TTiimmee BBuuddggeettss:: CCoommmmuuttiinngg yyoouurr wwaayy iinnttoo ((aanndd oouutt ooff))

tthhee pprroobblleemm..

DDeenniissee FFeerrnnaannddeezz BBPPllaann 22000066

TTiimmee BBuuddggeettss:: CCoommmmuuttiinngg yyoouurr wwaayy iinnttoo ((aanndd oouutt ooff))

tthhee pprroobblleemm..

AAbbssttrraacctt:: Time is precious as it is important. We spend just as much time complaining

we don’t have enough as we do planning our activities according to how much time we do

have. Even when we are able to plan activities to a certain time length it is no guarantee that

we get everything done. An emerging trend sees the gradual need to factor travel in to daily

schedules as increasing travel times increase. This thesis explores and analyses the effects of

increasing travel times on the social, health and planning functions and what it means for

youth. This thesis discusses the importance of Time-Use Surveys as a tool not only for

planning purposes but also to create an identity of a population and what their needs are.

Primary research in the form of travel diaries distributed to a focus group of people between

the ages of 18-24 were conducted and results indicate that while travel pressures do not

dictate their eating habits their levels of exercise are limited to non-existent. A rising trend

amongst this age group sees the emergence of portable media systems and their usage while

travelling. The survey also showed that this age group is becoming more car dependant than

ever even when presented with soaring petrol prices. The implications of such results are also

discussed as are ways in which companies, governments, especially in the area of planning

and individuals can address these issues.

KKeeyywwoorrddss:: Time; travel; commuting; planning; social, health; environment; choice; time-

use surveys; time-use; youth; time-space; human geography, transportation; mobility

WWhheerree ddooeess tthhee ttiimmee ggoo?? It seems like yesterday this all started. Five years of hard work and persistence has finally come to an end. To all those who has made this journey with me; it’s been a pleasure. To all those who have supported my journey; I thank you. To all those who come across this in the future; I hope things have gotten better.

In dedication to everyone who has ever suffered in the hands of the Sydney (or any other, actually) transport system.

Introduction 1

Chapter 1

• Literature Review 14

Chapter 2

• The Time Element 24

• Time Geography 27

• Everyday Life & Time Geography 33

Chapter 3

• What is a Time Use Survey? 37

• Applications of a Time Use Survey 38

• International Time Use Survey 40

• Domestic Time Use Survey 44

Chapter 4

• Data Collection 51

• Assumptions and Data Availability 57

• Strengths & Limitations 58

• Results 61

• Discussion 67

Chapter 5

• Health Implications 71

• Social and Behavioural Implications 74

• Transport & Mobility Implications 77

Chapter 6

• Government 81

• Companies 83

• Individuals 85

• Planning Directions 88

Conclusion 94

Bibliography 101

Appendix A

Appendix B

Appendix C

Appendix D

“Time only seems to matter

when it's running out” --

Peter Strup

- 1 -

- 2 -

Time is as precious as it is important. We spend just as much time complaining we

don’t have enough as we do planning our activities according to how much time we

do have. Even when we are able to plan activities to a certain time length it is no

guarantee that we get everything done. But what has emerged is that not only are we

allocating time for certain activities, but we have to an extent gradually factored travel

in to our already full schedules and because much of our travel is associated with

getting things done, we have no choice but to factor travel in. As a result, we turn to

quick and easy alternatives to compensate for the time we have lost and in our hurry;

we sometimes make the wrong choices. If factoring travel becomes a constant,

habitual choices made in a hurry can have worrying consequences.

Below is a standard schedule of a person living in the outer suburbs of Sydney who

commutes to the Central Business District (CBD) in order to work and study.

6am – 7am: Wake up.

7am – 8am: Use the bathroom to get ready and have a shower

8:15am - 8:30am: Catch the Train to the city (from the outer suburbs) to go to work.

9:30am - 5:30pm: Work

5:45pm – 6:45pm: Catch the Train Home

6:50pm – 7:00pm: Pick up Take-a-way on the way home.

7:00pm - 7:30pm: Eat

7:30pm – 9:30pm: Watch T.V.

9:45pm – 6:00am: Go to bed.

The above is a standard routine for many people across Sydney which repeats itself

every day in an almost ritualistic manner. According to The Australian Bureau of

Statistics (ABS), in June 2000 7,637,700 people or 89% of the population worked at

business premises that was not their home (2000). This assumes that a certain amount

of travel would be undertaken by a person to get to work. People undertaking the

above routine may not see that the problem may lie with the travel time one

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undertakes as part of this routine which limits valuable free time or time that would be

otherwise used elsewhere.

This thesis explores the advent of time and time use and the affects of commuting on

time, or lack there of, on the well-being of the population. This thesis assumes that the

more we travel for any activity, the less time we spend on other activities which in

effect results in a multitude of problems ranging from social mismanagement to poor

health. It aims to investigate the extent of how much travel on top of other factors

which has compounded the affects on the way we manage ourselves, those around us

and our environment. The following outlines the concepts behind this study which in

turn has propelled the formulation of questions, actions and reactions to which this

study is built upon.

Problem Setting

Now more than ever, people are at a loss for time. It seems people do not have enough

time within the day to accomplish everything they wish to do. While some people

arrange their activities against a strict time frame, most people do not share the same

luxury. So by the time necessary activities get done, most of the time has gone. Not

only that, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) has found that while about one-

third of the day is spent on sleeping, how people spend the rest of their day is related

to their family type, employment status and gender (ABS 1997).

Another factor which is increasingly contributing to how people budget their time and

ultimately their activities is the increasing amount of commuting Australians

undertake on a daily basis. Australia has long suffered from the 'tyranny of distance'

due to its geographical location and size (ABS 2003). The transformation of urban

land use in Australia has for the most part been a result of private and public transport

use. It has dictated the rapid improvement and spread of the road system, and an even

more rapid expansion in car ownership. For urban commuters, private vehicles (i.e.

