topic 2 - education bureau · 2015. 6. 12. · 173 data-based questions : topic 2 (b) (ii)...

169

Topic 2

International Social and Cultural Cooperation

Since 1945

A. Data-based Questions

170

International Cooperation and Regional Politics Since 1945

171

data-based Questions : topic 2

1. Study Sources A and B.

SOURCE A

The following is adapted from the World Food Conference dated 16 November 1974.

All countries, and primarily the highly industrialized countries, should promote the advancement

of food production technology and should make all efforts to promote the transfer, adaptation and

dissemination of appropriate food production technology for the benefit of the developing countries

and, to that end, they should inter alia make all efforts to disseminate the results of their research

work to Governments and scientific institutions of developing countries in order to enable them to

promote a sustained agricultural development.

Source: Luis G. Jinenez-Arias, Bioethics and the Environment: A Brief Review of the Ethical Aspects of the Precautionary Principle and Genetic Modified Crops (Buenos Aires: Libros en Red, 2008), p.40.

SOURCE B

The following is adapted from an interview with a Kenyan economics expert on 27 August 2005.

Such intentions [of eliminating hunger] have been damaging [the African] continent for the past 40

years. If the industrial nations really want to help the Africans, they should finally terminate this

awful aid. The countries that have collected the most development aid are also the ones that are in

the worst shape. Despite the billions that have poured into Africa, the continent remains poor. Huge

bureaucracies are financed (with the aid money), corruption and complacency are promoted, Africans

are taught to be beggars and not to be independent. In addition, development aid weakens the local

markets everywhere and dampens the spirit of entrepreneurship that we so desperately need.

Source: “SPIEGEL Interview with African Economics Expert: “For God’s Sake, Please Stop the Aid!” – Spiegel Online website” (http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/spiegel-interview-with-african-economics-expert-for-god-s- sake-please-stop-the-aid-a-363663.html) (Accessed on 7 July 2014).

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(a) Refer to Source A. Identify one concrete action that the governments of developed countries could take

to help resolve the problem of hunger in developing countries. Support your answer with one clue from

Source A. (1+1 mark)

(b) (i) Refer to Source B. What strategy did the industrial nations adopt in the last quarter of the 20th

century to help African countries resolve the problem of hunger? (1 mark)

(ii) What was the author’s attitude towards the industrial nations’ strategy? Explain your answer with

reference to Source B. (3 marks)

(c) What are the usefulness and limitations of Sources A and B in reflecting the means adopted by the

international community in the late 20th century to eliminate hunger? Explain your answer with

reference to Sources A and B and using your own knowledge. (6 marks)

Question 1

Suggested answers and reference for assessment

(a) One concrete action that the governments of developed countries could take [1+1 mark]

to resolve the problem of hunger in developing countries

Concrete action, e.g. (either ONE):

- Advancing the progress of food production technology (Clue: “should promote [1+1 mark]

the advancement of food production technology”) OR

- Sharing their research outcomes related to food production technology with [1+1 mark]

developing countries (Clue: “should … disseminate the results of their research

work to Governments and scientific institutions of developing countries”

(b) (i) Strategy adopted by industrial nations to help African countries resolve [1 mark]

the problem of hunger

Strategy: [1 mark]

- Giving monetary aid to African countries

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(b) (ii) Author’s attitude towards the industrial nations’ strategy [3 marks]

L1 General answer merely attempting to summarize the Source [max. 1]

L2 Appropriate answer pinpointing and elaborating the attitude [max. 3]

Attitude:

- Negative / disapproving

- Clues, e.g.:

* “they should finally terminate this awful aid”

* “Africans are taught to be beggars and not to be independent.”

- The author pointed out many undesirable outcomes of the industrial

nations’ grant of financial aid, while no positive outcome has been mentioned.

