Training Delivery: Tradition Instructional Approaches and Emerging Technologies

Dr. SteveTraining & Development

INP6325

Instructional Techniques What instructional technique works best?

No “one size fits all” solutions, only generalities Ex: don’t train motor skills using lecture format

Why? Lack of generalizability – most empirical research tests a

particular technique for a particular skill Criteria used – evaluations tend to focus on learning, not

transfer

Choosing Instructional Techniques

What do you know about the potential trainees?

1. What training do they currently use?2. What has/hasn’t worked in the past?3. What instructional methods are preferred?

Performance SupportContinuum of possible performance support

mechanisms for learning how to use software

ClassroomTraining

OnlineTutorial

User Guides

Reference Manuals

Help Line

Online Help

Product Affordances

Far From Task Near to Task

Guidelines for Instructional Development*

Training Validity: Instructional events that comprise the training method should be consistent with the cognitive, physical, or psychomotor processes that lead to mastery

Active Learning: Learner should be induced to produce the capability

e.g. practice behaviors, recall info from LTM, apply principles in doing task

Feedback Delivery: All available sources of relevant feedback should be used, & should be accurate, credible, timely, informative & constructive

Self-efficacy: Instructional processes should enhance trainee self-efficacy and expectations that the training will be successful and lead to valued outcomes

Trainee Aptitude: Training methods should be adapted to differences in trainee aptitudes and prior knowledge*Adapted from research by Campbell

More guidelines in Swezey and Llaneras (p.546-7)

Training DeliveryOn-the-Job Training (OJT) Most common form of training Typically unstructured

Often used as the control group in training evaluations If experimental training not significantly better, OJT is the default Caution: OJT may actually prevent optimal performance and could cost organization in other

ways (job satisfaction, turnover, downtime, etc.)

Training DeliveryOn-the-Job Training (OJT) Practice with actual equipment, in actual setting, under

operational conditions Ex: Food servers, cashiers, retail sales, professors

Advantages High physical fidelity High psychological fidelity High transfer Easy to conduct Low cost

Disadvantages Can learn bad habits/incorrect procedures Difficult to assess effectiveness May be conducted by “trainers” with little knowledge of training May not be connected to needs assessment

Embedded Training – controlled exercises called up and worked on by trainees operating actual equipment (in training mode)

Provides employees opportunities to practice skills in a variety of common situations to build automaticity

Allows employees to practice skills relevant to situations that might occur infrequently on the job (meltdown at nuclear power plant).

Sometimes referred to as “stimulation” because rather than simulate the equipment it injects signals (stimuli) into the actual equipment

Ex: Paper production monitor (in training mode) indicates jamb, trainee must react quickly

Training Delivery

Embedded Training

Training Delivery

Advantages Uses actual equipment – high transfer Safely practice dangerous/unusual events Trainer can structure/control training

Disadvantages Can’t use equipment when being used for training Difficult, costly, or impossible to implement in many jobs

Training DeliveryApprenticeship Training – Classroom (or textbook) plus OJT shadowing

Common among skilled trades (plumbers, electricians, carpenters, sorcerers, jedi warriors Apprentice shadows an experienced worker for a given time period Upon completion, apprentice may be given a test

1937 national Apprenticeship Act created by the Federal bureau of Apprenticeship and Training (DOL) to ensure apprenticeships were safe and fair.

Training Delivery

Apprenticeship Training

Advantages Low cost High transfer Can be used to socialize workers

Disadvantages Does not consider different learning speeds Trainer may share bad work habits

Training Delivery

Lecture – Classroom style delivery of training

Advantages Reach a large group Low cost Good for presenting declarative knowledge (facts)

Disadvantages Lack opportunity for feedback Can’t focus on individual differences/needs of learners Training speed too fast for some, too slow for others One-way communication Inappropriate for most skills

Training Media Audio-Visual (AV) Material – videos, films, slide

presentations, used to present info multiple times

Click for bad example of Audio Air Force Training Guide

Advantages Can be captivating Can combine with lecture Training is consistent Inexpensive to deliver Can be dynamic

Disadvantages Not interactive No practice/feedback Difficult to update in some modalities (e.g., video) High development cost

Training MediaProgrammed Instruction – based on work of

behaviorists (e.g., Skinner) Ex: Skinner’s teaching machine provides reinforcement for

each correct response – gradually eliminates errors Systematically displays information at learner’s own

pace Learner is tested at end of each unit Information presented linearly or hierarchically

Linear – finish one section go to next in sequence Hierarchical or Branching – correct responses lead down

one branch, incorrect responses lead down different branch More advanced learner could move thru larger chunks of info

Programmed Instruction

Training Media

Advantages Significantly reduces training time Provides instant feedback Adaptable to many media types (books, software) for portability Uses motivational principles Self-paced for different learning rates

Disadvantages Extensive time and cost of development Focus on factual info, rote memory Many learners dissatisfied if not supplemented with human interaction

Training MediaInteractive Multi-Media – computer driven training system

using text, graphics, video, auditory information Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) / Computer-Based Training

(CBT)

Example of CAI

                                      

           

Interactive Multi-Media - Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), Interactive Courseware (ICW), Computer Based Training (CBT)

Trainee interacts directly with computer Computer presents instructional material Computer engages trainee in question and answer Provides immediate feedback/help identify sources of mistakes May store trainee progress/performance data Can adapt to individual differences in trainees