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cars, trucks, vans, and motorbikes) offer a convenient, reliable and fast means of

transport. The number of motor vehicles registered is increasing, and urban design

tends to encourage their use with the construction of freeways and dispersed housing

(ABS 2003).

So much has the development of Australia urban form (especially in Sydney) been

dictated by means of transportation that in 1991, the average trip duration was 20

minutes, which then increased to 21 minutes on 1999 and 2000. That is an annual

change of 0.5% between 1991 and 1999 and a whopping 2.0% between 1999 and

2000. The urban sprawl of Australia’s cities has contributed to the increased total

vehicle kilometres traveled from 64.0km in 1991 to 80.4km in 2000. Thus increasing

the average trip length from 9.1km in 1991 to 9.5km in 2000 (ABS 2001).

For many, there are no alternatives but to travel such distances to work, school and

other activities. Therefore, people are forced to allocate time for daily travel in to their

daily ritual. This allocation of time for travel between activities will ultimately

impinge on the time usually spent for other activities (socialising, voluntary work

etc.). This amount of time sacrificed for travel time may have consequences beyond

the usual complaints of the lack of any time to do anything.

The problem stands as is; that the precedence of accosting for travel time and its

increasing demands in to our daily lives has diminished the quality of how and when

we use time. If this is the case, how have we compensated or reorganized our time and

the types of activities we choose to fill it changing as a result of increasing travel

demands? How have our relationships changed since the advent of allocating time for

travel? Is there a particular group of the population most affected by the increasing

demands of travel? If so, how have they adapted, changed and/or managed such a

demand? Ultimately, if a problem such as this persists, what is the planning system

doing in order to address this problem? And most importantly, can it be fixed?

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Problem Statement and Objectives

The increasing times spent on commuting must in theory impinge on other activities,

which may result in certain activities being reduced (to ensure time is shared evenly

between commuting and said activities) or be eliminated altogether.

So, if travel time causes people to limit their daily activities;

• Is the quality of how and when we choose to do certain activities diminishing due

to increasing travel demands?

o How have these changes been manifested in our lives?

o Time-management and how has it changed.

• How have our relationships changed since the advent of allocating time for travel?

o What changes have occurred in terms of relationships, health and social

behaviours?

• How are we compensating and or reconstructing our time and the types of

activities we choose to fill it with changing as a result of increasing travel

demands?

o Is the lack of free time affecting commuter’s interests in arts and cultural

activities?

o If the lack of time is affecting our social interests, what trends have transpired

because of it?

o What are the implications of such changes?

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• Is there a particular group of the population most affected by the increasing

demands of travel?

o If so, how have they adapted, changed and/or managed such a demand?

• Ultimately, if a problem such as this persists, what is the planning system doing in

order to address this problem? Can it be fixed?

o How will these implications affect urban development?

o What are we doing in terms of urban development to curb further damages to

this already troubled system?

Conceptualisation

Initial works by Torsten Hägerstrand, was an originator of theories behind time-space

relationships. Even more so, Hägerstrand’s theories began a movement that would

help urban developers and managers develop a foundation for better time management

in regards to human elements. Hägerstrand’s time-space concepts included three types

of constraints that influence daily activity patterns:

• Capability constraints

• Coupling constraints

• Authority constraints

Hägerstrand influenced the works of many others including the works by Anthony

Giddens. Giddens also produced work in line with that of Hägerstrand but it differed

because it introduced the human element and brought social theory down to earth,

reducing the complexities of the world to the experiences of people and time. Giddens

understood that people created their own environment and geographies much like they

do with their own history. Giddens pointed out that what and how we conduct

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ourselves within a given space matters as much as how long it took for us to do them

(Giddens 1984). Giddens was concerned with the constraints brought on by the

routines dictated by everyday life and placed an emphasis on the practicality of

undertaking daily activities within an environment where other people are present

(Giddens 1985).

From Hägerstrand’s time-space relationship to Giddens’ time-human geography and

the combination of the two, forms the notion that everyday life is connected to all

activities because this is when our social relations are created. Kevin Lynch, a famed

human geographer has acknowledged that behaviour and activities undertaken within

a given space requires a level of time management. Problems arise in this instance

because people will require the same things at the same time. As such, we are

presented with the notion of choice. Time is now not only significant, but it now

requires allocation. People will now have to learn the art of scheduling or time

budgeting (Lynch 1972).

Mobility

Most activities these days require associated travel. Advancements in transport

technology have afforded people the opportunity to undertake more activities within a

time frame because of the relative ease in travel-transport management. At least that’s

what we are led to believe. The following is a brief history of rail, air and car transport

systems. It is important to know the foundations of improvements in how we move so

as to gain an understanding as to the reason behind the current problem of increasing

travel times.

From our beginnings we have looked for ways to travel with our belongings between

places and as such, much of our socialising, recreational, economic, educational,

cultural, political and other purposes rely on the use of transportation to carry them

out. The taming of the horse and the invention of the wheel became importance

- 8 -

advances in how we traveled. It is believed that people in Central Asia were the first

to tame horses and that wheels were first used in Mesopotamia about 4000 BC

(Lavesson 2000). These primitive inventions are seen as the start of the transport

revolution which continues today.

There are five major contributors to world of human transportation: the railway

industry, the ferry and cruise industry, the airline industry, the motor coach industry,

and the rental car industry (Lavesson 2000). While these industries range in size and

importance from country to country their existence plays a significant role as we

know it.

The first passenger rail in the world opened in 1825. It was the Stockton – Darlington

line in the industrial heart of England. It used the first steam-powered locomotive.

