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U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

Special Report:

Improving FireghterCommunicationsUSFA-TR-099/January 1999

HomelandSecurity

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U.S. Fire Administration Fire Investigations Program

The U.S. Fire Administration develops reports on selected major res throughout the country.The res usually involve multiple deaths or a large loss o property. But the primary criterionor deciding to do a report is whether it will result in signicant lessons learned. In some

cases these lessons bring to light new knowledge about re--the eect o building construction orcontents, human behavior in re, etc. In other cases, the lessons are not new but are serious enoughto highlight once again, with yet another re tragedy report. In some cases, special reports are devel-oped to discuss events, drills, or new technologies which are o interest to the re service.

The reports are sent to re magazines and are distributed at National and Regional re meetings. TheInternational Association o Fire Chies assists the USFA in disseminating the ndings throughout there service. On a continuing basis the reports are available on request rom the USFA; announce-

ments o their availability are published widely in re journals and newsletters.This body o work provides detailed inormation on the nature o the re problem or policymakerswho must decide on allocations o resources between re and other pressing problems, and withinthe re service to improve codes and code enorcement, training, public re education, buildingtechnology, and other related areas.

The Fire Administration, which has no regulatory authority, sends an experienced re investigatorinto a community ater a major incident only ater having conerred with the local re authoritiesto insure that the assistance and presence o the USFA would be supportive and would in no wayinterere with any review o the incident they are themselves conducting. The intent is not to arriveduring the event or even immediately ater, but rather ater the dust settles, so that a complete and

objective review o all the important aspects o the incident can be made. Local authorities reviewthe USFAs report while it is in drat. The USFA investigator or team is available to local authoritiesshould they wish to request technical assistance or their own investigation.

For additional copies o this report write to the U.S. Fire Administration, 16825 South Seton Avenue,Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727. The report is available on the Administrations Web site at http://www.usa.dhs.gov/

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Special Report:Improving Firefghter Communications

Reporting by: Adam Thiel

Edited by: Hollis Stambaugh

This is Report 099 of the Major Fires Investigation Project conducted

by Varley-Campbell and Associates, Inc./TriData Corporation under

contract EMW-94-C-4423 to the United States Fire Administration,

Federal Emergency Management Agency.

HomelandSecurity

Department of Homeland Security

United States Fire Administration

National Fire Data Center

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U.S. Fire Administration

Mission Statement

As an entity of the Department of Homeland

Security, the mission of the USFA is to re-

duce life and economic losses due to re

and related emergencies, through leader-

ship, advocacy, coordination, and support.

We serve the Nation independently, in co-

ordination with other Federal agencies,

and in partnership with re protection and

emergency service communities. With a

commitment to excellence, we provide pub-

lic education, training, technology, and data

initiatives.

HomelandSecurity

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The U.S. Fire Administration greatly appreciates the cooperation received rom the ollowing peopleand organizations during the preparation o this report:

City o New York (NY)Fire Department Commissioner Thomas Von Essen Assistant Chie Peter Ganci Assistant Chie Frank Cruthers Deputy Chie James Murtagh Deputy Chie Stephen King Deputy Chie Richard Fanning Battalion Chie Edward Geraghty

Battalion Chie Richard Comiskey Battalion Chie Frank Miale Battalion Chie George Gierer Lt. Steve Spahl Special Operations Command Members o Engine Companies 48 and 75 Members o Ladder Companies 37 and 33 Members o Rescue Company 1

Memphis Divisiono Fire Director Charles Smith

Other Reerences

TriData Corporation, Wildland Firefghter Saety Awareness Study Phase III-Implementing Cultural Changes orSaety, March 1998

Varone, J. Curtis, Fireground Radio Communication and Firefghter Saety, National Fire AcademyExecutive Fire Ocer Program, 1996 Outstanding Research Award

Kaprow, Miriam Lee, Magical Work: Firefghters in New York, Human Organization (Society orApplied Anthropology, Vol.50, No.1, Spring 1991)

Federal Aviation Administration, Developing Advanced Crew Resource Management Training: A Training

Manual, August, 1998

Comort, Louise K., ed., Managing Disaster: Strategies and Policy Perspectives, (Durham: Duke UniversityPress, 1988)

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TAbLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1SUMMARY OF KEY ISSUES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

INCIDENT SUMMARIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Technical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Human Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

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1

Special Report:

Improving Firefghter Communications

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Several recent incidents involving reghter atalities demonstrate that, despite technological advancesin two-way radio communications, important inormation is not always adequately communicatedon the reground or emergency incident scene. Inadequate communication has a denite negativeimpact on the saety o emergency personnel and may contribute to injuries or deaths o reghters,

rescue workers, and civilians.

Inadequate reground communication is repeatedly cited as a contributing actor in many o theincidents reported through the United States Fire Administration Major Fires Investigation Project.This act, coupled with the limited availability o research on such an important topic, prompted theUnited States Fire Administration (USFA) to study some o the potential causes o communicationbreakdown, and to provide recommendations that will help departments improve their operationalcommunications.

While the ndings contained in this special report are primarily oriented toward the municipal reservice, this does not diminish their potential relevance to other reghters and emergency respond-ers. With respect to communicating in high-stress environments, numerous parallels exist across

public saety and related disciplines. Some o the ideas presented here are drawn rom the experi-ences o wildland reghters, airline fight crews, and military personnel.

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2 U.S. Fire Administration/Technical Report Series

SUMMARY OF KEY ISSUES

Issues Comments

Unsuitable equipment The chief communication problem reported by reghters and company ofcers is the dif-

culty with communicating from inside a re when using full personal protective equipment,

including SCBA. The majority of portable radios currently used by re departments are

ill-suited for the task.

Portable radios needed for all

reghters

Despite some technical limitations, portable radios are a proven lifesaver during res and

emergency incidents, and should be considered a critical item of personal protective equip-

ment akin to SCA. Ideally, every reghter working in a hostile environment should have

a portable radio with emergency distress feature.

Little attention paid to human

factors

There is a dearth of available literature pertaining to the impact of human facts on effective

reground communication. Furthermore, while re departments devote substantial time to

manipulative skill training, relatively little training is provided to help reghters develop stress-

tempered communication skills.