(c) Usefulness and limitations of Sources A and B in reflecting the means adopted by [6 marks]

the international community to eliminate hunger

L1 Lopsided answer focusing on either usefulness or limitations [max. 3]

L2 Comprehensive answer covering both usefulness and limitations [max. 6]

Usefulness, e.g.:

- (Source A) promoting advancement of food production technology; sharing

food production technology and research outcomes with developing countries

- (Source B) granting financial aid to developing countries

Limitations, e.g. Sources A and B do not reflect the following:

- Promoting contraception in relatively conservative countries / religious

communities

- Calling international conferences to discuss and negotiate innovative strategies in

redistribution of wealth and resources

- Donating food and medical facilities from developed countries to developing

countries

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2. Study Sources C, D and E.

SOURCE C

The following is an excerpt from an article on humanitarianism in the post-colonial era published in 2002.

Despite the technological advancements, the missions MSF sought from 1971 to 1976 remained

limited. Early missions included Nicaragua after the earthquake of 1972 and Honduras after the

1974 hurricane Fifi. Because of the budget constraints, these early missions were not very effective.

Throughout the 1970s, MSF remained a small relief organization because volunteers usually had

other jobs. …Since MSF volunteers did not believe in selling humanitarian services, they did not

advertise to solicit contributions, which kept their funds low.

Source: Kimberly Salome Greenberg, “Humanitarianism in the Post-Colonial Era: The History of Médecins Sans Frontières” (2002) (http://tcr.org/tcr/essays/EPrize_Medecins.pdf, [email protected]) for the Concord Review, Inc., Ralph Waldo Emerson Prize (2004), p.60.

SOURCE D

The following is adapted from an article about Médicins Sans Frontières in 1998.

The multiplication of its missions in refugee camps at the end of the 1970s forced MSF to adopt

a more professional approach, which meant, for example, paying a coordinator in Bangkok and

providing small stipends for doctors sent out for six-month periods. This trend, far from being

welcomed by every MSF member, began to divide those who longed for the days of purely voluntary

emergency medicine (including the veterans of Biafra) from the new generation of doctors wanting

to serve for longer terms in refugee camps and to provide more demanding medical services. In 1979

these long-submerged tensions led to a split within MSF.

Source: “The MSF Experience - Médicins Sans Frontières Website” (http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/msf-experience) (Accessed on 7 July 2014).

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SOURCE E

The following is adapted from an article about MSF in 2011.

With the end of the Cold War, speaking out publicly and defending human rights began to gain some

legitimacy within the other four sections of MSF. Created during the 1980s in Belgium, Holland,

Spain and Switzerland, they had until then resolutely opposed the French practice of bearing witness,

which they accused of politicising MSF in violation of its statutes. After bitter debate, in 1992 all of

the sections decided to remove the provisions in the charter committing MSF to confidentiality and

prohibiting it from any involvement in a country’s internal affairs. ... MSF increasingly challenged

western governments and the UN, criticising in particular military interventions that claimed the

protection of humanitarian actors as their mandate.

Source: Fabrice Weissman, “Silence Heals... From the Cold War to the War on Terror, MSF Speaks Out: A Brief History” in Claire Magone et al ed., Humanitarian Negotiations Revealed (London: C. Hurst & Co., 2011), pp.183-184.

(a) (i) Refer to Source C. What was the major constraint faced by the MSF during the early 1970s?

Support your answer with one clue from Source C. (1+1 mark)

(ii) Refer to Source D. What was the factor that changed the MSF’s mode of financing its

humanitarian missions? Explain your answer with reference to Source D. (3 marks)

(b) Refer to Source E. What kind of debate changed the development of the MSF during the 1990s?

Explain your answer with reference to Source E. (4 marks)

(c) Do Sources C, D and E sufficiently reflect the factors affecting the work the MSF in relieving problems

of population and resources worldwide? Explain your answer with reference to Sources C, D and E,

and using your own knowledge (7 marks)

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Question 2


(a) (i) Major constraint faced by MSF during the early 1970s [1+1 mark]

Major constraint: [1 mark]

- Financial constraint / lack of funds / insufficient funds

Clues, e.g.: [1 mark]

- “Because of the budget constraints, …”

- “…they did not advertise to solicit contributions, which kept their funds low.”

