Timely Truth: World War II, American Isolationism and superhero

comic books

By

Joshua Barton

May 2017

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the

Master of Arts in History

Dual-Degree Program in History and Archives Management

Simmons College

Boston, Massachusetts

The author grants Simmons College permission to include this thesis in its Library and to make it

available to the academic community for scholarly purposes.

Submitted by

Joshua Barton

Approved by:

Zhigang Liu Stephen Ortega

Associate Professor Associate Professor

Director of the Graduate Program in History/Archives Management

Barton 2

1-Introduction

Comic book superheroes have long been a part of American popular culture. The popular

characters are seen on toys, in video games, on school supplies and feature in movies. Seeing

Batman, Superman or Captain America is a part of daily life in the United States and many other

countries. But there was a time when they were part of a newly created medium, products of

experimentation with different genres that then exploded in popularity in the late 1930s and that

have continued through to the present day. Their popularity has risen and fallen throughout the

twentieth and early twenty first century but they have largely carried on, finding new ways to be

reinvented and reinterpreted by their audience and creators.

The reinvention of superhero comic books throughout their history has not only been

part of increasing the profitability of the characters, but it has also allowed for different

interpretations of these figures as culture, technology, and politics have changed as time has

passed. The average age of most of the popular superheroes is around 57 years old, coming from

the superhero comic book renaissance of the 1960s. But a group of the heroes that continue to

make millions, and even billions, of dollars in revenue every year have an average age of 75

years. This group of superheroes includes: Superman, Batman, Captain America, and Wonder

Woman. They represent a small fraction of the hundreds of characters being published in the

early years of superhero comic book publishing.

They were created at the beginning of the genre and helped form the way that

superheroes and comic books would be read, written, and drawn for decades. They were also

created during a time of international crisis and conflict as totalitarian governments made

aggressive moves against their neighbors and rivals across the globe. After the German invasion

of Poland in September 1939 discussion of the foreign policy of the United States became an

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important political issue, even while the country continued to recover from the economic

depression. Since the early 1920s the general sentiment about foreign policy had been focused on

isolationism and there was resistance to increased international support and involvement.

American superhero comic books reflected the growing public sentiment away from

isolationism, growing support for the Allies, and expressed these changes to a large and diverse

readership.

This paper will examine how many of the creators of superhero comic books pushed

against the isolationist perspective and how they reflected many of the political events of the

time in their comic books. In the traditional narrative of comic books World War II is often

mentioned as part of the rapid growth of the industry and the drive behind the success of several

superheroes like Captain America, but the early years of the conflict before the United States

entered the war are rarely mentioned. The majority of the literature focuses on the post-Pearl

Harbor propaganda use of comic book characters, but before the entrance of the United States

into the war there was still considerable treatment of the war in comic books.

2-HISTORIOGRAPHY

The traditional history of the comic book begins with political cartoons in France and

England in the 1700s.1 Other influences on the comic book also came from Europe, especially

from the Swiss illustrator Rodolphe Töpffer and his work in 1830s and 1840s. Töpffer’s books

combined pictures and text and are often viewed as the forerunner of both comic books and

picture books in the Western world.2 Töpffer would say about his work that: “The drawings,

without this text, would have only an obscure meaning; the text, without the drawings, would

1 Mark Evanier. Kirby: King of Comics (New York: Abrams, 2008), 2.

2 Jean-Paul Gabilliet. Of Comics and Men: A Cultural History of American Comic Books. Trans. Bart

Beaty and Nick Nguyen. (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2010), 3.

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mean nothing. The whole forms a kind of novel, all the more peculiar in that it no more

resembles a novel than anything else.”3 Töpffer’s work would be reprinted and imitated all

across Europe during the 19th century as part of larger growth in the European market of

producing consumer based literature that was accessible to a larger audience.

The primary use of cartoons was for political commentary in the United States until the

late 1800s when comics began to move into the entertainment and leisure literature. Early comics

were printed in the newspapers. As the years passed and reprints of newspaper comics became

popular, they would be collected into book forms. Comic series like The Yellow Kid would be

reprinted and rebound in formats similar to the current comic book dimensions.4

The cultural roots of the superhero comic books received significant influence from the

pulp fiction and science fiction stories of the 1920s and 1930s. The pulp stories were full of

crime adventures, focusing on detectives and their battles against crime bosses and gangs that

were being lifted from the Prohibition period violence and lawlessness.5 While the average pulp

was often a single self contained adventure there was also the emergence of authors like H.P

Lovecraft and Robert E. Howard whose writings would focus on larger world building whose

stories would exist in a shared mythos.6 Science fiction was an emerging genre and the stories of

technological progress mixed with the adventure of the unknown would be an important

influence on writers and readers of the early comics.7 The combination of both larger and

connected world building and the mix of crime and technology would become central to both the

3 Ibid., xvi.

4 Ibid., 5.

5 Ibid., 13-14.

6 For example Lovecraft’s Elder Things horror stories and Howard’s Conan the Barbarian worlds

7 Gerard Jones, Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters and the birth of the comic book (New York: Basic

Books, 2004), 29-32.

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personalities of superheroes, as well as the growing connectedness of publisher’s characters in

their literary worlds.

The publishing industry that would produce the comic book came from the confluence of

immigrant industry and capitalist opportunity. Eastern European Jews were one of many groups

that immigrated en masse to the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Settling into enclaves inside large urban cities, like New York City, many of these immigrants

would find niches in the growing urban industries. One area that the Jewish community became

deeply involved in was publishing. There were a wide range of printing subjects, from leftist

labor publications to novels. The vast majority of these early publishers focused on less

expensive publications that could be quickly prepared and printed.8

During the 1920s there were consolidations of the publishers involved in the dime novels,

pulp fiction and magazine world. Among the publishers who emerged in 1932 were Harry

Donenfeld and Jack Liebowitz. Their distribution of newspapers would lead to their involvement

in comic book distribution in 1935 and the creation of Detective Comics in 1937.9 While not the

only publishers in comic books, Donenfeld and Liebowitz would hit gold in the first major

success in the superhero genre.

The year 1938 would be the turning point for comic books success and superheroes were

at the center of it. Comic books that were considered successful were selling an average of

100,000 copies a month at the time.10 The medium was new and growing the readership and

profits were vital to keep the fledgling industry alive. Publishers were trying new genres in an

attempt to attract a larger audience and so hundreds of new comic books were being printed

8 Ibid., 19-20.

9 Gabilliet, 138-139.

10 Jones, 140.

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monthly. Many only saw one or two months of printing before they were discontinued, but it

allowed different styles of art and writing to be experimented with.

Among the series being tested was a comic book submitted by two men from Cleveland,

Ohio. Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster’s ‘Superman’ exploded onto newsstands in Action Comics #1

in June 1938. The now iconic cover portrayed Superman holding a car above his head and almost

overnight Superman gave passionate life to both comic books and superheroes. Less than a year

after Superman was published in Action Comics his comics were selling 900,000 comic books a

month.11 Superman quickly jumped from comics into other mediums such as radio productions

and animated cartoons and would become a national and international best seller.12

Other comics quickly profited from the success of Superman as comic books and

superheroes became permanently welded together. Sales continued to climb as publishers

searched for the next superhero hit. From 1939 to 1942 many of the most popular superheroes of

all time were created. Batman was introduced in Detective Comics #27 in March 1939, Captain

America in Captain America #1 by March 1941, and Wonder Woman in All Star Comics #8 in

December 1941. It was a time of explosive growth and opportunity for writers and illustrators as

the demand for comics outstripped the production ability. In New York City this made hiring

more writers and illustrators necessary. Many of the publishers hired young artists, some as

young as seventeen years old.13 The top selling comics, like Superman and Batman, would break

into multiple teams in order to keep the deadlines for monthly and even weekly releases.This

would soon create a large number of young writers and illustrators trying to earn profits from the

older publishers who controlled the industry.14

11 Ibid., 155.

12 Ibid., 158.

13 Ibid., 152.

14 Gabilliet, 117-118.

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Working conditions in the early comic book industry were cramped, low paying, and

competitive. Teams of writers and illustrators would often work in the same room, passing down

sheets of comics in a factory style production line to be illustrated, texted, and inked for color.

The market was competitive and poaching writers and illustrators from other companies was

common.15 For many of the editors and publishers the profit margins were razor thin and any

cost that could be cut was. This ruthless market made it difficult for successful illustrators and

writers to keep up with the demand for monthly, and then weekly comics of successful

characters. The financial success of specific characters meant in some cases that additional teams

were created to produce and this allowed for an influx of new talent. One example of this was the

Batman series. While Bob Kane may have have been involved in the first few years of

production, there were quickly multiple writers using the Bob Kane name when writing Batman

stories and multiple teams working on different issues.16

The average reader of the comic book in this era is an elusive figure. While the traditional

reader is depicted as an eight to ten year old boy, several readership studies portray a more

diverse readership. An analysis of one readership study that focused on fourth and fifth graders

found that 90% of them described themselves as regular readers and that for each copy

purchased an average of four to five readers read it.17 Another study in 1945 found that at least

half of the population had recently read a comic book, with 95 percent of boys and 91 percent of

girls, ages six to eleven, reading comic books regularly. Adult readers also read comics, with 41

percent of men and 28 percent of women ages eighteen to thirty having read a comic book within

15 Ibid., 111.

16 Ibid., 116.

17 Jason Dittmer, "America is safe while its boys and girls believe in its creeds!": Captain America and American identity prior to World War 2." Environment And Planning D-Society & Space 25, no. 3 (n.d.): 407. Social Sciences Citation Index, EBSCOhost(accessed October 21, 2016). http://epd.sagepub.com/content/25/3/401.short

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the past month.18 A major source of growth of comic books from 1942 to 1945 was the United

States Armed Forces with almost forty percent of items shipped to military bases being in the

form of comic books.19 While the primary audience that the comic books were written for may

have been younger readers, they were a medium that appealed to a larger audience. There were

also many different types of comic books, even while the superhero genre continued to grow.

Common comic books genres included adaptations of classic novels, Bible stories, romance

stories, detective stories, and horror stories.

With such a wide array of genre options and hundreds of thousands of issues being sold,

it is difficult, if not impossible to quantify the effect of political superhero comic books on the

public. To say that millions went to the polls to vote or contact their elected representatives

because of an issue would be a stretch. But millions of Americans found their recreational

reading and interests being closely tied to the political events that were being discussed at the

highest levels of government from 1939 to 1945.

The historical focus on comic books is a relatively new field of study. Comic books

themselves are a newer medium, emerging during the late 1930s. As a cultural and literary

medium, comic books have been on the periphery of both popular culture and literature for the

majority of their history. Comic books have not been considered high culture and because of

their early ties to pulp fiction novels and pornography, crime, and horror magazines there was

considerable opposition to comic books throughout the 1940s and 1950s, culminating in U.S

Senate hearings in 1954. Partly because of this there has been little formal academic writing on

comic books. The creation of historical writing on comic books has been a more recent

development over the past twenty years.

18 Sanderson Vanderbilt, “The Comics,” Yank: The Army Weekly, 23 November 1945.

19 Julian C. Chambliss and Michael J. Lecker, Ages of Heroes, Eras of Men: Superheroes and the American Experience (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 34.

