Tlatz-tla-kual-tzin! thunder-unspecified-good-ie

Function becomes meaning: The prefix tla- in NawatlDavid Tuggy CILTA - URP SIL

Introduction: Functional linguisticsTheres an important theoretical and cultural difference between two general linguistic frameworks of considerable influence. They may be calledThe Formalist frameworkThe Functionalist frameworkWhat is the difference?

Introduction: Functional linguisticsScott Delancey (a functionalist) says thatFormalists are not much interested in the question Why?For functionalists, that is the most interesting question.(Some formalists would probably disagree.)

Introduction: Functional linguisticsFormalists and functionalists do seem to differ on where they look for explanations. Formalists look for explanations from within the linguistic system, and not from outside it.Some (e.g. Chomskyans) believe that the linguistic system is quite separate from everything else that goes on in our heads: it is a mysterious black box It can only be understood by looking at linguistic data in search of the best self-contained explanation (one based only on what is within the system).

Introduction: Functional linguisticsGiven this way of looking at language, it is sufficient and desirable to achieve an explanation based on the hypothetical nature (otherwise unknown) of the human linguistic faculty. One looks for evidence within languages which will let us understand more about the nature of the black box of the linguistic faculty.Whatever isnt explained by the nature of this black box is of lesser interest to these theorists.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsFor another branch of formalist linguistics, there is no such thing as explanation other than description:If the facts have been fully stated, it is perverse or childish to demand an explanation into the bargain. Joos 1957, representing Bloomfields point of view.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsFunctionalists seek explanations in other areas. Delancey emphasizes two favorite explanatory engines of the functionalists:Function (motivation based on the use of language to communicate, on cognition, etc.)Diachrony

Introduction: Functional linguisticsParaphrasing: Why do we talk the way we do?Because its usefulBecause weve done it that way beforeThe two explanatory engines of functionalism:FunctionDiachrony

Introduction: Functional linguisticsObviously and importantly, it is useful to talk the way we are used to talking So, Diachrony is also Functionally motivatedWe started talking that way because it was useful, and it generally keeps on being useful.

Introduction: Functional linguistics

In other words, Functional motivation and Diachrony are not opposed or contradictory; rather they fit very well with each other.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsFunctional motivation and Diachrony often go in cycles:Functionally motivated changes are made. These changes are consolidated and become established habits of speech.These then form the background for new changes.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsIts useful to think of a language as a box of tools which we can use to communicate with.For a given communicative purpose you can always build a new tool, but It is likely to be expensive, difficult, and not all that helpful

Introduction: Functional linguisticsYou get better results (generally it is more Functional) taking an existing tool (one already developed Diachronically), even though it was made for a slightly different purpose, and use it for what you want to do.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsYou want to open a paint can: You could invent a paint-can-opener from scratch,But youre better off just grabbing a screwdriver and opening your paint can.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsBut it works,And very quickly you can get used to using it that way.The screwdriver was not made for opening paint cans.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsYou want to unscrew a Torx screwSo you go after it with your Philips screwdriver

Introduction: Functional linguisticsThe great thing about linguistic tools is that they automatically adapt themselves to their tasks.When you use your Philips screwdriver on Torx screws

Introduction: Functional linguisticsIt turns into a Torx screwdriver without losing its ability to work on Philips screws.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsMany linguistic forms come pre-adapted for several related functions.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsAnd sometimes for rather different functions.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsSome supermorphemes are Swiss Army knives.They have been used for so many things that they are impressively polysemic.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsThe phonological form is the handle of the tool.Every functional capability that it acquires is a new (polysemic) meaning.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsThis stands the performance competence distinction on its head.Chomsky and others talk as if perfor-mance is best ignored except as it fitfully reflects the pristine platonic Competence, residing in the black box.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsHere we are claiming that usage affects, to the point of determining, linguistic competence.Usage affects, in fact it determines, the shape of the lexical and grammatical tools in the linguistic toolbox.

Introduction: Functional linguisticsOf course the shape of the tools very strongly affects how we use them.But we can and do stretch meanings by new usages

Tla-The prefix tla- in Nawatl (Nahuatl) is a Swiss Army super-morpheme. Its basic function is to let you avoid mentioning the object of a transitive verb.

Transitive verbsA transitive verb is like a light socket. It is obviously incomplete. Something is missing.