(ii) Factor changing MSF’s mode of financing its humanitarian missions [3 marks]

L1 General answer without due reference to the Source [max. 1]

L2 Comprehensive answer with due reference to the Source [max. 3]

Factor:

- The ever-expanding need to deliver medical services in refugee camps

- Clues, e,g,:

* “The multiplication of its missions in refugee camps at the end of the

1970s forced MSF to adopt a more professional approach…”

* “…the new generation of doctors wanting to serve for longer terms in

refugee camps and to providing more demanding medical services.”

- Due to such changing circumstances, the mode of minimal advertising and

negligent contributions could no longer cater for the financial needs of MSF

thus leading to a change in the mode of financing its work.

(b) The kind of debate changing the development of MSF during the 1990s [4 marks]

L1 General answer merely attempting to summarize the Source [max. 2]

L2 Appropriate answer able to identify and elaborate the debate [max. 4]

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Debate changing the development of MSF:

- Whether the MSF should speak explicitly on a country’s state affairs to safeguard

human rights, or remain silent and keep itself distant from state affairs

- Clues, e.g.:

* “speaking out publicly and defending human rights began to gain some

legitimacy…”

* “…they had until then resolutely opposed the French practice of bearing

witness, which they accused on politicizing MSF in violation of its statutes.”

- The MSF experienced an increasing need to make known its own stance regarding

issues of human rights and individual countries’ behaviour unacceptable to MSF.

This implied the abandoning of the previous principle of staying silent regarding

state affairs.

(c) Whether Sources C, D and E sufficiently reflect the factors affecting the work of [7 marks]

MSF in relieving problems of population and resources



Usefulness, e.g.:

- (Source C) MSF’s financial independence kept its work at a minimal level

- (Source D) Expansion of needs for MSF services in refugee camps caused

the employment of more MSF doctors, thus causing conflicting views among MSF

members

- (Source E) The urge to speak out against national government’s neglect/suppression

of human rights in the 1990s caused a departure from its original principle of

confidentiality and isolation from state affairs.

Limitations, e.g. Sources C to E do not reflect the following:

- The availability of funds, particularly in developed countries, which depends largely

on their citizens’ awareness of the needs of developing countries

- The diplomatic relations between developing and developed countries, which indirectly

determines the willingness of developed countries to supply funds to MSF’s work

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3. Study Sources F, G and H.

SOURCE F

The following are reasons behind the food crisis in 1973-1974:

1. A devastating cyclone hit Bangladesh in November 1970; there was a long drought in the Sahel

region of sub-Saharan Africa and serious floods in northern India.

2. Due to Morocco’s decision to seek improvement of its earnings from rock phosphate (a fertilizer),

fertilizer prices trebled January and July 1974.

3. The price of oil rose by nearly 450% from October 1973 to May 1974 and rapidly affected the

economies of many “third world” countries as they struggled to pay for oil imports.

Source: “The world’s food insecurity – Open Democracy website” (http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/the_world_s_food_problem) (Accessed on 7 July 2014)

SOURCE G

The following conclude the three-point plan decided in the World Food Conference of 1975:

1. Establishing a world food bank to maintain continual access to around 10 million tonnes of

stored grain that could be made freely available in time of need;

2. A new International Fund for Agricultural Development that would commit $5 billion a year for

ten years to improve tropical agriculture;

3. Setting up a new food forecasting system that would provide early warning of future crises.

Source: “The world’s food insecurity – Open Democracy website” (http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/the_world_s_food_problem) (Accessed on 7 July 2014)

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SOURCE H

The following is a chart from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization showing the number of

hungry people in the world between 1969 and 2000.

Source: “2013 World Hunger and Poverty Facts and Statistics – Hunger Notes website“ (http://www.worldhunger.org/articles/Learn/world%20hunger%20facts%202002.htm) (Accessed on 7 July 2014)

(a) (i) Refer to Source F. Identify the most serious problem of resources probably faced by developing

countries in the early 1970s. (2 marks)

(ii) Refer to Source G. Identify two solutions sought by the World Food Conference of 1975 to resolve

the problem of resources you mentioned in part (a)? Support your answer with relevant clues from

Source G. (3 marks)

(b) Refer to Source H. Identify the trend in the global development of hunger from the 1970s to 2000.