Horse-drawn rail transport had been used prior to when the Manchester to Liverpool

line opened in 1830 which hailed the arrival of modern rail transport for goods and

passengers (Lavesson 2000).

The Japanese were the first to construct new railroads for high-speed passenger trains.

The construction was triggered due to a government study which concluded that the

existing line between Tokyo and Osaka, was incapable of upgrading to the needs of

the densely populated and industrialized Tokaido coastal belt between the two cities

(Lavesson 2000). In April 1959 work began on a 320-mile Tokyo-Osaka railway

engineered for the exclusive use of streamlined electric passenger trains. Running

initially at a top speed of 130 miles per hour, these trains were until 1981 the world's

fastest (Lavesson 2000).

In 1852, Henri Giffard made the first powered airship flight in France. Steam power

was used but proved unsatisfactory. In 1884, Charles Renard and A.C. Krets flew an

electrically powered airship, but it was Count von Zeppelin’s rigid airship of 1900,

which proved the practicality of air travel (Bray and Brown, 1971).

- 9 -

The first automobile was steam-driven and constructed by the end of the eighteenth

century. It was constructed by a French engineer bythe name N.J. Cugnot. But it took

Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir and a combustion engine in 1860 that we saw the

beginning of the modern car. In 1894 the world’s first car race was held between two

French car firms, at the speed of 20 kilometers per hour. Henry Ford started making

cars in the United States in 1899 when he left the Edison Company. The first models

that came out were so expensive that only the richest people could afford them, but

that changed in 1909 when Ford developed the “car for the masses”, the T-Ford which

came in one color – black (Wolf, 1996).

It all started with the invention of the wheel and the taming of horses and from there it

went on. But the problem herein lies with the average travel time a person undertakes.

According to the ABS people now undertake an average of 1 hour and 20 minutes of

travel each day (1998). It is within reasonable expectation that if transportation were

so advanced that we should not be complaining of excessive and in some cases,

increasing travel times. While other factors may cause considerable dents in a

person’s time scheduling, it is no doubt that traveling and the amount that we

undertake as commuters or drivers, compounds the stress and leads us to making the

wrong choices.

Methodology

At its initial stages, it was necessary to review existing resources and extrapolate

issues regarding time use, time management and travel patterns. Information that was

retrieved from such sources formed the foundations of the study. Research was also

conducted in the field of time-space management to be included in the foundation

studies of this thesis. It included theories and studies conducted and founded by

Torsten Hägerstrand, Allan Pred and Kevin Lynch.

- 10 -

The next step the methodology of this study was to retrieve statistical information

from government studies and publications which studied patterns of behaviour in

regards to time use and travel patterns.

The primary research (travel diaries) was then conducted to gain personal and current

information on the way people of a particular age group are using their time. Willing

participants were engaged at this point and once all the necessary information were

returned and completed, analysis of the results was undertaken. It was then that

analysis of any commonalities or anomalies between the primary research and

secondary sources was conducted. Any correlations were noted. The results of the

analysis helped further the study in the analysis of the implications of time use and

travel patterns.

A review and analysis was undertaken of the statistical information in regards to the

effects one might suspect as a result of increasing travel demands and the lack of time

for other necessary activities. Implications were bundled into social/behavioural,

environmental and health groupings. As a focus, 18 to 24 year olds were studied in

regards to any exaggerated effects caused by increasing travel demands on their time

budgets.

A time use comparison between International Time Use Surveys (TUS) and domestic

TUS were undertaken. Any differences and similarities in how other countries

managed their time were noted.

A review of what individuals, governments and companies have done to address these

issues and its implications which face commuters. Finally, a review of the

implications on the planning system were then analysed and the consequent planning

directions which have been undertaken since.

- 11 -

Data Sources

Travel Diary (Primary Source)

For this exercise, people who are known to me such as acquaintances, friends and

family members were asked if they would like to participate in this exercise. Once

they agreed to be a participant, they were asked to keep a travel diary for a period of

three days. The travel diary examined:

• The particular travel patterns of a particular age group (18-24 year olds), where

they went and how long they were there for.

• The modes of transport used.

• Were there any alternative travel mode options available? Why was this option not

chosen?

• How long it took for them to get to their intended activities.

• The types of activities they participated in that day/period.

• Diary participants were also asked if there were any activities which they wished

they had undertaken that day/period.

• What were their reasons for not undertaking such activities?

The travel diary was a useful tool in gauging the personal experiences of the

participants. The travel diaries were a unique way of determining any trends,

commonalities and disparities that have arisen. The travel diaries were also helpful in

backing-up the information found in journals and government studies and

publications. Answers by some participants and their situations were at times used or

quoted throughout this study.

- 12 -

Journal Publications (Secondary Resource)

Journal publications are a secondary source of data which helped with formulating of

the foundations of this study. It helped in forming the ideas about certain areas of the

study. Journal publications assisted in equipping oneself with the existing data and

case studies which ascertained or disproved any results gathered from the primary

resource data. Journal publications were a useful tool in uncovering issues and the

direction which the study followed.

Government Studies and Publications (Secondary Resource)

Like the journal publications, government studies and publications assisted in the

formulation of the foundations of the study. It helped with solidifying results which

have permeated through the primary research data and disprove some elements.

Government studies and publications were excellent resources for statistics in relation

to specific locations such as Australia or Sydney. These were also helpful sources of

information to uncover particular trends and patterns within the population which

were used as background information for the study.

Structure

This thesis is structured as follows. Chapter one revises current literature to provide

background. Foundational studies have given this thesis the roots and platform for the

direction of this study. The literature review credits many studies and what the results

of those studies have meant for this current study. Specific literature reviews focused

on time use, time use management and the theories of human geography.

Following the literature review is a more centralized discussion on time-space and

human geography. I found this imperative focus points as they were large concepts to

- 13 -

comprehend in order for readers to understand the notions of time-space and human

geography and thus competently grasp the direction and the reason for this study.