Objectless transitive verbsLeaving a transitive verb without its object is like leaving the light socket without its lightbulb

Objectless transitive verbsA verb like eat is an empty object socket. When you hear it you want to know what got eaten.

But what if you as speaker would rather not say what got eaten?

Objectless transitive verbsDifferent languages have evolved different ways of responding to this functional need.In English you can simply not mention the object.

Objectless transitive verbsInstead of saying: Adam ate the apple,You can just say Adam ateand leave it at that.

Objectless transitive verbsIf you do this often enough, the verb eat will change.It will stop being so important to specify the object.In Nawatl this tactic is not permitted. You have to name an object.

Objectless transitive verbsAnother tactic is to look for a different verb which doesnt require an object.You can say: Adam dined (at 10 oclock)People will no longer expect to hear what he ate.

Objectless transitive verbsOther languages have an antipassive construction.Just as a passive lets you use a verb without mentioning its subject, an anti-passive lets you use it without mention-ing its object.

Objectless transitive verbsNot all languages have an antipassive.English doesnt, nor does Nawatl. (Nawatl doesnt have a passive either.)

Objectless transitive verbsYet another tactic is to use a cognate object.The cognate object doesnt tell you any more than you already knew. You can say: Adam ate food.

Objectless transitive verbsYou can also use an object whose meaning consists in not saying what it is.You can say: Adam ate something.This would be an unspecified object.

Tla-This last strategy is the normal one by which Nawatl responds to this situation.Instead of a separate word something, Nawatl uses the prefix tla-.Tla- means (more or less) somethings.t. = something.

Tla-Nawatl has a series of prefixes which mark verbal objects. Tla- is a member of that series.

(1a)

ni-k-ku

I eat it

I-

it

eat

(b)

-

mo-ku

it eats itself/is eaten

3ps-refl-eat

(c)

ti-

tla-

ku

-h

we eat (food/s.t.)

1pp-unspec-

eat

-pl

(d)

t-

ku

-ni

wild animal

unspec.humaneat

-er (lit. people-eater)

Why would you use tla-?Why would you choose not to specify the object?There could be a number of functional reasons.Those reasons become part of the meaning(s) of tla-.

Why would you use tla-?Why would you refrain from specifying the object? Maybe: You dont know what was eaten.Maybe the object was too smallOr you couldnt see it from where you wereEtc. It doesnt matter to you what was eaten, and you dont think it will matter to your hearer either.

Why would you use tla-?Why would you refrain from specifying the object? Maybe: You and your hearer already know what it was. Your hearer could guess what it was. You want to hold back that information till a different part of the discourse, where it will have a bigger impact. You dont want your hearer to know what it was.

Why would you use tla-?Why would you refrain from specifying the object? Maybe: The object is too scary to mention. The object is too gross to mention. The object is too holy to mention. It could be any of these reasons, or any combination of them.

Why would you use tla-?All these reasons affect why Nawatl-speakers use tla-And so tla- has adapted to such usages.

Prototypical tla-Sometimes you cant specify any one reason as opposed to the others.With this form a hearer doesnt know why the speaker chose not to specify the object. It could be for any of the reasons we have mentioned.

(2)

-

ni-

tla-

kowa

-to

I went to buy s.t./

past-yo-

unspec-

buy

-went.to

I went shopping

Prototypical tla-Activating any of these meanings will also activate the schema that includes them all.

Unspecified object of a transitive verb

Semantic Space

Phonological Space

tla

(verb stem)

Object of transitive verb unspecified because unknown to speaker

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because obvious to speaker and hearer

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because it is too gross/holy to mention

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because it is unimportant

Tla- unspecified objectThese are the most common uses of tla-We unfortunately dont have time to discuss them all.But notice the following paradox. Sometimes tla- indicates an object which is obvious in context, a highly topical object. Sometimes it marks an insignificant object, low in topicality.

Tla- normal objectOften tla- marks an object that doesnt need specifying because it is the normal object. 1

What is eaten could not be, for instance, a rock.

(c)

ti-

tla-

ku

-h

we eat (food/s.t.)