Explain your answer with reference to Source H. (4 marks)

(c) How useful are Sources F, G and H in reflecting the global problems of resources during the period

1970s-2000? Explain your answer with reference to Sources F, G, and H, and using your own

knowledge. (6 marks)

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Question 3


(a) (i) The most serious problem of resources probably faced by developing countries [2 marks]

in the early 1970s

L1 Unable to paraphrase the Source [max. 1]

L2 Able to paraphrase the Source [max. 2]

The most serious problem:

- Shortage of food supply in Bangladesh (due to cyclone), sub-Saharan Africa

(due to drought) and northern India (due to flood)

(ii) Two solutions sought by the World Food Conference of 1975 to resolve the [3 marks]

problem of resources mentioned in part (a)

L1 Unable to paraphrase the Source [max. 2]

L2 Able to paraphrase the Source [max. 3]

Actions taken by the World Food Conference, e.g.:

- Setting up a world food bank to sustain the supply of stored grain

(Clue: “establishing a world food bank”)

- Earmarking a new fund for the enhancement of agricultural development

(Clue: “new International Fund for Agricultural Development”)

- Forecasting food supply and providing early warning in case of food shortage

(Clue: “setting up a new food forecasting system”)

(b) Trend in the global development of hunger from the 1970s to 2000 [4 marks]


L2 Well-explained answer substantiated by evidence from the Source [max. 4]

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Trend:

- The number of people suffering from hunger slightly dropped from about 880

million in 1969-71 to about 850 million in 1990-92.

- Though a more obvious improvement took place in the early 1990s (from 850

million in 1990-92 to 780 million in 1995-97), the situation worsened again in

the late 1990s (rising back to about 840 million in 2000-02).

- In general, the global situation of hunger only slightly improved from the early

1970s to 2000. The drop was smaller than 10%.

(c) Usefulness and limitations of Sources F, G and H in reflecting global problems of [6 marks]

resources during the period 1970s-2000

L1 Lopsided answer focusing on either effective or ineffective side [max. 3]

L2 Comprehensive answer discussing both effective and ineffective sides [max. 6]

Usefulness, e.g.:

- (Source F) Morocco’s previous poverty status and its wish to rely on the sale

of fertilizers to increase national income

- (Source G) Lack of coordinated attempts at international level to handle food

supply and enhance agriculture in some world regions until the mid-1970s

- (Source H) Slow improvement in the situation of hunger and starvation among

the world’s population

Limitations, e.g. Sources F to H do not reflect the following:

Sources F, G and H mainly focus on the problem of food supply and food shortage,

but does not provide information on the following:

- The availability of effective medical facilities in developing and under-developed

countries

- Developing countries being exploited by developed countries for their mineral,

oil, timber and food resources through unfair trade

- Developing countries’ own misuse/depletion of natural resources leading to

further poverty

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4. Study Sources I, J and K.

SOURCE I

The following text is adopted from a book on the development of international non-governmental

organizations published in 1999.

The founding of INGOs prior to World War I [came before] modern concepts of ‘international-

development assistance’ or ‘international development.’ The three types of organizations founded

during this period- missionary organizations, specialized humanitarian organizations and professional

labor and political solidarity groups- all shared more general religious or moral aims.

Source: Colette Chabbott, ‘Development INGOs’ in J. Boli and G. Thomas, ed., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (California: Stanford University Press, 1999), pp.227-231.

SOURCE J

The following text is adopted from a book on the development of international non-governmental

organizations published in 1999.

World War II brought famine and pestilence on an unprecedented scale and prompted the creation

of a host of new governmental and nongovernmental organizations. These included private groups

that would later become some of the largest development INGOs: Oxfam, Catholic Relief Services,

World Relief, CARE…

Source: Colette Chabbott, “Development INGOs”, in John Boli & George M. Thomas, ed., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations Since 1875 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), p.231.

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SOURCE K

The following is adapted from UNICEF’s self-introduction.

Since our establishment in 1946, we have been working with other UN agencies, governments and

NGOs to ensure children’s rights in survival, development, protection and participation.