Barton 9

Many of the ways that comic book history is written and discussed is with terminology

and dates that were created by comic book collectors in the early 1980s. Collectors divided

comic books into “Ages” by creation dates. The traditional chronological description that is used

usually is divided by the following: Golden Age (1937-1950s), Silver Age (late 1950s-1973),

Modern or Bronze Age (1973-early 1990s), and Late Modern Age (early 1990s-present). These

dates are are hotly debated among comic book collectors and enthusiasts to the present. The story

of the superhero comic book traditionally begins in 1938 with the publishing and success of

Superman. This begins the Golden Age that sees the creation of many of the most popular

superheroes including Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, and Captain America. The end of

the Golden Age usually coincides with the 1954 Senate hearings and the creation of the Comic

Code Authority.

One of the first academic works on comic books and their cultural influence was actually

created in opposition to their growth. In 1954 psychiatrist Fredric Wertham published The

Seduction of the Innocent, where he attacked popular media for its depiction of violence and sex,

and its focus on horror and illicit activities.20 Movies and other mediums would also be part of

his criticism, but the comic book would bring the greatest criticism. In the popular memory of

comic books Wertham is often portrayed as the archvillain of comic books, but recent work now

questions how much influence Wertham had. While his work may not have been as impactful as

previously attributed, there was significant opposition to comic books dating back to the 1940s.21

The Silver Age is currently the most contested era of comic books. Different authors,

collectors and now academics differ on the importance of specific comic books, authors and

illustrators, and the end of the Silver Age. The largest changes during this period were the

20 Fredric Wertham, Seduction of the Innocent (Laurel, NY.: Main Road Books, Inc, 2004).

21 Julian C. Chambliss, Ages of Heroes, Eras of Men: Superheroes and the American Experience

(Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 32.

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emergence of the Marvel Comics (Fantastic Four, Spider-Man, Avengers) and the Batman

television show starring Adam West.22 The Silver Age would stabilize the foundations of both

Marvel and DC Comics and regrow the superhero comic book industry from the stagnation of

the 1950s. The end of the Silver Age has been attributed to several events in 1973, the traditional

event being the death of the character Gwen Stacy in Spider-Man.23 More recent writings have

focused on the political and cultural events of 1973, including the beginning of the Watergate

Scandal, and the withdrawal of the majority of the US troops in Vietnam.24 The shift in culture

and politics in the United States that are associated with this period would leave the comic book

stories both progressive and opportunistic about the future, but also plagued with doubt about

their powers and responsibilities in the midst of change.

The Bronze Age or Modern Age ushered in a new era of more political and darker comic

books. Changes focused on the reimagining of classic characters like Frank Miller’s Batman in

The Dark Knight Returns and Alan Moore’s Watchmen. At the same new movies like Superman

(1978) and Batman (1989) would bring new vigor to comic book superheroes as many of them

approached their fortieth and fiftieth anniversaries.

Whether comics continue to be in the Bronze Age or if they have moved into a Late

Modern Age is another ongoing debate.25 Comic book characters would find new mediums in

television shows, movies, and video games in the 1990s. Animated television shows such as X-

Men (1992), Batman: The Animated Series (1992), as well the continued portrayal of

superheroes in films like Spider-Man (2002), The Dark Knight (2008), and The Avengers (2012)

would not only bring box office success, but would create a renewed interest in superheroes.

22 Gabilliet, 59.

23 Les Daniels, Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World’s Greatest Comic (New York: Marvel

Entertainment Group, Inc., 1991), 112.

24 Chambliss, 112-113.

25 Ibid., 225.

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Individual papers and books have been written starting in the 1960s, but there is still a lot

of debate over dates and events that occur between academics and comic enthusiasts. Many of

the histories of comic books come from authors whose backgrounds come from the more artistic

and literary aspect of comic books. Much has also been written about the individuals who made

the superheroes that have come to dominate the industry, men like: Stan Lee, Bill Kane, Jack

Kirby, Joe Simon, Jerry Siegel, and Joe Schuster. The traditional history of the comic book has

become linked to the heroes created by these men from the 1930s through the 1970s. These

biographies have allowed a greater insight into the economic and cultural workings of the

creation of comic books and the world their writers lived in. There has also been a growing

emphasis on the collectors and fans of the comic books who have created a unique sub-culture in

the world of literature, film, and other mediums that comic books inhabit.26

There is still no singular work or method for looking at superhero comic books. Each

method varies with the researcher and their background. The past few years have seen increased

focus by traditional historians through biographies of comic book writers27 and individual essays

have begun to be more common in academic articles. One interesting point in looking at more

recent writing is that more student essays and dissertations have recently begun to address the

comic book. Mark Kelly of Marquette University has written about the way that comic books

became a mainstay of American culture during and after World War II by examining the

villainization of Nazism and then Communism in the comic books.28 Ella Donnelly’s work at the

26 Bradford Wright, Comic Book Nation: The Transformation of Youth Culture in America (Baltimore,

Maryland: John Hopkins Press, 2001).

27 Three of the best examples include: Jill Lepore, The Secret History of Wonder Woman (New York: Vintage, 2015), Mark Evanier, Kirby: King of Comics (New York: Abrams, 2008), and, Brad Ricca, Super Boys: The amazing adventures of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster-the creators of Superman (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2013).

28 Mark Kelley, “The Golden Age of Comic Books: Representations of American Culture from the Great

Depression to the Cold War.” Student paper for the Maria Dittman Library Research Competition: Student

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University of Puget Sound explores a similar vein as myself using the comic books as primary

sources on race, nationalism, and gender.29 As this continues to expand, comics will begin to

have a larger analysis by traditional historical methods employed in the profession.

One aspect of the current change in the study of comic books is a difference between

European and American scholarship. Traditional American studies focuses on specific dates and

comics that come out in the United States; for example the ‘The Yellow Kid’ being published in

1897 and ‘Superman’ published in 1938.30 European scholars like Jean Gabilliet have focused on

a much longer history dating back to the Swiss Rodolphe Töppfer in 1842 and have a more

international view of the development of comic books. In dealing with an industry that has been

dominated by the United States, international authors also bring perspectives on what comic

books say about nationalism and the enduring struggle over representation in comic books.31

Their discussions about the negative aspects of the impact of American power in the post-war

world and the portrayal of American military, political and economic power allows characters to

be better understood.

Perhaps one of the greatest perspectives that international historians bring is the ability to

bring a different chronology of the twentieth century history of comic books. Rather than being

constrained by the traditional “Ages” narrative of comic book collectors, they have been able to

identify other patterns and emerging trends that shifts focus to the comic book community as a

whole, rather than than just on the two largest publishers, Marvel Comics and DC Comics.32

Award Winners. Marquette University, 2009. http://epublications.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=dittman

29 Ella Donnelly,. ”A Hero for a Good War: Captain America and the Mythologization of World War

Two.”History Theses: University of Puget Sound, 2015.http://soundideas.pugetsound.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1016&context=history_theses

30 Brian Walker, The Comics Before 1945 (New York: Abram’s Books, 2004), 23.

31 Jason Dittmer, Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and

Geopolitics. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2013).

32 Gabilliet, xiv.

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As more historians join the discussion about comic books, and especially superheroes,

there are many topics that have only been briefly touched on. Issues of gender, race, religion, and

political commentary have only begun to be explored. The continued focus on comic books as

primary sources allow for a greater exploration of popular culture of the twentieth and now

twenty-first centuries, similar to the work being done in film, television, and music histories.

Comic books have always felt like the odd man out in both popular culture and academic

literature. A sense of marginalization has become central to the comic book identity and culture

and has made many comic book authors very defensive when discussing their work in the larger

cultural and artistic community. One academic has described “The marginalization of comic

books and superheroes is an integral part of the medium.”33 Because of this, comic books have

not been viewed as primary sources in the way that other popular culture materials like film,

literature, and art have been used and analyzed. Comics are a mix between literature and art and

this can make them difficult to synthesize when analyzing them. Trying to decide which one to

focus one can divide authors, the majority placing the emphasis on the visual style, rather than on

the text. While I concede that comic book text rarely reaches the heights of high literature, with

such little space, there is a lot of information packed into the text. With the comic book having a

visual heavy focus, there is less space devoted to text compared to the art. What text is chosen

has to convey information that the image can’t and has to be succinct.

My focus in this paper will be on the relationship of the growth of the early comic book

industry and the process of the United States entering World War II. The comic book history

often makes mention of the war and how it affects the comic book industry, but few articles and

books written take time to explore the relationship between the two in any detail. The war period

is described as an opportunity for growth and rapid expansion, but the politics of the war period

33 Chambliss, 246.

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and their effect on the comics are rarely discussed. The political history of World War II is one

of the most written about subjects in both academic and popular writing. Bridging the gaps

between the history of World War II and the beginning of the comic book industry allows

historians of comic books and World War II to better understand the close links between popular

media and the preparation of the United States for entrance into the war.

This paper is an attempt to bridge the gap between the political and economic history of

the mid-20th century and the literary history on comic books. Both histories rely on each other

but their relationship has only begun to be explored in the past few years. While popular memory

in the United States of World War II often begins on December 7, 1941 with the Japanese attack

on Pearl Harbor, the public had been exposed to news and debate about the role the United States

should take in the rapidly escalating conflicts for years.

In looking at comic books as primary sources for the period from September 1939 to

January 1942 I compiled a list of 48 comic books that were published during those two and a half

years that portray or reference the war and political events. The majority of these comics were

published after December 1940, but the spread of the comics line up with the major political

events that spur increased American support for the Allies and participation in the war. One

aspect that has made comic book research difficult for previous authors is that comic books are

now a collector’s item and the costs of acquiring prints can be staggering. Mass produced

anthologies are often reprinted in black and white and are cropped, which takes away their ability

to be used for research. While the Library of Congress has an impressive collection of comic

books and cartoons, many other academic institutions have little or no comic book holdings. One

breakthrough has been the use of apps like Marvel Unlimited where publishers have uploaded

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high resolution scans of the original prints. These apps are largely designed for a commercial

audience, but I have used them for my study.

In my analysis of these comics I looked for patterns of representation in both text and

image. Individual events and representation are interesting and can be powerful points of

conversation, but I tried to focus on longer patterns of symbols, representation and examples

across multiple series, authors, illustrators and publishing companies. These long term patterns

of anti-isolationism, pro-intervention, and pro-Allied across the first two years of the war are

more informative about the way that both the public and the comic book creators saw their

world.

It may be that comic books will always exist on the fringe of both popular culture and

academia, but the growing work on analyzing the lives of the common men and women of

history will continue to focus on how they spend their time. In studying American life in

twentieth century, it would be a shame if proper study wasn’t devoted to a medium, creative

community and characters that have become commonplace in the everyday life of millions of

people.

3-Comic books and the War

Comic books have been and continue to be a team enterprise where writers and

illustrators collaborate to create the finished product. In mainstream comic book publishing the

creation of a comic book by a single individual is extremely rare, the vast majority being created

by teams with each member having a very specific role, such as writer, illustrator, inker, and

producer.34 This reliance on others has created an industry where talent is important, but ability

34 Gabillet, 111.

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to work with others and communicate the vision for the characters and stories is just as vital to

long term success.