Chapter three contains examples of international Time Use Surveys (TUS) which then

compares statistics with that of domestic data. Chapter three is essentially a lead-up to

chapter four which focuses on the primary survey or the travel diaries. This chapter

contains the reasoning behind each question formulated and why it was constructed

the way it was. It also contains the results, discussion and reflections in regards to the

travel diaries.

Chapter five discusses the implications as a result of increasing travel times and in

essence, our busy lives. A review of the excessive travel time in the form of

behavioural/social, environmental and physical health was conducted and what this

means for the population especially those within the 18-24 year old age group.

Chapter five then leads on to chapter six which revises the implications of travel time

and time use. Chapter six discuses how governments, companies and individuals can

address the problems which has resulted from leading busier lives. A focus point will

be the planning and urban directions instigated by the Sydney Metropolitan Strategy

as a tool to reinforce the notion of choice and improving transport and location to help

activate a healthier lifestyle.

It is hoped that through this study, people will become more aware of the adverse

effects of the demands of increasing travel times. Obviously, the impact on its own

will not be as severe, but the fact remains that increasing travel times compound the

stress of commuting and reduce a person’s ability to make the right decisions because

of a lack of time. It is hoped that the implications on the population and those aged

between the ages of 18 and 24 will be identified and stopped with the help of

governments, companies and also with self-awareness.

“The frontiers are not

east or west, north or

south, but whenever a man

fronts a fact." -- Henry

David Thoreau

- 14 -

- 15 -

It’s hard not to check your watch every now and then to see if you’re on time or

you’re short of time. It’s an involuntary conscious jerk to satisfy an internal need to

know whether time has passed you by or whether you’re tying to catch up with time.

We take for granted that our lives are on a constant schedule as there seems to be a

sense of fear to lose this organizational structure to which we have relied on so much.

From the moment you wake up of a morning, everything is timed or scheduled and /

or synchronized. It’s as if fear of any kind of disorganization would throw the balance

of ones’ day into total chaos and would in turn immobilize a person in to nothingness.

In some cases, it has become an obsession. It does have its advantages. If it wasn’t for

schedules and organized activities, chaos would ensue and disorder would be rife. But

on the same token, time and keeping time, have ruled our lives to the point where it

has become an obsession. People feel the urge to protest and public outcries are the

norm when Sydney’s public transport system releases new train tables. These changes

sometimes to a degree of one (1) minute would turn any civil public transport-going

crowd in to a vicious, merciless witch hunt. These seemingly civil crowds will often

call for the blood and heads of public transport officials at their audacity for throwing

their organized daily schedules off the loop.

Most people have forgotten that the notions of time, its limitations and the way it has

developed to become this tool of organization has had rough beginnings. It wasn’t

always this specific tool to which we have set our lives against, nor has it always been

this dependable or developed. Perhaps it is best to start in the beginning to see where

previous research and studies have taken this issue and where we can understand the

underlying notions to this pressing problem.

- 16 -

Literature Review

In Torsten Hägerstrand’s paper “What about people in regional science?” published

in 1970, he pointed out that time geography focused on the interrelationships between

activities in time and space, and the constraints imposed by these interrelationships

and that time geography highlights the factors that restrict an individual’s choice. He

claimed that time geography can also accommodate scales as extensive as a person’s

lifetime (Hägerstrand 1970).

The foundations of this study are based on the studies conducted by Torsten

Hägerstrand. Hägerstrand contributed to the field of time-geography and in his

working paper entitled, “A Time – Geographic Perspective on Problems of Inequality

for Women” (1974) the authors, Risa Palm and Allan Pred, explores contribution of

Hägerstrand’s work on time geography.

Allan Pred’s discussion in “The choreography of existence: Comments on

Hagerstrand's time-geography and its usefulness” published in Economic Geography

(1977) followed that of Hägerstrand’s work. Pred claimed that time geography are

activities which have both spatial and temporal dimensions that cannot be

meaningfully separated. The sequence of activities that comprises a person’s day-to-

day existence at any timely scale consists of activities which have a temporal duration

and spatial extent. Activities such as shopping, work and recreation only take places at

specific locations and for only a limited period of time. An individual thus will need

to trade activities and movement in order to engage in certain events and activities

(Pred 1977).

Other notable studies of literature which was conducted using the foundations of

Hägerstrand’s works included:

- 17 -

• Bo Lenntorp in 1976 published “Paths in space-time environments: A time

geographic study of movement possibilities of individuals” where he showed that

access to temporal activities can be gauged by the number of paths allowed for a

certain activity within a given environment which in turn, can provide views in to

basic planning policy queries and issues.

• The model which Hägerstrand developed also supported and compared standard

strategies for improving accessibility to activities which included creating better

transport networks and quality scheduling methods which was a conclusion that

Lawrence Burns (1979) concluded in his book “Transportation, Temporal and

Spatial Components of Accessibility”.

• Authors Thill and Horowitz in their paper “Modelling non-work destination

choices with choice sets defined by travel-time constraints” showed that the same

time constraints which Hägerstrand identified in his study when considered in to

spatial choice models can improve their ability to forecast and predict situations

and identify patterns (1997).

• In another study, Janelle, Goodchild and Klinkenberg used time geographic

principles in order to determine the space-time environment of an area within

urban situations using activity diary data (1998).

• In 2004, Miller wrote a chapter in “Handbook of Transport 5: Transport

Geography and Spatial Systems” entitled “Activities in space and time” which

concluded that technologies in transportation and communication have altered the

relationship between geographic space and time, making it possible for

individuals to engage in activities in more locations and at different times. Also

that, geo-information technologies has the ability to improve the power of time-

geography.

- 18 -

Many studies and papers have been published since Hägerstrand’s work and many

more will undoubtedly come. But as the above literature illustrates, the founding

notions of Hägerstrand’s work were imperative to moving forward in time-geography

research.

