topic 2 behaviourist developmental theories

8/13/2019 Topic 2 Behaviourist Developmental Theories

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TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES22

The scenarios in Figure 2.1 show the application of the principles of behaviouralapproach to learning. Did you notice that there is an observable behaviour in

both of these situations?

In scenario A, the observable behaviour is a teacher praising a student for doingan excellent science project. Meanwhile, in scenario B, the observable behaviouris a teacher praising a student for giving a correct answer. There is also feedbackfrom the teacher, such as, I am proud of you. Your science project wasexcellent! and Very good!. Do you know that these are the essential elementsof behavioural approach to learning? The behaviourist theories emphasise thestudy of observable measurable behaviours in order to influence learning.

In this topic, you will first be introduced to learning theories and behavioural

views of learning. You will then learn about the contributions of threebehaviourists namely Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner. For each of thesebehavioural scientists, you will study their early experiments and the underlyingprinciples in each of their theories. Finally, you will explore the applications ofeach of their theories in the teaching of science.

BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF LEARNING

First of all, let us have a look at what a learning theory is.

Do you know why is it important for teachers to know about learning theories? Itis because, learning theories help us to understand how pupils learn and whycertain techniques encourage learning more than others. Learning theories can bedivided into four main schools of thought as shown in Figure 2.2. In this topic,

2.1

A learning theory is a set of principles which aim to explain the process oflearning.

Observe a science lesson conducted by a teacher in your school. How

does the teacher reinforce good behaviours of the students? Write downall the different feedback the teacher gives to the students. Do you thinkthe feedback that the teacher gives can bring about change in the

behaviour of the students? Discuss among your coursemates.

ACTIVITY 2.1


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TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 23

you will be learning about behavioural learning theories. Cognitive learningtheories will be covered later in other topics.

Figure 2.2:Classification of learning theoriesFor your information, behavioural learning theories were the earliest theories oflearning that were introduced. There are two main groups of behaviouristtheories as can be seen in Figure 2.2:

(a) Classical conditioning theories

(b) Operant conditioning theories

Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner are behavioural scientists who have made majorcontributions in the field of behavioural learning. Pavlovs theory is known asclassical conditioning theory, while Thorndike and Skinners theories are knownas operant conditioning theories.

This behavioural approach emphasises observable behaviours that can be

measured. Learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus andresponse relationships (S-R). You will be learning more about the relationship

between stimulus and response as you read further.

Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.What does conditioning mean?


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Conditioning occurs through interactions with the environment while learning issaid to have occurred when there is an observable change in behaviour.

PAVLOVS THEORY

Now, let us study Pavlovs classical conditioning theory and its application in theteaching of science. Have you heard of the famous experiment that is shown inFigure 2.3?

Conditioning is a process of teaching, where the learner associates behaviouror the response with a stimulus (McInerney & McInerney, 2006).

2.2

Behaviourism has its own set of specialised terms to describe thelearning process. It is worthwhile to be familiar with these terms. Canyou find the meaning of the following key behaviourist terms:

(a) Stimulus;

(b) Response; and

(c) Conditioning?

ACTIVITY 2.2

In your own words, describe the behavioural views of learning.

SELF-CHECK 2.1


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Figure 2.3:Pavlovs experiment on classical conditioningSource:http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.htmlThis experiment was carried out by the Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), to find out if a dogs behaviour could be conditioned. His theory is knownas classical conditioning.

2.2.1 Pavlov and Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is one of the first theories of behaviourism. Pavlov showedthe simple relationship between a stimulus and a response in teaching(conditioning) an animal to modify its behaviour (McInerney & McInerney,2006). In his experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate to the sound of a

bell by linking a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus.

In order to better understand classical conditioning, let us look at theobservations studied by Pavlov on his dog as illustrated in Figure 2.4.


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Figure 2.4:Schematic representation of classical conditioningSource:http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

In reference to Figure 2.4, let us have a look at Table 2.1 for more information oneach phase in classical conditioning.

Table 2.1: Phases in Classical ConditioningPhase Description

Before conditioning

(Figure 2.4 (1 and 2))

A dog salivates when presented with food. Pavlov called the foodan unconditioned stimulus (UC) resulting in an unconditionedresponse (UR) (salivation). A neutral stimulus such as the ringingof a bell did not bring about any response.

During conditioning

(Figure 2.4 (3))

To condition the response behaviour, Pavlov rang a small bell atthe same time as the meat was presented. He carried out manypractice sessions where the bell and meat were presented together.