The world’s largest provider of vaccines for developing countries, UNICEF supports child health and

nutrition, good water and sanitation, quality basic education for all boys and girls, and the protection

of children from violence, exploitation, and AIDS, providing emergency relief and run long-term

development programmes.

Source: “About us – UNICEF Hong Kong website” (http://www.unicef.org.hk/about-us) (Accessed on 8 July 2014).

(a) Refer to Sources I and J. Identify a change in the type of international non-governmental organizations

(INGOs) existing in the world caused by the Second World War. Support your answer with relevant

clues from Sources I and J. (1+2 marks)

(b) Refer to Sources J and K. Identify the major difference between the INGOs and the UNICEF in terms

of their main concerns after the Second World War. Explain your answer with reference to Sources J

and K and using your own knowledge. (4 marks)

(c) Did the work of the INGOs and the UNICEF mentioned in Sources J and K represent all types of

international efforts in resolving the global problems of population and resources? Explain your answer

with reference to Sources J and K and using your own knowledge. (7 marks)

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Question 4


(a) ONE Change in the type of INGOs caused by WWII [1+2 marks]

Changed in the type of INGOs:

- Changed from concerning religious, humanitarian and professional issues to [1 mark]

making primary effort to poverty issues

Clues:

- (Source I) “missionary organizations, specialized humanitarian organizations [2 marks,

and professional labor and political solidarity groups” 1 mark

- (Source J) “Oxfam, Catholic Relief Services, World Relief, CARE…” – these each]

focus on the relief of poverty problems.

(b) Major difference between INGOs and UNICEF in terms of their main concerns [4 marks]

after WWII

L1 Rough answer covering either INGOs or UNICEF [max. 2]

L2 Comprehensive answer covering both INGOs and UNICEF [max. 4]

Major difference:

- INGOs are concerned about relief services during natural disasters, while UNICEF

is concerned about children’s well-being, including health and medicine,

education and exploitation, etc.

- (Source J) “World War II brought famine and pestilence … and prompted the

creation of a host of new governmental and organizations.”

- (Source K) “Since our establishment in 1946, we have been working … to ensure

children’s rights in survival, development, protection and participation.”

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(c) Whether the work of INGOs and the UNICEF represent all types of international [7 marks]

efforts in resolving global problems of population and resources

L1 Lopsided answer claiming that Sources J and K represent all types of international [max. 4]

efforts in resolving problems of population and resources

L2 Comprehensive answer pointing out other types of international efforts not shown [max. 7]

in Sources J and K

Whether the work of INGOs and UNICEF are all-inclusive:

- No

Types of international efforts represented by INGOs & UNICEF:

- (Source J) voluntary, privately-funded, humanitarian relief work offered by

INGOs (e.g. Oxfam) at times of natural disasters

- (Source K) official, besides public funds, UNICEF also receives funding from

private sectors and donation from individuals; provides emergency relief and

run long-term development programmes.

Types of international efforts not represented by INGOs & UNICEF:

- International conferences attempting to negotiate the coordination of food supply

worldwide, jointly participated by the UN and INGOs

- Attempts at promoting fair trade jointly made by the commercial sector and the

humanitarian sector

186


5. Study Sources L and M.

SOURCE L

The following extract is adapted from a report on the work of Oxfam, an international non-governmental

organization, published in 1970.

As well as suffering and homelessness provoked by man, there has also been a dreadful harvest of

natural disaster. Private aid organizations like Oxfam are invariably the quickest to act after floods,

cyclones, hurricanes and earthquakes… [also] properly geared both to tapping the sources of public

generosity in this country and to assessing the needs of the developing world. In the first financial

year of the sixties, the organization broke the £1 million cash barrier for the first time in its history.

During the year 1962-1963, Oxfam collected more than £2 million in cash and clothing…

Source: P. Gill, Drops in the Ocean: The Work of Oxfam 1960-1970 (London: Hazell Watson & Viney Ltd., 1970), pp.11, 12, 14.

SOURCE M

The following extract is adapted from a book on non-governmental organizations which reports the work of

Oxfam in the 1990s.

