to discuss % changes the last 300 years · marc antrop 2005 2 % changes the last 300 years after...
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RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
Marc Antrop 2005 1
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and PlanningSheffield, May 17, 2005
Marc AntropDepartment of GeographyGhent University, Belgium
[email protected]://geoweb.ugent.be
Landscape as an integrative concept: Landscape as an integrative concept: effects and experiences of the effects and experiences of the European Landscape ConventionEuropean Landscape Convention
The growing popularity of landscape• When?
– Since the 1990s
• Why?– Landscapes are increasingly becoming threatened
• The political response– Cultural landscapes in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention (1992)– The First Assessment of Europe’s Environment (EEA 1992, 1995)– The European Landscape Convention (CoE 2000)
• Consequences:– landscape as a theme in many disciplines, resulting in diverging
approaches– shifting concepts – growing demand for transdisciplinary approach– Landscape becoming an integrative concept
To discuss• Landscape changes
– What driving forces?– What trends?
• What landscape?– Meanings, concepts, approaches– Common language and formal definitions
• Policy responses– Cultural landscapes in UNESCO World Heritage– European Landscape Convention
• Landscape as an integrative concept
% changes the last 300 years
After Goudie 2000, UN Habitat 2000
1700 1800 1900 2000
25
50
75
100
% c
hang
e(f
rom
0 at
10,
000
BP, w
orld
)
Deforested area
Terrestrial
vertebrate diversity
population
Water Water withdrawalswithdrawals N releases
COCO22
relea
ses
relea
ses
Year AD
% urbanitesW.Eur.
Energyconsumption/cap.
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
Marc Antrop 2005 2
% changes the last 300 years
After Goudie 2000, UN Habitat 2000
1700 1800 1900 2000
25
50
75
100%
cha
nge
(fro
m0
at 1
0,00
0 BP
, wor
ld)
Deforested area
Terrestrial
vertebrate diversity
population
Water Water withdrawalswithdrawals N releases
COCO22
relea
ses
relea
ses
Year AD
% urbanitesW.Eur.
Energyconsumption/cap.
Agricultural revolutions
Start nation widetopographical map coverages
French revolution…and wars
Industrial revolution(s)
Globalmonitoring
% changes the last 300 years
After Goudie 2000, UN Habitat 2000
1700 1800 1900 2000
25
50
75
100
% c
hang
e(f
rom
0 at
10,
000
BP, w
orld
)
Deforested area
Terrestrial
vertebrate diversity
population
Water Water withdrawalswithdrawals N releases
COCO22
relea
ses
relea
ses
Year AD
% urbanitesW.Eur.
Energyconsumption/cap.
Agricultural revolutions
Start nation widetopographical map coverages
French revolution…and wars
Industrial revolution(s)
Globalmonitoring
PrePre--industrialindustrial: : traditional traditional landscapeslandscapes
RevolutionsRevolutions ageage::breakingbreaking withwith
traditionstraditionsand the past and the past
PostPost--warwarnewnew
landscapes:landscapes:urbanizedurbanized,,globalizedglobalized
Traditional TodayMany landscapes
in one’s life
One landscape forgrandparents and grandchilderen
18th c.
today
3 driving forces + X1. Accessibility – disclosure
> transportation infrastructure> fragmentation
2. Urbanization> as a change in life style and settlement conditions> functional changes <> morphology
3. Globalisation> disrupting local sustainability> uniformization > loss of diversity and identity
X… Calamities
… working at different scales
Major trends and resulting changes in landscapes
• Agricultural intensification and upscaling
• Agricultural extensification, marginalisation and land abandonment– The rural residue (D.Lowenthal)
• Urban and infrastructural sprawl
• The recreation and tourism paradox
• Water (mis)management
Vos, W. & Klijn, F., 2000. Trends in European landscape development: prospects for a sustainable future. In:Klijn, F. & Vos, W. (eds.) From landscape ecology to landscape science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 3-29
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
Marc Antrop 2005 3
The general trend: polarization
intensification extensification
Urbanized – industrialized –commercialized landscapesIncreased density of people, activities and infrastructuresIncreased multifunctionality
‘deep’ ‘empty’ ruralLand abandonmentReforestationMinimal functionalityThe ‘rural residue’
All landscapes are affected in many aspects-> everyone is involved
What is threatened?
The First Assessment of Europe’s Environment: Chapter 8: Landscapes
• “The richness and diversity of rural landscapes in Europe is a distinctive feature of the continent. There is probably nowhere else where the signs of human interaction with nature in landscape are so varied, contrasting and localised.