Comic books rely on the combination of visual image and text. While the visual image is

the more compelling of the two, the text is just as important in conveying the full experience and

intent of the authors. Because of the visual nature of comic books there is a restriction of how

much text can be used and there is a strong aversion to large text blocks. Text has to be chosen

that best frames the narrative and moves the story from visual image to visual image in as few

words as possible.

In looking at comic books as primary sources, I argue that text and image have to be

weighed equally. The image alone can portray a powerful message, such as the cover of Captain

America #1 where Hitler is being punched in the face by the superhero Captain America.35 The

cover of Action Comics #1 shows Superman lifting a car over his head while normal people flee

around him. Comparing the stance of Superman to the other people reveals his strength while

also highlighting the other people's weakness; just as the contrast of Captain America’s punching

of Hitler highlights Captain America’s uniform of red, white, and blue with Hitler’s swastika

armband . At the same time, the text has important descriptions about what is happening and

conveying information that can give the reader a deeper understanding of the political and

cultural commentary that the writers and illustrators are weaving into their stories.

Comic books would come of age during World War II. Their readership would be living

in a world where war and conflict were part of everyday news and where the contrast between

these sides was described by national politicians and leaders as a binary conflict of good versus

evil. As melodramatic as superhero comic books can be, perhaps considering their setting for the

35 See Figure 1.

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first seven years of their existence it can be understood that at best comic books were an escape

from a world at war but in many ways the war was still present in their pages.

At the same time comic book creators were also trying to undermine the legitimacy of the

isolationist sentiment that prevented the United States Government from taking steps to stopping

the Axis expansion. While presenting the threat that the Axis posed to the United States the

comic book creators would explore issues of patriotism, language, race, and gender in their

representation of the world.

As the war continued to spread in Europe and as Allied chances of victory became more

bleak as Western Europe fell to Nazi Germany in 1940, comic books began to reflect the

changing geopolitical reality. In this early stage of political commentary the comic books would

be divided into those who showed their characters fighting the Axis literally and those who

represented it allegorically. Those who chose to represent their characters literally fighting the

Axis would often cast their characters as American adventurers who choose to fight abroad for

the nations of Great Britain or France, such as Red, White and Blue, three friends who came from

three of the branches of the United States military, the army, marines, and navy.36 Similar to the

Americans who had fought in World War I and conflicts like the Spanish Civil War, these early

comics represented Americans who felt that Axis threats to freedom in Europe would ultimately

threaten the United States.

Another example of Americans fighting for foreign governments was John Steele, the

“Soldier of Fortune” who appeared in Daring Mystery Comics #1 in January 1940. Steele is

introduced as he saves a nurse from being shot by an enemy soldier. The nurse turns out to be a

secret agent who has vital information for the Allies. Steele then escorts her to Allied lines while

36 Sheldon Mayer, All-American Comics #1 (New York: Detective Comics, April 1,1939), 3-12.

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fighting enemy tanks, airplanes and soldiers.37 Throughout the adventure there are references to

the Allies but the Germans are only referred to as “the enemy”. The major giveaway about who

the enemy is appears on page 18 as one of the enemy planes bears a red swastika on the wing.38

While being ambiguous about who the enemy was in words, the imagery of the swastika was left

for readers to understand without being overly anti-German. This was John Steele’s only

adventure during this era.

A month later another American appeared in Daring Mystery Comics #2 fighting for the

Allies. ‘K-4 and His Sky Devils’ were a group of pilots who were flying for the Allies in

American made Grumman fighter planes. K-4 was an American who had flown in the Spanish

Civil War for the Republicans and for the Chinese against the Japanese in China. His wingmates

were an English aristocrat and a French ace and master swordsman.39 Together they fought

against the Germans in the sky and on land as secret agents behind enemy lines. K-4 and His Sky

Devils would appear in several more adventures through 1940 and 1941, especially while the

Battle for France (May-June 1940) and the Battle of Britain (July-October 1940) were being

fought, both of which were heavily influenced by air warfare. While K-4 starts out as being a

World War I ace story, it quickly changes to grapple with the technological realities of the new

war as the air war comes to determine the fate of the war. The era of the romance inspired

“Knights of the Sky” of World War I was over, both in the real world and the comic books.

Many of these comics also represented the Axis in a more abstract form. With a lot of

political and popular sentiment still divided about the role that the United States should take,

37 Ray Gil and Ben Thompson, Daring Mystery Comics #1 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics],

January 10, 1940), 12-20. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on April 25, 2017.

38 Ibid., 18.

See Figure 6.

39 Ray Gil and Ben Thompson, Daring Mystery Comics #2 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], February 10, 1940), 39-48. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on April 25, 2017.

Barton 19

some of the comic book writing teams took a more allegorical approach to commenting on what

was happening in Europe and Asia. Inventing countries and aggressors allowed comic book

writers the opportunity of exploring the issues of totalitarian governments attacks on other

countries without engaging in the sensitive nature of public opinion. One example is ‘American

Ace’, an adventuring American fighter pilot who becomes involved in flying for a small country

being invaded by their larger neighbour.40 His initial reluctance to intervene changes when he we

witnessed the bombing of a city and as civilians are put in danger by the enemy airpower. While

cities had been attacked by zeppelin and airplane in World War I, World War II would see the

bombing of cities by aircraft as a common tactic by both sides. Early on in the war though the

Axis aerial attacks on Warsaw, which had happened before ‘American Ace’ was written,

Rotterdam, and Nanjing had outraged many neutral nations. Even though ‘American Ace’ was

not fighting the Axis, the enemy he was fighting mirrored their tactics.

At the same time that many new writers were working on incorporating the real world

into their comic books, other writers and publishers were trying to keep it out from their own

works. By 1939 Superman had become the top selling comic book superhero. He not only sold in

the United States, but he also sold in the growing international comic book market as well. This

continued success was threatened by the war and Superman was banned in Nazi Germany and

many of the Axis countries in 1939 because of the Jewish author and illustrator, Jerry Siegel and

Joe Shuster, and the supposed connections of Jewish Americans and President Roosevelt.41 The

precarious situation of continued Axis military success kept the publishers of Superman and

other titles in a grey zone where they chose to make characters and stories apolitical. They didn’t

40 Bill Everett and Carl Burgos, Marvel Mystery Comics #2 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], December 1, 1939), 47-52. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 14, 2017. Se Figure 7.

41 Jones, 162.

Barton 20

want to risk the loss of international and domestic isolationist customers due to a pro-Allied and

pro-American interventionist angle.42 After the United States entered the war in December 1941

many of these characters, including Superman, would eventually be used from 1942 to 1945 in

supporting the war effort through comic books, animated cartoons and use on bond posters.43

Late 1940 and early 1941 would see an explosion of political superheroes. As the war

continued poorly for the Allies, which was rapidly becoming only Great Britain and a collection

of Western European governments in exile, the chance of American involvement in the war

became more real. As American sympathies continued to favor the British and as politicians

began to emphasize the importance of stopping the further expansion of the Axis nations it

allowed greater expression of comic book writers in how they would depict the United States and

how they would depict the Axis. The first American political comic book superhero is often

described as The Shield who appeared in Pep Comics #1 in January 1940.44 While setting a

precedent for being dressed in the colors of the flag of the United States and fighting spies and

saboteurs, The Shield would ultimately have a short print run, competing with heroes who

weren’t as political. For already existing characters the changing political support for the Allies

would allow them to move toward the more political references and for many of the newly

created characters, it would allow them to come out swinging, especially in the case of the

superhero that would come to define this era, Captain America.

While Captain America was not the first political superhero, he was the first to be a

commercial success. Jack Kirby and Joe Simon’s creation has come to be not only a

representation of the political superhero comic book, but also of the American experience of

42 Ibid., 165.

43 Julian C. Chambliss and Michael J. Lecker, Ages of Heroes, Eras of Men: Superheroes and the

American Experience (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 230.

44 Evanier, 50.

Barton 21

World War II. While Captain America #1 has a cover date of March 1941, copies reached

newsstands as early as December 1940.45 In a world where cover art is vital to selling, Captain

America #1 did not disappoint. The superhero was shown punching Adolf Hitler in the face.

Behind them a large map of the United States is shown, while on a desk a memo reads “Sabotage

Plans”. In a time when the average comic book was selling 250,000-500,000 copies a month,

Captain America broke the one million mark in the second run.Captain America was second only

to Superman and Batman in number of sales for the next year.46

The reasons for Captain America’s sales have been attributed to several reasons. One is

the political nature of the superhero. The juxtaposition of American democracy with its focus on

personal liberties and the militaristic scheming of Nazi Germany is a main point of the

adventures of Captain America. Just as comic books had been growing for the past three years,

popular opinion in the United States had also changed from stiff neutrality to growing support

for the Allies and for viewing the threat that the Axis, especially Germany, represented to the

United States.

Another reason is the narration and art that Kirby and Simon brought to the medium. In a

1991 interview about his comic book career Kirby described this process as vital to connecting to

the audience. He said: “

I don’t want to be some high-falutin’ intellectual. I like to inject the kind of thought the

average guy has, I like to communicate with him. And I like to give him the kind of story

that is believable. He’s my target, the average guy is my target…[T]here’s got to be a

45 Julian C. Chambliss and Antonio S. Thompson, Ages of Heroes, Eras of Men: Superheroes and the

American Experience (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 108.

46 Jones, 200.

Barton 22

human element in that story that the reader recognizes and says, “Yes, he’s got so-and-so

kind of powers but he’s still a human being, there something human about him.”.47

This approach to connecting to the reader would allow Kirby to be involved in creating some of

the most successful comic books characters across decades of comic books. In a medium that

was less than five years old the innovation that Kirby and Simon brought would be something

that both of them would bring again in future comic books, especially in the 1960s with

establishing many of the superheroes that still form the foundation of Marvel Comics.48

Captain America was not the first political commentary that Jack Kirby had drawn. In

1938, after the Munich conference that had given the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia to

Germany, he had drawn a political cartoon portraying British Prime Minister Neville

Chamberlain patting a python with a Hitler mustache.49 Joe Simon would later describe their

choice to use Hitler as a villain: “...we were always looking for that great villain. It was

becoming hard to think of a better villain than Adolf Hitler.”.50 While this easily fits into the

narrative of Adolf Hitler as a villain that was well established after World War II, it was a much

more political decision when Captain America was created in 1940. Hitler may have been

disliked and seen as bully, but he was also the leader of one of the most powerful countries in the

world, and one with an increasing global presence.

The success of Captain America brought the anti-semitism in the United States to the

surface for the comic book creators. Both Kirby and Simon received threats through letters and

phone calls for their work. One anonymous phone caller told them that “We want to see the guy

who does this disgusting comic book and show him what real Nazis would do to his Captain

47 Gabilliet, 164.

48 This includes The Incredible Hulk, The X-Men, Thor, The Black Panther, and The Fantastic Four.

49 Evanier, 37.

50 Ibid., 49.

Barton 23

America”.51 Kirby would say in an interview years later that “I once got a letter from a Nazi who

told me to pick out any lampost I wanted on Times Square, because when Hitler arrived, they’d

hang me from it”.52 Despite this opposition, Captain America sold extremely well and the

authors also received thousands of letter of support from readers.