From understanding the foundations of the spatial-time aspects of this study, we move

to the practical aspects of time and its functions in society. A Time Use study is the

study of how people use their time. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) first ran

a pilot survey of time-use in Sydney in 1987 and the first national survey in 1992

(ABS 2006). A time use study has provided pivotal information to such causes as

identifying Australian Social trends (Australian Social Trends 2006) which many

have used to improve social support and to understand population behaviour.

As mentioned, time use studies have been used to understand population behaviour. A

natural starting point would be the relationship between work and time as work forms

a large portion of what a person does in their day. Also, most people undertake

associated travel when traveling between work and home.

According to the ABS, in their annual study of Australian Social trends, it showed

that in 2005, the national labour force was made up of 10,390,000 people with a

participation rate of 64%. The study also revealed that, a person committed to full-

time work will spend 40.7 hours on average per week at work. Additionally, 24.1% of

these people who are employed on a full-time basis work 50 hours or more per week

(ABS 2006). Thus, many previous literature and studies have focused on the

relationship between work and how this aspect of our lives has affected our time

management.

Some literature which has contributed to the understanding of this work-time

relationship and its results have been:

- 19 -

• Catherine Hakim in 2002 provided a framework analysis of work preference for

women and stated that women fall in to three types of work preferences; home-

centred, work centred and adaptive.

• Danielle Venn provided an insight into the incidences of work at non-standard

times, shifts in work preferences and the changing structures of the labour force

in her paper entitled “Non-standard Work Timing: Evidence from Australian

Time Use Survey” in 2002.

• In 2005, Brigid van Wanrooy wrote a paper for the Australian Labour for

Economics which examined the work preference between men and women, a

paper which also asserted and challenged some of Hakim’s theory.

• Alison Morehead in 2005 argued the role of supports, pressures, additional labour

and how mothers allocated their time for work and family.

• Chris Richardson (2005) investigated how to balance work and family.

• Jennifer Renda and Jody Hughes (2004) explored the emotional implications and

the value which a mother places on paid-work.

• Mark Wooden (1996) looks at the youth labour market and the changes that has

undergone in their daily patterns, but also how the youth labour market has

affected the labour market as a whole.

• James Forest (1996) and Ana Gollner (1996) illustrated the implications of spatial

clustering and the relationship with Sydney’s journey-to-work patterns.

• The effects of “being busy” and not having enough time to take care of one self

and the results of such notions are explored by Peter Dingle (2005).

- 20 -

• Another article which deals with the health effects of being time-poor is “Melt

Down: Young Women’s Talk of time and its implications for health, well-being

and identity in late Modernity” by Sheree Cartwright and Penny Warner Smith

(2003).

For this study, it is important to identify how time use surveys and studies have been

used to illustrate how people have allocated their time and how it has affected the way

people lived thus far. Identifying literature which has addressed this issue is important

to this study as it provides the foundations of what has been identified and also in

what areas need additional exploration.

A large aspect of this study is encased in the notion of mobility, our degree of

mobility and whether this aspect contributes to detrimental effects. Review of the

following literature has enriched the way in which transportation and human mobility

via advances in technology have affected our lives:

• Most people undertaking travel within their day is usually related to work. Bigger

cities utilize public transport to provide an alternative to private transport

releasing us from the stress induced by traffic and congestion. But commuters of

public transport, in order to entice usage and be the favored choice of

transportation need to utilize competitive pricing. Roger Mackett in his 1985

research in to the forecasting of rail fare increases in England found that if fares

were to stagnate, rail patronage would decrease due to the descentralisation of

jobs and the dominance of car use (1985)

• Buses are considered the second alternative when it comes to public transport. A

paper by Rodrigo Fernandez and Nick Tyler examines the impacts of the

interactions between buses, passengers and other traffic on delays and capacity at

bus stops. Results indicate that it is important not to underestimate the real

- 21 -

situation found at bus stops, as designing for ideal conditions will be insufficient

if the reality is different. Application of these results shows that dramatic

improvements can be made to the performance of the bus system as a result of a

better understanding of its operation leading to simple changes in the design of

infrastructure (2005).

• Clay Michael in his paper entitled “Personal travel management: the adoption

and consideration of travel-related strategies” concedes that traveler behaviour

plays a role in the effectiveness of travel demand management (TDM) policies

(2004). Personal travel management was explored in Michael’s paper by

analyzing individuals' adoption and consideration of 17 travel-related alternatives

in relation to socio-demographic, mobility, travel-related attitude, and personality

and lifestyle preference variables. The results showed that females were more

likely to have adopted/considered the more 'costly' strategies; those with higher

mobility were more likely to have adopted/considered travel-maintaining as well

as travel-reducing strategies; and those who like travel and want to do more are

less likely to consider travel-reducing strategies (Michael 2004). When combined

with those of earlier work on this subject, present a definitive argument for the

need to further understand traveler behaviour - particularly in response to

congestion and TDM policies (Michael 2004).

• The demand for transportation varies accordingly and within different situations.

Evelyn Blumenburg and Kimiko Shiki explore the relevance spatial mismatch

amongst welfare recipients living in medium-sized cities and rural areas. The

study found that the spatial mismatch policies based upon it may not be relevant

to welfare recipients living in areas in which the urban structure does not fit the

simple model of poor, central-city neighborhoods, and distant, job-rich suburbs

(Blumenburg and Kimiko 2003).

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This study will use much of the findings from this literature to support findings of the

primary study. But in some instances, these findings will also provide a platform for

additional studies to which this current study will establish. The significance of the

above literature review has made a profound contribution to the direction of this

study.