• Despite the immense scale of socio-economic changes that have accompanied this century's wave of industrialisation and urbanisation in many parts of Europe, much of this diversity remains, giving distinctive character to countries, regions and local areas.”
(Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995, Chapter 8)
Landscape: multiple meanings in common language
• Etymology – origin: landscap, landschep (Old Dutch 1201-1250)– Created, shaped land– Organised and managed territory
• Actual Meanings– administered (managed) territory, region, country,
• Lat. pagus > French: pays -> paysage• Landscap (Sweden, Finland)
– Historical region with proper character and identity• Homeland• Countryside
– representation of the land seen from a certain point: view, painting -> scenery
– particular area of activity: scene of action • e.g. political landscape
Singularity, uniqueness
Landscape= the global aspect of a
perceivable part of the land at a given moment
==> a common heritage
Von Humboldt1769-1859
Landschaft ist derTotalcharaktereiner Erdgegend
PlacePlaceCountrysideCountryside•• IdentityIdentity•• Genius Genius lociloci•• ControlControl centrecentre•• UniqueUnique historyhistory
Land= an area owned by someone who has free use of it (territory, soil) = useful => functional
==> land use===> land cover
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Approaches to landscape
1. a spatial complex of objects (elements) and features that interact.
• Basic concepts are structure, pattern, functioning, systems theory, change and dynamics
• Can be described and analysed using landscape metrics.
2. the scenery.• Basic concepts are Gestalt, landmarks, views, vista's, perspectives
and openness.• Studied by landscape architecture and design, environmental
psychology and perception.
3. an existential phenomenon with strong symbolic values and beliefs.
• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings of the landscape
Landscape as …Approaches to landscape
1. a spatial complex of objects (elements) and features that interact.
• Basic concepts are structure, pattern, functioning, systems theory, change and dynamics
• Can be described and analysed using landscape metrics.
2. the scenery.• Basic concepts are Gestalt, landmarks, views, vista's, perspectives
and openness.• Studied by landscape architecture and design, environmental
psychology (perception).
3. an existential phenomenon with strong symbolic values and beliefs.
• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings of the landscape
Landscape as …
Approaches to landscape
1. a spatial complex of objects (elements) and features that interact.
• Basic concepts are structure, pattern, functioning, systems theory, change and dynamics
• Can be described and analysed using landscape metrics.
2. the scenery.• Basic concepts are Gestalt, landmarks, views, vista's, perspectives
and openness.• Studied by landscape architecture and design, environmental
psychology (perception).
3. an existential phenomenon with strong symbolic values and beliefs.
• Basic concepts are homeland, (historic) heritage, genius loci,…• Readings and narratives of the landscape
Landscape as …Landscape as a mental construct
The emotional landscape(landscape is what you believe)
The visual landscape(landscape is what you see)
The factual landscape(landscape is what you know)
The man-made landscape(landscape is what you make)
The layer of interpretation
The layer of perception
The layer of knowledge
The layer of intervention
The
land
scap
es o
f th
e m
ind
(min
dsca
pes)
The physical, material
landscape
Lorzing, H., 2001. The Nature of Landscape. A Personal Quest. 010 Publishers, Rotterdam
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Landscape architecture: a case apart• Early development as an art and craft outside the
scientific community
• Had an important impact upon – The image of ‘ideal’ or ‘typical’ (national) landscape– Designed landscapes are statements of power
• Lost paradise• Arcadian dreams• Individual status and power• Power over nature and landscape forming processes
• Landmarks in today’s landscape– “Gardens are the laboratories of landscape […] These
prototypes are the reference points and the marks which we establish in a contemporary landscape over which we have no control.”
(Desvigne and Dalnoky, 1995. The Landscape)
• Becoming an extension of architecture…?
Formal definitions (1)UNESCO World Heritage Convention
• Since 1992; also cultural landscapes, which represent the "combined works of nature and of man" … “They are illustrative of the evolution of human society and settlement over time, under the influence of the physical constraints and/or opportunities presented by theirnatural environment and of successive social, economic and cultural forces, both external and internal.”
•• Three categories are recognized:
(1) designed landscapes created intentionally by man (garden and parkland landscapes)
(2) organically evolved landscapes, which reflect the process of interaction by culture and natural environment. Two sub-categories are: a. relict (or fossil) landscapes, which show features witnessing from a past
process that came to an end;b. continuing landscapes, where a traditional way of life continuous in the
contemporary society.