With the escalating number of conflicts following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Eastern

bloc, Oxfam began emergency and rehabilitation work in this region. During the 1990s, Oxfam

supplied humanitarian aid to affected civilians on all sides of the wars in the former Yugoslavia.

Oxfam’s largest-ever response to a humanitarian disaster was in the Great Lakes region of Central

Africa in the mid-1990s... The work on the ground was matched by international lobbying and

campaigning aimed at the UN, the Organization of African Unity, and powerful governments, in an

effort to build a lasting peace.... An Oxfam International advocacy office opened in Washington DC

to lobby international bodies like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the United

Nations.

Source: Roger Courtney, Strategic Management for Nonprofit Organizations (London & New York: Routledge, 2002), p.292.

(a) Identify two major areas of Oxfam’s work in the 1970s, as reflected in Source L. Support your answer

with relevant clues from Source L. (2+2 marks)

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(b) Did the Oxfam work in the same areas in the 1990s as you pointed out in part (a)? Explain your answer

with reference to Source M and using your own knowledge. (4 marks)

(c) “The majority of international efforts in resolving global problems of population and resources were

just the same as those undertaken by Oxfam during the period 1970s-1990s.” Do you agree? Explain

your answer with reference to Sources L and M and using your own knowledge. (7 marks)

Question 5


(a) Two major areas of Oxfam’s work in the 1970s [2+2 marks]

Major areas of Oxfam’s work:

- Raising funds to relieve the impact of natural disasters (Clue: “tapping the [1+1 mark]

sources of public generosity”)

- To evaluate the needs of the developing countries (Clue: “assessing the needs [1+1 mark]

of the developing world”)

(b) Whether Oxfam worked in the same areas in the 1990s as it did [4 marks]


L2 Well explained answer with due reference to the Source [max. 4]

Whether Oxfam worked in the same areas in the 1990s (Both Yes and No are

acceptable as long as proper clues and elaboration are given.):

- Yes (i.e. continued fundraising for relief work), with the following clues:

* “During the 1990s, Oxfam supplied humanitarian aid to affected civilians…”

* “An Oxfam International advocacy office opened in Washington DC to lobby …

the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund…”

- No (i.e. shifted to promote peace and denounce war by lobbying certain countries),

with the following clues:

* “international lobbying and campaigning aimed at the UN, the Organization of

African Unity, and power governments, in an effort to build a lasting peace”

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Own knowledge:

- (For “Yes” above) Natural disasters happened even more frequently than several

decades ago, so Oxfam had to continuously perform the roles of fundraiser and

humanitarian aid provider.

- (For “No” above) Racial/Regional/International conflicts arose even more

frequently after the 1970s, e.g. those in the Middle East and Africa, thus leading

to the worsening situation of insufficient resources in some regions/countries.

This caused Oxfam to take a more fundamental strategy to minimize war

possibilities instead of ceaselessly provide humanitarian aid.

(c) “The majority of international efforts in resolving global problems of population [7 marks]

and resources were just the same as those undertaken by Oxfam during the

period 1970s-1990s.” Do you agree?

L1 Rough answer attempting to summarize the Sources, without showing one’s own [max. 2]

stance regarding the statement

L2 Lopsided answer, unable to identify international efforts different from those of [max. 4]

Oxfam

L3 Comprehensive answer, able to recognize other types of international efforts apart [max. 7]

from Oxfam

Similarity between Oxfam and other international efforts:

- (Source L) raising fund for humanitarian services to alleviate the impact of

disasters (e.g. International Red Cross)

- (Source M) lobbying for international peace (e.g. MSF)

Difference between Oxfam and other international efforts:

- Oxfam did not pay particular attention to children’s well-being, but UNICEF did.

- World Vision conducted special community projects to build self-contained

communities with sufficient medical, health, educational and occupational services

in developing countries, while Oxfam focused merely on medicine and disaster relief.

189


6. Study Sources N and O.

SOURCE N

The following extract is adapted from a book published in 1999 on non-governmental organizations.