Importance of active listening All reghters on an emergency incident should actively monitor their radios for important

information at all times, not just when specically queried. Communications should beemphasized as an essential part of reghter function as a tactical team, not just operating

as individual entities.

Standard message formats and

language

Fire departments can enhance reground communication by creating standard message

formats and keywords used consistently. Plain English is usually preferred over codes,

especially when transmitting a complex message.

Tiered message priority Keywords to prompt immediate action can be tiered based on their priority, for example,

Mayday signals a life-or-death situation, while Urgent may be used to signify a poten -

tially serious problem. Such message headers prompt the crews listening priorities and

radio discipline.

Attention to cultural factors If necessary, reghters are not usually reluctant to circumvent the chain of command to report

critical safety issues. There may be greater hesitation to communicate problems in complet-ing an assigned task. However, this is usually due to a lack of situational awareness, and

not a fear of reprisal from other members. Studies on reghter communications show that

sometimes the culture of bravery in the re service is reected in a reluctance to communicate

quickly enough when help is needed. Repeated situations where this occurs should be closely

examined by the re ofcer.

INTRODUCTION

Communication problems are continually cited as contributing actors in res and emergency inci-dents where reghters are killed or injured. The number o near-miss incidents where regroundcommunication was ineective may be higher than generally realized. The purpose o this special

report is to help re departments improve their communication processes to enhance scene saety,help prevent reghter deaths and injuries, as well as to promote eective tactical operations.

Despite the obvious importance o eective communication on the emergency scene, only a limitedamount o published research exists dealing specically with this topic. Several recent programshave ocused on improving wildland reghter saety. A rich source o literature on communicat-ing in emergencies is available in the eld o airline crew resource management. Eorts to improve

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USFA-TR-099/January 1999 3

operational communication and coordination also exist in the military. This report will draw paral-lels between communications-related issues in these areas and the municipal re service.

To validate the applicability o the inormation presented in this report on reground communi-cation, eld research was conducted with assistance rom the City o New York Fire Department(FDNY). The FDNY was selected based on requency o re incidents, a strong interest in the topic,

and a demonstrated willingness to cooperate with USFA researchers. While certainly not the nalword on re service communication, this special report may help identiy uture avenues o inquiryand will provide some suggestions that can be implemented by re departments.

INCIDENT SUMMARIES

Many re departments conduct ormal internal reviews o their major incidents to enhance their train-ing or better practices. However, the U. S. Fire Administration examines major incidents to ascertainlessons learned that can be communicated to the nations re saety community. Summaries ocommunications-related lessons learned at a variety o incidents are summarized below to helpidentiy commonalties and trends in the experience o re departments.

1. WoodTrussRooCollapseClaimsTwoFirefghters,Memphis,TN(USFATechnicalReportSeries) Two re-ghters operating an interior attack line were killed at this re ater a church roo collapsed.Communications was also a problem, contributed to the lack o organization at the scene, sincethe Incident Command was unable to communicate with company ocers on the tactical radiochannel. (p. 21)

2. IndianapolisAthleticClubFire,Indianapolis,IN(USFATechnicalReportSeries)Two reghters were killedon the third foor o a nine-story, mixed use building during a re. New radio equipment andlack o amiliarity with its operation may have contributed to delays in acknowledging and pro-cessing requests or additional companies. (p.28) Radio discipline is important. (AppendixE) His most serious injuries were a direct result o having to compromise his personal saety in

order to send a distress signal. While the push-to-talk switches could be operated with minordiculty with a gloved hand, the emergency or distress button is virtually impossible to operatein the same manner. (p.27)

3. FourFirefghtersDieinSeattleWarehouseFire,Seattle,WA(USFATechnicalReportSeries) Four reghterswere killed in a collapse at an arson re in a warehouse. The interior attack crews on the upperlevel did not report that very little re had been ound inside the building and that all famesappeared to have been knocked down. The crews on the lower level did not report that they hadound a large area that was ully involved in re. The discrepancy between these reports wouldhave alerted the Incident commander to reevaluate the attack plan. (p.4)

4. TwoFirefghtersDieinAutoPartsStoreFire,Chesapeake,VA(USFATechnicalReportSeries) Two reghters

were killed ater a roo collapse in a retail auto parts store. Poor communications was one othe problems that investigators determined contributed to the reghters death. According tothe report, the reground operations were conducted on the same radio channel as the routinedispatch and transer o additional units, hampering the reground communications during theearly stages o the incident. The Chesapeake Fire Department recently upgraded their commu-nications equipment and added additional portable radios to each piece o apparatus to shoreup their communications interoperability.

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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION PRObLEMS

Communication problems commonly encountered by reghters are broadly divided into two cat-egories. First are those problems related primarily to mechanical/technical issues such as unsuitableequipment, radio malunction, limited system capacity, or atmospheric intererence. The second cat-egory o problems is somewhat broader and includes the critical human actors necessary or eec-

tive communications, or example, radio discipline and completing the communications loop.While the research literature dealing with re service communication overall is sparse, more hasbeen written about the technical aspects o the issue than about the human actors. This specialreport addresses both, with particular emphasis on the critical human actors involved in improvingreghter communications.

Technical Issues

There are a variety o technical issues that may aect communications among reghters and emer-gency personnel. While the applicability o these specic challenges to individual departments mayvary depending on multiple actors, the advance o technology holds promise or solving some o

the technical problems commonly encountered today.

Unsuitable Equipment

The predominant communications-related concern reported by reghters and company ocers isthe diculty in communicating while using sel-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). The needor SCBA in hazardous environments is well understood by reghters. By the same token, re-ghters engaged in ghting a re are acutely aware o the importance o eective communicationor tactical and strategic decisionmaking, coordination among dierent units, and or transmittingurgent saety-related messages.

The use o SCBA, while critical reghter saety, can interere with eective communication, both

ace-to-ace, and via portable radio. Few reghters are unamiliar with this problem and most haveasked, What did they just say?, ater attempting to comprehend a radio transmission sent by aninterior reghting crew. Even ace-to-ace conversation through SCBA is extremely dicult duringa working re due to high levels o background noise and the barrier imposed by the acepieces.

