to discuss % changes the last 300 years · marc antrop 2005 2 % changes the last 300 years after...

RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005

Marc Antrop 2005 1

RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and PlanningSheffield, May 17, 2005

Marc AntropDepartment of GeographyGhent University, Belgium

[email protected]://geoweb.ugent.be

Landscape as an integrative concept: Landscape as an integrative concept: effects and experiences of the effects and experiences of the European Landscape ConventionEuropean Landscape Convention

The growing popularity of landscape• When?

– Since the 1990s

• Why?– Landscapes are increasingly becoming threatened

• The political response– Cultural landscapes in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1992)– The First Assessment of Europe’s Environment (EEA 1992, 1995)– The European Landscape Convention (CoE 2000)

• Consequences:– landscape as a theme in many disciplines, resulting in diverging

approaches– shifting concepts – growing demand for transdisciplinary approach– Landscape becoming an integrative concept

To discuss• Landscape changes

– What driving forces?– What trends?

• What landscape?– Meanings, concepts, approaches– Common language and formal definitions

• Policy responses– Cultural landscapes in UNESCO World Heritage– European Landscape Convention

• Landscape as an integrative concept

% changes the last 300 years

After Goudie 2000, UN Habitat 2000

1700 1800 1900 2000

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orld

)

Deforested area

Terrestrial

vertebrate diversity

population

Water Water withdrawalswithdrawals N releases

COCO22

relea

ses

relea

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% urbanitesW.Eur.

Energyconsumption/cap.


Marc Antrop 2005 2



1700 1800 1900 2000

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Deforested area

Terrestrial


population


COCO22

relea

ses

relea

ses

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% urbanitesW.Eur.


Agricultural revolutions

Start nation widetopographical map coverages

French revolution…and wars

Industrial revolution(s)

Globalmonitoring



1700 1800 1900 2000

25

50

75

100

% c

hang

e(f

rom

0 at

10,

000

BP, w

orld

)

Deforested area

Terrestrial


population


COCO22

relea

ses

relea

ses

Year AD

% urbanitesW.Eur.


Agricultural revolutions

Start nation widetopographical map coverages

French revolution…and wars

Industrial revolution(s)

Globalmonitoring

PrePre--industrialindustrial: : traditional traditional landscapeslandscapes

RevolutionsRevolutions ageage::breakingbreaking withwith

traditionstraditionsand the past and the past

PostPost--warwarnewnew

landscapes:landscapes:urbanizedurbanized,,globalizedglobalized

Traditional TodayMany landscapes

in one’s life

One landscape forgrandparents and grandchilderen

18th c.

today

3 driving forces + X1. Accessibility – disclosure

> transportation infrastructure> fragmentation

2. Urbanization> as a change in life style and settlement conditions> functional changes <> morphology

3. Globalisation> disrupting local sustainability> uniformization > loss of diversity and identity

X… Calamities

… working at different scales

Major trends and resulting changes in landscapes

• Agricultural intensification and upscaling

• Agricultural extensification, marginalisation and land abandonment– The rural residue (D.Lowenthal)

• Urban and infrastructural sprawl

• The recreation and tourism paradox

• Water (mis)management

Vos, W. & Klijn, F., 2000. Trends in European landscape development: prospects for a sustainable future. In:Klijn, F. & Vos, W. (eds.) From landscape ecology to landscape science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 3-29


Marc Antrop 2005 3

The general trend: polarization

intensification extensification

Urbanized – industrialized –commercialized landscapesIncreased density of people, activities and infrastructuresIncreased multifunctionality

‘deep’ ‘empty’ ruralLand abandonmentReforestationMinimal functionalityThe ‘rural residue’

All landscapes are affected in many aspects-> everyone is involved

What is threatened?

The First Assessment of Europe’s Environment: Chapter 8: Landscapes

• “The richness and diversity of rural landscapes in Europe is a distinctive feature of the continent. There is probably nowhere else where the signs of human interaction with nature in landscape are so varied, contrasting and localised.