Perhaps the aspect of Captain America that brought the war home was the call to action

for its readers. A major part of the stories and advertising was the use of the “Sentinels of

Liberty”. The Sentinels of Liberty in the stories were a gang of teenage boys lead by Captain

America’s sidekick Bucky who helped him observe and investigate the activities of the anti-

American groups that he fought against. In the stories they tail suspicious figures53, stakeout

hideouts and secret bases54, and run messages.55 In many of the stories they become the deus ex

machina by bringing help when Captain America and Bucky are being overwhelmed and close to

defeat. They are identified in the stories by badges that they use to mark clues and leave trails.

They also become the main heroes of the text short stories that were included in early comics

where they also hunt down the spies and saboteurs.56

Along with their presence in the stories the Sentinels of Liberty were also a part of the

marketing of the Captain America comics. From the first edition readers were encouraged to join

the Sentinels of Liberty by sending in money and receiving their own Sentinels of Liberty badge

and membership card.57 Readers were encouraged to help Captain America and Bucky and their

51 Ibid., 54.

52 Ibid., 56.

53 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #3 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], May 1, 1941), 44.. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on November 18, 2016..

54 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #6 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], September 1, 1941), 9. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on December 3, 2016.

55 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #5 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], August 1, 1941), 36. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on December 12, 2016..

56 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #6, 50-51.

57 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #1 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], March 1, 1941), 9. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on November 3, 2016.

Barton 24

“Army of Spy Smashers” in helping look out for foreign agents and their allies who are trying to

sabotage and spy in the United States.58 Historian Jason Dittmer wrote that the Sentinels of

Liberty marketing campaign was successful by “blurring the relationship between vigilance in

the comic book and the vigilance to be exercised by readers [were] connected to a state through

name, costume, and values”.59 The Sentinels of Liberty advertisement was part of every single

issue of Captain America through its first ten issues and was also put into other comic books that

Timely published.

The Sentinels of Liberty allowed readers, especially younger readers, to participate in the

adventures of Captain America and be like Bucky by being on alert for fifth column elements in

their own cities and neighborhoods. The blurring of real world events and comic book threats is a

central element to the success of the political superheroes during this era and The Sentinels of

Liberty do the most by allowing the reader to be involved by learning to decode messages60 or

practice identifying and tracking airplane patterns.61 This blurring between what was happening

in the reality and what was appearing in the comic books would create two worlds; one of the

real world and one of the comic book. Immersion in reading the comic books blurred the lines

between the two and would make the stories and characters of both worlds bleed together for the

reader.

The threat of spies and saboteurs had been central to many comic books before Captain

America. They had become fairly common by 1940 and representations of both government

See Figure 2.

58 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #2 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], April 1, 1941), 18. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on November 5, 2016.

59 Jason Dittmer, Captain America and the Nationalist Superhero: Metaphors, Narratives, and Geopolitics

(Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2013), 10.

60 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #6, 58.

61 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #9 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], December 1, 1941), 57. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on December 21, 2016.

Barton 25

agents like G-Man Dan Gorman62 and citizens like wunderkind Little Hercules being under

threat from them and their allies were common.63 Captain America would take these themes and

expound on them by expanding the threat. Throughout the first ten issues of Captain America

assassination and sabotage would be taken to a new level. In my analysis I found that there were

seven military leaders, including two generals and an admiral, six political leaders including

three US Senators and two foreign diplomats, six civil defense officials and two industrial

leaders assassinated throughout these copies. The level of disruption made the emphasis that

even without a declaration of war, the United States was already at war in the comic book world

and the real world could quickly mirror it.

Another superhero who brought the war into the reader's lives was the Sub-Mariner or

Prince Namor of the Antarctic Amphibious people. The Sub-Mariner first appeared in Marvel

Mystery Comics #2 in December 1939. His initial story focused on the differences between the

land dwellers of New York City and Namor’s people. Conflict between Namor and the superhero

The Human Torch was common in early issues. When Namor received his own series, Sub-

Mariner Comics in April 1941, there was a significant change in tone. The new series changed

the focus from the battle between the land and ocean peoples and focused on the dangers that the

war brought to nations all over the world.

The main way that the war was treated in the Sub-Mariner comics was the presence of

Nazi submarines in the oceans. In the real world the Nazi submarines, or U-boats, posed a threat

that was almost greater than the thousands of men, tanks and airplanes that were preparing to

invade Great Britain. Thousands of tons of military material and food supplies were being lost in

62 Dan Gorman: Ray Gil and Ben Thompson, Daring Mystery Comics #4 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], May 10, 1940), 42-49. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on April 24, 2017.

63 Ray Gil and Ben Thompson, Daring Mystery Comics #5 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], June 10, 1940), 54-57. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on April 21, 2017.

Barton 26

the Atlantic as ‘wolfpacks’ of U-boats attacked the convoys from the United States and Canada

that kept Great Britain in the war. At the same time German surface ships like the Bismarck

threatened the supremacy of the British Navy. The violence and threat in the Atlantic increased

the debate in the United States about the increased role of the United States Navy and Coast

Guard in the Atlantic as American ships entered a war zone.

Namor explored the increased violence and threats to commerce and open sea trade. U-

boat attacks and German naval operations were a central part of these adventures and focus on

the threat that German naval operations posed, especially in the way that lack of control of the

Atlantic would lead to the loss of American ships and allowed for the delivery of Nazi saboteurs

and agents onto American soil.64 They foreshadowed a real life attempt by Nazi agents in 1942

to detonate explosives inside American factories. They were delivered by U-boats off the coasts

of New York and Florida but were caught after several of the team defected to the FBI.65

After the release and success of Captain America in early 1941 there was a rush to

capitalize on the financial opportunity of the growing nationalist patriotic superhero comic book.

Some of these heroes would have their own comics books, while others would be included in the

shorter comics that accompanied many of the headline comics. At the time the average comic

book was around sixty pages compared to the forty pages in the 1960s and the average run of 24

pages today. It was common to have two smaller stories at the end after the headline character.

They would often be of a completely different genre than the headline title. The main comic may

be a crime fighter but the stories at the end could be a Tarzan-like jungle tale and a Flash

64 Bill Everett and Alex Schomburg, Sub-Mariner Comics #1 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], April, 1 1941), 36. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 14, 2017. See Figure 5.

65 David M. Kennedy, Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929- 1945

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 568.

Barton 27

Gordon-like futuristic adventure. For example the Nazi spy hunter and journalist Headhunter

would appear at the end of Captain America comic books starting with Captain America #5.66

The change towards nationalist and patriotic superheroes operating against real world-

inspired threats would change two of the story arcs of two already existing superheroes, The

Human Torch and The Sub-Mariner. Both of them would see a change starting in the April 1941

publications. As discussed previously the Sub-Mariner would change focus to the threat of Nazi

naval aggression in his own comic book.67 One of the smaller comic book stories in The Human

Torch would be about a star-spangled imitator of Captain America, The Patriot. The Patriot is the

superhero alias of Jeff Mace, a newspaperman who fights against the threat of the Yellowshirts

and he is described as the “Defender of the sacred Bill of Rights”.68 The leader of the

Yellowshirts began their attack on the United States by telling his followers that “Destroy all

those things that Americans hold so sacred! Of what use is freedom of the press? Destroy it! Of

what value is freedom of speech, religion, and assembly? Destroy them!!”.69 The Yellowshirts

then begin attacking New York City, burning and looting as they go.70 The attack is ultimately

defeated by The Patriot on the streets of New York City. After their defeat The Patriot tells the

gathered populace that “These Yellow-livered gangsters could not win, of course--but we must

forever be on our guard against anyone who would steal our liberty! Long live liberty!”.71 The

Yellowshirts were a thinly veiled reference to the Brownshirts of Nazi Germany and Blackshirts

of Fascist Italy that had been central to the early years of control by both fascist leaders,

66 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #5, 51.

67 Bill Everett, Sub-Mariner Comics Vol. 1, #2 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], June, 1941),

PAGE. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 22, 2017.

68 Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, Human Torch #4 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], April 10, 1942), 57. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 3, 2017.

69 Ibid., 58.

70 Ibid., 60

71 Ibid., 66.

Barton 28

especially in the street fighting that existed in both countries during the global economic

depression and democratic crises.

In August 1941 Timely Comics would release a new series, USA Comics.72 All of the

characters in this new series were involved in fighting threats that originated from Axis

countries. Each would enter the fight with their own take on what it meant to be an American.

‘The Defender’ wore a red, white and blue outfit that has USA written on the chest. Similar to

Captain America’s background of being a solider in the Army, The Defender is a US Marine

who fights crime with his teenage sidekick Rusty.73 Another superhero was The Young Avenger

who was a teenager who fought against his nemesis the Nazi spy Eric Von Himmel. Von

Himmel’s targets were the American industrial centers and was defeated by The Young

Avenger’s strength and speed.74

One of the more original heroes was Major Liberty, who fought fifth columnists with the

ghosts of America’s past. In his introduction two panels contrast the destroyed cities of Europe

with the Statue of Liberty being overshadowed by a swastika. The panels explain the situation

saying “As vanquished Europe lies bleeding in the wake of the Blitzkreig..the long arm of

dictatorship reaches toward America!”75 By day he was John Liberty, a history teacher. But

when danger presented itself he turned into Major Liberty, dressed in a colonial American

costume. He fought the spies and saboteurs with the help of the ghosts of Paul Revere and Ethan

Allen and the Green Mountain Boys.76

72 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, USA Comics #1 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], August 1,

1941). Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 15, 2017.

73 Ibid., 3.

74 Ibid., 50.

75 Ibid., 29.

76 Ibid., 34.

See Figure 4.

Barton 29

At the same time that Timely was changing course to publish more patriot superheroes,

Detective Comics was also taking advantage of the new market niche. Star-Spangled Kid would

premiere in Action Comics #40 in September 1941. Created by Superman creator Jerry Siegel the

Star-Spangled Kid was another patriotic superhero who allowed creators to express themselves

without endangering the sales of their characters who had an international following, such as

Superman.77

4-interaction between comic books and real events

As Woodrow Wilson left for Europe to negotiate the end of the Great War in 1918 it unleashed a

debate about the international role the United States would play in the future. It was a time of

revolution and change as many of the oldest governments in Europe: the Austrian Habsburg

Empire, the Ottoman Empire and the Romanov Dynasty in Tsarist Russia, came to an end. The

power of the German Empire had been shattered and the war weary allies, France and England,

were not only bloodied after four years of conflict, but also had depleted their treasuries and had

been relying on American loans. This left the United States in a place of international power that

it hadn’t yet found itself in before.

While Wilson saw an opportunity to recreate a new international status quo through his

Fourteen Points and the League of Nations; other American politicians felt differently. Some,

like Henry Cabot Lodge, saw the chance for American power and influence to be used to further

American interests without being shackled by the alliances and treaties that he felt caused the

war. Others felt that it was a chance to withdraw from the international stage and keep American

77 Jerry Siegel and John Sikela, Action Comics #40 (New York: Detective Comics, September 1, 1941),

15.