After conditioning

(Figure 2.4 (4))

The dog eventually learned to salivate when the bell was rungwithout the meat. The bell which originally had no meaning forthe dog, took on meaning and became the conditioned stimulus(CS) because of repeated pairing or association with the foodwhich then became the conditioned response (CR) that issalivation.


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This early research demonstrated that a stimulus that readily leads to a responsecan be paired with a neutral stimulus in order to bring about learning. This is theessence of classical conditioning. We sometimes learn new responses as a result

of two stimuli being presented at the same time. As seen in Figure 2.4, it startswith two things that are already connected with each other, which are, food andsalivation. Then, paired with a third thing, which is the bell with the conditionedstimulus, which is the food over several trials. Eventually, this third thing may

become so strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce a newbehaviour. The animal is conditioned to respond to the third thing or stimulus.

2.2.2 Common Processes in Classical Conditioning

Pavlovs work also identified three other processes in classical conditioning, as

shown in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2:Other Processes in Classical ConditioningOther Processes DescriptionGeneralisation Pavlov used bells of different tones. The dog still salivated even

though the tones of the bells were different. The dog responded eventhough the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. Thedog is capable of stimulus generalisation and is able to generaliseacross different tones.

Discrimination The dogs could also respond to one tone of the bell and not to othersthat were similar. Pavlov did this by making sure the food was onlypresented with only that one tone and not others. He called thisstimulus discrimination. The dog is able to differentiate amongdifferent tones.

Extinction Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is presentedrepeatedly but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food).The conditioned response (salivating) gradually fades away anddisappears. Pavlov continued ringing the bell and not following with thefood. The dog gradually did not salivate. Extinction had taken place.

Classical conditioning is often used in advertisements. In groups,study advertisements on television or in print. Describe how classicalconditioning is used to sell the product. Use the following terms inyour description: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.

ACTIVITY 2.3


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2.2.3 Applications of Pavlovs Theory in the Teaching

of Science

Pavlovs theory helps to explain why children behave the way they do in certaincircumstances. Many childrens attitudes are learnt through classicalconditioning. For example, some children learn to dislike science or mathematics,not because the subject is difficult but because the subject has been paired withfear producing stimuli such as strict teachers.

Once you understand the process of classical conditioning, you will be able tounderstand the importance of creating a healthy classroom environment. For

example, if you treat your students with warmth and care each time during theirscience lesson, the students will begin to associate the science class with a warmand caring teacher. Your warm and caring attitude are the unconditioned stimuli.The science class becomes the conditioned stimulus which the students haveassociated with the warmth of the teacher. The unconditioned response is theinitial response to the teacher. The students develop a positive emotionalresponse to science. This is the conditioned response and the whole process isillustrated in Figure 2.5.

In groups, discuss the situations in your science class where you canuse the following processes to facilitate learning:

(a) Generalisation;

(b) Discrimination; and

(c) Extinction.

ACTIVITY 2.4


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Figure 2.5:Process of classical conditioningNow, let us study the applications of Pavlovs classical conditioning theory inscience classrooms. Think of how you can use them in your science lesson.

Applying Pavlovs Classical Conditioning Theoryin a Science Classroom1. Provide a safe and warm environment so that the science classroom will

be associated with a positive emotion or attitude.

2. Associate positive and pleasant events with learning tasks. For example,make science experiments fun by having a relaxed and comfortableatmosphere in the science room or laboratory.

3. Help students to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily andsuccessfully. For example, pair an anxiety-provoking situation, such asperforming in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings and a non-threatening atmosphere. This helps the student learn new associations.Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the student willstay relaxed and calm.

4. Help students recognise differences and similarities among situations,so they can discriminate and generalise appropriately. For example,assure students who are anxious about taking a major examination thatthis test is like all other tests that they have sat for.

5. Use motivation to produce positive behaviour.

Source:Woolfolk (2001)


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THORNDIKES THEORY

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) introduced a theory of learning calledconnectionism. His theory viewed learning as forming connections between a

stimulus (S) and a response (R). He conducted experiments with various animals.He placed a hungry animal in a puzzle box and food outside the box. He thenobserved how it learnt to get out. He believed that learning occurred throughtrial and error. His classic experiment with a hungry cat is shown in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6:Thorndikes puzzle boxSource:http://www.csus.edu/indiv/w/wickelgren/psyc001/ClassLectureThreeOperant.html

The puzzle box as shown in Figure 2.6 had a lever which opened the door. Aftermuch trial and error, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (stimulus)with opening the door (response). This S-R connection when established resultedin a satisfying state of affairs (escape from box).