• Despite the immense scale of socio-economic changes that have accompanied this century's wave of industrialisation and urbanisation in many parts of Europe, much of this diversity remains, giving distinctive character to countries, regions and local areas.”

(Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995, Chapter 8)

Landscape: multiple meanings in common language

• Etymology – origin: landscap, landschep (Old Dutch 1201-1250)– Created, shaped land– Organised and managed territory

• Actual Meanings– administered (managed) territory, region, country,

• Lat. pagus > French: pays -> paysage• Landscap (Sweden, Finland)

– Historical region with proper character and identity• Homeland• Countryside

– representation of the land seen from a certain point: view, painting -> scenery

– particular area of activity: scene of action • e.g. political landscape

Singularity, uniqueness

Landscape= the global aspect of a

perceivable part of the land at a given moment

==> a common heritage

Von Humboldt1769-1859

Landschaft ist derTotalcharaktereiner Erdgegend

PlacePlaceCountrysideCountryside•• IdentityIdentity•• Genius Genius lociloci•• ControlControl centrecentre•• UniqueUnique historyhistory

Land= an area owned by someone who has free use of it (territory, soil) = useful => functional

==> land use===> land cover


Marc Antrop 2005 4

Approaches to landscape

1. a spatial complex of objects (elements) and features that interact.

• Basic concepts are structure, pattern, functioning, systems theory, change and dynamics

• Can be described and analysed using landscape metrics.

2. the scenery.• Basic concepts are Gestalt, landmarks, views, vista's, perspectives

and openness.• Studied by landscape architecture and design, environmental

psychology and perception.

3. an existential phenomenon with strong symbolic values and beliefs.

• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings of the landscape

Landscape as …Approaches to landscape






psychology (perception).


• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings of the landscape

Landscape as …

Approaches to landscape






psychology (perception).


• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings and narratives of the landscape

Landscape as …Landscape as a mental construct

The emotional landscape(landscape is what you believe)

The visual landscape(landscape is what you see)

The factual landscape(landscape is what you know)

The man-made landscape(landscape is what you make)

The layer of interpretation

The layer of perception

The layer of knowledge

The layer of intervention

The

land

scap

es o

f th

e m

ind

(min

dsca

pes)

The physical, material

landscape

Lorzing, H., 2001. The Nature of Landscape. A Personal Quest. 010 Publishers, Rotterdam


Marc Antrop 2005 5

Landscape architecture: a case apart• Early development as an art and craft outside the

scientific community

• Had an important impact upon – The image of ‘ideal’ or ‘typical’ (national) landscape– Designed landscapes are statements of power

• Lost paradise• Arcadian dreams• Individual status and power• Power over nature and landscape forming processes

• Landmarks in today’s landscape– “Gardens are the laboratories of landscape […] These

prototypes are the reference points and the marks which we establish in a contemporary landscape over which we have no control.”

(Desvigne and Dalnoky, 1995. The Landscape)

• Becoming an extension of architecture…?

Formal definitions (1)UNESCO World Heritage Convention

• Since 1992; also cultural landscapes, which represent the "combined works of nature and of man" … “They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by theirnatural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal.”

•• Three categories are recognized:

(1) designed landscapes created intentionally by man (garden and parkland landscapes)

(2) organically evolved landscapes, which reflect the process of interaction by culture and natural environment. Two sub-categories are: a. relict (or fossil) landscapes, which show features witnessing from a past

process that came to an end;b. continuing landscapes, where a traditional way of life continuous in the

contemporary society.