Barton 30

wealth and lives out of the international market and political scene and consolidate a domestic

first approach.78

After Wilson returned to the United States with the Treaty of Versailles the United States

Senate would become a full scale battle zone over the treaty. Complicated coalitions of idealists,

isolationists, nationalists, and moderates would debate the central themes of the treaty and for

many of them it came down to the threat of the reduction of American power and of American

foreign policy being under the consideration of the League of Nations. Lodge himself should not

be described as an isolationist due to his belief in importance of the United States being able to

act in favor of its interests in foreign countries, especially in the American hemisphere.79 When

the Treaty of Versailles was not passed many in the nation saw it as a showdown between Lodge

and the President and Lodge had won. But the victory against the treaty was the work of a

growing group of isolationists who matched a public sentiment of weariness with the

international involvement and responsibility.

The period of isolationism in the United States from the 1920s until the entrance of the

United States into World War II has become in the popular memory a case of those who

understood the real danger of fascism and totalitarian governments and those who were either too

afraid or too naive to act.80 It has become a case study in why intervention is often more

successful than mediation or inaction and was especially used in the Cold War era to champion

American intervention and aid to countries all over the world. Isolationists have become a

caricature of ineffective leadership and selfish promotion.

78 Joshua Barton, “Henry Cabot Lodge: A legacy of isolationism,” Research paper for Simmons College,

(December, 2016):11-14.

79 Thomas N. Guinsburg, The Pursuit of Isolationism in the United States Senate from Versailles to Pearl

Harbor (New York: Garland Pub., 1982), 42-44.

80 Kennedy, 385-388.

Barton 31

In looking at the isolationists and taking their view seriously though, a different picture

emerges. While individuals may have been naive, selfish or afraid, isolationism as a whole

reveals a picture of how Americans viewed themselves and their world. Isolationists had a

delicate coalition of Americans from all parts of the country and from all economic, racial, and

political backgrounds. The destruction that the Great War brought had turned many of the

technological innovations into cogs of a giant war machine that devoured millions of men on the

battlefields of Europe, Africa and the Middle East. Coupled with the shock of the 1929 Wall

Street Crash and the plunge into economic depression, isolationism was a way to focus on

immediate and local concerns among massive change.

The high water mark of American neutrality was the 1935 Neutrality Act that prohibited

exports to belligerent nations. Designed to cut the involvement of both the American government

and businesses in international conflicts, it would be quickly tested by the growing number of

conflicts. It would be revised in 1937 and 1939, eventually largely being overturned by the Lend-

Lease Program in 1941. As the United States struggled through the 1930s to stabilize and grow

its economy many isolationists felt that one of the threats to the American economy would be to

become involved in an international conflict that would take capital away from rebuilding the

financial structure that had been devastated in the early years of the Depression.

Traditional narratives of the American experience of World War II will often divide into

two camps with when World War II begins to affect the United States. One camp focuses on the

September 1939 invasion of Poland and the aggression expansion of Germany into Austria and

Czechoslovakia in 1938. The other camp focuses on Japanese expansion into Manchuria in 1933

and the invasion of China in 1937. While the conflict in Spain is often mentioned briefly as a

Barton 32

training ground for Fascist countries and testing new technologies, the divisive effect on the

American public is often glanced over.

Thousands of Americans, many of whom were from leftist political backgrounds would

fight for the Spanish Republican Army and would write home about their experiences. At the

same time British and American journalists like George Orwell and Ernest Hemingway were

writing dispatches that were being circulated in large American newspapers and making their

way into the popular discussion.81 As France and England ended their supplies to the Spanish

Republicans, many socialist and communist groups in the United States moved to raise money to

support the Spanish Republican Army.82

The sympathy of many Americans would lead to the passing in 1937 of a change to the

Neutrality Act. The 1937 Neutrality Act would allow a “cash and carry” system where

belligerents could purchase supplies, but not arms, from the United States in exchange for cash

or gold and would transport them themselves. It still prohibited American ships from carrying

the arms directly to nations at war.83

The 1939 Neutrality Act would expand the ability of belligerents to purchase arms under

the cash and carry system, allowing Allied countries like England and France to buy arms that

were needed to fight Germany and Italy’s advances. Even as it expanded American military

production and financial involvement, it still prohibited American ships from carrying the

supplies themselves.84 It was a slow march to preparation and involvement and no person would

be more responsible for continuing that march than the American president.

81 Adam Hochschild, Spain in our hearts: Americans in the Spanish Civil War, 1936-1939 (New York:

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016), 216-218.

82 Ibid., 171-174.

83 Kennedy, 400-401.

84 Ibid., 433-434.

Barton 33

Franklin Delano Roosevelt would play a vital role in the preparation of the United States for

World War II both in terms of physical preparation of arms and the intellectual understanding of

why the United States opposed the Axis. The physical preparation would be greatly accelerated

by the Axis victories of 1939-1941 and the general population would understand that some

military preparations would be necessary as the war continued to expand. But the jump from

preparation to involvement would require almost three years of moving the tone of speeches ever

closer to the Allies, increasing the moral support for the Allies.

Even if many Americans sympathized with the Allies, entering the war was not a popular

view. In the 1940 presidential election Roosevelt would be forced to promise that there would be

no deployment of American soldiers to fight in Europe if he was reelected. After tying his own

hands by not being able to declare war, Roosevelt still found ways to help the Allies though. As

German submarines began to inflict mounting losses on British shipping the British Royal Navy

desperately needed more destroyers to escort the convoys leaving from the United States and

Canada.85 In September 1940 President Roosevelt traded 50 outdated destroyers to the Royal

Navy in exchange for the use of bases in the American hemisphere. This came when there was

still fierce debate going on about whether England would survive the Nazi onslaught and

whether American resources would be better kept in the United States.86

At the same time Roosevelt asked Congress to implement the first peacetime draft in the

history of the United States to increase the United States Army by one million men for a short

term one year enlistment. Of the first million men called up nearly 40% were physically or

mentally unfit for service. Of those rejected nearly a third of them were because of poor

85 A destroyer is a light warship that is designed to locate and hunt down enemy submarines.

86 James MacGregor Burns, Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom: 1940-1945 (New York: History Book

Club (Harcourt), 2006), 12-13.

Barton 34

nutrition.87 Not only had the Depression made industrial production and raw material preparation

difficult to coordinate and begin, but it had also made gathering manpower difficult as well. The

story of a small, sickly soldier who would have been unable to serve being given a second

chance as depicted in Captain America wasn’t a stretch of the imagination as the rush to rearm

and prepare the United States suffered from lack of materials and manpower.

Roosevelt had created a special bond with much of the American public through the use

of ‘Fireside Chats’ where he would talk to the American public through radio broadcasts. In the

leadership gap left by former President Hoover amid the panic of the Great Depression it was a

calming presence to have a president who would take time to explain to the American people

what the policies and legislation his administration were putting forward were designed to

accomplish. The controversial policies of the New Deal that would lead to several Supreme

Court cases would split the country about Roosevelt’s administration and the Fireside Chats

would allow Roosevelt to continue his popularity with voters across three presidential elections

after his election in 1932.88

Roosevelt would present many of his choices to the American people about continued

involvement in the war and support of England as “not about war, but about national security”

and that as the United States became the “Arsenal of Democracy”, than the American people

would be better protected as a result.89 He would walk a fine line between honesty and deception

with how close the United States was with the Allies and the growing chance that the United

States would enter the war.

87 Burns, 54.

88 Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time: Franklin & Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994), 57-58.

89 Franklin D. Roosevelt, Lend-Lease Fireside chat, December 29, 1940, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Master

Speech File, 1898-1945, Box 58, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, New York.

Barton 35

The largest aid that Roosevelt would be able to give the Allies before the United States

entered the war was the Lend-Lease program. Roosevelt first explained the Lend-Lease program

to the American public through a fireside chat on December 29, 1940. With English gold and

financial reserves running low there was little chance that they could pay for the supplies needed,

as dictated by the Neutrality Acts. Roosevelt’s system would “lend” the supplies to the Allies

and they would either return them or pay for them after the war. In his Fireside Chat Roosevelt

would use the example of allowing your neighbor to use your hose when his house was on fire to

illustrate his belief that continued support to the Allies would not only save them, but would save

the United States from the threat of continued Axis aggression.90

Between that December and when the legislation for Lend-Lease was passed on March

11, 1941 there was a significant debate among interventionists and isolationists as Lend-Lease

overturned many of the aspects of the Neutrality Acts. Not only was there a strong chance that

the $7 billion dollars that were being allocated for Lend-Lease would not come back soon, if at

all, but it increased the chance of American and German conflict in the Atlantic as a result of

shipments to England.91

The isolationists were a broad coalition across party, economic, and religious lines. While

isolationist organizations like the America First Committee92 represented a diverse community of

interests, there was no organized leadership to coordinate efforts. Isolationism would come down

to individual personalities. Some of the figureheads of the movement were famous, like Charles

Lindbergh and Hiram Johnson.93 Others like Ambassador Joseph P. Kennedy were government

officials who represented the complicated relationship between business and government in the

90 Ibid.

91 Kennedy, 469-474

92 David Nasaw, The Patriarch: The Remarkable Life and Turbulent Times of Joseph P. Kennedy. (New

York: The Penguin Press, 2012), 506.

93 Burns, 46-47

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still recovering American economy. While some of those who supported isolationism did so

because of sympathy for Germany, others were focused on threat that increased American

involvement could pose to economic interests and to the loss of manpower.

Ambassador Kennedy would become the figurehead for many isolationists. Appointed as

Ambassador to Great Britain in January 1938 for his political and financial support for President

Roosevelt during the 1936 election, Ambassador Kennedy came from an American-Irish family

that was deeply involved in politics and he had made himself a large fortune through

management of banking, stock trading, and film.94 He had strongly supported Prime Minister

Neville Chamberlain’s attempts at appeasement in Munich in 1938 and saw the war as a disaster

for the United States economic recovery.95 From his position as ambassador he would make

things difficult for President Roosevelt as he would issue letters and newspaper editorials

backing British supporters of appeasement.96 As Roosevelt continued to push for increased

defense spending and increased supplies to Great Britain and Allies, Kennedy would become a

voice of authority for isolationists as he warned that “American soldiers follow American

dollars”.97 The infighting among Roosevelt’s administration would make it difficult to portray a

united front until early 1941 as Kennedy and others fought the President on the increasing

American involvement.

The isolationists saw the war in Europe as unfortunate and few of them could be

described as pro-Nazi, but the threat to the United States in terms of financial loss of

infrastructure and loss of American lives in a conflict that had little to do with the United States

94 Ambassador Kennedy’s father in law, John Fitzgerald was mayor of Boston and a member of the

United States House of Representatives and his sons would become politicians, including John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States.

95 Nasaw, 295-296.

96 Ibid., 303.

97 Ibid., 478.

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was greater than any sympathy for England and France. At the same time that isolationism

represented a wide range of political, economic, and cultural views, it has always been difficult

to identify a concrete definition of what isolationism means. In one analysis of American

isolationism the differences of what they called themselves alone represents the vast opinions

and goals: nationalist, continentalist, non-interventionist.98 Even with their deep internal

differences, the isolationists brought a passion to the debate about what the United States should

do that would continue the discussion until December 7, 1941.

Into this conflict of words and ideas about the role of the United States that raged in the

newspaper, on the radio and in speeches across America entered a new participant, the comic

book. This newly emerging medium would allow authors and illustrators to express their own

opinion and invite millions of Americans to participate in the debate by mixing politics and

storytelling.

