of allschool children fromkindergarten throughsecondary school. Suchcontent must includeinformation about goodhealth habits andattitudes, humanrelationships, adultresponsibilities,parenting skills, etc.

105e.. Z 11

As with.all such coursework, there must beIndian involvement inthe design, content.andteaching. Tribalcouncils, school boardsand other influentialgroups should decide onhow much of thetraditional Indianculture is taught andthow much non-Indianculture is transmitted.Ideally, the contentshould recognize andbuild on the strengthsof the Indian heritage.

*6. Expand and addnurse-midwiferyprograms to hospitalstaffs and fieldservices. Nurse-midwives are excellentsources of additionalhealth manpower to workwith physicians andother professionalpersonnel in providingnaternity care, newbornservices and healthCounseling.

Family Planning

Men and women shouldbe educated aboutfamily planning. Some,family planning methodsare more useful forcertain populationsthan others. Therefore/a variety of medicallySound and cu4turallyacceptable methodsshould.be made aimil-shils to Indian couples.

Nurse-midwives may alsobe used to providefamily planningcounseling to both menand women, and to,provide supervision ofinterconceptional care.

Dental Health Services'

The incremental careprogram in IHS shouldbe continued. Servicesmight be expanded bypurchasing fluoridationequipment and install-ing it for the watersupplies of communitiesschools and residentialfacilities that housechildren. Topicalfluoride applicationsmight be expanded toreach children notpresently being servedby the fluoridationefforts. Dental caremight also be expandedto serve expectantmothers.

Nutrition

Malnutrition is a .

significant problem inIndian populations onthe reservations. Hereare some suggestions .

for improving nutrition:

1. Foods should be made. mere readily available

in an acceptablefashion to the,Indianon the reservation.

a. Provide informa-tion to the parentsabout infant andchild nutrition.This could be done bycommunity healthrepresentatives ornutrition aides whoare taught counselingon foods andnutrition, or bynutritionists.

b. Make available onthe reservation thefoods necessary forgood nutrition,particularly fruits,vegetables, milk andeggs. Provideadequate transporta-tion so that thesefoods can be carriedhome without spoil-ing, and providerefrigeration at homeso that the foods canbe properly stored.Further suggestionswill be made in thesections on trans-portation andsanitation andhousing.

c. Probect indigenousfoods by variouslegal and program-matic approaches."An example of this isprotecting Indianhunting and fishingrights, andprotecting thesurvival of thespecies which theIndian hunts andfishes.

d. Expand Head Start, and school food.

programs, which haveundoubtedly improvedthe nutrition ofIndian children, toinclude freebreakfasts and'lunches in allschools with a sub-stantial number ofIndian students.

e. Consider transferof.the responsibility.for Federal foodassistance programsfrom USDA to DHEW.

. The .White.HouseConference 4M Food,Nutrition and Healthmade this suggestionwith the hope thatpliEW,could betterassure that foodsavailable through thecommodity foodprogram would bechosen on the basisof nutritional needs,cultural patterns andthe facilitiesavajlable for".home

preparation."

f. Require enrich-ment and/oifortification offoods commonlydistributed and soldon reservations."

g. Indian tribesshould be madeeligible for Federalprograms that arenow available toStates. Examplesinclude welfareassistance and foodstamp programs.

2. Another set ofsuggestions has to dowith eliminatingpoverty on thereservation (see alsothe section on poverty).

a. Expansion of theavailable income forfood, for bothreservation andnonreservationIndians, might bepossible through thedepartment ofcooperatives ofbuyers' clubs and bythe use of homegardens.

b. Reduce.the costorpurchased food onthe reservations bylaw and regulate theprices and profitsof traders.

3. Since breast feed-ing is decreasing inpopularity amongbIadian women and thisdecline may beimplicated in excessivegastrointestinaldisease in infancy,ways of encouraging andenhancing breastfeeding for moreadequate periods oftime should beundertaken.76 Thereshould be moreadditional and carefulinvestigation of therole of breast feAdlngin avoiding milkallergy, gastrointes-tinal disease, and.infection. Of course,in order to makebreast feedingsuccessful, themother's diet has tobe nutritionallyadequate.

Sanitation and Housing

The problems involv-ing sanitation andhousing are difficultfor the reservation '

Indian to solve.Increased income couldmake it possible forIndian families to buybetter housing withsafe water andadequate sanitaryfacilities. It wouldappear to be importantfor IHS to continue itsefforts to make safewater supplies andsewage disposal systemsgenerally available toreservation Indians.Community healthrepresentatives orsanitation aides do andcan continue to play animportant role ineducating Indians.aboutproper sanitation andsafe water supplies.Additional financing

by, and increasedcooperation with, HUDis a possible route toimprovement in housing.Perhaps a housing co-opcould be developed onreservations withconstruction done bythe Indians who are-trained in these skills.Community healthrepresentatives orhomemaking aides should

be available to helpfamilies learn tomanage improvedhousing so that newheating apparatus,refrigerators, andother unfamiliarfeatures are not leftunused or do not becomehazards to families.

Poverty

Poverty is obviouslya major, overridingbarrier to health carein general. Solutthnsto poverty have evadedour society for a verylong time. Nonetheless,one simple solution foreliminating povertywhich has been triedin the United SCates,is to simply give eachcitizen the basicnecessities of life,i.e., housing, clothingand food. If this isnot possible or notacceptable to reserva-tion Indians, effortsshould be made toimprove the income ofthe Indians bymaximizing theiremployment and byincreasing the welfareallowance to cover thebasic needs.

Transportation andCommunkation

Many of the trans-portation andcommunication problemsof Indians onreservations resultfrom the fact thatIndians live scatteredover' wide areas. Thiswas not the dustom formany Indian tribesbefore contact with thewhite man, but wasinstituted in a futileand unsuccessfulattempt to makefarmers out of Indians.Before this effort wasmade, many tribeslived and travelledtogether in communalfashion. Largercommunities of Indianpopulations WOuldresult if adequatejobs and industrieswere developed on theresrvations.

If Indians lived inlarger communities,telephones would bemore readily availableand communicationproblems would belessened. Transporta-tion, too, would be amuch less severeproblem as many of thenecessary services for

. Indians would bereadily available inthe communities.

44

Indian tribes and othektribaf councils shouldbe approached as totheir attitudes in thisregard, but a solutionwill require majorundertakings arounddevelapments,of.industries anajobs onthe reservation.If it is not possible

or acceptable toincrease the number of,Indians living incommunities, anothersolution for the majortransportation problemis suggested. Athorough study .of thecurrent transportationproblems, methods,facilities and patternsshould be made for anatural servic.e area.This study should notconcentrate ontransportation patternsfor health care, butshould include all ofthe transportation

activities, whetherindividual or group,private of govern-mental, etc. Withthis information, somedifferent ways ofcapitalizing onexisting transporta-tion availabilitymight be possible.For instance, thereare certain existingvehicles that travelon fairly set schedulesincluding commercialdelivery tiucks, schoolbuses, and mail trucksand other Federalvehicles. Such a studymight also haveimplications for thetimes at which servicesare offered.

An alternatesuggestion is that themodel of a bus trans-portation system usedon the PapagoReservation in Sells,Arizona, 65 miles fromTucson, be reviewed forapplicability oradaptability to otherreservation settings.

Also, the Department ofTransportation, as amember agency of the .

Federal RegionalCouncil, should beinvolved in seeking'means of obtaining orleasing buses forreservation transporta-tion systems.Priorities need to beset up through afeasibility study.Such a study would takeinto consideration suchfactors as theavailability of roads,apcatiotis of MCfacilities, existingpatterns of transporta-tion for patientswithout private means,etc. The HealthProgram Systems Centerin Tucson,. Arizona,can serve as sourcefor information withrespect to conductingsurveys onreservations.

109

Indian HealthService Problems

The Indian peoplemay wish to considerthe pros and cons ofparticipation in anational healthinsurance plan sometimein the future. If suchinsurance provides foradequate payment forhealth services foreveryone, this wouldrelieve the problem ofinadequate funds forbuying and providinghealth service. IHScould then continue tobe the health deliverysyst. 4 and be paidunder the national planrather than by specialappropriation..An alternate

suggestion is thatsufficient appropria-tions be made to IHS sothat comprehensivehealth serVices can be'provided for all Indianpeople living on thereservation.

Staffing is a seriousproblem for INS. Thestaff might be moreeasily recruited andretetined if they wereoffered special paycategories for hardshiplocations, additionalamthorized leave forongoing education andsicre vacation time thenis normally allowed.