Fireground saety concerns dictate that reghters both use SCBA and communicate eectively. Thiscan create a dilemma when vital messages must be clearly communicated within the re environ-ment. As a result, some reghters report they have ound it necessary to momentarily remove theirSCBA acepiece in order to transmit a message over a portable radio or directly to a colleague. Theobvious danger o removing the SCBA acepiece, even or a brie moment, is evident considering thethermal, toxic, and oxygen-deciency hazards posed by a re and the resulting products o combus-tion. A single unprotected breath o such an atmosphere may be sucient to cause long-term healthproblems, incapacitation, or even death. Fireghters are certainly aware o this risk. Since theyrepeatedly expose themselves to the potential or serious injury in order to eectively communicate,there is a clear need to continue improving technology to correct current systems limitations.

SCBA manuacturers are cognizant o the problems aced by reghters attempting to communicatethrough properly used SCBA. A variety o products are currently available that seek to mitigatethe problem including speech ports, acepiece-integrated microphones, intercom systems, portableradio interaces, throat mikes and bone mikes worn in the ear or on the orehead. Most o these

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systems have received relatively mixed reviews rom reghters in the eld and the current cost othe most eective, systems may be prohibitive or many re department budgets. The absence oeective aordable equipment suggests that more work needs to be done to develop a durable, easy-to-use system or enhancing voice communications in conjunction with properly worn SCA.

The unsuitability o currently available portable radio equipment or use in hostile re environments

was another recurring theme in this research. Fireghters are almost universally dissatised withtheir portable radios (irrespective o make or model), under those conditions. The problems areones chiefy related to ergonomics and durability. The trend toward miniaturization allows radios tocontain more eatures in smaller, more lightweight packages. From an ergonomic standpoint how-ever, the switches and dials on the newest radios tend to be to small to operate with a gloved hand.Additionally, many o these radios have Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screens that, although backlit,can be dicult to read in a low-visibility environment. An example o ergonomic limitations wasseen during a re in Indianapolis in which two reghters were killed, and a captain was severelyburned ater he removed his glove to operate an emergency signaling device on his portable radio.The captain had repeatedly attempted to activate the ESD eature on his radio, but could not do whilewearing ull personal protection equipment.

Ideally, radios used or reghting should be highly water-resistant, shock-resistant, and designedor easy operation by reghters wearing heavy gloves in a hostile environment. Currently, such aradio does not exist. The process o adapting other technology or re service use has brought asthe units and equipment used today. The needs articulate by reghters suggest a unique enoughrequirement to engineer an eort designed around their specic environment.

The potential or linking video, audio, and other data eeds rom reghters operating on the inte-rior o a structure to outside monitors, also holds promise or enhancing reground communication.Technology transer eorts involving various universities, government agencies, and re depart-ments are underway to develop model systems. Realistically, the deciding actor in the ultimateimplementation o these technological adjuncts, as well as or improving communication through

SCBA and developing a better portable radio or reghting, is cost.

Despite re service limitations with the current types o portable radios, it is highly recommended thatevery reghter entering a re situation be equipped with a portable radio. Ideally, the radio shouldbe worn where the channel selectors, display, and emergency signaling device-a vital saety eature-are readily accessible to the reghters without breaching the personal protective envelope (e.g., in aradio pocket or water/shock-resistant case outside the coat). As with any tool, reghters must receivetraining in the proper operation, limitations, and preventive maintenance o the portable radio. It isalso recommended that battery chargers and spare batteries be kept onboard re apparatus to ensureradios are ully charged at all times. The members o FDNY Rescue Company One have such a setupand regularly change the batteries in their portable radios between calls, and even during runs where

they expect to use their radio or an extended period o time, such as on a working re. Battery lieand recovery periods are also important considerations or departments that use portable radios on arelatively inrequent basis since even unused batteries weaken over time.

There are some things individual reghters can do to enhance communications through SCBA thatdo not require technological adjuncts. The voice ports currently integrated into several manuactur-ers SCBA acepieces work best when reghters speak in a normal to moderately loud tone o voice.High-pitched sounds do not transmit well through these devices. Thereore, reghters attemptingto communicate through SCBA acepieces so equipped, should attempt to speak calmly, at moderate

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volume, and with clear enunciation. When using these acepieces to transmit via portable radio, itmay help to hold the remote microphone directly in ront o the voice port. Face-to-ace conversa-tion through SCBA may be aided by placing the acepieces o sender and receiver close togetherwhich has the added benet o acilitating physical and eye contact between the parties. Clearly, inan environment where visibility is limited, this is not a viable option.

Although not ormally recommended, some reghters report better success during portable radiocommunications, while using SCBA i they transmit with the remote microphone placed directlyagain their neck, instead o holding it in ront o the acepiece. The eectiveness o this techniquemay vary depending on the characteristics o the microphone, the users anatomy, and the sceneconditions. Throat microphones are specically designed or sound transer based on concept, butare not common in re service applications.

Equipment Failure

Modern public saety radio communication systems are complex and highly technical. They mayencompass a multitude o xed antenna sites, Computer Aided Dispatch (CAD) terminals, mobile

radios, Mobile Display Terminals (MDTs), portable radios, cellular telephones/axes/modems, andeven laptop computers. The proper unctioning o this equipment is o paramount importance toreghters and rescue personnel operating on the emergency scene. For example, many o the800mHz radio systems currently in use depend upon technology to the extent that, should one parto the system ail, even line-o-sight radio communications can be negatively impacted. Obviously,reghters operating on the reground should not have to worry about the unctionality o theoverall communication system.

To prevent equipment malunctions rom hampering eective radio communication, systems shouldbe designed, installed, and maintained only by qualied technicians. Regular preventive mainte-nance will help minimize the occurrence o ailures and routine radio checks are recommended orre departments that do not use their radio equipment on a daily basis. Many departments conduct

regular test o all radio equipment system components, and alternative power supply capabilities toassure their serviceability.