1pp-unspec-

eat

-pl

Tla- normal objectOther examples:

(3)

ni-

tla-

tzakua

I close (up) the house/store/corral,

I-

normal.obj-

close

I close the windows/doors

(4)

ni-

tla-

tlapowa

I open (up) the house/store/corral,

I-

normal.obj-

open

I open the windows/doors

(5)

ni-

tla-

sowa

I make the bed

I-

normal.obj-

extend

(6)

ni-

tla-

soh-

sowa

I spread out the laundry

I-

normal.obj-

rdp-

extend

(on bushes, etc., to dry)

(7)

ni-

tla-tla-

witeki

I knock at the door

I-

rdp-normal.obj-

strike

Tla- normal objectWhat is normal? It depends on the culture:

(8)

ni-

tla-

totnia

I reheat tortillas, [in RD] I dry flower

I-

normal.obj-

heat

bulbs, [in Oztotitla,] I dry coffee

(9)

ni-

tla-

payana

I grind corn coarsely

I-

normal.obj-

grind.coarsely

(10)

ni-

k-

tla-

kow

-ia

I buy him/her (godchild) wedding/

I-

3ps-

normal.obj-

buy

-applic

baptismal clothes

(11)

ni-

k-

tla-

tolo

-ltia

I administer Mass to him/her

I-

3ps-

normal.obj-

swallow-caus

(12)

ni-

tla-

kx

-tia

I dig up flower bulbs (with a shovel)

I-

normal.obj-

emerge

-caus

Tla- normal objectDiagramming:

The black arrows indicate full schematicity; the blue ones partial schematicity (or semantic extension).

Unspecified object of a transitive verb

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because unimportant

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because too holy to mention lightly

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because obvious to speaker and hearer

(etc.)

tla-tzakua*

tla-ku

*tla-tzakua should be taken as the meaning of tla- as used in tla-tzakua; and similarly for the other cases.

tla-tololtia

tla-kowia

Normal object of a transitive verb

tla-payana

tla-kxtia

tla-totnia

Corn (derivative) as object of a transitive verb

Flower (bulb)s as object of a transitive verb

tortillas as object of totnia

flower bulbs as object of totnia (en Rafael Delgado)

coffee as object of totnia (en Oztotitla, etc.)

Tla- normal activityVery close to the idea of a normal object is the idea of normal or canonical activity.This notion shows up plainly when human objects are understood, but tla- is used anyway.

(13a)

ni-

k-

avisarowa

I warn him/her,

I-

3ps-

warn

announce to him/her

(b)

ni-

t-

avisarowa

I warn (people/someone)

I-

hum.unspec-warn

announce to (people/someone)

(c)

ni-

tla-

avisarowa

I am the (town) announcer

I-

normal.act-

warn

Tla- normal activityOther examples:

(14a)

ni-

k-

mik

-tia

I kill him/her/it

I-

3ps-

die

-caus

(b)

ni-

t-

mik

-tia

I kill s.o./people

I-

hum.unspec-

die

-caus

(c)

ni-

tla-

mik

-tia

I am a murderer

I-

normal.act-

die

-caus

(15a)

ni-

k-

nankilia

I respond to/contradict

I-

3ps-

respond.to

him/her

(c)

ni-

tla-

nankilia

I reply (in a conversation)

I-

normal.act- respond.to

(b)

ni-

t-

nankilia

I respond to/contradict

I-

hum.unspec-

respond.to

s.o./people

Tla- professional activityYou often get the idea of doing the action as a duty or profession.

(16a)

ni-

k-

pah

-tia

I treat (medically)/heal him/her

I-

3ps-

medicine-verbalizer

(b)

ni-

t-

pah

-tia

I treat/heal s.o./people

I-

hum.unspec-

medicine-verbalizer

(c)

ni-

tla-

pah

-tia

I am a doctor

I-

normal.act-

medicine-verbalizer

(d)

tla-

pah

-ti

-h

healer, doctor

normal.act-

medicine-verbalizer-nominalizer

Tla- normal activityIn these usages tla- is no longer marking the object. But normally it intransitivizes its verb anyway.Still, it sometimes leaves the verb transitive.

(17)

n-

-

tla-

kui

I get water (from river/

I-water-normal.act-

take.up

tank, in a bucket)

Tla- all over (meteorological)Tla- is often used in cases where it indicates that the verbs effect is general.Many examples have to do with the weather.Two verbs weve already seen can take this interpretation.