Professional staffworking on reservationsneed particular effortsmade on their behalf sothat they can maintaintheir professionalexpertise. Travelcosts and time off toattend postgraduateeducation courses,workshops and seminarsare important. Anothersuggestion is that morecontinuing educationbe taken to IHSfacilities from themedical centers.These types ofopportunities couldhelp combat therecruitment and mo4aleproblems of IHSemployees who live andwork on thereservations. Bettermorale and lessloneliness andboredom should resultin better healtnservices to reserva-tion Indians.The non-Indian IHS

staff need an adequateorientation to thelocal Indian culture.This orientation shouldbe by Indians and itshould includeintroduction to4.mportant members ofthe community. Onlywith this kind ofsensitization will IHSstaff be able toprovide acceptableservices to Indians.

There have been somepoorly documentedallegations aboutIndians having verysignificant complaintsabout the health carethey receive but beingafraid to report thosecomplaints. In-viewof the fact thatIndians are totallydependent on IHS fortheir health care,such fear is ceitainlyunderstandable. Thereshould be an increased,specific effort on thepart of IHS staff toestablish complaintand grievancemechanisms. Grievancescan be heard,investigated andcorrected in such away that both sideslearn and gain fromthe experience.

Cultural Barriers

There are, asindicated, majorcultural barriers toIndians fullyutilizing IHSesources.The orientation ofnon-Indian IHS staffwill he/p to ccirrectsome of these barriers.In addition, it CsiMPortant that Indianhealth workers such ascommunity healthrepresentatives ormedicine menparticipate in the

education of thepatient. Medicine menare respected by manyIndians for theirability and work inclose partnership withphysicians. In someihstances, additionaltraining is currentlybeing provided tothedicine men.

Indian involvementin the delivery of caremust be increased.Young.Indians should beencouraged to study tobecome healthprofessionals orparaprofessionals.In order to do this,more Indian educatorswill need to use Indianrole models fprchildren and youth.Indians who are inhealth delivery rolesshould have decision-making responsibilitywherever possible'.

There is more Indianinvolvement today indecisions about totalhealth care by way ofthe Indian healthboards, councils andcommittees. Individualmembers should begitten extensiveeduaation.in the roleand function of suchorganizations. DHEWcould perhaps providesome expertise in thiseffort, either directlyor by contract.

Once educated, theseorganizations shouldbe put in trulypolicy-makingpositions. It shouldbe mandatory that theirdecisions be carriedout as long as theyare not inappropriateones requiring medicalexpertise.


Additional servicescould be provided forreservation Indians ifState agencies workedtogether formaximization of theavaila3le services toIndians. Forinstance, IHS shouldwork closely with theState Medicaidagencies to assurethat the early andperiodic screening,diagnosis, andtreatment areavailablo to Indianchildren who areeligible ,c)r Medicaid,just as these required-services are availableto other eligible

children who areresidents of the State.An alternate solutionis for the responsiblehealth agency to makethe serVices availableto the reservationjust as it makes thoseservices availablethroughout the rest ofthe State. This hasrecently been doneby the Montana StateDepartment of Healthand EnvironmentalSciences in tworeservation areas.Other Medicaidprovisions should bemade available toeligible reservationIndians, just as theyare made available toother residents.It is important that

clear-cut statementsof eligibility be madefor health servicesand the responsi-bilities of IHS, Statehealth departments andother health agencies.Indian people shoUldhave a voice inestablishi.ng thesepolicies, and shouldbe adequately informeaabout the policiesonce they areestablished.

State healthdepartment staffsshould consider thehealth needs onreservations as th6yassess total needs inthe State. The Indianpeople and IHS shouldthen be involved indecisions about whosedollars will be usedin what way to addressthe needs that arefound.Tribal councils are

'probably eligible formore HEW grants forhealth servicesdelivery than werealize. As tribalcouncils and Indianhealth boards increasetheir capability andauthority, they willbe in a better positionto make use of suchgrants.

Special Problems ofOff-Reservation Indians

First of all, theIndian who leaves thereservation and goesto the city needs askill that will permithim to earn a decentliving. !HA and the-Office of Educationmight cooperate inworking out plans forjob trainingexperiences for urban

EIA should continueto expand its program.for.Indian relocatees.This pro-ram includesthorough medical,physical andpsychological examina-tions, employmentassistance andaccurate, practicalorientation for urbanliving. BIA shouldcontinue to monitor theadjustments of Indianrelocatees andprovide arrangementswith health personnelfor their counseling.These activities shouldbe continued until therelocatees and tribalauthorities determineto discontinue them.Vine Deloria, Jr.,

a Standing Rock SiouxIndian, past ExecUtiveDirector of theNational Congress ofAmerican Indians,believes the future ofIndian affairs lieswith the urban Indian.He stresses that one-half of American Indiansalready live in citie'sand more are expectedbecause there are morejobs and opportunitiesin the city ascontrasted to therepervation. Deloria

recommends Federalfunding for urban centerenclaves built neartowns and smallercities. Such centerswould provide trainingand employment place-ment and shouldinclude closecoordination withIndian urban centersand individual tribes.An example is theSioux City IndianCenter which is a focalpoint for coordinationof employment, housing,education, and relatedactivities for Indiansin four States.This center wasestablished in 1969.

To help the non-reservation Indian gethealth care, the useof already existinghealth facilitiesshould be maximized.This would include, anagency such as BIA oran Indian center makingthe relocated Indianaware of the healthresources available tohim and effecting neededreferrals. In addition,members of the Indiancenter or BIA couldaccompany Indians to,the health facilityand guide them through

the strange process.The provider staffcould roceivo someinserviec educationabout the culture ofIndians, their healthneeds, problems andcommunity resources.It would also help ifclinics and hospitalswould hire Indians,who could be trainedthe same way ascommunity healthrepresentatives to dooutreach ahdinterpretation to boththe Indian patient andhealth facility staff.

It would be most.helpful if Federalagencies carefullymonitored any bhealthfacility receivingFederal funds to seethat Indiarrs are giventhe services to whichthey are entitled andthat those servicesare given in courteousand helpful ways.Another suggestion

is that.separatehealth facilities forIndians be established.These facilities couldbe in connection withan Indian center orurban Indian enclave,

.or theY may be free-standing.The service-, offeredwould be those generallyneeded for goodambulatory healthcare. Funding wouldob7iously be a problem,Mit such separate

iervices miqht be moreacceptable.to Indians.

If an Indian loseshis job.or is unafileto work, he should beable to receive publicassistance. State andlocal welfare directorsshould be advised thatIndians are eligiblefor welfareallowances, and the.Federal agency shouldmonitor the localagencies to see thatIndians receive thehelp.to which theyare entitled. IfIndians are able toget public assistance,they would also beeligible for Medicaid.

This Regional Officereceives many callsurgently requestinghelp in locating ahdpaying for health care.The large number ofcalls and inquirieswarrants considerationof special'appropriations topay for emergencyhealth care,particularly hospitalcare, for urbanIndians when no othersource of funds canbe found.

Coordination of Services

, Within the Departmentof Health, Education,and Welfare a full-time position has beenplanned for each

regional office toprovide liaisonbetween other healthservice agencies andthe Indian HealthService. The liaisonofficer would serve onthe staff of theregional health direc-tor, with directresPonsibility fordrawing the health,interests of theregional office andIHS closer together.He would also beresponsible forseeking, gookdinating,and facilitatinghealth services thatcan be integratedwith other fundingsources.

He would workdirectly with Statehealth departments,medical centers, andvoluntary healthorganizations inhighlighting theneeds of Indians forservice, discussingtheir dpecialcultural problems,andhelping socialagencies who work withIndians become awareof health resources.There is a need to .provide such aregional focal pointto work with theRegional Councils inmatters involvinghealth services forall Indians.

T

113

Health

Excerpt From American Indian Policy Review Commission Report

Urban Indian healthcare needs, as manyother problems facingIndians, echo those ofthe rural Indian.81Need for additional

facilities, doctors,medicine, generalhealth information andcare is high. Theurban Indian, however,does not have the sameaccess to existinghealth care facilitiesas his rural counter-part, as many of thefacilities have beencentralized on or nearreservation communitiesEven these are remotefor rural Indians.Testimonies haveindicated that,paiticularly in off-reservation areas localnon-Indian health

, service hospitals arereluctant to acceptIndian patients fOr

'-feir they will notreceive payment andfrequently.refer mostpatients to distantIndian hospitals ifcash or financialresponsibility cannotbe verified.