Inadequate System Capacity

There have been several instances where inadequate capacity o the radio system was deemed acontributing actor in incidents with negative outcomes. This is most likely to occur during com-plex, multi-alarm incidents with many units operating, and attempting to communicate, simultane-ously. The sheer volume o radio trac in this case may overwhelm dispatchers and the IncidentCommander, and may prompt reghters to turn down their portable radios to remove the continualdistraction. There have been numerous instances where vital transmissions went unheard due to the

volume o radio trac on a system where capacity was exceeded. Although radio discipline, whichwill be discussed in detail later, may help minimize this problem, radio communication systemswith multiple channel capability are best suited or re department and emergency operations. Thisneed was graphically illustrated by the experience o the Hackensack, NJ Fire Department at a 1988re that killed ve reghters. At this re, numerous calls or help were transmitted by trappedreghters and went unheard (or were overridden) due to excessive trac on the single requencyradio system.

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A dedicated dispatch channel is most oten used to conduct routine communications operations. Toprevent routine radio trac rom interering with incident-specic communications, active inci-dents may be assigned to other channels or tactical operations, according to criteria established bythe agencies involved and determined by the available capacity. Modern, trunked radio systemsmay have enough available requencies or each incident to be assigned a separate tactical channel.

Multiple-alarm res or complex incidents like those involving hazardous materials or technical res-cues may require multi-channel operations. Some departments, like the FDNY, regularly implementa command channel, separate rom the reground tactical channel, solely or the use o command-level ocers at major incidents.

While the use o multiple channels or emergency operations is desirable, there are several importantprecautions that will help prevent problems rom arising out o their use. Training is o vital impor-tance to help amiliarize personnel with using multiple channels on an incident and to identiypotential problems. Unamiliarity with the use o new radio equipment in Indianapolis was citedas a contributing actor in the casualties at the Indianapolis Athletic Club re. Frequent utilizationo the more complex, multi-channel systems during drills and routine operations will help enhanceeective communication during unusual events.

Incidents where reghters perished while calling or help on unmonitored channels indicate theneed or continual monitoring oall channels in use during an operation. At the Regis Tower highrisere that claimed the lives o two Memphis reghters, several transmissions were made on alternatechannels. The Incident Commander was unable to monitor both the dispatch and reground chan-nels simultaneously, while at the same time attempting to manage a dicult re scene, and thereoremissed the urgent calls or help rom a trapped reghter.

There are several possible ways to ensure that eective monitoring occurs. The FDNY dispatches aField Communications Unit to multiple-alarm incidents, bringing dispatchers to the street andeectively shortening the length o the communications chain. Many other re departments andemergency agencies maintain such units or use at major incidents. It may be helpul to utilize them

more requently. The FDNY also dispatches an additional battalion chie on all working res to act asa communications coordinator. Fire departments choosing to ollow this example can develop SOPsdescribing the duties and responsibilities o the communications coordinator at the incident scene.

ReerenceStandards

Several National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards address re service radio communica-tions including the 1992 Edition o NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Health and SaetyPrograms; the 1990 Edition o NFPA 1561, Standard or Fire Department Incident Management System; the 1994Edition o NFPA 1201, Standard or Developing Fire Protection Services or the Public; and the 1994 Edition oNFPA 1221, Standard or the Maintenance and Use o Public Fire Service Communication Systems. These standards

address a variety o issues including the establishment o SOPs or communications personnel, thenumber o channels required or re department radio systems, stang o communications centers,and other related issues. Personnel responsible or the supervision and operation o re departmentradio communication systems can use these NFPA standards to help ensure the adequacy o their sys-tems. No NFPA standard currently addresses the certication o portable radio equipment intendedor use during interior reghting operations.

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Intererence

Atmospheric, environmental, and electronic intererence may hamper eective communication atthe incident scene. This type o intererence can take many orms, ranging rom the skip cre-ated by solar disturbances and atmospheric fuctuations; to intererence caused by topographic ac-tors like hills or tunnels. Communicating in high-rise buildings or ships is oten dicult. While

responding to an incident, radio transmissions may be compromised by the background noise osirens. Obviously, some o these interering actors cannot be controlled. Others, however, can bemitigated with some oresight.

Atmospheric intererence caused by cosmic events is a act o lie and cannot be readily overcomeby reghters or other responders. However, personnel responsible or overseeing the operation opublic saety communications systems should be alert to signicant events that may cause interer-ence o greater magnitude or duration than commonly encountered. This phenomenon results romsolar disturbances on the surace o the sun. These disturbances known as Solar Flares are suddenreleases in the solar atmosphere, which emit large volumes o electromagnetic radiation and highlyenergized atomic particles. Traveling at nearly the speed o light these highly energized particles

pass through the ionosphere where they can aect satellite and radio communications on earth.These ionospheric irregularities can have adverse eects on radio signals over the entire requencyspectrum, however, generally having a great aect on radio requencies above the 1GHz band range.Depending on the size and intensity o the Solar Flare, the ionospheric eects may linger a day orlonger beore subsiding.

Fire Department communication personnel should be conscious o this problem and be prepared topromptly address the issue when it arises. Although relatively inrequent, such atmospheric condi-tions could pose a communication problem during emergency operations. The Fairax County (VA)Public Saety Communication Center recently sent a message to all systems users warning o the pos-sibility or higher than normal levels o intererence resulting rom a solar fare as had been predictedby the National Oceanic Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Fairax County Fire Department

maintains an Emergency Services Group which is responsible or monitoring NOAA at www.sec.noaa.gov or conditions relating to weather and atmospheric anomalies.

Intererences caused by atmospheric irregularities can be mistaken as an equipment problem orailure and can result in vital communication devices being placed out o service or repair. This mis-interpretation o the problem could have ar reaching implications or emergency personnel duringemergency operations by reducing the usable number o serviceable radios available to personnel.The Federal Aviation Administration, in an eort to avoid such problems noties all commercial aircarriers o problematic atmospheric conditions.