(18)

-

tla-

ku

the freeze destroys the harvest

3ps-general.act-eat

(19)

-

tla-

totnia

it is hot

3ps-general.act-heat

Tla- all over (meteorological)In this usage tla- also appears on intransitive verbs

(20a)

ni-

k-

kawa

I let go of/abandon it/him/her

I-

3ps-

leave

(b)

ni-

mo-kawa

I calm down, remain (quietly)

I-

refl-leave

(c)

-

tla-

mo-kawa

it (the weather) calms down

3ps-gen.occur-

refl

leave

(21)

-

tla-

nsi

it dawns

3ps-gen.occur-

appear

Tla- all over (meteorological)Other cases of tla- with intransitive verbs:

(22)

-

tla-

tikuni

it thunders

3ps-gen.occur-

resound

(23)

-

tla-

se-

se

-ya

it is/gets cold

3ps-gen.occur-

rdp-cold-inchoative

(24)

-

tla-

xoxowi-ya

the sky turns blue,

3ps-gen.occur-

grue

-inchoative

/ the earth turns green

(25)

-

tla-

tlasoh

-ti

there is dearth, prices go up

3ps-gen.occur-

dear

-inchoative

Tla- unspecified subject Many of these cases of general occurrence could be taken as also being cases of general /unspecified subject. For example it dawns = things appear. it gets green = things turn green etc.

Tla- unspecified subjectIn other cases this notion is even clearer.

(26)

(-)

tla-

aki

(lots of/all the) stuff fits in

(3ps-)unspec.sbj-fit

(27)

(-)

tla-

kalaki

(lots of/all the) stuff goes in

(3ps-)unspec.sbj-enter

(28a)

ni-

k-

itta

I see it

I-

3ps-

see

(b)

ni-

mo-tta

I look (ill/well), I am seen

I-

refl-see

(or I see myself)

(c)

(-)

tla-

mo-tta

it gets light, things start to be

(3ps-)unspec.sbj-refl

see

visible

Relationships amongthe usages of tla-Diagramming:

Unspecified object of a transitive verb

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because unimportant

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because obvious to speaker and hearer

(etc.)

Normal object of a transitive verb

specific cases

Object of a transitive verb unspecified because general / diffuse

tla-totnia "its hot"

Normal/professional activity

tla-pah-tia

Normal occurrence

tla-nsi

Weather occurrence

tla-tlasoh-ti

Unspecified subject of an intransitive verb

tla-kalaki

Tla- on non-verbal stems Tla- can appear on postpositions. Normally you expect possessive prefixes there.

(29a)

no

ihti

-k

inside of me

my/me-belly

-loc

(b)

tla-

ihti

-k

inside, on the inside

unspec-

belly

-loc

(30a)

no

kuitla-pah

(at) my back, behind me

my/me-

dung

-at/on

(b)tla-

kuitla-pah

back(wards), behind, at the backunspec-

dung

-on/at

(31)

t-

kuitla-pah

behind the people/s.o.

hum.unspec-dung

-on/at

Tla- on non-verbal stems Tla- exceptionally appears on nouns, in the position where you would expect a possessive prefix.

(32)

tla-

ten

-tli

the lip/edge (of s.t.)

unspec.possr-lip-

absolutive

Tla- on non-verbal stems Somewhat more frequently, tla- shows up on adjectives, with the general subject meaning.

(34)

tla-

weli

-k

its (all) delicious

unspec.subj-delicious-adj

(33)

tla-

kual-tzin

its pretty/beautiful here

unspec.subj-good-diminutive

(cf. Spanish bon-ito pretty)

The usages of tla-Relating all this to what we had seen before:

Unspecified object of a transitive verb

Object of a transitive verb uspecified because unimportant

Object of a transitive verb uspecified because obvious to speaker and hearer

(etc.)

specific cases

General action/occurrence

Unspecified subject of an intransitive verb

specific cases

specific cases

specific cases

Unspecified object of a postposition

Unspecified possessor of a noun

tla-kuitla-pah

tla-ten-tli

Unspecified subject of an adjective

tla-kual-tzin

The usages of tla-The supermorpheme Tla- has many established usages, which are rather different from each other.

Unspecified object of a transitive verb

Object of a transitive verb uspecified because unimportant

Object of a transitive verb uspecified because obvious to speaker and hearer

(etc.)

specific cases

General action/occurrence

Unspecified subject of an intransitive verb

specific cases

specific cases

specific cases

Unspecified object of a postposition

Unspecified possessor of a noun

tla-kuitla-pah

tla-ten-tli

Unspecified subject of an adjective

tla-kual-tzin

The usages of tla-Functionally motivated changes were established Diachronically.

The usages of tla-The result is the beautiful do-it-all morpheme that we find today.

Yi tlanki