General lack ofinformation am9ng thenon-Indian communityabout Indians living inurban or rural non-reservation communitiesoften results insimilar referrals ofIndians who have livedoff-reservation formost of their lives,and has even includedthose carrying healthinsurance.Generally, new Indian

arrivals to urban areasare unfamiliar withexisting healthfacilities and areuncertain as towhether they areeligible for duchhealth services. TheseIndians are oftenreluctant to go tolocal hospitals becauseof financial barriersuntil they are withinmeans of visiting anIndian health facilityand so they usuallywait, risking moreserious illnesses inthe process. In

addition, testimoniesindicate Indians mayhesitate to useexisting facilitiesbecause of languagebarriers, limitedknowledge aboutavailable services,alternative methods ofpayment and healthinsurance programs, etc.Existing health care

facilities in urbanareas, city, state andcounty, have not workedwith Federal IndianHealth Servicesagencies to assuregeneralcooperation in services,particularly inidentifying urbanIndian health needs,much less preparing a,comprehensive approachto meeting these needs.Without a doubt the

identification of urbanIndian health careneeds is cruciallylacking. Indianagencies interested inassuring services toIndians in urbancommunities are findingit difficult to obtainspecific needs state-ments from existing

114. 20

heilth agencies.. Indeed, as mostagencies attempting toservice Indians in,urban areas, it hasbeen difficult toaccurately determinesuch basic-data as thecurrent urban Indianpopulation figure.(See section underHousing relating toproblems of enumeratinga highly transient.population.)

Some urban Indianhealth agencies, oftena board of representa-tives from boards-ofvarious health agenciesand Indian people fromthe urban communities,bave instrumentedgeneral healtheducation programswhich, through vehiclessuch as the IndianCommunity HealthRepresentatives, orother combinations ofparaprofessionals andoutreach workers, have .succeeded in providingthe urban,Indian with.information aboutexisting agencies andabout basic healthmaintenance in areas ofnutrition, prenatal andpostnatal care, etc..The need for

additional alcoholismtreatment centerscannot be overlooked..

Indian personstestifying at hearingsconducted by this taskforce indicate that',particularly in off-reservation bordertowns, alcoholismtreatment-centers arefar from adequate.Current alcoholismcontrol methods involvelittle or no thera-peutic services and theproblem drinker is leftto face repeatedincarcerations, finesand release with littleopportunity to examinealternatives. Localgovernments of manyoff-reservation bordertowns limit thedevelopment offacilities and programsbecause they feel thatsubh care must be aresponsibility of theIndian Health Serviceor feel they lackjurisdiction to dealwith such socialproblems. Again, thereis lack of adequate andspecific coordinationof efforts.

115(.111Erraw

Pervading the manyIndian health problemsin urban areas, andrural areas, is theneed for additionalemployment of Indianpersonnel, andalternatively, the needto inform key personnelin existing city,county and statefacilities about Indianhealth problems, Indianrights to services.'

Findings

Urban Indian healthneeds have gone largelyunassessed, other thanbaslc assumptions thatthe health problems ofurban Indians.aresimilar to those ofrural Indian communi-ties and those ofreservation communitiei.Existing off-

reservation healthagencies have not, forthe most part, assumedresponsibility towardeither assessing ormeeting Chi sgecifichealth needs of urbanIndians.

by Frank Mc 'Amore

As Rome hid its debtto the Etruscans,Americans haveobscured its inheritancefrom the Red Man.Anthropologists knowthat acculturationproceeds in bothdirections when twosocieties are in anykind of contact andthat even a conqueredpeople help to shapethe destiny of theiroverloads. "NorthAmericans haveFIRIEtirTIFFIREuropean level withtWe ctest posscblepur tan sm, wrotepsychiatrist Carl Jung,"yet they could notprevent the souls oftheir Indian enemiesfrom becoming theirs."82For our own benefit,Jet us resurrect somelost truth.41 Indians picked thesites now occupied bymany of our greatcities and plotted thetrails and canoeportages which arefollowed to this day

Relevance of Indian Life to Civilization

by our highways,railroads, and canals.83Americans have copiedtheir dress,and not onlyin the fringed buckskinof Daniel Boone. Fromthe Indians, Americanslearned to substitutelong pants for kneebreeches;, American womenborrowed their feathersand paint,*and to weartheir moccasins, their '

parkas and ponchos.84Their beads and bellsare popular with hippies.Americans learned tosmoke their tobacco fildeat their food; thetapioca oUthe Amazon,the beans, avocados,pineapples, chocolate,peppers, and cranberries,squashes and pecans ofNorth America. Thepemmican of the PlainsIndians has served asfood for antarticexplorers. From thePexican Indians,Americans borrowedchewing gum, tamales,chili and tortillas,from North American.Indians, hominy,succotash, corn poneand popcorn.85

Literature, Music &Arts

American Indianshave influencedAmericans' literaturefar beyond Coopert'sMohicans andLongfellow's Hiawatha'which is the allegednational truest epic.Edna Ferber', HamlinGarland, Helen HuntJackson and pliverLa Farge are a fewamong many who haveportrayed the Indianin novels. ThomasWolfe and ErnestHemingway used Indianthemes in shortstories, while PhilipFreneau, John Neihardt,Lew Sarett and WaltWhitman glorified themin poetry. 86 Indianmythology constitutesAmerica's mostauthentic Americanfolklore. Appropriate-ly, the first Bibleprinted in this countrywas in an Algonquianlanguage, John Eliot'sIndian Bible of 1663.

Indians,haveinfluenced composersof music; imong thoseindebted to them are:Charlps Wakefield

-C3dman, Anton Dvorak,Anton P. Heinrich,Victor Herbert,Thrulow Lieurance,Harvey W. Loomis,Edward A. McDonwelland Charles S.Skilton.87

Indian arts anddesigns haveinfluenced America's.arts; jewelry, homedecorations, andarchitecture.88 Notonly did earlysettlers initiate theIndian wigwam andpalisade, but the armymodified the Plainstepee into the Sibleytent. Today a'prefabricated vacationhome .in the shape of atepee, called Wigwam7009 has been marketedby the National DesignCenter in Chicago. TheQuenset hut, which iswidely used wheresimplicity is demanded,has both an Indianname and Indian designBuckminster Fuller's"Geodesic,Dome" is anaboriginal wigwamcovered with metal orglass instead of bark.Modern skyscraperscopy the terracedsetback of the Maya.Pueblos Adobe bricksbecame the white man's,building material inthe Southwest. Thecube style of thepueblos appears in the

La Fonda Hotel inSanta Fe and MosheSafdie's Habitat atExpo '67 in Montreal.Willard Carl Kruger'sNew Mexico State Houseis in the shape of theZia Sum Symbol. FrankLloyd Wright acknow-,ledged Eis debt to theMaya-and incorporatedtheir themes in someof his buildings. Oftheir temples; hewrote: "A grandeauarose in the scale oftotal building neversince excelled, seldomequalled by man eitherin trutli of plan orsimple integrity ofform."99me =MI.Not only was the

Indian a sculptor, buthe has inspiredAmerican sculptors aswell. LeonardCrunelle, MalvinHoffman, IvanMestrovic and LoradoTaft are among thosewho have portrayedthe Indian in stoneand bronze.91 "Letus not forget thatauthentic Americancreationthe cigarstore wlndow Indian!"Among painters who

made their reputationwith Indian subjectsare: Carl Bodmer,,George Catlin,Frederick Rooington,and Alfred Miller.Americans borrowed

Indian inventions andeven used their namesfor many of them; .

canoe, kayak, Pirogue,cigar, hammock, andtoboggan. Americansuse the Indian'ssnowshoeg, cradleboard,rubber, pipe, andcigarettes. Some ofthe American youthplay lgcrosse andother games whichevolved from Indian

. sports.92 Indian lore.enlivens the program ofyouth organizations.Indian dance clubs andcraft groups composedof white adults areflourishing in the U.S.and in Europe.93 Indianthemes are in thechildren's toyS and

117

juvenkle literature.Indians have long beenimportant in the movies,as they were earlier onthe stage,94 but it hasonly been recently thatthiy have been portrayedpn the screen withsympathy and dignity, infilms like Broken Arrow,Devil's Doorway anddheyenne Autumn.

Names & Languags

Indian'people haveenriched the languageof Americans. Theirwords are used foranimals: cariboup,chipmunk, cougar,coyote, jaguar,manatee, moose,oppossum, racoon,skunk, and woodchuck.Trees carry theirnames: catalpa,chinquapin, hickory,papaw, pecan,persimmon, Sequois,Tamarack and Tupelo.Some sixty plants haveIndian words used toname them including;16ohosh, puccoon,pipsisseaw and poke.

Because of fancy orIndian usage, otherwords have been usedlike Indian paintbrush, Indian pipe,Indian turnip,moccasin flower, papooseroot, and squaw vine.Americans use theirwords for topographicfeatures such asmuskegs, bayous, andsavannas, and speak ofhurricanes and chinookwinds. Red man taught

s Americans to iay!-3och, okay, punk, andpewee. From them cameborrowed terms such ascaucus, tammany,pow-wow, mugwump,podunk, and tuxedo.Other commonly usedwords or phrases, like"Buck," "bury thehatchet," "go on thewarpath," "IndianSummer," "Indiangiver," "Indian File,""great white Vath9r,"and "war paint,"9 haveconnections to the Red .