“The shortest distance

between two points is under

construction” -- Noelie

Altito

- 23 -

- 24 -

A significant aspect of this thesis is the aspect of time. For it is time that we seek more of

but for various reasons respective to the individual, we complain of a lack of time. It is

this lack of time which inevitably results in certain activities being omitted in our daily

schedules which can then result in significant changes to our health, behaviours and

environment. Therefore, the importance of time is definitive and it is for this reason that

we need to explore the significance of time and how such a concept become central to our

lives and how we operate.

The Time Element

The watch is a good starting point in that nearly everyone has one. It is a method of being

able to tell the time and to keep us on track. Along with a good schedule where an

allocation of reasonable time is placed on certain activities (whether such activities are

imposed or not), results in the marrying of two certainties. Even though such certainties

are self- imposed, it gives us a sense of place and time. We follow schedules and look to

our watch for security in dictating the passage of our days. In some instances, we rely on

these methods that when the mental objective of time (what the time reads on your

watch) conflicts with external clues (the sun going down) we rush to make it from point

A to point B. It seems mind boggling that such simple methods dictate our very lives to

the point that our body rhythms and our spatial awareness are affected and in most cases,

so severely that physical, behavioural and social changes prevail.

Aside from the watch, we have other forms of reading time. External time signals such as

traffic signals, school bells, buzzers and the like, are aural signals which are sudden and

intrusive giving “the listener … no warning of their coming, yet he must attend to them”

(Lynch 1972: 67). Many unintentional sounds also make us aware of the time: birds

chirping in the morning, a scheduled train passes, traffic increasing and decreasing

accordingly. There are also environmental signals which help to read the time: the sun

- 25 -

sets and rises and the changing faces of the moon during the month (Lynch 1972). But as

our lives are becoming more set inside walls of buildings at work and at home, such

environmental and natural clues of time are not made available. We have withdrawn

these options from our lives because of our ever increasing need to be indoors.

Additionally, natural clues often fail us – a gloomy day hides the sun. Our built

environment also gives us clues of time. Cities have lights, sounds, rhythm and visible

activity which are signatory of the passage of time (Lynch 1972).

As previously stated, time coupled by a schedule of some kind are bound together to

coordinate activities to which we apply ourselves to and follow religiously. As such,

reading time plays one half of whole in our desire for information. Our schedules are the

“personal want to coordinate our activities with the activity of others, and objective time

is only a means for doing this” (Lynch 1972:70). The knowledge of when dinner will take

place or, to be more contextually suited with this thesis, the knowledge of when a train

arrives, is the information that we seek. A schedule or a timetable creates a “…satisfying

public environment (which) not only will display the general time of day in some humane

and vivid way and give precise time on call but will also indicate the timing of publicly

accessible activities” (Lynch 1972:70).

Telling the time shows the time currently and while that best suits the present, it is with

anxiety that we also place an importance in predicted timing. We ask ourselves and out

loud as to when the bus will arrive at our bus stop. We seek information on when our

favourite television program airs or what time a movie screens in the cinema. We tend to

get anxious and become nervous when faced with such a situation because our next step

hinges as to whether we can confirm such situations so we can partake in a desired

activity. The anticipation is distressing and it would be desirable if we can create an

environment to display facts clearly and from a distance to provide some comfort (Lynch

1972).

- 26 -

Different people in different situations will have differing needs for time information.

What one needs to know when a bus is set to arrive at a particular stop differs for a child

taking the bus to school to the elderly who requires the bus to take them to their morning

social activity. As such, not only is it important to know locational information required

by different people, but we should also try to understand “…what they want to know

about the timing of city events and how they use perception of time in everyday life”

(Lynch 1972:71).

It is with reasonable thought that the built environment while concerned with the physical

aspects of our surroundings, needs to place some importance on spatial design and

planning the form of behaviour and things in space. Spatial and behavioural aspects will

also require the understanding of the role of time and managing human activity in space

and time (Lynch 1972). The problem herein lay with the simple notion of choice,

“problems…arise not solely because many want the same things but because they want

the same things at the same time” (Lynch 1972:72). Time is now not only valuable but is

now subject to reallocation. Hence, the “...art of choosing and distributing time has to be

learned” (Lynch 1972:73).

Once the art of time distribution is learned, it is then applied. Because time has become

so valuable in order to achieve needs and wants, we succumb to control timing. Our

schedules aim to avoid disorder, to make efficient use of resources and to coordinate

complementary operations. The motives of activity coordination are to establish time to

achieve a better fit (hours of work, rest and play), to increase choice and diversity and to

enhance the sequential character of a place or of a person’s day (Lynch 1972).Thus, the

motives for the need to control time are a way of personal expression. This is what sets

individuals apart in their needs and wants.

- 27 -

So far, it has been learned that apart from the watch, there are natural and unnatural ways

one can gauge time. Scheduling time and then placing activities against such scheduled

times is ones desire to coordinate time. Scheduling also helps predict time or assume

when such activities are to take place. Predictive timing has become a necessity in an

individual’s quest to control and coordinate. Scheduling and the practice of predictive

timing helps ease the stressful situation of not knowing if one activity can and will take

place. Timetables ease a troubled mind because it is an assurance that one activity can

take place and that you are not just gambling on the chance of it taking place. An

importance has been placed on the different needs of people in their desire for

information. People have a choice and the art of time allocation needs to be learned. Such

individual choices are the underlying content for personal expression and what sets

individuals apart from another. This practice of time allocation and choice will have

consequences on activities such as travel patterns, human behaviour, lifestyle and health

which will be discussed in future chapters. The allocation of free time, also known as

time budgets will also underpin the primary research of this study.

Time - Geography

It is now inevitable that we discuss the human aspects of this study. There is now a

sufficient need to understand the complex implications of time on the human psyche and

behaviour.