(3) associative cultural landscapes as symbols for religious, artistic or cultural meanings

Formal definitions (2)The European Landscape Convention

Council of Europe, Firenze 2000

– landscape = an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors

– landscape protection = actions to conserve and maintain the significant or characteristic features of a landscape…

– landscape planning = strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes

Formal definitions (2)The European Landscape Convention

Council of Europe, Firenze 2000

– landscape = an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors

• Territory• Observer-centred• Holistic• Dynamic

• Includes all landscapes• Values lie in the

significant or characteristic features


Marc Antrop 2005 6

The European Landscape Convention (2)•National measures

– General measures• recognise landscapes in law as an essential component

of people’s surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity

• integrate landscape in all kinds of policies

– Specific measures• awareness-raising • training and education• identification and assessment• landscape quality objectives• implementation

Landscape characterassessment

European Landscape Convention: implementation 2005

Signed 26%

Entry into force 37%

International meetings on landscape in Europe

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

ELC enteredinto force

March 1,2004

ELC opened for signature

12 signed, no ratification yet17 ratification, entry into force

Council of Europe: 46 members

Num

ber/

year

Elements for integration• Holism

– Perception– Scale hierarchies– Interaction spatial structure and functioning –

understanding dynamics• Sustainability

– Heritage • Natural and cultural capital

– Multifunctionality• Inter- and transdisciplinary approach

– Need for common language


Marc Antrop 2005 7

HOLISM









Holism: a basis for integration• The whole is more than the sum of the

composing partsoror• each element gets its meaning only by its

relation to the surrounding ones, its context or ‘environment’

A conceptA concept– very complex– difficult to handle– poorly used

HolismBio-philosophical theory

GestaltGestalt-

psychologyGeography

Air photo interpretationPerception

Landscapeecology

Land(scape)evaluation

LearningUnderstandingValuing

The landscape

Gestalt

The whole is more than the sum of the composing parts


Marc Antrop 2005 8

Each element receives its meaning by its context

Protected monument in the Antwerp harbor

volcanovolcano

craterscraters ??

…… withwith wallswalls ??????GrapesGrapes ??

Special stone walls …


Marc Antrop 2005 9

La Geria

NENE

33--4 m4 m

1 m1 m0,3 0,3 -- 1,5 m1,5 m

A wall with holes breaks the drying wind and prevent turbulence

• pit in black volcanic ashes collects the warmth during the day and prevents the soil from drying;• cools rapidly during the night, is hygroscopic and porous, so it attracts the air moisture

Sun’s energy is concentrated the whole day upon the plant

= = enarenado natural

18th c. 3000 ha18th c. 3000 ha

and

the story and narrative of a place

Natural andcultural landscape

Physical planning Physical planning mainly acts heremainly acts here









The nightmare of planners and policy makers

• The landscape belongs to many– Many facets– Who takes care of it?

• Numerous land owners– many interests – many not-concerted actions

Highly Highly dynamical dynamical

and and rather rather chaotic chaotic changes changes

and and a lot of a lot of

uncertaintyuncertainty


Marc Antrop 2005 10

The ‘step-by-step’-rule

time

BC D

A

autonomous,more chaoticdevelopment resultingfrom plan phase A

new reference situationbefore plan phase B

Davies 1969

8080--90%90%

A A functionalfunctional equilibriumequilibrium betweenbetweenrural rural andand urbanurban populations ?populations ?

time

Where do people live?

who thinks and plans the rural?

% urbanised population

Dynamics of urban change sincethe 1950s: the general picture

• 1950s urbanisation

• 1960s suburbanisation

• 1970s counterurbanisation

• 1980s (re)urbanisation

• 2000 60-90% urbanitesChampion T., 2001

Population Population turnaroundturnaroundPolarisation reversalPolarisation reversal

Ruralpopulationdeclining1.5%/yr

Differential urbanisation

Net

migra

tion

time

U CPR U

+

0

-

12

3

Geyer and Kontuly 1993

1 city2 town3 village


Marc Antrop 2005 11

Causes of counterurbanisation• Loss of qualities in suburbs

– Housing quality, prices, traffic congestion, landscape deterioration, ...