Man.

Americans plant,Cherokee roses, Catawbagrapes, Pima cotton,and Black Hawkraspberries. Americansdrive Pontiac andCherokee Chief cars,ride in trains called"The Chiefn and"Hiawatha." Americanscall their athleticteams: Black Hawks,Braves, IllinieRedskins, Warriors,.and Indians. Thereare Cayuse andAppaloosa ponies andMalemtite dogs.

Indian words havebeen used to nametwenty-seven States,four great lakes, andmany mountains andrivers, to give asMenchen said, "IAbarbaric brilliancyto the American map."96.Canada and four of itsprovinces and two ofits territories haveIndian names, as do tennations in LatinAmerica. Indian wordswere used to namecities like: Chattan-ooga, Chicago,Kalamazoo, Kenocha,Keokuk, Kokomo,Mankato, Miami,Milwaukee, Muncie,Muskegon, Omaha,Oshkosh, Paducah,Pawtucket, Peoria,Sandusky, Schenectady,

6

Seattle, Sheboygan,

r!"

Spokane, Tacoma,Tallahassee, Tucson,Tulsa, Waco, andWichita.. Some of.their names weretranslated intocolorful English andFrench equivalentslike Bad Axe, BattleCreek, Des Plaines,and Fond du Lac.

Indians brighten theadvertising field.Totem Poles invite youto Alaska and theIndian calendar storecalls one to Mexico.Indians are featuredin the advertising ofthe Santa Fe and GreatNorthern Railroads,and in the touristadvertising of manyStates. The Indian ison the baking soda can,on a box of cornstarch, on chewingtobacco, patentmedibines, and manyother products.Indian names are usedas trade marks: BlackHawk meats,'Cherokeegarment, Pequot sheets,Sioux tools, WyandotteChemicals and Navajotruck lines. TheIndian is on coins andstamps. An azteclegend is pictured onthe MeXican Flag andIndian symbolsdecgrate'the StateFlag of New Mexico andOklahoma.

The Indian& Political History ,

The Indian is animportant ingredientof America's politicalhistory. The colonialcharters speak ofTrade and Conversionas objects of thecolonizers. TheIndian presence was aspur to efforts atColonial Union, fromthe New EnglandConfederation to theAlbany Congress.. TheIroquois Alliancehelped to defeat theFr-nch and Indianswere significantparticipants in allcolonial wars, andlater ones, both asfriends and foes.Their rebellion underPontiac in 1763 wonthe royal proclamationchoosing the West tosettlement, and .launched a chain ofevents leading toAmerica's independence.

Imdianw are mentionedin the Declaration ofIndeyendence, theArticles ofConfederation, theNorthwest Ordinance,the U.S. Constitution,the Constitution ofthe Confederacy, andin numerouspresidential messages(Y2.11X...0A5.12E11-Indians are on recordwith having at leastfive treaties-withforeign powers,Sfhave 372 treaties withthe U.S., and over4,000 laws have beenpassed pertaining tothe Indians. Severalgovernment agenciesare involved with theIndians.Montaigne, Rousseau,

and Jefferson paidtribute to the Indiancapacity to organizehuman affairs in thelibertarian manner.The Iroquois developeda system ofconfederated govern-ment which, accordingto Benjamin Franklinserved as an examplefor his Albany Plan ofUnion,98 andeventually for theArticles ofConfederation. FelixCohen has lashed theassumption that ourdemocracy was born inGreece: ...it is outof a rich Indian

119

democratic tradition-"that the distinctivepolitical ideals ofAmerican life emerged.Universal suffrage forwomen as for men, thepattern of Stateswithin t State that weball federalism, thehabit of treatingChiefs as servants ofthe people instead oftheir masters, theinsistence that thgcommunity must respectthe diversity of menand the diversity oftheir dreams--allthese things were paktof the'American way oflife before Columbuslanded.99The followers of Sam

Adams masqueraded asIndians at the BostonTea Party andAmericans borrowedIndian militarytactics in therevolutiod, as thepoet Robert P. TristomCbffin has written:

"We bent down to thebobcat's crouch

Took color from thebutternut tree,

at Saratoga,Lexington,

ift fought likeIndians and went.free."

Even customs andfolkways: frontierhospitality, and aneighborly cooperation,smth as barn-raising,were copies of Indianmannors. We learnedhie weather and plant

altEUmmatigiEat22P

isms the "rebel yell"in the Civil War andTristom Coffin says,:

"We even put the Pow-Wow on,

We dance the nightbefore we fight,

1

Republicans, Democrats,football teamsWith red hot songsbuild up theirnight. 11100

The predominantethnic strain in allbut four of thenations of Central andSouth America isIndian. Indians haveshaped the study ofanthropology,linguistics, andarchaeology,particularly inAmerica, and havecontributed to thoughtih psychology,sociology, law,political theory, andeducation. Theytaught Americansprogressive, non-authoritarian ways ofrearing and teachingchildren.101

Cultursi Cha Hong& Individual Response

It is a trap to.measure the worth ofany people by thedegree to which theyhave successfullyparticipated asindividuals in a rivalculture. Because

Indians are few innumber and lived alargely separate life,they cannot point to alarge number of suchpersons.' In athletics,however, fame came toJim Thorpe, LouisTewomiom, Don Eagleand Charles AlbertBonder. In militaryservice, there areBrig. Gen.' Eli S.Parker (who wrote thesurrender toAppomattox), MajorGen. Clarence Tinker,and Rear,AdmiralJoseph Clark. Indianscan point with'prideto artists BrummetEchohawk and BeationYazz, ballerinas Marieand Marjorie Tallchief,humorist Will Rogers,actor Jay Silverheels,William Keeler,President and BoardChairman PhillipsPetroleum Corporation,former Vice PresidentCharles Curtis andnumerous otherpeople.102

The tragedy, if onewere to find tragedy,is that nowhere can wefind a history bookthat tells more than asmall fragment ofthese things.

120 116

Housing

Excorpt From American Indian Policy Rview Commissiosi Report

Housing problems forIndian families andindividuals beginimmediately uponleaving reservation andrural communities.These problems arebasically generated byaccritical lark ofadequate housing inthe rural communitiesIndians leave, ageneral lack of priorexperience or knowledgeof related domesticactivities (e.g.renting, /.easing, etc.)which are matters ofcourse for mostindividuals. Adviceabout housing, leasing,search and otherfundamentals torelocating are notreadily availablesince most family andfriends Living in rurarareas are also ignorantof 6rban livingsituations. Lackingorientation and properpreparation for findingadequate housing, eachfamily must learn byexperience--a situationthat proves to becostly and more oftenthan not for the low'income familie.s,resulting in less thanadequate livingconditions.

Reports andtestimonies point outthat it is not unusualfor Indian families toarrive in cities withlittle or no funds tospend son housing.

Because of discrimina-tory practiqes oflandlords ' largefamily composition,104low incomes and ageneral lack ofinformation abouthousing alternatives,

Indians all toofrequently find them-selves in substandardand cramped livingquarters.

Housing, :,an Ration Data tor Urban and Rural lndlana105

U;ban Rural

Housing -.. Degree

of Crowding:(Persons/Room)

U.S. Indians U.S. Indians

1.00 or less 92.5% 81.3% 89.9% 55.0%

1.01 to 1.50 5.7 12.2 7.1 15.4

1.51 or more (Severe) 1.9 6.4 3.0 28.6

Sanitation.Facilities:

Without Water 0.3 0.9 8.7 67.4

Without Toilet 0.6 8.6 11.6 48.0

NOTE: This table reveals that Indians have greatertendencies to live in overcrowded conditions bothin rural and urban areas. In addition, there is agteater tendency for both groups to settle forhousing without adequate sanitation facilities.Notably, the presence of such basic deficienciesin housing is far from tolerable for urban living.

121

Charaotastatioa of the ILL Total& American Indian POpuktloase11170 1"

%Husband-Wife

U. S .Total

TotalIndian

UrbanIndian

RuralIndian

Families 86% 77% '77% 77%

Ibliith ChildrenUnder 18 56 67 64 70

$ With ChildrenUnder 6 27 40 28 41

0 Persons Under 18Living Vith BothParents 85 . ,69 67 70

iliale-HeadedFamilies 11 18 19 18

% With ChildrenUnder 18 55 66 70 61

% With ChildrenUnder 6 21 32 33 30

0 Families With 3 OrNor* Own ChildrenUnder 18 20 33 .27 38

Families With 5 OrMore Persons 25 41 32 50

WOMSt This tdble reveals.that greater percentages ofIndian familis have children under ages 18, andchildren under six years of age. The chart alsoshows that greater percentages of Indians havefamilies withlive or more persons. (Note the high

percentage of urban Indian female heads ofhousehold.)