Isolationism had made expressing public support for the Allies difficult at the beginning

of the conflict. Even with the growing sympathy towards Britain for its stalwart defense in the

face of the bombing of London during the Blitz and the threat of invasion in 1940 there was still

considerable animosity towards those who advocated continued support or intervention.

Speeches, newspaper columns and radio broadcasts went back and forth between advocates of

intervention and isolation. Comic books came into the conversation by simplifying the complex

issues of international relations and national security. They did this by not addressing the view

of isolationists; comic book writers were able to simplify the threat of conflict into two views:

intervention or collusion. This was done in several ways. One way was the character's portrayal

of their political views. There are only extremes. There are the characters like Captain America,

98 Justus D. Doenecke, “The Strange Career of American Isolationism, 1944-1954”, Peace & Change, III,

nos. 2&3 (Summer Fall 1975), 79.

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Major Liberty, and The Defender, or there are the Nazi agents, the Bund, and their allies. In an

era where isolationism was a strong ideological belief about foreign policy one of the easiest

ways to undermine it was to ignore it entirely. Rather than have their characters engage in a

complicated policy discussion, creators decided to polarize the political issues into either being

for or against America. Similar to the portrayal of the conflict as a moral conflict by political

leaders like Roosevelt and Churchill, comic books sought to simplify the decision that readers

made about the way that they viewed the ongoing conflicts.

Central to this experience was the way that characters were written and drawn.

Differentiating characters is vital to the comic book medium. Without the text space to describe

characters, the reader needs to be able to visually identify the role of characters, whether they

were friend or foe to the heroes. Nazi characters were difficult to portray differently in image

from main characters due to the shared whiteness of race. In order to portray these differences

German characters and their allies were portrayed with military and aristocratic trappings, like

monocles.99 Rather than focusing on racial differences, the appearance of militarism and class

differences were focused on. This was largely accomplished through the use of uniforms,

especially traditional military or Nazi paramilitary uniforms with the distinctive cap and brown

shirt with a swastika armband.

Race is one way that comic book writers were able to quickly convey information about

their characters. How characters of different races were written, illustrated and inked revealed

popular concepts of race and identity during the time they were created. There was a significant

changes in racial portrayal in comic books, especially after the Civil Rights movement in the late

1950s and 1960s. By 1968 there would begin a dramatic reversal in many of the negative racial

portrayals. But in the 1930s and 1940s the comic book market was very focused on whiteness,

99 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #2, 22.

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both in characters and audience. Portrayal of non-white races would be tokenistic at best and

would often be based on racist stereotypes in the mainstream comics.

Complicating this was that the majority of the writers and illustrators of these comic

books were second generation Jewish-American immigrants. Many of them had grown up in the

Lower East Side and had become part of comic industry to use their talents in writing and

drawing. Those not from New York City, like Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster, still often came from

Jewish communities in large cities, like Cleveland. In memoirs and later interviews many of

them would focus on experiences in their youth where their ethnicity had made it difficult for

them to find employment, had made them targets in the street gangs of New York and other large

cities. At the same time, it had given them a sense of community in spite of these difficulties.100

While few of them would describe themselves as religious, many would express pride in their

Judaism and the role that it would play in the creation of their stories.

At the same time that it is important to acknowledge the vital role that Jewish-Americans

played in the popularization of comic books and their publication; it is also important to note that

the comic book is not a Jewish creation and that many Americans of different backgrounds were

involved in the creation of the comic book industry.101 What Jewish-Americans were able to do

in this time period was to create characters and stories that were universal enough to allow

mainstream Protestant Americans to identify with characters that were outsiders in a way that

Jewish-Americans and other minorities understood all too well. In particular the animosity of

Jewish-Americans toward Nazi Germany allowed them to represent the threat of increased Axis

expansion and victories as detrimental to all Americans. After the passing of the German Civil

Service Act in 1934 and the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 that greatly restricted Jews civil liberties,

100 Jones, 134-135.

101 Gabilliet, 160-163.

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economic, and career opportunities in Germany, the majority of the Jewish community in the

United States firmly stood against the success of Hitler’s Germany and saw the threat that

European Jews were in as Germany conquered more territory.102

While their parents and grandparents were still adjusting to life in America, the comic

book creators had been born in the United States and thought of themselves as Americans. In this

sense they were a bridge between the Jewish communities and the larger American populace in

their comic book work. Especially with the comic books that appealed to intervention through

nationalism, they had to be able to write in a way that would appeal to millions of readers who

didn’t share their experience but would be able to identify with their characters. In describing

their situation, author Gerard Jones described them as : “[they were] two or three steps removed

from the American mainstream but were more poignantly in touch with the desires and agonies

of that mainstream than those in the middle of it”.103 Their removal from the mainstream and

their ‘otherness’ allowed them to create characters and stories that would be relatable to large

parts of the population.

Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster came from the Jewish community of Cleveland and had both

become interested in the growing science fiction literature and art in high school.104 Both came

from second generation immigrant families who had established comfortable lives for their

children, and who now looked for their own versions of the American dream with their

interests.105 Siegel and Shuster’s generation had increased opportunities of schooling and

professional advancement than their parents had but these ambitions still came up against anti-

semitism in their prospective fields.

102 Kennedy, 385, 410-412.

103 Jones, xiv-xv.

104 Ibid., 29-32.

105 Ibid., 28.

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Anti-semitism was a hurdle to many Jewish artists, even in large cities like New York

City. The prejudice meant that many artists had to take jobs that were less competitive or had to

hide their background. Some authors changed their names in order to sound more common.

Robert Kahn would change his name to Bob Kane and Jack Kirby was born Jacob Kurtzberg, but

Kirby was resentful whenever he was asked about why he changed his name in later years.106

The aspect of a hidden identity for the superheroes has been part of the storytelling trope since

novels like The Scarlet Pimpernel and Zorro pulp novels, but it took on a new meaning with

Jewish writers who were able to reflect their own experience in characters like the mild

mannered Clark Kent becoming Superman, the socialite Bruce Wayne changing into Batman or

the sickly Steve Rogers transforming into Captain America.107

The experience of Jewish Americans in how they navigated the complicated world of

race and religion that dominated the American workplace gave the creators of many comic books

the opportunity to create characters that resonated with readers who didn’t come from their

world, but understood the desire to be acknowledged and to break free of normal existence.

The portrayal of race was accomplished using the way characters were drawn, colored,

and spoke. The most dramatic of the those three was the way characters were colored during the

inking process. In early comic book publishing color options were based on four colors: blue,

red, yellow, and black.108 This meant that there were only 16 color options available for

publishing and this is one of the reasons that Asians and blacks are so polarized in color

depiction.109 In using this process for skin color of human characters this meant that while white

characters had a mixed color that looks like a peach or cream color, characters of other races,

106 Evanier, 45.

107 Jones, 173.

108 Gabilliet, 131-132.

109 Dittmer, 48.

See Figure 8.

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such as blacks and Asians had a much more powerful skin tone color being used in the

publishing process. The results of this are characters that come across as caricatures.

The majority of superhero comic books in this period would focus on the threat of the

European Axis countries, but a few did highlight the growing threat that Imperial Japan posed in

the Pacific and Asia. This meant that comic book creators would represent people, languages and

cultures that were not familiar to many American readers. The portrayal of Asian races and

cultures was divided into two camps depending on whether those portrayed were allies or

members of the Axis.

The Japanese characters were drawn with over exaggerated features, such as large fang

like teeth and large glasses with shrunken eyes. The dehumanization of the Japanese was further

accomplished by making them difficult to understand in the text with an accent shown by a lack

of conjugation of verbs. This style of drawing and characterizations wasn’t restricted to the

comic books. Many of the popular political and newspaper cartoonists like Dr. Seuss, Carl Rose

and Saul Steinberg also employed similar images to represent Japanese and Japanese Americans,

helping create a national culture that fostered fear and mistrust of the Japanese.110

One comic book that set a tone about Japanese representation that would be followed by

many other writers and illustrators during the war was Captain America #5 that was published in

August 1941.111 The story revolves around a Japanese plot to start a volcanic eruption on a

Pacific island that will destroy the United States Navy that uses the island as its port, similar to

the real life use of Pearl Harbor in the Hawaiian Islands. The reliance on straight yellow in the

story to ink the Japanese characters has a sharp juxtaposition whenever a Japanese character and

a white American share the same panel. Coupled with the way that they are drawn, either large

110 Andre Schiffrin, Dr. Seuss & Co. go to war: The World War II Editorial Cartoons of America’s Leading

Comic Artists (New York: The New Press, 2009), 17, 114, 121,136, 140.

111 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #5, 15-29.

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and brutish henchmen or small and wiry commanders, and the broken English dialect used in

their dialogue it fosters a sense of ‘otherness’ about the Japanese.112

While torture, threat of torture and its implied sexual violence against women is common

in the early comic books, the portrayal of the Japanese as torturers takes a very different turn in

Captain America #5. Torture was common in many of the pulp and horror novels that had been

part of comic book’s heritage and would remain a central part of many plots of comic books and

pulps until the 1950s backlash against the violence and sexuality of comic books. Previous

Captain America adventures had either shown victims after torture, and usually dead, or being

threatened with torture. Captain America #5 showed the victim being tortured for information,

although off panel and also the repeated torture of multiple characters.113

Torture is a tool in these stories about the portrayal of power where those who are doing

the torturing do so from a perceived position of power over their victim. When a Nazi agent

threatens to torture Betty Ross or Bucky in a Captain America comic, the relationship is about

the perceived power difference between the United States and Nazi Germany. When a Japanese

officer is threatening to torture an American commander and his daughter, the relationship

between the United States and Imperial Japan is also being contested, but there is also an element

of racial conflict being portrayed that doesn’t exist as strongly with the German characters.

Differences between the treatment of races is compounded by the way that German-

Americans are treated. One of the greatest threats in the Captain America adventures is the

German American Bund. There was a real life German American Bund that existed during this

period that was pro-Nazi but it was largely ineffective due to infighting and corruption inside the

112 Ibid., 19.

113 Ibid., 19-20, 24.

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organization.114 While the real life Bund was made up of many German Americans who had

been in the United States for generations, the Bund in Captain America comics function as more

of a mercenary group than a cultural group, with most of those portrayed using the broken

English and German dialect that the comic books used.115 The Bund and its members are

mentioned in several adventures, all helping the Nazis.116

The Bund makes its biggest impact in Captain America #5, the same issue with the

Japanese attack on the U.S. Navy. The Bund has been attacking German-Americans who refuse

to join the Bund, including the father of one of Bucky’s Sentinels of Liberty.117 The man who

was attacked, Heinrich Schmidt, tells the Bund aggressors before he is beaten that “I am of

German descent, yes!--But I’m also a good American citizen! I’ll having nothing to do with an

organization that aims to destroy the country that protects me and mine from creeds like

yours!!!” The response by the Bund members is call him a “swine”, one of the insults regularly

used by German characters in the comic books.118

Bucky tells Steve Rogers about the attacks and that “Bob Schmidt and his father are two

swell guys”. In response Rogers tells Bucky that “I’ve found German-American people to be

very nice”.119 Ultimately Captain America and Bucky investigate the local Bund camp, “Camp

Reichland”, where they find a swastika flag flying over it where they begin to fight the Bund

who attacks them with automatic weapons.120 At the end of the adventure Captain America and

Bucky are being overwhelmed when local Americans, including Heinrich Schmidt attack the

114 Kennedy, 471.

115 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #5, 36-37.