Intererence caused by topographic actors or characteristics o the built environment can oten beidentied and possibly corrected beore related problems occur. Some model building codes recog-

nize the act that radio communications are dicult in high-rise buildings and thereore require theinstallation o hard-wired telephone systems or use by emergency personnel. In some urban areas,advanced radio technology and the installation o multiple antenna sites have alleviated the interer-ence problems posed by large buildings. Fire departments can oten identiy problems in large areabuildings during plans review or construction, and can work with developers to help ensure theadequacy o emergency communication systems in these structures.

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Background noise is a common actor interering with eective communication. Road noise and thesounds created by audible warning devices may drown out important radio trac or make transmis-sions dicult to understand. The reground or emergency scene can also be quite noisy due to theoperation o re pumps, hydraulic rescue tools, hoselines, and the noise created by people workingin a stressul environment. Fortunately, there are some simple steps reghters can take to alleviate

the problems caused by these types o intererence.Depending on trac conditions and applicable laws, it may be possible to use audible warningdevices intermittently during a response. Sirens can be temporarily silenced beore transmittingcritical inormation over the radio. Electromechanical sirens should be equipped with a brakeallowing them to be silenced relatively quickly. Closing the windows on some re apparatus canhelp prevent road or siren noise rom interering with radio trac. Noise attenuating devices likeheadsets urther reduce ambient noise and can be equipped with intercoms and/or two-way radiointeraces. These devices serve several useul purposes. First, they limit outside intererence, lead-ing to clearer radio transmission and better comprehension o received messages. They enhancecommunications among crew members during a response and allow members to receive ordersand review assignments prior to arrival on the scene, thereore reducing refex time. Finally, they

enhance overall saety by protecting crew members rom hearing damage caused by exposure tohigh levels o noise (e.g., siren noise, engine noise, road noise).

While operating on the emergency scene itsel, reghters can take several steps to minimizeintererence. Feedback, the squealing noise emanating rom portable radios when located closetogether, can be reduced with awareness. When reghters notice a colleague preparing to transmita message, they can use their body to shield their own microphone, thus reducing the potential oreedback. This is as simple as turning to the side or covering the remote microphone with yourhand while another member is transmitting. Keeping the volume on all radios turned to a moder-ately-loud level with also help prevent eedback. White it is important that the volume be kept highenough to hear all radio eedback. White it is important that the volume be kept high enough to

hear all radio trac, common sense dictates that maximum volume is inappropriate or all situationsand may actually be distracting.

Fireghters can also help improve radio communications by maintaining awareness o the surround-ing environment and its impact on radio equipment. The microphones on modern portable radiosare very sensitive. I possible, command posts should be located away rom noise sources (e.g., repumps, diesel engines, rescue tools). Some re departments equip key personnel, including com-mand ocers and pump operators, with noise attenuating headsets to help ensure they hear vitalmessages. Recent experiences where reghters calls or help could not be heard lend credence tothis practice. Members equipped with portable radios may be able to move away rom high-noiseareas when transmitting or receiving critical messages. One potential area o diculty can occurwhen attempting to communicate near an activated PASS device. Upon locating a downed reghter

with PASS device sounding, the rescue team may need to deactivate the device to eectively com-municate using their portable radios.

Human Factors

Although the technical aspects o re service radio communications receive a good deal o attentionin the literature, less attention is paid to the human actors aecting communication among reght-ers and rescue personnel on the incident scene. In some cases the distinction between technical and

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human actors is dicult to make, however, it seems clear that human actors are critically importantor ensuring sae and eective reground communications. Good human communication skills andprocedures will help promote saety even in the ace o technical diculties

RadioDiscipline

Radio discipline is vital or eective communication among reghters, dispatchers, and other emer-gency personnel. As mentioned previously in this report, a lack o radio discipline can overwhelmeven robust communication systems, which still have nite capacities. Systems with inadequatecapacities can become quickly overwhelmed even during routine incidents, seriously compromisingreghter saety. Allowing unlimited message transmission may create a situation where vital mes-sages cannot be heard due to the number o less important transmissions being broadcast. By con-trast, restrict radio trac to only vital messages may prevent important inormation rom beingbroadcast. The challenge, thereore is achieving a balance to ensure that all potentially importantinormation is broadcast, but not at the expense o emergency transmissions or Mayday calls rominterior crews.

It has been suggested by some in the re service that the recommended practice o equippingall members with portable radios may exacerbate the radio discipline problem, possibly negatingany positive saety eects. The experience o the City o New York Fire Department seems to allaythese ears. Although all members are not yet equipped with portable radios, the FDNY currentlydeploys a much larger orce o radio-equipped members on the reground than in the past. Whenquestioned, members o the FDNY at every organizational level emphatically denied that the largernumber o portable radios on the emergency scene has created a severe radio discipline problem.On the contrary, all o those interviewed believe that the greater number o portable radios on thereground has vastly improved reghter saety and the quality o tactical decision-making.

There are several things reghters can do to help improve radio discipline. An obvious way is tonot use radios or communicating when ace-to-ace dialogue is a better and available choice. For

example, when the sender and receiver are located a short distance rom one another, when coner-ring about strategic or tactical options, or when a complex, vital message-such as a change in strat-egy rom oensive to deensive-must be conveyed. Face-to-ace communication is generally moreeective than radio communication anyway, since both sender and receiver have the added beneto using non-verbal cues to help convey ideas or understanding (e.g., eye contact, physical contact,body language). Distractions are also reduced and people can ask questions or identiy problemsmore readily during one-on-one dialogue. Command ocers can use runners to deliver and obtaininormation rom remote units. Using a runner has the potential added benet o providing anotherview o the situation to the Incident Commander.

Some incident management systems strongly recommend that transers o command occur ace-to-

ace, when possible. Several command-level ocers in the FDNY expressed their preerence or usingace-to-ace communication and runners wherever possible on the incident scene. Nevertheless, radiocommunication remains the most prevalent orm o reground communication currently in use.

Radio communication skills are critical or eectively conveying inormation at the incident scene.One o the most critical o these skills is being a good listener. Although it is oten dicult to listento radio trac while perorming reground tasks, it is an important skill to develop. By doing so,reghters can avoid re-broadcasting non-urgent messages that have already been transmitted andmaintain awareness o the overall situation. Listening skills also help reghters recognize when

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potentially urgent inormation hasnot been broadcast, and ensure that urgent messages are eectivelycommunicated to the Incident Commander.