Family Composition: Summary 1970107

Nuclear Families

Total Total

Extended Families

3-4 generationZinear family,

including grandchildren orparents of head

Pamilies withonly relativesother thangrandchildrenor parents ofhead (brothers,sisters, etc.)

U.S. Total 88% 12% 7% 5%

Indians 78 22 13 9

Urban 83 17 9 8

Rural 74 26 17 9

In addition, manyIndian families mustforego essentialexpenditures onutilities or on thepurchase of basicfurniture requirementsuntil they feel theycan afford them oruntil they are able toestablish credit. Itmust be emphasized thatall these problems andothers occur at a mostcrucial period, whenthe head of thehousehold is in theprocess of seekingemployment.When Indian families

succoed in findinghousing, particularlywhen it is located inbetter neighborhoods,they are often coercedintosigning long-termleasing agreementswhich-they may notunderstand, or are toldbinds them into making

costly repairs onproperty they do notown or that are notwithin their legalobligations to repair.For lack of legalserVices an4 vitalinformation abouthousing codes, thereare few means wherebythe Indian family canbe assured that suchpractices do not occur.

Bias and discrimina-tion also inhibit thechoice and selection'ofdesirable housing. Ifhousing markets aretight, the family mustoften settle for whatis available. As aresult the Indian family

may be willing to accept-sub-standard housing inmarginal neighborhoodswhere there are highconcentrations ofpoverty. The result isthat Indian familiesare left to learn urbanadjustment in areas ofhigh crime, poorsanitation, and crampedliving conditions. Theextent of these problemsmay cause manyindividuals to considerthat perhaps, they werebetter off living intheir rural community.Without doubt, this.

ihitial period of urbanliving is one of greatconfusion and

.dependency for Indians.In presence of fewother sources ofsupport, the Indianoften turns to othermembers of his familyfor moral and financialassistance, thus

placing additionalburden on otherfamilies in similarpredicaments. Shouldindividuals or entirefamilies move in withother members of animmediate or extendedfamily to lowerexpenses, etc., thesituation is worsenedby overcrowding, 108landlord harassment,and unhealthy livingconditions.109 Whenall urban family supportbreaks down, it is notuncommon for the Indianto return to hisparticular ruralcommunity, only toventure back later,after resources thereas well, becomedepleted. Frequent

. migration to and fromurban and rural Indian

communities, a numberof urban Indian centercoordinators state,have notably complicatedstatistical gatheringprocesses and theformation of an adequateurban Indian needsassessment.

Indian and non-Indianagencies attempting toservice the urbanIndian find itespecially difficult toinclude this fluidpopulation as part ofpermanent populationbases when seeking tojustify what theyconsider to beappropriate Indianshares of communitychest and foundationfunds for programservices to meet the

124 130

needs of this portionof the urban Indianpopulation.The transitory nature

of a substantialportion of urban Indianpopulations to and fromreservations, and morerecently identifiedtrend, to and fromother. urban Indiancommunities, are asignificant character-istic of a visibleportion of the urbanIndian community.Without a doubt itcarries with it,substantial financialand emotional buidens.Perhaps even morecrucial, it inhibitsunifying effort§ toovercome a series ofrelated problems.Where unifying effortshave occurred, however,and small inner-cityorganizations havedeveloped, Indiangroups have been ableto generate interest in

improving housingconditions. Utilizingvarious types ofpolitical support andthrust some groupshave begun to assesshousing needs, identifyhousing problems andimplement orientation/education programs inIndian communities.Programs which make

available housingeducation, orientation,listing of rentals,leasing information,and offer advice,provide a necessaryfirst step in relievingsome initial problemsof housing facing newlymigrated Indianfamilies. Suchprograms could beexpanded to includeactivities that provideinformation regardingdirect supplementalgrants for housing,

loans, housing improve-ments and rentsupplements during thefamily's initial tenure .

in cities.Concurrent programs

could also enlist theinterest of the non-Indian members of theurban communities suchthat they are madeacutely aware of theirresponsibilitiestowards Indian people,as members of the urbancommunity in assuringtSat Indian peoplereceive standardhousing at fair prices.Other efforts to

stablize economic andsocial conditionsconsequently provideincentive for thedevelopment of Indianfamily roles in urbansettings, are in order.Education projectsregarding creditapplication procedures,advice on managingeconomic conditionsand the identificationand/or development offiscally responsiblecredit mechanisms forIndian people, areadditional areas cfneed.

Findings

1. Upon arrival tourban areas, mostIndians are notadequately informedabout how to findhousing.

2. Already at adisadvantage hecause oflack of money, theIndian family willoften settle ininadequate housinglocated in distressful.neighborhoods.

3. Lack of funds willalso cause manyfamilies to foregobasic necessities, andthose conveniencesvital for seekingemployment. (Adequate/reliable transportation,telephones, utilities.)

4. In addition, theIndian family, largerthan average U.S.families tend to sharehousing with relativesto save expenses.

5. Existing agenciesdesigned to servicehousing problems, knowlittle about Indianhousing problems or theIndian situation as awhole, as a consequence,they find it difficultto assist the Indianfamily individually.

125 01

.

Dallas Region: 25%

Stat's1960

Pop.

1970!oat.

% ofIncrease

Arkansas 580 2,014 247%

Louisiana 3,587 5,294 48%

New Mexico 56,255 72,788 29%

Oklahoma 64,689 98,468 52%

Texas 547$0 17.957 212%

Total 130,861 196,521 SO%

San Orancisco Region: 25%

1960 1970 % of

State Pop. Increase

Arizona 83,337 95,812 15%

California 39,014 91,018 133%

Hawaii 472 1,112 136%

Nevada 6,681 7,833 17%

Total 129,504 195,775 51%

Denver Region: 13%

1960

State PoP%

ColoradoMontanaN. DakotaS. DakotaUtahWyoming

Total

Indian Population by Regions

(1970 Census Stitistics)

Projected1980 Pop.

294,782

Projected1980 Pop.

295,620

1570 % of Projected

Pop., Increase 1980 Pop.

4,28821,18111,73625,7946.9614,020

8,836%27,13014,36932,36511,273

AFINP

106%28%22%25%62%

24%

132,59773,980 98,953 '3411

126

Chicago Region: 10%

1960 1970 % of

State Pop. pop. Increase

Illinois 4,704 11,413 143%

Indiana 948 3,887 310%

Michigan. 9,701 16,854 74%

Minnesota 15,496 23,128 49%Ohio 1,910 6,654 248%

Wisconsin 14 297 18,924 32%

Total 47,056 80,860 72%

Seattle Regfon. 9%1960

State

AlaskaIdahoOregonWashington

Total

Projected1980 Pop.,

a

139,079

1970 % of ProjectedPop. Increase 1980 Pop.

14,4445,2318,02621,076

,16,2766,68713,51033 386

13%28%68%58%

99,89848,777 69,859 43%

Atlanta Region: 8%

1960 1970 % of ProjectedState pop., Pop. Increase 1980 Pop.

Alabama 1,276 2,443 '91%

Florida 2,505 6,677 167%

Georgia 749 2,347 213%

Kentucky 391 1,531 292%

Mississippi 3,119 4,113 32%

N. Carolina 38,129 44,406 16%

S. Carolina 1,098 2,241 104%

Tennessee 638 2,276 257%

Total 47,905 66,034 38% 91,127

127

New York, Region: 4%

State

New JerseyNew YorkPuerto RicoVirgin Islands

Total

1960 1970Fop.

14°P.

1,699 4,706

16,491 28,3550 0

, 0 0

18,190 33,061

&Louis Region: 3%

State1960' 1970Pop. Pop.

Iowa 1,708 2,992

Kansas 8,261

Missouri 1,723 5,405

Nebraska 5f545 6,624......

Total 8,976 23,282

Philadelphia Region: 2%

1960 1970

State pap.. Pop.

Delaware 597 656

Maryland 1,538 4,239Pennsylvania 2,122 5,533

Virginia 2.155 4,853

N. Virginia 181 751

% of ProjectedIncrease 1980 Pop.

177%72% .

0%0%

821 60,171

% of ProjectedIncrease 1980 Pap.

75%

214%19%

159% 60,300

% of ProjectedIncrease 1980 Pop.

1Q%176%.

161%125%315%

'Total 6,593 16,032 143% 38,958

Boston Region: 1%

State

ConnecticutMaineMassachusettsNew HampshireRhode Island.Vermont

Total

Total U.S.

1960Pop:

1970Po,.

% ofIncrease

Projected1980 Pop.