Torstein Hägerstrand and his associates developed a “time-geography” model of society

to “provide a consistent framework for making urban and regional planning decisions

aimed at improving … quality of life” (Palm and Pred 1974:4). Hägerstrand saw that

future planning problems would consist of “…determining how the settlement pattern

and activities of any urban region ought to be structured in time and space so as to

guarantee a ‘livable’ day-to-day existence for each individual” (Palm and Pred 1974:4). It

- 28 -

was then that the question of how human activities are to be organized was posed. A

model was constructed to assist in forming the answer to this question with the view that

society was a “physical system” and to focus on constraints within the system which

ultimately affects the choices of individuals (Palm and Pred 1974).

The environmental structure is a resource of activity alternatives which includes goods,

services, job opportunities, social contacts and leisure-time possibilities (Palm and Pred

1974). Each individual will have varying degrees of what is contained within their

environmental structure and will depend on economics, knowledge, alternatives and

psychology. Time-space movements in an environmental structure by any persons were

depicted graphically by compressing space to a two-dimensional surface representing

time on a vertical axis. Hence, each person will walk an individual daily path which can

be defined through the use of time-and-space coordinates (Palm and Pred 1974). While

undertaking activities, persons will stop at physically permanent stations, or buildings

and places where movement is not observed.

Figure 2.1 Basic concepts of Hägerstrand’s time-geographic model.

Figure 2.1 Basic concepts of Hägerstrand’s time-geographic

model. (r) represents an area and (t) is time. An individual

describes a path, which consist of “stations” (S1 and S2) and

movements (f) between them. (Palm and Pred 1974:6).

Even though individuals will move freely within their paths and amongst their

environmental structures, movement is still limited by many restrictions. Hägerstrand

believed that restrictions fell in to one of three general categories: capability constraints,

coupling constraints and authority constraints (1974).

- 29 -

- 30 -

Once the biological make-up of an individual limits their activities it is considered a

capability constraint. This is where transportation is a necessity for a journey without

delaying the advent of returning home, as physically, any journey more than the

capability of the biological make-up would prove to be arduous.

Coupling constraints are definitive of where, when, and for how long the individual has

to join other individuals to interact. When several paths are coupled, they may be referred

to as an ‘activity bundle’. For example, when at work and many individuals cross paths to

engage in work-related activities. Individual paths collide but such paths are undertaking

common activities. The problems with activity bundles are that it tends to be

interdependent requiring synchronized movement.

Hägerstrand’s notion of authority constraints revolves around the term “domains”. A

domain is defined as “time-space entity within which things and events are under control

of a given individual or a given group”. In other words, if a person chooses to take public

transport on any given day, her schedule to work or her place of destination will largely

be affected by the public transport authorities as they, as an authoritative body, design the

time tables to which the trains are scheduled against.

In order to curb the results of the three constraints on the “quality of life”, Hägerstrand

developed a description that can be applied to any urban area using two mutually

interacting systems: a “population system” and an “activity system”. A “population

system” includes all individuals within an area and their biological and personal relations

with each other. An “activity system” consists of “those individual activities and grouped

activity bundles carried out within the specifically located stations and domains of a

given place” (Palm and Pred 1974:10). Activities can either be those which cannot be

- 31 -

delegated such as sleeping and eating and those which are discretionary which can be

delegated between individuals or groups.

What Hägerstrand aims to explain in this model, is that “the individual cannot partake in

temporally successive bundles that are separated by an excessive time-distance” (Palm

and Pred 1974:12). Hence, Hägerstrand has demonstrated that “the matching

of…individuals in a particular population system within indivisible bundles in a

corresponding activity system is highly sensitive to travel times permitted by the

prevailing transport technology” (Palm and Pred 1974:12). Hägerstrand and his model

have provided the fundamental science of time, space and travel, all of which are relevant

in this current study.

Another famed time-geography theorist, Anthony Giddens gave birth to theory of

structuration. He also endeavored to formulate the ontology of human society and is

credited with formulating the design for stripping functionalism from social theory. But

most importantly, Giddens contributed to the efforts to connect the conduct of human

agents and the institutional development of social structure, are conceptualized in

processual terms explicitly linked to time and space (Pred 1990). Time-geography is

especially relates to Giddens as it is “concerned with the infrastructural constraints that

shape the routines of day-to-day life, and shares with structuration theory an emphasis

upon significance of the practical character of daily activities, in circumstances where

individuals are co-present with one another, for the constitution of social conduct”

(Giddens 1985: 269).

Giddens and his works was heavily influenced by two bodies of writing, one of these

whom we have previously mention was Hägerstrand’s “time-geography”. The second

source of influence is Heidegger’s extensive philosophical observations on the relation

between Being and Time, and especially the notion that temporality of Dasein. In other

- 32 -

words, “…being in the world of situated ‘presents’ but in the ‘presencing’ that brings

future, past and present together while also holding them apart” (Pred 1990:20). From

Heidegger’s theory, Giddens concurs “if time were merely a succession of nows,

contingently associated with spatial presence, it would be impossible to understand why

time does not go backwards, but if time is the ‘becoming of the possible’, the

‘progression’ of time is clarified” (Giddens 1979: 4).

Giddens work brought social theory down to earth, down to the realistic complexities of

the world, down to the flow of human conduct in time and space “…human beings do

make their own geography as much as they make their own history. That is to say, spatial

configurations of social life are such as much a matter of basic importance to social

theory as are the dimensions of temporality…” (Giddens 1984:363). Giddens is a

prominent figure in the new social theory discourse although his arguments of the

centrality of time and space have not swayed the masses.