Environmental INGOs are defined as those international associations that 1) have members from at

least three countries and 2) are focused primarily on some aspect of nature. In the sample made of

twenty INGOs, there were 13 country representations in 1911. In 1945, there were 73 and in 1972,

there were 237. By, 1990, the total number had risen to 543. This mundane fact is related to a much

more profound process: the environment became increasingly magnetic in a world culture between

1911 and 1990, inspiring ever more INGOs and attracting ever more widespread adherence.

Source: D. Frank, A. Hironaka, J. Meyer, E. Schofer and N. Tuma, ‘The Rationalization and Organization of Nature in World Culture’ in J. Boli and G. Thomas, ed., Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875 (California: Stanford University Press, 1999), pp.83, 85.

SOURCE O

The following extract is adapted from a book published in 2008 on non-governmental organizations.

ENGOs (environmental NGOs) coordinated their participation in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations

under the umbrella of the Climate Action Network (CAN). CAN was formed in 1989 for

environmental organizations interested in the problem of climate change and today has more than

280 members.

Many observers point to the ability of the ENGOs to coordinate their activities and speak with one

voice as central to their influence on the Kyoto Protocol negotiations. Without such coordination,

statements made by any one group would have been viewed as representing narrow interests rather

than the broader interests of the environmental community.

Source: M. Betsill and E. Corell, ed., NGO Diplomacy: The Influence of Nongovernmental Organizations in International Environmental Negotiations (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2008), pp.46, 63.

190


(a) How did the international awareness of environmental issues change over the whole 20th century?

Support your answer with relevant clues from Source N. (1+2 marks)

(b) What was the international consensus regarding the international efforts in handling environmental

issues in the 1990s? Explain your answer with reference to Source O. (4 marks)

(c) What are the usefulness and limitations of Sources N and O in reflecting the different kinds of work

undertaken by the international community to handle environmental issues? Explain your answer with

reference to Sources N and O and using your own knowledge. (6 marks)

Question 6


(a) How international awareness of environmental issues changed [1+2 marks]

- The international awareness of environmental issues rapidly increased throughout [1 mark]

the 20th century.

- Clues: [2 marks]

* The number of country representations of environmental INGOs increased

sharply from 13 in 1911 to 543 in 1990, which is a 40-fold increase over

less than a century.

(b) International consensus regarding the international efforts in handling [4 marks]

environmental issues


L2 Well-explained answer with due reference to the Source [max. 4]

International consensus:

- ENGOs generally realized the need to pool together their efforts, and work

towards their environmental goals in solidarity

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- Clues, e.g.:

* “to coordinate their activities and speak with one voice…”

* “Without such coordination, statements made by any one group would

have been viewed as representing narrow interests…”

Own knowledge:

- Rapid globalization and ever-strengthening commercial and industrial concerns

near the end of the 20th century has often put environmental concerns aside

or compromised them. Therefore, ENGOs realized the need to stand together to

strive for their environmental cause against commercial forces.

(c) Usefulness and limitations of Sources N and O in reflecting different kinds of work [6 marks]

undertaken by the international community to handle environmental issues



Usefulness, e.g.:

- (Source N) ENGOs coordinated their efforts across different countries to secure

the achievement of their environmental goals.

- (Source O) ENGOs took part in the negotiations of the Kyoto Protocol and formed

the umbrella organization of Climate Action Network (CAN) to coordinate related

issues.

Limitations, e.g.:

Sources N and O do not reflect the following kinds of environmental work:

- The preservation of wildlife and nature (e.g. World Wide Fund for Nature)

- The demonstration against overfishing, deforestation, commercial whaling, etc.

(e.g. Greenpeace)

- The education of the public on environmental issues (e.g. Friends of the Earth)

192


7. Study Sources P, Q and R.

SOURCE P

The following extract is adapted from a book published in 1991 on the impact of Greenpeace in the world.

…Greenpeace has a policy of complete independence from political parties, business interests and

other outside organizations. The environment concerns everybody, and the problems that we face

now cannot be solved by this party or that party alone.

Source: P. Hurley, The Greenpeace Effect (London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1991), p.3.