923 ?,222 141%1,879 2,195 17%2,118 4,475 111%

135 361 167%932 1,390 49%57 229 302%

6,044 10,872 80% 19,570

1960 1970 % of irojectedPop. Pop. Increase 1980 Pop,

517,886 791,249 53% 1,210,41

Mr. Rodney P. Arnetp, ChiefPeoria Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 1308Miami, OK 74354

Mr. Lewis Barlow, ChiefOtawa Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 1308Miami, OK 74354

Mr. Bill Follis, ChiefModoc Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 1308Miami, OK 74354

Tri-Tribal Office811 3rd AvenueMiami, OK 74354

Mr. Bruce M. Townsend,Chairman

Delaware Tribe of EasternOklahoma

201 Denver BuildingTulsa, OK 74119

Mr. Overton James, GovernorChickasaw Nation of

OklahomaP.O. Box 1548Ada, OK 78420

Mr. Hollis E. Roberts,Principal Chief

Chdctaw Nation of OklahomaDrawer 12r1Durant, OK 74701

Mr. James H. Allen, ChiefSeneca -Cayuaga Business

Comm.P.O. Box 1283Miami, OK 74354

Mr. George J. "Buck"Captain, Chief

Eastern Shawnee Tribe ofOklahoma

308 Robinson BuildingMiami, OK 74354

IndianeTribes/Organizations

Mr. Mont*Cotter, ChiefWyadotle Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 636-309 N. MainMiani, Ok 74354

Mr, Claude A. Cox,Ptincipal Chief

Creek Nation of OklahomaP.O. Box 1114Okmulgee, OK 74447

Mr. Sylvester J. Tinker,Principal Chief

Osage Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 1346Pawhuska, OK 74056

Mr. Jess McKibben, ChairmanQuapaw Tribe pf Oklahoma,P.O. Box 765Quapaw, OK 74363

Mr. Ross 0. Swimmer,Principal Chief

Cherokee Nation of OklahomaP.O. Box 948Itahlequah, OK 74464

Mr. Jerome Shawnee,Chairman of Bus. Comm.

Cherokee-Shawnee Tribe of'Oklahoma

4957 N. St. LouisTulsa, OK 74126

Mr. Tom Palmer,Chief

Seminole NationP.O. Box 745.wewoka, OK 74884

Principal

of Oklahoma

Dallas Rgion VI

Mr. Lawrence Snake,President

Delaware Tribe of WesternOklahcma

P.O. Box 825Anadarko, pit 73005

Mr. Doyle Edge, ChairmanCaddo Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 855115 NE FirstAnadarko, OK 73005

Ms. Joyce Bell, PresidentWichita Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 729Anadarko, OK 73005

Mr. Housten Klinekole,Chairman

Apache Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 733Anadarko, OK. 73005

Mr. Lawrence Murray,Chairman

Iowa Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 99Perkins, OK 74059

Kr. Duane Pratt, Chairmanof the Bus. Council

Pawnee.Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 67Pawnee, OK 74055

Mr. Jacob Ahtone, ChairmanXiowa Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 1028Anadarko, OK 73005

Ms. Mildred I. Cleghorn,Chairperson

Ft. Sill Apache Tribe115 NZFirstAnadarko, OK 73005

Mr. Joseph Pedro, ChairmanCheyenne/Arapaho Tribes of

OklahomaP.O. Box 38Conch°, OK 73022

Mr. James M. Cox, ChairmanComanche Indian TribeP.O. Box 72Lawton, OK 73501

Mr. Jessie Mehejah, Jr.,Chairman

KAW Business CommitteeP.O. Box 710515 S; PinePonca City, OK 74601

Mr. Leonard Biggoose,Chairman

Ponca Tribe of OklahomaBox 1, White EaglePonca City, OK 74601

Mr. Kenneth Harragarra,Chairman

Otoe-Missouri Tribes ofOklahoma

P.O. Box 68Red Rock, OK 74651

Mr. Paul Schmidlkofer,Chairman

Citizen Band PotawatomiOklahoma

Rt. 5, Box 151Shawnee, OK 74801

United Indian Tribes ofWestern Oklahoma 6Kansas, Inc.

P.O. Box 1382Shawnee, OK 74801

Ms. Iola Hayden, Executive'Director

Oklahomans for IndianOpportunity, Inc.

333 ConstitutionNorman, OK 73069

Mr. Bob Gann, ExecutiveDirector

of Oklahoma Indian AffairsCommission

4010 Lincoln Blvd.Oklahoma City, OK 73105

Mr. Elmer H. Grant,Principal Chief

SAC 6 Fox Tribe of OklahomaRt. 2, Box 246Stroud, OK 74801

Mr. John L. Sloat, GovernorAbsentee/Shawnee Tribes of

OklahomaP.O. Box 1747Shawnee, OK 74801

Mr. Henry L. Allen,President

TOnkawa Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 70Tonkawa, OK 74653

Mr. Herbert White, ChairmanKickapoo Tribe of OklahomaP.O. Box 58McLoud, OK 74851

Director"ive Tribes Foundation, Inc.P.O. Box A-FMuskogee, OK 74401

Ms. Millie Giago,.DirectorNative American Center, Inc.1214 N. HudsonOklahoma City, OK 73103

Mr. Les Cusher, ExecutiveDirector

NE Oklahoma Inter-TribalCouncil, Inc.

P.O. Box 1308Miami, OK 74354

Mr. Clifford W. Kilpatrick,Director

Central Tribes of Shawnee,Inc.

P.O. Box 24271, UniversityStation

Shawnee, OK 74801

132 137

TuiSa Indian Youth Council,'Inc.

716 S. TroostTulsa, OK 74107

Mr. John Daughtery,Director

Native American Coalitionof Tulsa, Inc.

P.O. Box 2646819 S. DenverTulsa, OK 74119

DirectorW.C.D. (Ink) Enterprises,

Inc.

P.O. Box 998Anadarko, OK 73005

Mr. Walt Broemerc ExecutiveDirector

Texas Indian Commission1011 AlstonLivingston, TX 75206

Mr. Mike Mahsetky, ChairmanBoard of DirectorsAmerican Indian Center, Inc.1314 N. MungerDallas, TX 75206

Mr. Ray'Johnson, ChairmanBoard of DirectorsDallas Inter-Tribal Center,

Inc.

334 CentreDallas, TX 75208

Mr. Emnett Battise, Supt.Alabama-Coushatta TribeRt. 3, Box 640Livingston, TX 77351

147

Mr. Joseph L. Juancho, Supt.Tigua Indian Commun -yP.O. BoK 17579-Yslet-

StationEl Paso, TX 79917

7ay Concho, GovernorACOMA PuebloP.O. Box 309Acomita, NM 87034

Mr. Juan Valencia, Governor'San Felipe PuebloP.O. Box 308.,0,Algodones, NM 87001

Ms. Inez BacaSandia PuebloP.O. Box 608Bernalillo, NM 87004

Mr. Sam Armijo, GovernorSanta Ana PuebloP.O. Box 37Bernalillo,'NM t7004

Mr. Isaac Herrera, GovernorCochiti PuebloP.O. Box 70Cochiti Pueblo, NM 87041

Mr. Walter Dasheno,Governor

Santa Clara PuebloP.O. Box 580Espanola, NM 87532

Mr. Alvino Lucero, GovernorIsleta PuebloP.O. Box 317Isleta Pueblo, NM 87022

Mr. Frank Loretta, GovernorJemez PuebloP.O. Box 78Jemez Pueblo, NM 87024

Mr. Floyd Correa, GovernorLaguna PuebloP.O. Sox 194Old Laguna, NM 87026

Mr. Victor Martinez,Governor

Picuris PuebloP.O. Box 228.Penasco, NM 87553

Mr. Andrew Garcia, GovernorSap Juan PuebloP.O. Box 1099San Juan, NM 87566

Mr: Moses Shije, GovernorZia PuebloGeneral DeliverySan Ysidro, NM 87053

Mr. Pete Concha, GovernorTaos PuebloP.O. Box 1846Taos Pueblo, NM 87571

Mr. Robert Lewis, GovernorZuni PuebloP.O. Box 338Zuni, NM 87327

Mr. Ben J. Cuho,Ramah NavajoP.O. BOx 267Ramah, NM 87321

President

133

Mr. Wendell Chino,President

Mescalero Apache TribeP.O. Box 176Mescalero, NM 88340

Mr. Joe A. Padilla,Governor

Tesuque PuebloRt. 1-Box 1Santa Fe, NM 87501

Mr. Jacob Viarrial,Governor

Pojoaque PuebloRt. 1, Box 71Santa Fe, NM 87501

Mr. Gilbert M. Pena,Governor

Nambe PuebloRt. 1, Box 117-BBSanta Fe, NM 87501

Mr. Derinis Martihez,Governor

San Ildefanso PuebloRt. 5, Box 315-ASanta Fe, NM 87501

Mr. Alex Garcia, GovernorSanta Domingo PuebloGeneral DeliverySanto Domingo Pueblo, NM

87052

Mr. Leonard Atole,President

Jicarilla Apache TribalCouncil

P.O. Box 507Dulce, NM 87528

Mr. Joe Herrera, ExecutiveDirector

New Mexico COmmission onIndian Affairs

Bataan Memorial BuildingSanta Fe, NM 87503

Mr. Herman Agoyo, ExecutiveDirector

Eight Northern IndianPueblos Council

P.O. Box 969San Juan Pueblo, NM 87566

Mr. Delfin Lovato, ChairmanAll Indian Pueblo Council,

Inc.