Good speaking skills are also vitally important or eective communication. Messages need to betransmitted using a logical ormat, at the appropriate volume, with good enunciation, and at a mod-erate pace. Most reghters are amiliar with the rustration o trying to understand someone either

screaming or whispering into the radio, or an individual who speaks very ast, or too slowly. Priorto transmitting a message, reghters should collect their thoughts and ormat the message in theirhead. Messages should be clearly stated without distracters like, um, or uh. Messages that areclear, direct, and to the point minimize unnecessary radio trac and help prevent urgent messagesrom being delayed or unintentionally overridden.

The best way to develop good listening and speaking sills is through training and continued practiceduring multi-company operations drills or simulations. It may also be helpul or command ortraining ocers to use tapes o actually incidents, or drills, to critique procedures and reinorce theimportance o these skills. This can be done privately and will allow radio users to hear themselves,providing vital eedback or improvement. A FDNY battalion chie in the Bronx hold regular in-

station radio communication drills using incident scenarios and radio-equipped members spreadthroughout the building. The resulting conversations are taped and played back during a critique toemphasize key learning points.

Another signicant way to improve radio discipline is or the re department to create SOPs describ-ing standard message ormats and distinguishing routine messages, urgent messages, and Maydaymessages. In addition, standard terms should be dened or use during radio communication tohelp eliminate potential conusion and promote brevity during message transmission.

SituationReporting

Accurate, regular situation reporting is critical or sound decision-making and or ensuring re-

ground saety. Command ocers need regular situation reports so that they can make sound strate-gic and tactical decisions. These reports are oten given by portable radio equipped members who,besides their obvious tactical duties like searching or victims and advancing hoselines, serve as theorward eyes and ears o the Incident Commander (IC). Without such inormation the IC may haveto make decisions based on limited, incomplete, or inaccurate data.

Ultimately, it is the collective responsibility o every individual with access to a radio to ensure thatradio discipline is maintained during emergency operations.

IncidentManagement

Most re departments and public saety agencies regularly utilize some type o system or managing

incident operations and personnel accountability at re or emergency scenes. Many o the issuesidentied elsewhere in this report directly impact the proper unctioning o a re departmentsincident management system. Eective communications can help minimize potentially negativeconsequences to incident management and accountability brought on by rapidly changing situa-tions, several o which are discussed here.

Fire department incident management systems and operational SOPs oten detail assignments orspecic units based on their order o arrival at the scene. For example, the rst-in engine secures awater supply and begins re attack, the second-in engine pumps the rst engines supply line, the

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rst-in truck company conducts a primary search, etc. Proper coordination o these unctions is vitalto protect reghters and eectively ght the re. Achieving the required coordination is a unctiono eective communication and appropriate command and control practices. At a atal re previ-ously investigated by the USFA, several companies on the initial alarm arrived out o their assignedorder due to ice conditions on the hilly streets o the neighborhood. As a result, there was some

conusion about what units were perorming which tasks. Units arriving out o order and/orperorming unassigned tasks should communicate this inormation to the Incident Commander sothat adjustments can be made.

Coordination among units can be more dicult when mutual-aid or inter-agency responses arerequired. Incompatible communication nets are a common technical and tactical problem. As aresult, units responding into surrounding jurisdictions may be equipped with dierent radios or apatch may be used to link dierent requencies or the duration o an incident. With such eortsthese may limit the technical problems associated with inter-agency responses, it may still be dicultor mutual-aid units to integrate themselves into an existing incident management system withouteective communication. Incident Commanders may use terminology or expressions that are una-miliar to personnel rom other agencies. When receiving a message with unamiliar terms, reght-

ers should clariy the message prior to taking action. Some re departments dispatch a chie oceron all mutual-aid responses to serve at the command post and identiy communications challengesbeore they cause operational problems.

Interpersonal communication is just as important as interagency communication or proper unc-tioning o the incident management system. While the positions detailed in most systems are notspecic to certain individuals, chie ocers, company ocers, and reghters become use to work-ing with the same people over time. When a newly promoted, detailed, or acting ocer orreghter is on the scene, it can temporarily upset the previously existing working (and commu-nication) relationships among personnel. Eective communication is the key or preventing nega-tive outcomes. This communication must begin beore an incident occurs. Department members

at every organizational level should clariy expectations, reporting requirements, and any specicoperations nuances as soon as possible upon recognizing that the new ocers or reghters areon board. This eeling out process is oten perormed subtly as members poll new people by ask-ing about past experiences or relating their own stories.

Incident Commanders at complicated re or emergency incidents will need support to ensure theeectiveness o reground communications. It is not possible or a single individual to manage thescene, ensure accountability, make strategic and tactical decisions, and monitor one or more radiochannels. Even at routine res the potential or inormation overload is very real. Chie ocersshould be provided with aides early in the incident to help them manage communications andother tasks. Multiple aides may be needed to monitor radio trac i several radio channels are usedsimultaneously. Some departments regularly assign aides to chie ocers, while others allow or

reghters to be assigned, when needed, at the scene. Dispatching additional chie ocers to work-ing incidents can help alleviate the communications burden on the Incident Commander.

The number o signicant incidents where urgent messages went unacknowledged points to theresponsibility o everyone on the scene to actively listen to the radio communications or key wordslike Mayday, Urgent, and Priority. I unclear whether or not these messages were correctlyheard by the Incident Commander, reghters should not hesitate to report the message to a sec-tor ocer, or directly to the command post is an especially important duty or members o RapidIntervention Teams (RIT) and Fireghter Assistance (FAST) Teams.

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Cultural

A great deal o research has been conducted recently to describe the culture o the wildland re ser-vice and the impact o cultural actors on operational and saety issues. While it would undoubtedlybe helpul to conduct an in-depth study o municipal re service culture, such an endeavor is beyondthe scope o this special report. Still, inasmuch as cultural actors infuence eective reground com-

munication, they cannot be ignored.