The same cat was placed in the box over and over again. Each time the cat wasplaced back in the box, it took a shorter time to get out. The cat had madeconnection between its behaviour and the reward. Thorndike concluded that cats

2.3

1. What are the main principles in Pavlovs theory?

2. Discuss with examples how you can use Pavlovs theory toteach science.

SELF-CHECK 2.2


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learn faster if they are rewarded for their behaviour and that learning isincremental, that is, it occurred in small steps.

Can you see any differences between Thorndikes theory and Pavlovs classicalconditioning theory? Did you notice that the learner in classical conditioning isseen to be passive and responding to the environment?

In the case of Pavlovs dog, it responded to the stimulus of food. Whereas thelearner in Thorndikes theory is seen actively responding to the environment.The cat pressed the lever (response) to get to the food (stimulus). This means thatthe learner plays an active part in the changes of behaviour. The learner alsooperates on the environment by responding to the stimulus. This is known asoperant conditioning. Thorndike established the basis for operant conditioning

but the person thought to be responsible for developing the concept is Skinner.We will learn about Skinners theory later.

2.3.1 Thorndikes Laws

Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws as can be seen inTable 2.3.

Table 2.3:Thorndikes LawsThorndikes Laws Description

Law of Effect Law of effect is the most famous of his laws. Any act thatproduces a satisfying effect in a given situation will tend to berepeated in that situation. For example, if a response (e.g.answering a science question) is followed by a rewardingexperience (e.g. student gets right answer and is praised by theteacher), the response will be strengthened and become a habit.

Law of Exercise The more frequent the S-R connection, the stronger it will be.For example, the connection between a stimulus (e.g. gettingthe right answer) and response (e.g. doing a science question) is

strengthened with practice and weakened when practice isdiscontinued.

Law of Readiness Readiness to do an act is satisfying. Individuals learn best whenthey are physically, mentally and emotionally ready. Ifstudents are ready, they will make more progress in learning.


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2.3.2 Applications of Thorndikes Theory in theTeaching of Science

Thorndike stressed the importance of stimulus response connections. So, the taskof the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities to enhanceconnections between a stimulus and a response.

The following shows the various ways you can apply Thorndikes theory in ascience classroom

Applying Thorndikes Theoryin a Science Classroom1. Give rewards or reinforcement for positive behaviour. This will

establish the stimulus-response connection.

2. Use drill practices to associate between a stimulus and a response. Thiswill strengthen the S-R connection.

3. Use routines to help students practice desired behaviours until theybecome a habit. For example, give step-by step routines on how to writescience reports.

4. Get students ready to learn by creating interest in science withinteresting demonstrations and activities.

5. Make sure students basic needs are satisfied. If students are hungry,tired or troubled, they will have little interest in learning.

Discuss the implications of Thorndikes theories on the teachingand learning of science.

SELF-CHECK 2.3


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SKINNERS THEORY

Have you ever tried to train your pet? How did you do it? Look at Figure 2.7which shows trained animals performing.

Figure 2.7:Animals performing tricksSource:http://drsophiayin.com/resources/cattricks, http:http://www.insidethemagic.net/2011/04/highlights-one-ocean-makes-a-big-splash-at-

seaworld-orlando-debut-wetting-guests-with-shamu-size-fun/

The complex tricks performed by the cat and the dolphins shown in Figure 2.7are the result of many hours of training. The training or conditioning that iscarried out is based largely on the principles of behavioural learning theories.

2.4

Of all the theories of behavioural learning, operant conditioningprobablyhas the greatest impact on science teachers. (Hassard, 1992).

For each of the ways of applying Thorndikes theory given before,suggest examples you can use in your science lessons. Carry out yoursuggestions in your science classes. Record your observations andconclusions.

ACTIVITY 2.5


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As was mentioned earlier in this topic, Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) isresponsible for formulating the operant conditioning theory. Like Pavlov andThorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned

behaviour. Skinner thought that behaviour (R) is controlled by a stimulus (S) andhe called it operant behaviour.

Do you still remember what operant behaviours are? Yes. Operant behavioursare behaviours that operate on the environment to receive reinforcement. That iswhy Skinners theory is also known as operant conditioning.

2.4.1 Skinner and Operant Conditioning

Skinners early studies were on animals like rats and pigeons. He devised an

apparatus called the Skinner box as shown in Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8:Skinners boxSource:http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htmA hungry rat was placed in this box. The box contained a small brass lever that, ifpressed, delivered a pellet of food. Once it was left alone in the box, the ratmoved about exploring. At some point in time, it pressed the lever and a smallfood pellet was released. The rat ate this and soon pressed the lever again. Thefood pellet reinforced pressing of the lever.