(3) associative cultural landscapes as symbols for religious, artistic or cultural meanings
Formal definitions (2)The European Landscape Convention
Council of Europe, Firenze 2000
– landscape = an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors
– landscape protection = actions to conserve and maintain the significant or characteristic features of a landscape…
– landscape planning = strong forward-looking action to enhance, restore or create landscapes
Formal definitions (2)The European Landscape Convention
Council of Europe, Firenze 2000
– landscape = an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors
• Territory• Observer-centred• Holistic• Dynamic
• Includes all landscapes• Values lie in the
significant or characteristic features
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
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The European Landscape Convention (2)•National measures
– General measures• recognise landscapes in law as an essential component
of people’s surroundings, an expression of the diversity of their shared cultural and natural heritage, and a foundation of their identity
• integrate landscape in all kinds of policies
– Specific measures• awareness-raising • training and education• identification and assessment• landscape quality objectives• implementation
Landscape characterassessment
European Landscape Convention: implementation 2005
Signed 26%
Entry into force 37%
International meetings on landscape in Europe
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
ELC enteredinto force
March 1,2004
ELC opened for signature
12 signed, no ratification yet17 ratification, entry into force
Council of Europe: 46 members
Num
ber/
year
Elements for integration• Holism
– Perception– Scale hierarchies– Interaction spatial structure and functioning –
understanding dynamics• Sustainability
– Heritage • Natural and cultural capital
– Multifunctionality• Inter- and transdisciplinary approach
– Need for common language
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HOLISM
Landscape= the global aspect of a
perceivable part of the land at a given moment
==> a common heritage
Von Humboldt1769-1859
Landschaft ist derTotalcharaktereiner Erdgegend
PlacePlaceCountrysideCountryside•• IdentityIdentity•• Genius Genius lociloci•• ControlControl centrecentre•• UniqueUnique historyhistory
Land= an area owned by someone who has free use of it (territory, soil) = useful => functional
==> land use===> land cover
Holism: a basis for integration• The whole is more than the sum of the
composing partsoror• each element gets its meaning only by its
relation to the surrounding ones, its context or ‘environment’
A conceptA concept– very complex– difficult to handle– poorly used
HolismBio-philosophical theory
GestaltGestalt-
psychologyGeography
Air photo interpretationPerception
Landscapeecology
Land(scape)evaluation
LearningUnderstandingValuing
The landscape
Gestalt
The whole is more than the sum of the composing parts
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
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Each element receives its meaning by its context
Protected monument in the Antwerp harbor
volcanovolcano
craterscraters ??
…… withwith wallswalls ??????GrapesGrapes ??
Special stone walls …
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La Geria
NENE
33--4 m4 m
1 m1 m0,3 0,3 -- 1,5 m1,5 m
A wall with holes breaks the drying wind and prevent turbulence
• pit in black volcanic ashes collects the warmth during the day and prevents the soil from drying;• cools rapidly during the night, is hygroscopic and porous, so it attracts the air moisture
Sun’s energy is concentrated the whole day upon the plant
= = enarenado natural
18th c. 3000 ha18th c. 3000 ha
and
the story and narrative of a place
Natural andcultural landscape
Physical planning Physical planning mainly acts heremainly acts here
Landscape= the global aspect of a
perceivable part of the land at a given moment
==> a common heritage
Von Humboldt1769-1859
Landschaft ist derTotalcharaktereiner Erdgegend
PlacePlaceCountrysideCountryside•• IdentityIdentity•• Genius Genius lociloci•• ControlControl centrecentre•• UniqueUnique historyhistory
Land= an area owned by someone who has free use of it (territory, soil) = useful => functional
==> land use===> land cover
The nightmare of planners and policy makers
• The landscape belongs to many– Many facets– Who takes care of it?
• Numerous land owners– many interests – many not-concerted actions
Highly Highly dynamical dynamical
and and rather rather chaotic chaotic changes changes
and and a lot of a lot of
uncertaintyuncertainty
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
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The ‘step-by-step’-rule
time
BC D
A
autonomous,more chaoticdevelopment resultingfrom plan phase A
new reference situationbefore plan phase B
Davies 1969
8080--90%90%
A A functionalfunctional equilibriumequilibrium betweenbetweenrural rural andand urbanurban populations ?populations ?
time
Where do people live?
who thinks and plans the rural?