P.O. Box 6507, Station BAlbuquerque, NM 87107

Six Sandovol Indian PuebloP.O. Box 580Bernalillo, NM 87004

Mr. Gerald Wilkionson,Executive Director

National.Indian YouthCouncil, Inc.

201 Hermosa Dr., NEAlbuquerque, NM 87108

Mse Ladonna Harris,President

Americans for IndianOpportunity

)6000 Second, NWAlbuquerque, NM 87105

kr. Don Benally, PresidentFarmington Inter-tribal

Indian OrganiiationP.O. Box 2322Farmington, NM,87401

Mr. L. M. Burgess, ChairmanChitimacha Tribe of

LouisianaP.O. Box 661Charenton, LA 70523

Mr. Ernest Sickey, ChairmanCoushatta Tribe.of

LouisianaP.O. Box 988Elton, LA 70532

Ms. Helen Gindrat, ChairmanHoma Tribe of LouisianaStar Rt., Box 958Golden Meadow, LA 703571

Mr. Howard Dion, ChairmanHoma Alliance, Inc.Rt. 6, Box 888Boma, LA 70360

Mr. Joe Pierite, ChairmanTunca-Biloxi Tribe of

LouisianaP.O. Box 101Marksville, LA 71351

Mr. Norris Tyler, ChairmanClifton Choctaw CommunityRt. 1, Box 37Mora, LA 71371

Mr. Clyde Jackson, ChairmanJena Band of ChoctawsP.O. Box 212Trout, LA 71371

Mr. Peter D. Mora IIIOffice of Indian AffairsDept. of Urban & Community

Affairs'P.O. Box 44455-Capitol

StationBaton Rouge, LA 70804

Mr. Ernest Sickey, ChairmanInter-Tribal Council of

Louisiana, Inc.264 Riverside Mall, Suite

208Baton Rouge, LA 70801

1349

Oootnots.

'Felix Cohen's Handbook ofFederal Indian haw, 1945,listed the existence of 4,264 separate statutes havingapplication to American Indians.

2See Worcester v. Georgia, 31 U.S. 350 (1832).3Art. II, Sec. 2, Cl. 2: "(The President) shall havepower, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,to make treaties....7

4Art. I, Sec. 8, Cl. 3: "Congress shall have power...toregulate commsrce with foreign nations, and among theseveral States, and with the Indian tribes...."

5See Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 30 U.S. 1 (1831);United States V. Eagama, 118 U.S. 375, 383-84 (1886).

6See comment, the Indian Battle for Self Determination,58 Cal. L.R. 445 (1970).

731 U.S. 350 (1832).

816 stat. 566, 25 J.S.C. 71.

9

4

See cases cited in notes 3, 4, and 5, Fcdi:ia 1 rndiunLaw, supra, p. ,25.

10316 U.S. 286 (1942).

1141 Am. Jur. 2d, ti 11, p. 840.

12Ke-Tua-c-iqun quail 1.:(11.4P.?, 122 Ind. 541, 23 N.E.1080 (Ivo).

13Federal

14Supra at

15180 U.S.

Indian Law, surra, p. 469.

page 379.

261 (1901).16

231 F. 2d 89, 92 (1956).17 /

Feaeral Indian Law (1940 ed.) T. 123.18Federal. Indian Law, sKra, p. 395.

19Federal Indian Law, stq2,a, p. 396.

28Mid, at 403.

21See Act of June 7, 1897, 30 stat. 62, 84.

22See Colliflower v. Gaviand, 342 F. 2d 369 (1965).

23Little v. Nakai 344 F. 2d 486, ccm. 382 U.S.

986 (1965).24

Wlttlams V. Lee, 358 U.S. 217 (1958)25Colliflower v. Garla; i supra.

135

26Native American Church v. Navajo Tribal Council,

272 F. 2d 131 (1959).2741 Am. 'Jur. 2d, i 66, p. 869.

2825 U.S.C. 1301, 35. seq.

2918 U.S.C. 1153.

28 U.S.C. 1360.30

31Pioneer Packing Companlj v. Wins7ow, 159 Wash. 655, 294,

p. 557.32PUyalZup Tribe V. Pepartment of Game, 391 U.S. 392

(1970).

33garris v. Scckey, 170 F. 2d (1S48).

34See Note, 13 Yale L.J. 250 (1904).

35135 F. 947 (1905).

36Morris v. Hitchcock, 21 app. D.C. 566 (1903).

37Acosta v. 7c2n P:(-vo :ount2, 126 Cal. app. 2d 455, 272

p. 2d 92; Dci2re v. Now York (D.C. N.Y.) 22 F. 2d 851

* (1927).

38Snith v. linitcd St(.1tc)o, 151 U.S. 50, 38 (1894)

39 ,Halbert v..01 ci S,-2tcs, 283 U.S. 753, 762-763 (1931).

40163 U.S. 376 (1896).

41219 F. Supp. 19, 21 (1963).

42272 F. 2d 131, 10th Cir. (1959).

43Toledo v. Fu,-blo .'t-reL.119 F. Supp. 429 (D.M. Mex.

(1954)).

44272 F. 2d 131 (1962).

45272 F. 131, p. 135.

46Public Law 90-284; 25 U.S.C. 1301, et. seq.

47P.Lper V. Big Pines School District, 193 Cal. 664, 226

pac. 926 (1924).48See memorandum, Solicitor for the Department of

Interior, April 22, 1936, holding that the Social

Security Act was applicable to Indians.

136.141'

49Although originally true, this has not been the case

for decades..50Onited States Department of the Interior, Bureau of

Indian Affairs, May 1968.51In Re Celestine, 114 Sed. 551 (1902).

52The Commission members were Senator James Abourezk,Chairman (Dem.--S. Dak.); Congressman Lloyd Meeds,Vice Chairman (Dem--Wash.); Senator Lee Metcalk (Dem.--Mont.); Senator Mark Hatfield (Rep.--Ore.); Congress-man Sidney Yates (Dem.--I11.); Congressman Sam Steiger

(Rep.--Ariz.); Ada Deer (Menominee); Jake Whitecrow(Quapaw--Seneca--Cayuga); John Brobridge (Tlinget);Louis R. Bruce (Mohawk--Sioux);sand Dr. Adolph A. Dial

(Lembee).53n

A Study of Selected Socio-Economic Characteristics of

Ethnic Minorities Based on the 1970 Census. Vol.

American Indians." Office of Special Concerns, Officeof the Assistant Sec. for Planning and Evaluation,Dept. of H.E.W. (1974) . (pp. 49-57)

54Responses from 62 organizational questionnairesregarding the needs of urban Indian communities revealed

employment needs were the most frequently expressed and

that respondents characteristically mentioned this

before any other.55

Ibid. H.E.W. Report (p. 51)

56 Ibid. H.E.W. Report pp. 49-53

e. 13 7

7Common questions asked on employment forms can beparticularly difficult for traditional Indian personsto answer without extensive explanation: Example

follows:Name It is not unusual for this to_change

with various situations. 1) Non-Indians may.not be able to pronouncethe name, so it is changed to oneeasily pronounced. 2) A name may.nothave been given consistently to samemembers of a family--a result ofstudents attending different off-reservation school systems. 3) It is

not unusual for persons to simplychange a name--perhaps remnants of a.cultural attitude about names etc.

Address Many IndianS consider their "real"home the reservation and urban areasare merely temporary residences.

Telephone Cannot afford. Same problems',associated with address.

Birthdate/Age Many reservation born persons wereborn at home. Parents, unfamiliarwith dates have allowed many tradi-tional persons in fact, to choosetheir own birthdate. With the sameease, one could forget or change thedate, month or even the year.

58Urban Indians, in particular, show notable strides. But

the figures, when interpreted, reveal that a substantialnumber of.individuals included.in the urban higheducational attainment count may well be those whomigrated to urban communities from rural areas. Compar-

atively similar enrollment figures between the twogroups add significance to such a theory.

59U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of Po!,ula.tion:

DetaiZed Characteristics, United States Summar?, PC(1)-D1 Subject Reports: American'Indians, PC(2)-1F

60HEW Report. Ibid. p. 62 "The disparity between need for

and availability of an adequate income for femalehouseholds is an important'issue for Indtans, particu-

larly in light of the increase of this type of householdin their popu100.on."