116 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #3, 36.

117 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #5, 31-32.

118 Ibid., 31.

119 Ibid., 32.

120 Ibid., 34-35.

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Bund and carry the day and raise an American flag over the camp.121 German-Americans are

shown to be dependable allies who shouldn’t be judged for a shared heritage. In contrast, nothing

is said about Japanese-Americans. Part of this may come from the larger population of German-

Americans in the United States and the background of the writers of living on the East Coast,

away from the larger populations of Japanese-Americans on the West Coast.

In contrast to the Japanese, the Chinese are portrayed in a very different way. While the

ink color used is similar, the facial features are less exaggerated and drawn similarly to main

characters. Where cultural differences with the Japanese are focused on to create otherness,

Chinese characters are made more relatable by their language and their shared enemy. In Captain

America #6 a delegation of Chinese officials are attacked by “Fang-Arch Fiend of the Orient”

while on their way to negotiate a loan to continue fighting the Japanese.122 In the real world

China had been at war with Japan since 1937 and was in desperate need of supplies as the

Japanese took many of the large industrial centers on the coast. By the late summer of 1941 the

need for supplies and weapons had reached the point where in the White House the discussion of

sending aid to China was similar to early Lend-Lease discussion for of England.123 Rather than

focusing on the racial differences as they do with the Japanese, Kirby and Simon focus on the

threat of the Japanese to China, similar to the way they treat the Nazi threat to England.

Symbols are important to comic books. Because of the weight of image in comic books

the use of symbols is important in conveying information with the limited space. In looking at

symbols, flags are some of the best symbols. Flags are created to convey information as quickly

as possible and their role in portraying national narratives. In an era when nationalism was being

121 Ibid., 40.

122 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #6, 20-21.

123 Burns, 153.

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represented in newspapers, films, and posters by the use of flags, it is no surprise to find that the

comic books are full of flags, representing the many countries involved.

One of the most potent symbols during the period, and continues to have significant

power, is the Nazi swastika. While the swastika is an ancient symbol used by multiple cultures,

its use by Nazi Germany as a national symbol meant that it would be represented by both Allies

and Axis for propaganda purposes. In comic books the placement of swastikas identifies

characters allegiances and morality.

The appearance of swastikas in comic books was rare before 1941. While some early

attempts to portray the war included swastikas, the majority of images stayed away from the use.

After December 1940 it became much more common to have the swastika and other national

images be used more often. In Captain America alone the swastika was used an average of 3

times per page in the first nine issues.

The swastika is also juxtaposed with the American flag to highlight the differences

between characters. In Captain America #1 the villain Red Skull is introduced. Red Skull would

go on to become Captain America’s nemesis and throughout the 75 years of publication his

background would be solidified as Johann Schmidt, a Nazi scientist and member of HYDRA.

But in the original run the Red Skull character would be George Maxon, an American airplane

manufacturer who was a Nazi sympathizer and who had been promised control of American

industry once the United States was part of the “Greater Reich”.124 But even when the Red Skull

was still an American, his costume was still focused around the swastika. Throughout the

original run of Captain America the Red Skull would wear a burgundy jumpsuit with a large

124 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #1 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], March 1, 1941), 48. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on October 28, 2016.

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white swastika on the chest.125 Tying the swastika to American Nazi sympathizers and fifth

columnists portrayed Americans who were reluctant to condemn Nazi aggression as being un-

American and more loyal to a foreign power. The branding of characters with Nazi allegiances

and their personal selfish interests to Nazi expansion was a way to undermine many of the

supporters of isolationism like Kennedy and Lindbergh who were perceived to be putting their

personal fortunes ahead of national defense.126

The swastika would also be used to contest control of space in the United States.

Throughout superhero adventures against Nazi sympathizers and fifth columnists the action

would usually lead to a secret base or lair. The setting of the finale was a common trope in the

crime pulps that became popular during Prohibition. These lairs would often be decorated with

swastika banners and Hitler busts. Maps were a central aspect to these lairs, showing the United

States and the American hemisphere as a target and part of the expanding Axis empires.127 This

created a sense of territorial differentiation where land takes on a political connection to the

ongoing conflicts as a threat to the land of the United States implies a threat to the political and

cultural traditions of the that land.128

A continuation of the territorial differentiation is the portrayal of locales outside the

United States in the comic books. The representation of countries that are free from Axis control

are contrasted to Axis occupied lands. In Captain America #2 the adventure takes place in both

England, France and Germany while looking for kidnapped American financier Henry Baldwin

who wants to support England financially.129 Each of the countries is represented in a very

different light. In one panel that depicts occupied Paris, the colors are muted, with shades of dark

125 Ibid., 36.

126 Goodwin, 211-212.

127 For example the covers of Captain America #1 and #2.

128 Dittmer, 107.

129 See Figure 3.

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gray and sickly yellow, with the Eiffel Tower and downcast Parisians watching German tanks

and soldiers march by. Two swastikas and a Hitler’s head are in the background while the text

describes “Once gay Paris is not a pretty sight under the heel of the Nazi conqueror..” while

Captain America and Bucky, who are in disguise, comment that “We could stay and straighten

France out--but we’ve got to go on to Germany!”.130

In contrast to the loss of Paris to the Nazis, England is portrayed as enthusiastic and still

vibrant. When Captain America reveals himself to stop a Nazi plot, he is met by Englishmen

who shout “Three cheers for the Captain!” and while Captain America and Bucky

metaphorically ride off into the sunset the crowd yells “Don’t leave Captain America! England

needs you! Where’s the real Henry Baldwin?”131 Kirby and Simon choose to use their fictional

English crowds to represent a real sentiment that was found in England, particularly by Prime

Minister Winston Churchill who as early as mid-1940 advocated for the intervention of the

United States into the war in public speeches. In closing his speech at the House of Commons on

June 4, 1940 on the state of the war after the disasters in France he expressed that:

“...we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in

the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender... until, in God's

good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the

liberation of the old.”132 The success of the war was tied to many at the time to the United States

support of England as a bulwark while the Americans finished rearming and Captain America

advocated heavily in supplying England through financial aid, arms, and supplies. Central to this

was the continuation and growth of the Lend-Lease program. In contrasting the fates of both free

130 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #2, 24.

131 Ibid., 27-28.

132 Winston Churchill. We shall fight on the beaches. Speech given June 4, 1940 at the House of

Commons. International Churchill Society. Accessed March 22, 2017.

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England and Occupied France, the continued use of a binary option exists for the readers: you

can be expect the continued advance and occupation of the Axis or you can continue to support

those who fight.

One aspect of the representation of the events of World War II in the comic books was

the inclusion of national leaders in the stories. By blending the real world and the comic world it

allowed comic book creators to weave narratives that allowed them to explore the ongoing

conflict in Europe and Asia and the American response. Part of this representation is the use of

national leaders of both Allied and Axis nations. The treatment of leaders varies from respected

cameos to derision.

President Roosevelt was not only the mover of American sentiment toward intervention

on the behalf of the Allies in the real world, but he also became a prominent character in the

comic book world. The character of President Roosevelt authorizes the the research program that

would turn Steve Rogers into Captain America in Captain America #1 after the sabotage of

American war production and threat of spies inside the army in the comic book world.133

Roosevelt would appear again in Captain America #4 after the defeat of a group of Nazi agents

called the Unholy Legion, listening to the report of their defeat by radio along with “millions of

eager Americans” where Roosevelt comments “Whoever and wherever that rascal is, America

thanks him. His deeds will live forever!”.134 Roosevelt’s initial appearance portrays the president

as a commander and executive, but his second appearance portrays the sympathetic persona that

Roosevelt had created with his fireside chats.

Adolf Hitler would also be used as a character in the comic book world, reflecting the

real life Hitler in appearance and perceived temperament. The portrayal of Hitler in Captain

133 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #1, 2-3.

134 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #4, 16.

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America and the threat of Nazis were treated very differently than Roosevelt. Roosevelt’s

character was meant to be a reflection of the real person while the character Hitler was shown as

a bumbling fool who was inept at both planning and combat. While Hitler was portrayed being

punched on the cover of Captain America #1, it wasn’t until Captain America #2 that Hitler

would appear inside the story. In the finale of the story Captain America and Bucky find

themselves in Germany while rescuing American businessman Henry Baldwin who was

kidnapped by Nazi agents in the United States.135 While assaulting a military instillation they run

into Hitler and Hermann Göering. Göering was a large and overweight man and this is

caricatured in the comics for comedic effect in the issue.

During the fight Hitler and Göering hide while directing tanks and airplanes to attack

Captain America and Bucky. Both tanks and airplanes, which are modeled after their iconic real

life Panzer III tanks and Junkers-87 Stuka dive bombers and both have swastikas painted on

them.136 In September 1939 the German military had overrun Poland using ‘Blitzkrieg’ tactics

that were based on the cooperation of armored units such as tanks being closely supported by air

support, which the Stuka provided. Captain America and Bucky are not only fighting the German

military, they are fighting the instruments that Germany had used in their victories against

Poland and France that had been shown in newsreels across the United States.

In the end only Hitler and Göering stand against Captain America and Bucky and they

are forced to fight. Both of them charge at Bucky yelling that they will “get the little guy.”137

They are overpowered by Bucky, free Baldwin and are rescued by the Royal Air Force. A panel

shows the newspaper titles from the next day, one of which read “Germans find Hitler and

135 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #2, 30.

136 Ibid., 31.

137 Ibid., 32.

See Figure 10.

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Göering in aschan”.138 Hitler is portrayed as a coward and inept, relying on others to fight for

him and that Nazi power is focused on attacking those who are the “little guy” as shown by both

Göering and Hitler’s desire to fight Bucky, a boy, rather than Captain America. Hitler and his

inner circle are shown as clowns and buffoons, and this portrayal undermines the authority of

their positions.

In contrast fifth columnists and Nazi agents were portrayed very differently. From the

beginning of the Captain America comics and in the portrayal of Nazis and their allies in other

comics the threat of sabotage and spying is treated as a serious threat. Many of the comics in this

time walk a line between comic humor and action with stories that draw from the violence and

horror of pulp novels. In Captain America #4 this is represented by the threat of the Unholy

Legion.139 The Unholy Legion is a Nazi fifth columnist group that is attacking American military

production. In the beginning of the story members of the Unholy Legion assassinate Howard

Baxter, an owner of a munitions factory and John Green, a labor leader.140 After the fierce

clashes between labor and industry during the 1920s and throughout the Depression it would

have been easy to favor one over the other but Kirby and Simon present a united front in the the

rearmament and preparation of the United States.141

Shortly after the assassination of Baxter and Green, two officials involved in aircraft

manufacturing are also killed by poisoned apples.142 This spate of assassinations lead to Captain

America and Bucky patrolling the city trying to find a lead in the case. They ultimately follow a

group of beggars to a hideout where it is revealed that the beggars are sending their panhandling

138 Ibid., 33.

139 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon, Captain America #4 (New York:Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], June 1, 1941), 1-16. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on December 28, 2016.