May adapt instruction based on analysis of trainee answers May be used as tutorial or “drill & practice” (no material

presented) Tutorial may serve as stand-alone instruction

Training Media

Computer-Assisted Instruction Research findings:

Takes 300 hrs to produce 1 hr of CAI training Compare to 30 hrs for every 1 hr of classroom instruction Limited research database on learning with CAI, research

focus often on technology Some studies show CAI faster than conventional methods Effectiveness similar to programmed instruction, but learn

in less time Possible Hawthorne effect is threat to generalizability

Traninees enjoy new technology, but novelty wears off

Training Media

Interactive Multi-Media – (CAI, CBT, ICW)

Training Media

Advantages Engaging/motivating Trainee performance data can be stored Convenient delivery Highly interactive Provides testing/feedback

Disadvantages Not much research to identify appropriate vs inappropriate uses Expensive! (Resource intensive: software development time) After novelty wears off motivation may wane Requires multiple skills to develop Some skills not amenable to CAI/CBT

Simulation – imitation of actual environment– imitation of the real environment

Training Media

Advantages Realistic practice Replay/critique performance Interactive, engaging, dynamic Safer than real environment Event-based (trainer-controlled)

Disadvantages Very costly to develop Difficult to develop Costly to implement Simulator sickness

Training System Fidelity Fidelity – realism of the training device Physical Fidelity – how realistic training device

appears Functional Fidelity – how well device trains

concepts Fidelity Issues:

1. Expense – more realism, greater cost2. Necessity – many tasks can be learned as well or better

by simplifying task in training (lowered fidelity)3. Negative transfer – if training environment is very

close to real environment, then things that are different may lead to negative transfer.

Virtual Reality – simulated 3-dimensionally-modeled, interactive, learning environment

Training Media

Advantages Immersive & engaging High realism May involve multiple senses Interactive Safe preparation for unsafe environments

Disadvantages Extremely costly to develop Difficult to develop & implement Limited by current technology Cyber sickness Negative transfer (research on distance estimation)

Training Media

Distance Learning – use of audio and data links to present training to multiple sites simultaneously

Advantages Saves travel expense Reach many at one time Similar in effectiveness as lecture Can provide multiple media

Disadvantages Lack of face time Transmission rates Unreliable hardware Cannot teach skills easily Lack of immediate feedback

Web-Based Instruction Training delivered(mainly text-based) via the

internet or intranet

Training Media

Advantages Available 24 hrs per day Accessible to many at remote sites Easy to update Just-in-time training (available on demand) Self-paced (e.g.,links, exercises, feedback) May promote information sharing

Disadvantages Interface design issues (e.g., web navigation, browser differences) Access to computers (with necessary capability) Lack of face time Limited research on effectiveness and appropriateness

Ex: Human Factors Coursehttp://prometheus.uwf.edu

Intelligent Tutoring Systems – Computer-based individualized instruction that diagnoses, then addresses, learner weaknesses

Training MediaIntelligent Tutor

ExamplesSee http://prime.jsc.nasa.gov/math/

Advantages Customized training for individual needs Interactive Knowledge assessment Non-linear Provides tailored feedback Info updated based on review of past students’ performance

Disadvantages Very costly (up to 500 hrs development time/instruction hour) Instructor complacency Lack of research on effectiveness

Attributes of Intelligent Tutors

Generative – the capacity to generate appropriate instructional interactions at run time, based on learner performance

Mixed-initiative – the capacity to initiate interactions with a learner as well as to interpret and respond usefully to learner-initiated interactions (natural dialogue)

Interactive – the provision of appropriately contextualized, domain relevant and engaging learning activities

Student Modeling – the capability to assess the current state of a learner’s knowledge and the implied capability to do something instructionally useful based on the assessment

Expert Modeling – the capability to model expert performance and the implied capability to do something useful based on the assessment

Instructional Modeling – the capability to make pedagogical inferences and decisions based on the changing state of the student model, based on the prescriptions of an expert model, or both

Self-improving – the capability to monitor, evaluate, and improve its own teaching performance as a function of experience

Training Media and Strategy Guidelines*

Simulation: effective for teaching many tasks and skills e.g., perceptual motor skills, conceptual tasks, and team functions

Computer-based instruction: provide capability to review and branch and include skill diagnosis and remediation

Sound: provides helpful cues in instructional presentations these cues can be satisfied with relatively low fidelity but

extremely high timely executions Induce Motivation: Instruction should provide feedback control

of both stimulus and reinforcement variables Reduce Cognitive Load: training features should limit the

number of stimuli (and extraneous stimuli) presented at any one time to avoid requiring inordinate attention from students

Link to decision aid for selecting training media

*Guidelines are a subset adapted from Salvendy’s Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics

Guidelines for Enhancing Transfer

Generalizability: Provide practice in a variety of stimulus situations so that a student may generalize their knowledge

Transfer Goal: Use a rote or algorithmic approach if near transfer is the goal of instruction

Visual Demonstrations: Training which incorporates visual demonstrations provides positive transfer to real-world situations

Guided Training (training wheels): Gradually decrease the amount of cues, prompts, and guides such that none (that would not be found on the job) remain at the end of training

Functional vs. Physical fidelity: functional fidelity appears to be a stronger influence in transferring knowledge from the learning environment to the operational setting