• Services and industry seeking rural locations – growing job opportunities in outer urban fringe with good accessibility

(edge cities)

• The countryside becoming empty and cheap

• Changes in agriculture– Subsidies for development of rural activities

• EU CAP => rural development– Part-time and hobby farmers

• ‘attached to the land’ but not part of the ‘maintenance of the fabric of rural society (G.Robinson 1990)

• Second homes– ‘Summer suburbs’

• Retirement migration– Coastal areas

ChangingChanging lifelife style,style,changingchanging mobilitymobilityandand accessibilityaccessibility

Urbanised Belgium• International statistics

– 97.3% urbanised in 2000

•Reality: – 15 urban regions of at least

80,000 inhabitants, grouping about 53% of the total population.

– besides the main cities there are many other towns and urbanized villages.

>400 inh./km²

<50 inh./km²

From the urban – rural division toFunctional Urban Regions

– Regions dominated by a large metropolis

– Polycentric regions with high urban and rural densities

– Polycentric regions with high urban densities

– Rural areas under metropolitan influence

– Rural areas with networks of medium-sized and small towns

– Remote rural areas.

European Functional Urban Areas (EFUA) by SPESP 2000

Types of FURs:

Types of relations or partnership between urban and rural

Home-work relationshipsCentral place relationshipsRelationships between metropolitan areas and urban centres in rural and intermediate areas (in fact: urban hierarchy)Relationship between rural and urban enterprisesRural areas as consumption areas for urban dwellersRural areas as open spaces for urban areasRural areas as carriers of urban infrastructureRural areas as suppliers of natural resources for urban areas (ex. water)Rural a

reas in

functio

n of ur

ban ne

eds

Rural a

reas in

functio

n of ur

ban ne

eds

formulated in the SPESP


Marc Antrop 2005 12

Emerging trends in the coming decades

• From local orientation to globalisation

• From involution towards replacement– Max. land productivity <> max. labour productivity– Sustainable <> expenditure– Multifunctional <> mono-specialisation– High diversity <> low diversity– Small scale <> large scale– Internal, local market <> external, international market

• From engagement towards alienation

• From integration to segregationVos, W. & Klijn, F., 2000. Trends in European landscape development: prospects for a sustainable future. In:Klijn, F. & Vos, W. (eds.) From landscape ecology to landscape science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 3-29

The Rural ResidueRural Landscapes in the European Future

• The countryside is becoming a place for living, not for making a living.

• Landscape and rural life are becoming ominously disjoined.

• Bereft of social meaning, landscapes become vacant, vacuous, void of context.

• Europe will soon be run by those severed from rural linkages and ancestral farms. No longer the font of home and family, métier or livelihood, landscapes are becoming the loci of vacation and avocation.

• Much of Europe now needs landscape habitants.

• Rural policy being dictated from the car window.

• “we all live in the city; we all live in the country. To do right by nature and people in the country, one has to do right by them in the city as well.”(William Cronon in Nature’s Metropolis)

David Lowenthal, 1997, in Understanding Ordinary Landscapes (Groth & Bressi eds.)

Dimensions for landscape management strategies

Character

Condition

People

weak

strong

poorgoodfew

many

create

conserveprotect

strengthen

restore

Based on R.Wood & J.Handley 2001

The significance of landscape today• Landscape is a key issue in

– Landscape ecology– Historical and cultural/humanistic geography– Landscape architecture

• and is of growing importance in– (landscape or geo-)archaeology– Heritage protection– Spatial planning

• Landscape has growing societal significance– As a common heritage that is threatened– Landscape character assessment for defining regional identity– For more integrated policy and decision-making

• and has become an important topic in applied research for– Environmental monitoring– Land use planning and ecological networks– Urbanization - transportation– Tourism and recreation

• Landscape has become a unifying concept in integrative studies– (Landscape) architecture remains a separate approach difficult to integrate


Marc Antrop 2005 13

Landscape ecology(ecologists, geographers, agronomists, foresters, nature conservationists,

planners,…)

Historical geography

Humanistic –cultural

geography

Archaeology

Landscape architecture

Planning

Different worlds of thinking

Ecology

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