61Ibid., P. 47

62U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 2ensus of Population,

General Social and Economic Chapacteriètics, UnitedstateS Summary, PCW-Cl: Detxiled Characteristics,United States SummarLy, PC(1)-,D1; Subject Reports:

American Indians, PC(2)-1F.63

Omaha testimony.64 Problems associated with this migratory pattern will be

discussed in the Housing section of this report.

65U.S. Bureau of the Census, 100 Cenw of PCplaation,

General Social and F(.on,)mic, Adraoterictics, UntedStates Summary, PC(1)-Cl; CharacterisT cs,

United States Summar?, PC(1)-D1: Subject Reports:American Indians, PC(2)-1F.

66Dept. H.E.W. A Stud Sc-E,.onomL!Characterie!ica of Y'h)21,.. i. f Bas,:d (2n the 1970

Ceristis Vol. III, American Indians p. 45

67Charles A. 9111, Jr.", and Mozart I. Spector: "Natality.

and Mortality of American Indians Compared with U.S.

Whites and Nonwhites," ii 2i R,!;.,,rts, Vol. 86, No., 3,

March 1971.68The Indian Health Program of the U.S. Public Health

Service, HDEW PUb. No. -WSW 73-12,003 August 1972.

69Otitis Media Program, Indian Health Service: Annual

Report Fiscal,Year 1972 (unpUblished).

70-To the First Americans: The Fourth Report on the Indian

Health Program of the U.S. Public Health Service, PHS

Pub. No. 1580; Revised 1970.71Tony Casto: "Crisis of the Urban Indian," Human Needs,

Vol. 1, No. 1, August 1972.72William M. Moore, Marjorie M. Silverberg, Merrill S.

Rgad: Nutrition, Growth and Development of NorthAmerican Indian Children, DHEW Publication No. (NIH)

72-26 (National Institute of Child Health and Human

Development) 1972.

139AV 111=WHIIIM

73Orientation Manual, U.S. Public Health Service, IndianHealth Service, The Office of Education, Clinton,Oklahoma, July 1971.

74Charles C. Bollinger, M.D., Thomas C. Carrier, M.D.,William J. Ledger, M.D.: "Intrauterine Contraception' in

Indians of the American Southwest," American Journal ofObstetrics and Gynecology, Vol. 106, No. 5, March 1,

1970.75Joseph Abramowitz, D.D.S.: "Planning for the Indian

Health Service," Jourral of Public Health :)entIstry,

Vol. 31, No. 2, Spring 1971.76J. Davld Baum, D.C.H.: "Nutritional Value of Human.Milk," Obstetrlcs and aynocolocy, Vol. 37, No. 1,

January 1971.77A. Rubenstein, J. Boyle, M.D., C.L. Odoroff, PhD.,S.J. Kunitzi M.D.: "Effects of Improved SanitaryFacilities on Infant Diarrhea in a Hopi village,"Public Health Reliorto, Vol. 84, No. 12, December 1969.

78Abraham B. Bergman, M.D., C. George Ray, M.D., et al.:"Studies of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome in KingCounty, Washington," iYiTatrii.s, Vol. 49, No. 6,

June 1972.79Alice D. Chenoweth, M.D.: "Maternal and Child Health,"February 1973 (unpUblished).

80.1969 White House Conference on Food, Nutrition andHealth: Final Report, U.S. Government Printing Office,Washington, D.C., 1970.

81See reports from Indian Health Task Force

82Jung, "Contributions to Analytical Psychology,"NY Harcourt 1938, p. 139

83,Archer B. Hulbent, "Indian Thoroughfares," Columbus,A.H. Clark Co., 1902

4,Tbe forecast is for more and more Indian influence onfashion." Tony Minor Broadcast, WNUS, 1/27/68. The

entire "Feminique" section of.the Chicago Tribune,10/2/67, deVoted to Indian influence to fashions,jewelry and .home decorations.

85'A. Hyatt Verill & Otis W. Barrett, "Foods America Gavethe World," Boston; C.C. Page & Co. 1937, Yeffe Kimballand Jean Anderbon, :The Art of American Indian Cooking,

Garden City, N.Y. Doubleday & Cul. 1965

140 45.

;86A1bert Keiser, "The Indian in American Literature,"

N.Y. Oxford Univ. 193387Gilbert Chase, "America's Music ' N.Y. McGraw/Hill 1955,

Passim,

88John Burchard & Albert Bush-Brown, "The Architecture ofAmerica," Boston, Little-Brown Co. 1961, pp. 57, 236,

351-589Tepee & Wigwam are the Dakota and Algonquin Terms,respectively, for the dwelling. In English, the firstterm properly belongs to the Skin or Canvas Tents ofthe Plains Tribes.

90Wright, "Writings & Buildings," N.Y. Meridian books,1960, p. 22

91Marian Gridley, "America's Indian Statues," Chicago,The Amerindian, 1966

92Allan A. MacFarlin, ".Book of American Indian Games,N.Y. Association Press 1960.

93Robin Richman, "Rediscovery of the Redman," Life,12/1/1967, p. 52-71

94Contance Rourke, "The Roots of American Culture,"N.Y. Harcourt, Brace & Co. 1942, p. 60-74 ,

95Mitford, Mathews, "Discovery of Americanism, 2 Vols,Chicago Univ. of Chicago 1951, I. 866-80. A.F. Chamber-lian, "Memorials of the Indian," "Journal of AmericanFolk-Lore, XV, No. 17, (April/June 1902), p. 107-16,iden. "Algonkian Words in American English," Ibid, XV,Vol. 19 (Oct/Dec) 1902 p. 240

96H.L. Mencken, "The American Language, N.Y. Alfred A.Knopf, 1947

97Jays' Treaty with Great Britain, 1794; Pinckney'sTreaty with Spain, 1795, p. 528, Treaty of Ghent, 1814;Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 1648, Alaska Pu.rchaseTreaty, 1867.

I.141

98,"It would be a very.strange thing if six nations ofignorant savages should be capable of forming a schemefor such a union, and be able to execute it in such amanner, as it has subsisted for ages, and appearsindissoluble, and yet that a like union should beimpracticable for ten or a dozen English colonies, towhom it is more necessary and must be more advantageous4and who cannot be supposed to want an equal under-standing of their interest." B. Franklin to Mr. Parker,March 20, 1751, in John Bigelow, ed, "The CompleteWords of Benjamin Franklin," New York, G.P. Puttnam'sSons, 1887, II, p. 219

99Cohen, "Americanizing the White Man," The AmericanScholar, XXI, No. 2 1952

100Both Verses from "We put the Feathers on" in R.P.Tristam Coffin, Primer for America, N.Y. MacMillan Co.,1943, p. 54-55

101Wayne Dennis "The Hopi Child," N.Y. John Wiley 1965,Robert J. Havighurst & Bernice Neugarten; "AmericanIndian & White Children," Chicago; Univ. of ChicagoPress, 1955

102Mariam Cridley, Indian of Today, 3rd Edition, Chicago:Indian Council Fire, 1960

103Testimony states that it has not been unusual for Indiansto find that upon personal inquiry, all vacant units havealready been filled or that rent payments turn out to besubstantially higher than originally expected once theIndian person begins negotiations for housing.

104See Tables on Family Characteristics and FamilyComposition

142 147

a

105U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of the Population,

Subject Report American Indians, PC(2)-1F U.S. Bureau

of the Census, 1970 Census ofHousing Detailed Housing

Characteristics, United States Summary, HG(1) Detailed

Hausing Characteristics for the United States, Regions,

Divisions and States: 1970, Supplementary Report,

UC(S1)-6106U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of Population

General Social and Economic Characteristics, United

States Summary, PC(1)-C1 Detailed Characteristics,

'United States Summary, Pc(1)-D1 Subject Reports:

American Indians, PC(2)-1F107U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1970 Census of Population,

Subject Reportg: Family Composition, PC(2)-4A, Table 32

108"Crowded housing, a contributory factor to poor health,

is also one of the surest indices of poverty. Urban

' Indians experience moderate overcrowding at twice the

incidence foethe total urban population and severe

overcrowding at three times the-level for the total

urban population. In all, 19% of all urban Indians Live

in moderately or 'seVerely overcrowded housing while only

7% of the total urban U.S. population live under such

substandard conditions."

109uPoor housing and sanitation conditions characterize

the dwellings of both urban and rural Indians. Among

urban Indians, jus under 1% of all dwellings are with-

out water, cempared to only 0.3% of dwellings for the

total U.S. urban.population. The incidence of urban

Indian dwellings without toilets is 14 times higher than

dwellings for the total U.S. urban population."

110Archie sClinicalFebruary

. Golden: "The Other Poor and Their Children,"

Pediatrics (Philadelphia), Vol. 10, ho. 2,

1971.

143 8