140 Ibid., 3

141 Kennedy, 169-170.

142 Ibid., 4.

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money to Germany.143 The Unholy Legion has also been capturing G-Men,144 branding them

with a swastika and then dumping their bodies in the river. Bucky is captured and threatened

with being branded before being rescued by Captain America. They dismantle the Unholy

Legion, while also disabling and capturing a U-boat.145

The Unholy Legion takes on a very different feel than the man they are supposed to

serve. While Hitler is an inept clown in the comics, his allies in the United States are much more

threatening. Part of this portrayal is the representation of physical beauty. In his work on comic

books during World War II, historian Jason Dittmer writes about the role that physical beauty

plays in the characterization of good and evil. Good characters are handsome and beautiful with

equal proportions to their bodies, while evil characters are “uniformly hideous or deformed”.146

The Unholy Legion is a more sinister threat because it is closer to home than Hitler and because

of the proximity of the threat, it is not only more dangerous, but the danger is represented by the

extremes of physical repugnance as well as torture.

Gender is a vital part of the superhero comic book formula and continues to be a major

point of discussion within the comic book community. In looking at the way that gender is

portrayed in the early comics it is easy to fall into the trap that gender is a simple construct that

falls within the popular narrative about gender in the mid-twentieth century. While strong men

and fainting women are part of the comic stories, in other ways they challenge the popular

narrative role of gender, especially for women. Complicating the relationship between early

143 Ibid., 5-6.

144 Popular slang at the time for Federal Bureau of Investigation Agents. The ‘G’ stood for government

and had become popular during Prohibition. See Figure 9.

145 Ibid., 13.

146 Jason Dittmer. "America is safe while its boys and girls believe in its creeds!": Captain America and American identity prior to World War 2." Environment And Planning D-Society & Space 25, no. 3 (n.d.): 401-423. Social Sciences Citation Index, EBSCOhost(accessed October 21, 2016). http://epd.sagepub.com/content/25/3/401.short

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comic books and gender representation is that during World War II there were often labor

shortages as the need for increased military growth lead to a wider draft. The comic book and

publishing industry were among those affected and women would be hired to help in the inking

and coloring processes.147

In trying to unravel the relationship between the writers of comic books and the way that

women are treated in them, some writers have looked at the personal relationships of the creators

and have argued that in some cases the lack of romantic relationships opportunities while

adolescents led to the role of women being secondary characters.148 While sexual frustration

could certainly lead to the fantasizing of strong men rescuing helpless women, another important

aspect is the relationship between the comic book and its predecessors. Many of the storytelling

techniques used in pulp fiction and scientific fiction magazines were carried over to the comics

and among them was the portrayal of women as plot devices to highlight danger, terror or the

threat of sexual violence. At the same time the printing industry that comic books would be

published under also had a strong tie to pornographic magazines and while comic books may not

have been looking to overlap the audiences of those two markets, the stigma would be attached

for many years as publishers who made fortunes on both comics and pornography would have to

defend both of their publications to the public.149

Female characters in this period were largely supporting characters. Main characters who

are women were rare in this period, Wonder Woman being the exception, and they are left to

romantic and supporting roles. Many of them would operate as the agent of legitimacy compared

147 Gabilliet, 164.

148 Jones, 34.

149 Jones, 62.

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to the vigilante superhero. For example Betty Ross of Captain America operated as an agent for

the armed forces and Betty Dean of Sub-Mariner is part of the New York Police Department.150

An important aspect to all these characters is not just that they are women, but that they

are white women. White womanhood being threatened by men of another race is not a new

concept, but has been central to race relations in literature in the United States. While this aspect

is a subtle undertone in many of the comics, especially those dealing with the Japanese, it comes

across the strongest in the story of “Trojack: The Tiger Man” in Daring Mystery Comics #3 in

April 1940. Trojak is a Tarzan-esque figure which was a common trope, having a white man who

through accident or misfortune been raised in the jungles of Africa and had become master of

both black man and colored beast but who was out of place of European culture. In one

adventure Trojak helps Edith Alton escape from being captured by the Germans and then helps

destroy the German military base that threatens the Congo. Edith had been taken captive when a

U-boat had stopped the freighter she was on and had threaten to sink it if the ship didn’t

surrender.151 Edith’s capture comes to Trojak’s attention through the use of a system of ‘tom

tom’ drums that describe “...the white girl is a prisoner of a Nazi War Machine, whose relentless

system has interred her ship before it had long been out to sea”.152 Trojak “...hears and is

angry...angry at the thought of the white girl prisoner and angry because his jungle home is being

transformed in a white man’s arsenal.”153 Trojak then summons his faithful tiger and begins the

adventure that will see Edith rescued and the Nazis driven out. While the character of Trojak and

similar archetypes already suffer from the complications of ethnocentric imperialism of white

150 David C. Cooke and Alex Schomburg, Marvel Mystery Comics #3 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], January 1, 1940), 65-66. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on January 22, 2017.

151 Ray Gil and Ben Thompson, Daring Mystery Comics #3 (New York: Timely Comics [Marvel Comics], April 10, 1940), 42-48. Accessed through Marvel Unlimited on March 24, 2017.

152 Ibid., 42.

153 Ibid., 43.

Barton 55

characters in Africa, but the focus on “white girl” and the “white man” keeps the story focused

on Western political and racial aspects, even while the story takes place in Africa.

The portrayal of these women as enthusiastic, but vulnerable can be read as an

appropriation of women as a symbol for the United States or the American people. Using gender

representation for a national body has been common throughout modern history, for example the

use of Columbia for the United States and Liberte for France in political cartoons. The

assignment of gender, whether male or female, can be a strong distinction of the feeling of how

the author understands the situation, with a figure like Columbia being used for vulnerability or

moral suasion, while the masculine Uncle Sam or John Bull being more combative and more

forceful.

In analyzing the danger that threatens women in the comic books as being representative

of the American people it can represent the national spirit of wanting to do something and be

involved but unable to make a difference because of the lack of industrial and military

preparation. The stopgap between full involvement and military preparation becomes the

vigilante superheroes who represent a power that isn’t weighed down by government infighting

and bureaucracy. Before the United States enters the war the power of superheroes becomes a

symbol of the potential that they could bring into the war, while after the power becomes

representative of the manpower, war material, and technology that the United States brings to

bear against the Axis as the entire American economy is retooled for the war.

In writing comic books writers and artists had many different ways to express

information to their readers. Deciding what to convey was a conscious choice in an era of

experimentation in the comic book medium. With the race to find the next hit it allowed creators

to express political opinions that previously hadn’t been financially viable before. Comic books

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were a part of a growing popular culture that existed across the United States and allowed for a

shared experience in the growing move against isolationism. Through depictions of race,

nationality, gender, and patriotism comic book creators tried to highlight the differences and

similarities that they felt would best help their audience support rearmament, support of the

Allies, and ultimately enter the war against the Axis.

5-Conclusion

Comic books have come a long way from their early years in the late 1930s. They have

been a part of every major political, cultural, economic, and social event since the Great

Depression. Their pages have become full of references to the changes the United States

underwent during the 20th century and continues to go through today. Their readers have formed

a tight knit community that has analyzed, discussed, and hotly debated many aspects of their

form and stories. Historians trying to enter into this debates and discussions must understand that

comic book collectors, enthusiasts, cultural and literary writers have been creating a narrative for

almost fifty years, and while these discussions have little consensus they also offer opportunity

to look at the artistic, literary and cultural changes represented in comic books across these

created narratives and touch points. While there is a lot of preexisting literature and theories, it

also is an opportunity to participate in cross disciplinary work. Many of those currently writing

on comic books come from literary and entertainment backgrounds and they bring different

perspectives on both the industry and on what comic books are discussing. Fitting these

perspectives into the work done by historians on the political, economic and social histories of

the same time period will allow for a better understanding between these events. The work done

by myself was only a dusting of the surface of the many themes, patterns, and examples that

Barton 57

comic books give about their world and their audience. A further analysis of the comic book

audience will be central to future research, especially trying to move past myths about who are

reading comic books and what comic books are part of this discussion.

Superhero comic books from 1939 to 1942 allowed readers to participate in the ongoing

national discussion about what the United States should do as conflict and threats continued to

spread. The political debate between President Roosevelt, his advisors and allies and those who

opposed intervention of any kind was conducted by radio, speeches, and newspaper which

allowed millions of Americans to participate. Comic books allowed a demographic, both

younger and less literate to be involved. In a war of propaganda, the comic books were free of

government involvement until after the attack on Pearl Harbor and the mobilization of the United

States in December 1941.

The grind against popular isolationism took time, beginning with sympathy for

Republican Spain and then to European countries in the late 1930s. Interventionism began to

accelerate with the increased victories of Axis countries against countries like England and

France that Americans had a larger connection cultural with. This allowed for the financial

viability of superhero comics that had a strong political message and for the expansion of the

popular debate to a larger audience.

In many ways the use of comic books for political commentary was bringing the use of

comics full circle in the United States. Originally used for expression in political commentary in

newspaper, cartoons had been compiled in comic books and had continued to evolve. Superhero

comic books were only one part of the comic books being created, but they have continued to be

a part of popular culture in the United States.

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Modern comic books were created and came of age in a time of conflict and war.

Nationalism and ideology were an important issues of the era and the identity that comic book

characters would take would be heavily influenced by these identities. After the attack on Pearl

Harbor on December 7, 1941 almost all of the debate over isolationism and intervention ended.

Movies, radio, music and comic books would all fall in behind the war effort and lend their

support to war bond drives and public service announcements. But there was a time from 1939

until 1942 when comic book creators and publishers made a conscious choice to push against

isolationism and encourage their readers to prepare the United States for the coming conflict.

They may not have changed the course of the war, but they invited thousands of Americans to

see how they viewed the political events of World War II. Reflecting their experience in Captain

America #3 Jack Kirby and Joe Simon voiced this through the character of a film director who

was being discouraged of making a movie that was commenting on the Axis military victories by

arguing the United States should prepare itself for war : “I aim to go ahead with this..It’s timely!

It’s truth!...Freemen against a tyrant---democracy against dictatorship! This...will awaken the

public to the real value of the fight to think for themselves!”.154

154 Kirby and Simon, Captain America #3, 22.

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Appendix

All images are the property of Marvel Comics and are used under the principles of Fair Use.

Figure 1-Cover of Captain America #1, March 1,1941

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Figure 2-Ad for the Sentinels of Liberty in Captain America #1, March 1, 1941.

Figure 3- Depiction of American financier Henry Baldwin in Captain America #2, April 1, 1941.

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Figure 4-Introduction of Major Liberty in USA Comics #1, August 1, 1941

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Figure 5-The Sub-Mariner fights a Nazi U-Boat in Marvel Mystery Comics #4, February 1, 1940.

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Figure 6-Early use of a swastika in John Steele, “Soldier of Fortune” in Daring Mystery Comics #1,

January 1, 1940

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Figure 7-Depiction of the bombing of a city in ‘American Ace’ in Marvel Mystery Comics #1 in

September 1, 1940.

Figure 8- Example of the coloring differences among characters of different races from Captain America

#5 in August 1, 1941.

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Figure 9-Example of Nazi agents using torture and branding of an FBI agent in Captain America #4 in

June 1, 1941

Figure 10-Portrayal of Adolf Hitler and Hermann Goëring as comical bumbling figures in Captain

America #2 in April 1, 1941.

Barton 66

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