SOURCE Q


[In 1972], Greenpeace sailed another tiny boat into Mururoa Atoll in the Pacific Ocean because that

was the place where the French government was testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere… the

Greenpeace protesters were attacked by French military personnel, although they offered no physical

resistance. World opinion expressed shock and anger at the actions of the French authorities, and in

1974 the French government signed a treaty which banned all atmospheric nuclear testing.

Source: P. Hurley, The Greenpeace Effect (London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1991), pp.4-5.

193


SOURCE R


Greenpeace continues to record and monitor the levels of acid rain in our environment and insists

that we must all take action to cut the levels of pollution caused by cars and industries. Cars must

be fitted with ‘catalytic converters’ to reduce the amount of nitrogen oxide which is emitted into

the air. Power stations should not emit the huge quantities of sulphur into the atmosphere that they

still do today in many places. There are ways of reducing sulphur emissions by 90% with existing

technology. Governments should make sure that we stop wasting energy. Conserving energy would

mean less acid rain. Less acid rain would make the world a healthier place to live in.

Source: P. Hurley, The Greenpeace Effect (London: Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1991), p.17.

(a) Identify the major principle of the work of Greenpeace, as reflected in Source P. Support your answer

with one clue from Source P. (1+1 mark)

(b) What are the main environmental concerns of Greenpeace, as shown in Sources Q and R? Explain your

answer with reference to Sources Q and R. (4 marks)

(c) “Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been more active than national governments in making

efforts to safeguard the global environment in the late 20th century.” Comment on the validity of this

statement with reference to Sources Q and R and using your own knowledge. (7 marks)

194


Question 7


(a) Major principle of the work of Greenpeace [1+1 mark]

Major principle:

- Refusing to associate itself with political, commercial or other forces when [1 mark]

pursuing its goals

Clue:

- “policy of complete independence from political parties, business interests [1 mark]

and other outside organizations”

(b) Major environmental concerns of Greenpeace [4 marks]

L1 Unable to paraphrase the Sources, and lopsided discussion about either Source Q [max. 2]

or Source R

L2 Able to paraphrase the Sources, and comprehensive discussion about both Source Q [max. 4]

and Source R

Major environmental concern in Source Q:

- The ceasing of and ban on nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere

- Clue: “the French government was testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere …

the Greenpeace protesters were attacked…”

Major environmental concern in Source R:

- The reduction of the various pollutants and chemical emissions that cause acid rain

- Clue: “Greenpeace continues to record and monitor the levels of acid rain in our

environment and insists that we must all take action to …”

195


(c) “Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have been more active than national [7 marks]

governments in making efforts to safeguard the global environment in the late

20th century.” Comment on the validity of this statement.

L1 Rough answer, unable to present one’s own stance, merely attempting to [max. 2]

elaborate the Sources

L2 Lopsided answer arguing for merely one side of the statement, able to present one’s [max. 4]

own stance but without sufficient justification

L3 Comprehensive answer considering both sides of the statement, and able to justify [max. 7]

one’s own stance

For the argument:

- (Source Q) Greenpeace was well ahead of the French government in discouraging

nuclear weapon testing in the atmosphere. While the French government

compromised atmospheric and environmental safety by conducting nuclear

weapon testing, Greenpeace took action against it. Finally, such testing was

banned upon huge pressure from various pressure groups and ENGOs.

- (own knowledge) Other ENGOs such as Friends of the Earth and World Wide

Fund for Nature are far more active than national governments in educating the

public on wildlife and nature preservation.

Against the argument:

- (Source R) Greenpeace had less control than national governments over

environment-related policies, such as legally acceptable levels of car emission,

power stations’ sulphur emission, policies of anti-wastage, etc. Greenpeace and

similar ENGOs can be seen as being in a more passive status on such policies

issues.

- (own knowledge) In countries such as Germany, governments are often the

leaders of ENGOs and environment-related political parties in formulating

green policies concerning electricity, nuclear power plants, environmental

conservation, recycling of domestic and industrial wastes, etc.

topic 2 - education bureau · 2015. 6. 12. · 173 data-based questions : topic 2 (b) (ii)...

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