Fire departments, and even individual re companies, oten have unique cultures arising rom theparticular nature o their work environment. While these cultures may vary somewhat in theirspecics, a general set o values does exist within the municipal re service as a whole. These val-ues sometimes confict with the mindset necessary to willingly communicate problem situations.The re service culture typically emphasizes aggressiveness, an action, and the ability to overcomeobstacles in the course o mission perormance, while at the same time upholding a hierarchicalorganizational structure or reground decisionmaking.

ChainoCommand

Traditionally, re department communications have been predominantly one-way. Emphasis isplaced on giving orders, ollowing orders, and sending messages. This is perhaps relatedto the traditional emphasis on unity o command and span o control as the primary means omaintaining order on the reground. Although there is little room or extensive conversation onthe emergency scene, the emphasis on maintaining the chain o command has created a potentialcommunications problem. Fireghters may be reluctant to circumvent the chain o command andrisk being considered insubordinate.

Interviews conducted with members o the FDNY seem to indicate that reghters have minimalreluctance to communicate directly with chie ocers when obvious saety issues are involved. Amore common problem expressed by some command ocers, is that reghters report inormation

to the wrong person because they are unaware o changes that were made to tactical assignments.When such misrouting occurs, it is important that the message recipient rst relay the message to theappropriate person, and then advise the sender o the proper reporting pattern.

ProblemReporting

In some departments the culture o heroism attaches a stigma attached to calling or reinorce-ments. Where a fawed concept o bravery exists, reghters oten delay requests or help as longas possible to avoid being stigmatized. The potentially negative eects o this practice are obvious,as reghters are trained to stay ahead o the re at all times. Size-up is a continual process andrequests or assistance should be transmitted as soon as a situation indicates help may be needed.Delay risks the possibility that reinorcements will arrive too late to infuence the outcome o the

situation. This has potentially negative consequences or both citizens, whose lives and propertymay be lost, and reghters, who may be orced to work or an extended duration without relie.Members o the FDNY or example, understand well the physical stresses involved with reghtingand the potential or situations to change rapidly. Thereore, company and command-level ocersare encouraged to call or additional resources as soon as possible. Indeed, additional resources areautomatically dispatched upon the report o a working re in many occupancies to help ensureadequate resources.

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Depending on the capacity o the communications system and the adequacy o available radio chan-nels, some Public Saety Agencies may designate specic radio requencies as Talk Around Channels.Such channels have no repeating capability thus limiting their transmitting range usually to a quartermile or less. This allows emergency personnel to communicate reely with each other without earo overloading the entire communication system. Incident Commanders can monitor the designated

Talk Around Channel while remaining on a general re ground channel. The primary channelrequency has message repeating capability. This kind o radio conguration allows the IncidentCommanders the fexibility to simultaneously monitor both the re ground activities and the com-munications dispatcher without switching channels. Also, as a result o the limited range o the TalkAround capability emergency personnel must direct all communications and request through theIncident Commander.

A related issue is the tendency or reghters not to report problems completing an assignment; orexample, orcing entry, procuring a water supply, or searching the re foor. Fireghters sometimesare reluctant to report diculties or ear o being judged as slow, incompetent, or unaggressive, allo which are contradictory to the re department cultural values. While this may occur on occasion,the prevailing view rom research conducted or this report is that reghters operating inside a re

environment oten lack the situational awareness to understand exactly how much time is passing,or to be cognizant o activities around them. Given the extreme nature o the re environment, itis easy to understand how reghters become prone to tunnel vision. Eective communicationis especially important here since the coordination required to saely accomplish reground tasksmay be compromised. When, ater an appropriate period o time, the Incident Commander doesnot receive a situation report or keyword indicating completion o a critical task, or example anall clear on the primary search, the commander should query the assigned company or a report.Other company ocers should listen to radio trac while perorming their assignments to ensurethat activities around them will not have adverse impacts. For example, the ocer o an engine com-pany assigned to attack a re should actively listen or any indication that the companies assigned toventilation duties are having diculty.

A tiered system o keywords should be used to prioritize the urgency o critical messages. For exam-ple, Priority messages may be dened as those requiring a swit response without the implicationo immediate danger. Urgent may denote a circumstance where bodily harm is likely to occurwithout immediate action. Severe problems may be reported using a keyword such as Mayday,indicating that a unit is actively involved in an emergency situation (e.g., a reghter who is lost,trapped, severely injured, or out o air). The transmission o a Mayday should prompt the channelto be cleared o all non-urgent radio trac so the Incident Commander can determine the locationand status o the sender with the problem. Whatever the specic words selected, it is vital that allreghters understand their relative urgency and the actions required or each. To prevent compla-cency, Mayday should be reserved or only the most exigent circumstances.

To improve reground communication, re departments should actively promote a culture in whichit is acceptable to ask or help, clariy messages, and report problems. While ollowing the chain ocommand is important operationally, it should be culturally acceptable to circumvent the chain orcritical messages, when necessary.

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CompletingtheLoop:Two-WayCommunication

For communications to be eective they must ollow the well-known loop model wherein thesender transmits a message and receives eedback rom the receiver to ensure correct understand-ing o the message. Simply giving an order or inormation does not guarantee that it was receivednor understood-the ultimate goal o communication. Eective, sae reground communication

is a two-way process. As demonstrated by several o the incidents mentioned here, it is vital thatreghters at every organizational level understand the importance o two-way communications orensuring saety and sound decisionmaking on the reground. Eective two-way communicationhas the added benet o improving team cohesion and cooperation during routine daily activities.The purpose o this section is to provide recommendations or ensuring that two-way communica-tion takes place.

There are a variety o related situations where reghters can ail to complete the loop. For exam-ple, a message may not be received at all by the intended recipient; the message may be received,but not understood; messages can be received and misunderstood; messages can be received, under-stood, and not acted upon; and messages can be received and deliberately, or selectively, ignored.

For a variety o reasons, all o these situations may occur on the reground or emergency scene. Justone such occurrence can prove deadly to reghters and rescue personnel. Fire departments cantake several steps to help prevent negative consequences rom arising out o a ailure to completethe loop.