% urbanised population
Dynamics of urban change sincethe 1950s: the general picture
• 1950s urbanisation
• 1960s suburbanisation
• 1970s counterurbanisation
• 1980s (re)urbanisation
• 2000 60-90% urbanitesChampion T., 2001
Population Population turnaroundturnaroundPolarisation reversalPolarisation reversal
Ruralpopulationdeclining1.5%/yr
Differential urbanisation
Net
migra
tion
time
U CPR U
+
0
-
12
3
Geyer and Kontuly 1993
1 city2 town3 village
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
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Causes of counterurbanisation• Loss of qualities in suburbs
– Housing quality, prices, traffic congestion, landscape deterioration, ...
• Services and industry seeking rural locations – growing job opportunities in outer urban fringe with good accessibility
(edge cities)
• The countryside becoming empty and cheap
• Changes in agriculture– Subsidies for development of rural activities
• EU CAP => rural development– Part-time and hobby farmers
• ‘attached to the land’ but not part of the ‘maintenance of the fabric of rural society (G.Robinson 1990)
• Second homes– ‘Summer suburbs’
• Retirement migration– Coastal areas
ChangingChanging lifelife style,style,changingchanging mobilitymobilityandand accessibilityaccessibility
Urbanised Belgium• International statistics
– 97.3% urbanised in 2000
•Reality: – 15 urban regions of at least
80,000 inhabitants, grouping about 53% of the total population.
– besides the main cities there are many other towns and urbanized villages.
>400 inh./km²
<50 inh./km²
From the urban – rural division toFunctional Urban Regions
– Regions dominated by a large metropolis
– Polycentric regions with high urban and rural densities
– Polycentric regions with high urban densities
– Rural areas under metropolitan influence
– Rural areas with networks of medium-sized and small towns
– Remote rural areas.
European Functional Urban Areas (EFUA) by SPESP 2000
Types of FURs:
Types of relations or partnership between urban and rural
Home-work relationshipsCentral place relationshipsRelationships between metropolitan areas and urban centres in rural and intermediate areas (in fact: urban hierarchy)Relationship between rural and urban enterprisesRural areas as consumption areas for urban dwellersRural areas as open spaces for urban areasRural areas as carriers of urban infrastructureRural areas as suppliers of natural resources for urban areas (ex. water)Rural a
reas in
functio
n of ur
ban ne
eds
Rural a
reas in
functio
n of ur
ban ne
eds
formulated in the SPESP
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Emerging trends in the coming decades
• From local orientation to globalisation
• From involution towards replacement– Max. land productivity <> max. labour productivity– Sustainable <> expenditure– Multifunctional <> mono-specialisation– High diversity <> low diversity– Small scale <> large scale– Internal, local market <> external, international market
• From engagement towards alienation
• From integration to segregationVos, W. & Klijn, F., 2000. Trends in European landscape development: prospects for a sustainable future. In:Klijn, F. & Vos, W. (eds.) From landscape ecology to landscape science. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 3-29
The Rural ResidueRural Landscapes in the European Future
• The countryside is becoming a place for living, not for making a living.
• Landscape and rural life are becoming ominously disjoined.
• Bereft of social meaning, landscapes become vacant, vacuous, void of context.
• Europe will soon be run by those severed from rural linkages and ancestral farms. No longer the font of home and family, métier or livelihood, landscapes are becoming the loci of vacation and avocation.
• Much of Europe now needs landscape habitants.
• Rural policy being dictated from the car window.
• “we all live in the city; we all live in the country. To do right by nature and people in the country, one has to do right by them in the city as well.”(William Cronon in Nature’s Metropolis)
David Lowenthal, 1997, in Understanding Ordinary Landscapes (Groth & Bressi eds.)
Dimensions for landscape management strategies
Character
Condition
People
weak
strong
poorgoodfew
many
create
conserveprotect
strengthen
restore
Based on R.Wood & J.Handley 2001
The significance of landscape today• Landscape is a key issue in
– Landscape ecology– Historical and cultural/humanistic geography– Landscape architecture
• and is of growing importance in– (landscape or geo-)archaeology– Heritage protection– Spatial planning
• Landscape has growing societal significance– As a common heritage that is threatened– Landscape character assessment for defining regional identity– For more integrated policy and decision-making
• and has become an important topic in applied research for– Environmental monitoring– Land use planning and ecological networks– Urbanization - transportation– Tourism and recreation
• Landscape has become a unifying concept in integrative studies– (Landscape) architecture remains a separate approach difficult to integrate
RELU Workshop Landscape as an Integrating Framework for Rural Policy and Planning - Sheffield 2005
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Landscape ecology(ecologists, geographers, agronomists, foresters, nature conservationists,
planners,…)
Historical geography
Humanistic –cultural
geography
Archaeology
Landscape architecture
Planning
Different worlds of thinking
Ecology