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Can you identify the stimulus and response in the example above? Yes, you areright. The stimulus is the food pellet and the response is the pressing of the lever.Which one occurred first the stimulus or the response? Yes, the response

occurred first, that is, the rat carried out the response (pressing lever) to get thestimulus (food pellet). The rat operated on its environment. Can you see how therat in Skinners box is different from Pavlovs dog?

What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellet? Skinner disconnectedthe food dispenser. When the rat pressed the lever, no food was released. The ratpressed the lever less and less and finally stopped. That is, the operant responsehas undergone extinction with non-reinforcement just as in classicalconditioning.

Skinner progressively reinforced behaviour that came close to the goal behaviourthat is, pressing of the lever to get food. He called this shaping. In this way, theanimal is gradually taught to perform quite complex behaviour.

Skinners work resulted in the development of a number of principles ofbehaviour that have direct implications on teaching. Reinforcement which is thekey principle in Skinners theory will be explored in more detail in the nextsection.

2.4.2 Reinforcement

In psychology, reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens the behaviourit follows. Consequences are simply environmental events that follow the

behaviour. This can be summarised as shown in Figure 2.9.

Figure 2.9:ReinforcementSource:Woolfolk (2001)Consequences to a large extent will determine whether a person will repeat the

behaviour that led to the consequences. The type of consequences given and alsothe timing of the consequences are important in determining if the behaviour isto be strengthened or repeated. We will now look at different types ofreinforcement and reinforcement schedules.


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There are two types of reinforcement as can be seen in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10:Types of reinforcementThe differences between both of these types of reinforcement are given inTable 2.4.

Table 2.4:Differences between Positive and Negative ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

A pleasant consequence increases theprobability of that behaviour occurring inthe future.

Taking away something negative toincrease the probability of that behaviouroccurring again.

The pleasant consequence can be verbalpraise, good grades, tokens, motivatingwords, winning certificates, earningprivileges, facial expressions or a feeling ofincreased accomplishment or satisfaction.

Unpleasant consequences are removedsuch as nagging or extra homework.

Example:A student gives the correct answer as insituation B in Figure 2.1. The teacherpraises the student. The student triesharder to give the correct response the nexttime.

Example:A teacher announces to the class that theyhave no homework for that day becausethey have done an excellent science project.Students work harder for the next scienceproject.


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2.4.3 Punishment

Now, have a look at Figure 2.8 again. If every time the rat touches the lever, itreceives an electric shock it will eventually learn to stop pressing the lever. This

is punishment and can be summarised as in Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11:PunishmentSource:Woolfolk (2001)For example, a student gives the wrong answer and is punished by the teacher.The teacher makes the student stand in front of the class. The student will thentry not to give the wrong answer the next time. The undesirable response isreduced. What do you think of punishing students this way?

Generally, reinforcement is preferred over punishment in modifying behaviourbecause punishment can bring about undesired emotional effects in the students.Can you suggest another way you can try to solve the teachers problem above?

2.4.4 Reinforcement SchedulesWhat do you know about reinforcement schedules?

Reinforcement schedules refer to the pattern and frequency in which aparticular response is reinforced.

Study Table 2.2 again. Give another two examples of each of thepositive and negative reinforcement that you can use in your scienceclassroom. Discuss your answers in groups.

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In the beginning stages of conditioning, Skinner reinforced the animal each timeit turned the lever. This is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. After anumber of trials, the animal slowly learns the desired behaviour. At this point,

reinforcement is moved to an intermittent reinforcement schedule. Anintermittent schedule allows for behaviour to be repeated but without constantreinforcement. This is shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12:Reinforcement schedulesAs can be seen in Figure 2.12, there are two types of intermittent schedules:

(a) Interval ScheduleIn the interval schedule, reinforcers are given based on the amount of timethat passes between responses.


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(b) Ratio ScheduleIn the ratio schedule, reinforcers are given based on number of responsesthe learner gives between reinforcements. Interval and ratio schedules may

be fixed or variable.

Now, let us read the following case study and try to solve Encik Hamdansproblem.

2.4.5 Applications of Skinners Theory in the Teachingof Science

After learning about the principles of Skinners theory, let us look at how we canapply it effectively in a science classroom. Study the following guidelines onhow you can apply Skinners theory in a science classroom.

Case StudyLisa is a student in Encik Hamdans class. She is always very excited duringthe science lessons and just shouts out answers without raising her hand.Encik Hamdan wants to reinforce Lisas appropriate behaviour that is raisingher hand to answer the questions with points that she can use to exchange forplay time. Look at the following reinforcement schedules. Identify which typeof schedule it is and decide which schedule or combination of schedules will

be the most effective to use with Lisa:

(a) Schedule AGive Lisa points each time she raises her hands.