First, ormal acknowledges should be required or every message. While people are unaccustomedto using ormal acknowledgments during ordinary conversation, their use is vital when communi-cating critical messages where using non-verbal cues to avoid ambiguity is not possible. A recentWildland Firefghter Saety Awareness Study recommended the use o one o three levels o ormal acknowl-edgment or every message. With little modication, these same levels may be recommended or useby structural reghters.

Level1 Simple acknowledgment when receiving routine inormation. For example:

Sender: Engine 1 responding.

Receiver: OK, Engine 1.

Level2 Acknowledgment and eedback o key inormation. For example:

Sender: Engine 1, report to the 10th foor.

Receiver: Engine 1 copies, reporting to the 10th foor.:

Or

Sender: Engine 1, advance a 1-3/4 line into the re; apartment.

Receiver: Engine 1 copies, advancing a 1-3/4 line into the re

Or

Sender: Engine 2, pickup my supply line at Maple and Sycamore.

Receiver: Engine 2 copies, pickup the line at Maple and Sycamore.

Wildland Fireghter Saety Awareness Study-Phase II-Implementing Cultural Changes or Saety. (TriData Corporation:

March 1998), p.xvii

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Level3 Used to acknowledge more complex instructions. This level o acknowledgment may alsoprovide an opportunity to conduct dialogue on interpreting the instructions, or to requestclarication. The receiver may repeat the order on where to go and what to do, and clariywhat is expected i unclear. For example:

Sender: Engine 1, advance a 2-1/2 line into Exposure 4 and attack the cocklot re. I

unsuccessul within 5 minutes, pull out.Receiver: Engine 1 copies, advance a 2-1/2 into Exposure 4 and hit the cocklot. Pull outi we cant knock it in 5 minutes. Does this building have a truss roo?

Or

Sender: Engine 1, we now have reports o victims on the 7th foor. You want a secondalarm?

Receiver: Engine 1 copies, victims on the 7th foor. Send a second alarm and 2 additionaltruck companies.

The sender (including dispatchers, command ocers, and company-level ocers) has the obliga-

tion to actively monitor the radio until acknowledgment is received and the sender believes the mes-sage has been ully understood by the recipient. I there is no response initially, the send can probeor understanding by asking questions like, Did you copy?, or Please acknowledge. I the senderbelieves the receiver is unclear about a vital piece o inormation, the sender must continue to probeuntil satised the message is completely and properly understood. When non-routine messages arebroadcast to multiple receivers, acknowledgments should be obtained rom all recipients in a pre-scribed order or through polling by the sender. The act that one crew makes an acknowledgmentdoes not ensure that all those aected have received the message.

Receivers have the responsibility to acknowledge messages and to request clarication i they did notcompletely understand. Failure to acknowledge rom the receiver should be considered cause orconcern and the sender should ollow up to determine why conrmation was not communicated.

Dispatchers are a critical component o the communications loop. They must have an in-depthunderstanding o the reground environment to ensure their ability to triage messages according totheir importance and re-broadcast any vital messages to all o those enroute to, or at the scene. Theimportance o dispatchers is illustrated by the tragic experience in Memphis.

The Fire Communications Bureau (FCB) personnel were not vigilant and/or alert topotential problems while monitoring radio transmissions as was desired. Private Bridges

(one o the deceased frefghters) made our portable radio attempts to position 05 (thefreground requency) o the communications requencies. The tone o the caller (PrivateBridges) should have alerted personnel in the FCB that a potential problem was present. A

more experienced operator may not have accepted these radio transmissions as being rou-tine. There was an additional telephone call to the FCB rom a frefghter in an engine housenot involved with 750 Adams. The frefghter had heard the our radio transmissions and

contacted the FCB to inquire about them. Further attempts to determine the callers (privateBridges) status should have been attempted ater the telephone conversation.

2 Memphis Fire Services-Board o Inquiry, p. 31

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Dispatchers, with their high-powered transmitters and remote location, are perhaps in the best posi-tion to monitor the welare o reghters operating on the scene o emergencies. Also, it is impor-tant that they do not override or walk on important messages sent rom eld units. Althougha rare practice, some jurisdictions ensure maximum understanding by exclusively assigning redepartment personnel as operational dispatchers or re department communication systems. The

Montgomery County (MD) Department o Fire-Rescue Services uses cross-trained re departmentpersonnel to dispatch re and emergency medical units. These individuals possess levels o trainingand experience comparable to their counterparts in the eld, thus ensuring that communicationspersonnel understand the complex inner workings o the re or emergency scene.

SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS

Ideally, all reghters should be individually equipped with portable radios. At the very least,each two-person team entering a re situation should have a portable radio.

A better portable radio, suitable or and designed around use in the structural reghtingenvironment, is a priority need or the re services.

More training should be conducted to develop eective reghter communication skills.These skills should receive a greater emphasis in training priorities.

Policies and procedures should be developed that dene: standard message ormat, impor-tant/urgent messages vs. routine messages, Mayday procedures, procedures or operationsconducted on multiple channels, roles and responsibilities o those involved in the commu-nications process at every level, and procedures or regular situation reporting.

Radio discipline, while important must achieve a balance between limiting non-essentialradio trac and ensuring that potentially important inormation is regularly broadcast.

The eectiveness o any incident management system depends on eective communicationbetween reghters and the Incident Commander. Chie ocers may need aides to help

monitor radio trac during the incident. All reghters should practice actively listening to radio trac or inormation that may

aect the perormance o their assignments.

Senior re ocers have a role to play in installing a department culture that encouragesreghters to request assistance and communicate operational problems. Rather than sup-porting a mentality that rewards excessive risk-taking, senior ocers should emphasize thatcalling or help at the rst sign o problems, is the expected action or sae emergencyoperations.

Fireghters can reduce intererence actors by turning down the volume on portable radios,shielding microphones, turning o sirens beore transmitting when possible, maximizing

ace-to-ace communications.

Dispatchers should be continually involved in reground communication by actively listen-ing or transmissions that might go unnoticed, reporting changes to the normal responseorder, and conveying messages among responding units. Care should be taken, however, tominimize reground radio trac rom being overridden by powerul transmitters at dis-patch centers.

More attention and research should be directed toward identiying barriers to eective com-munication and proactively preventing communication problems beore an incident

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