(b) Schedule BGive Lisa points every third time she raises her hand.

(c) Schedule CGive Lisa points after she raises her hand a variable number of times.


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Applying Skinners Theoryin the Science Classroom1. Reinforce positive behaviours. For example praise students when they

complete their work well.

2. Determine what behaviours you want. For example, carrying outscience process skills correctly Reinforce these behaviours when theyoccur.

3. Tell students what behaviours you want. Science teachers deal with acomplex classroom environment which involves safety issues.Specifying behaviours that you expect in the classroom will ensureresponsible and independent learners.

4. Create chains of desired student behaviours by establishingreinforcement for those desired behaviours. For example, give studentsgold stars for each time they clean up after an experiment.

5. Reinforce expected behaviour as soon as it happens. For example, starsor tokens are given as soon as students collect work materials and beginexperiments.

6. Give praise and other rewards to students who even get desiredbehaviours partially right (Skinners shaping). This is rewarding themfor effort. Eventually, as students can do the desired behaviour correctlyyou can remove the rewards. For example, writing science reportsneatly. When they exhibit these behaviours, reinforce them and tellthem why.

7. Reinforcement is best used at variable intervals (Skinner schedules). Forexample, give rewards for following the rules for science groupdiscussions at intervals. You can also take pictures of students doing

projects and show these pictures once in a while to motivate students.

8. Develop your science lesson from simpler to more complex tasks. Givereinforcements at every concept learnt and continue to more complexones.


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Behaviourism refers to the study of observable and measurable behaviour.

In behaviourism, learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus andresponse relationships.

A stimulus is an event that activates behaviour; a response is an observablereaction to a stimulus.

Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.

What are the main principles in Pavlovs, Thorndikes and Skinnerstheories? Present your answers in the form of a mind map.

SELF-CHECK 2.7

1. In groups, complete the following table to show what you havelearnt about Skinners operant conditioning theory.

Essentials of operant conditioning Explanation with examplesOperant

Shaping

Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

Punishment

Reinforcement schedule

2. Discuss among your classmates what are any other ways canSkinners theory be applied in the science classroom.

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There are two main groups of behaviourist theories: classical conditioning andoperant conditioning.

Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, is a theory that explainshow we sometimes learn new responses as a result of two stimuli beingpresented at the same time.

Three other processes in classical conditioning are generalisation, discriminationand extinction.

In operant conditioning, as presented by Skinner and Thorndike, the learneractively operates on their environment to reach certain goals.

Thorndike stressed that learning involves stimulus-response connections.

He formulated three laws of learning: law of effect, law of exercise and law ofreadiness.

Skinners theory focussed on operants or behaviours that are affected by whathappens after the reinforcement (consequences).

Reinforcement is the process of using a reinforcement to strengthen behaviour.

There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative reinforcement.

Reinforcement schedules are the pattern and frequency in which a particularresponse is reinforced.

The principles of the theories of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner can be used inthe teaching of science.

The teachers job is to create a science learning environment in which certainbehaviours (the acquisition of knowledge, concepts and skills) are increased andreinforced.


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Behaviourism

Classical conditioning

Conditioned responses

Conditioned stimulus

Conditioning

Connectionism

Consequences

Continuous reinforcement schedule

Discrimination

Extinction

Generalisation

Intermittent reinforcement schedule

Negative reinforcement

Operant

Operant conditioning

Positive reinforcement

Punishment

Reinforcement

Reinforcement schedule

Response

Shaping

Stimulus

Unconditioned response

Unconditioned stimulus

Abruscato, J. (2000). Teaching children science A discovery approach. USA:Allyn & Bacon.

Borich, G. D., & Tombari, M. L. (1996). Educational psychology: A contemporaryapproach. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

Culatta, R. (2011). Behavioral theories of learning. Retrieved May 8, 2011,from http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/

behaviorism/webquest.html

EmTech. (2007). Learning theories. Retrieved May 7, 2011, fromhttp://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm

Hassard, J. (1992). Minds on science Middle and secondary school methods.USA: Harper Collins.

Mclnerney, D. M., & Mclnerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology-constructinglearning. Australia: Pearson Prentice Hall.


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Northern College. (2003). Learning theories Classical conditioning. RetrievedApril 27, 2011, from http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/Learningtheories.htm

Utah State University. (2000). Positive interaction procedures. Retrieved May 8,2011, from http://www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/Positive.pdf

Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA: Allyn & Bacon.

topic 2 behaviourist developmental theories

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