Perhaps this is because for Giddens, history and sociology become ‘methodologically

indistinguishable’ while the analysis of spatial structuration remains peripheral, an

insightful accessory (Soja 1983). Thus, one needs to reach beyond the theories founded

by Giddens and recognise that “…localized constitutions of society the simultaneous

making of histories, construction of human geographies and formation of biographies – is

highly complex, or lacking in unitary coherence, because it involves…bodily circulation

from activity to activity…bodily movement within a locality of fragments…” (Pred 1990:

27). In other words, the localized constitution of society is to be recognised as “messy”

beyond logic of one grand theory because it involves the “bodily intertwining of

institutional commitments occurring within different domains, different realms of the

economy, civil society and the states, within different spheres of material life, culture and

social organization and within separate ‘locales’ that differ in their spatial and temporal

‘stretch’…” (Pred 1990:28). Once again, this “messy” theory of the complex world is

- 33 -

brutal in trying to conceptualize and understand. Attempting to explain rituals, activities

and behaviour cannot be pinned to one basic theory. The individual choices and varied

behaviour complicates any rules one may formulate. This is perhaps where patterns rather

than formulaic expressions are more adequate. Precision and accuracy is not heavily

attenuated, but rather the study of patterns and trends are more adequate in understanding

various human activities.

Everyday Life and Time-Geography: The

Nineteenth-Century and Me

Torsten Hägerstrand’s “time-geography” with its core concepts of path and projection are

considered to be of value in order to provide an insight in to the relationship between

individual behaviour and experience, the place-specific activities of society and social

change. To clarify, Hägerstrand’s project and path concept is when an “individual’s path

becomes tied up with the activity bundle(s) of a project defined by an organization or by

some institution other than the family, her external actions become inseparable from the

observable daily workings of society from the making of histories and construction of

human geographies. Without the constant channeling of individual paths into and out of

activity bundles….there are no ‘social practices’, society has no everyday observable

workings” (Pred 1990:78).

Inevitably, the question comes down to; how does all this apply to me?

Burkitt states “Every day life is a mixture of diverse and differently produced and

articulated forms, each combining time and space in a unique way…The relations and

practices…associated with everyday life – such as friendship, love, comraderiship and

relations of communication – are often more fluid, open and dispersed across time and

space” (211:2004). Basically, everyday life is connected to all activities because it is then

- 34 -

that social relations are formed. But in order to produce, humans “enter into the relations

of every day life and bring into plat the totality of the real, even though this is always

incomplete and open to further production and reproduction” (Burkitt 2004: 212). The

reality of everyday life is built on the ground, in every day activities and transactions.

In the nineteenth-century, American cities saw a dramatic transformation from a domestic

or artisan mode of production to a situation which the factory and large-scale shop mode

of production dominated (Pred 1990). This transition was not only related to the spatial

separation of home and work but it also placed a distinction between the spaces of

“reproduction” and spaces of “production”. It was also one with “radically new patterns

of social interaction and experience” (Pred 1990:79).

The nineteenth-century shift in the dominant mode of production meant that the

manufacturing labourers gave up the home –family business of the home or farm for an

employer or major projects of large scale shops. As a consequence, labourers who

worked in factories and in large organizations often went through the experience of

abandoning the “task orientation” sense of time and “natural rhythms” to which they

were used to (Pred 1990). Once individuals had committed their daily activities to the

fixed temporal and spatial requirements of factories and large-scale shop productions,

limitations arose in their ability to participate in home-based everyday projects essential

to both the functions of the family and the nurturing or personal relationships within the

family (Pred 1990). Additionally, although only marginal, the time of travel required to

get to project locations also “complicated the coordination and execution of home based

projects by subtracting from the finite total daily time resources of families” (Pred

1990:87).

There was also an apparent emergence of a “newly based individualism and family

orientation” (Pred 1990:89) within families who were dependent on industrial wages

- 35 -

which as a consequence changed the way authority and project-defining power of the

patriarchs. Additionally, it also changed the “character of domestic relations between the

sexes” (Pred 1990:89). The project-defining authority of the industrial wage earner and

his ability to control and discipline were changed and diminished as other wage earning

family members felt that their monetary contributions entitled them to a greater

independence.

As we are beginning to see, the nineteenth century factories saw the emergence of change

in power roles and gender roles as the advent of industrialization gave its followers a

wider sense of independence but on the same token, family life was inhibited by the

rigidity of the factory. The allocation of time as a result of moving from the artisan way

of life to the project defining environment of the factory inhibited the lives of the

nineteenth century worker and as a consequence, family structures, roles and activities

within the home changed.

“One cannot manage too many

affairs: like pumpkins in

the water, one pops up while

you try to hold down the

other” -- Chinese Proverb

- 36 -

- 37 -

A Time-Use Survey (TUS) will be the source of primary research undertaken for this

study. The same principles of noting activities undertaken during a participant’s day

will be employed and translated to the travel surveys distributed to participants for

this study. But first, it will be noteworthy to gain background information of TUS to

be aware of the travel survey's foundations.

What is a Time-Use Survey?

According to the American Bureau of Labor Statistics, a time-use survey is a

"measure the amount of time people spends doing various activities, such as work,

childcare, housework, watching television, volunteering, and socializing" (2006). The

information gathered by the TUS are used by researchers, journalists, reporters,

educators, sociologists, economists, businesses, government policymakers, lawyers,

and individuals all use time-use information for information in human travel

behaviours.

The TUS creates nationally representative estimates of time use patterns by the

nation’s population by characteristics which may include, workforce status,

demographic statistics and travel patterns. The information gathered by the TUS

assists analysts to compare time-use patterns by such characteristics as industry,

occupation, marital status, and age of children. Analysts also are able to contrast time

use of one nation’s population with fifty other countries where time-use surveys have

been conducted.

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Applications of Time-Use Surveys

The most fundamental application of time-use data would be to provide nationally

representative estimates of the amount of time that the nation spends in varying

activities. (Joyce and Stewart 1999). There are ten other applications of TUS, these

are;

• TUS contributes to research and policy analysis in many areas. One area

which benefits from the information gained from TUS is the prospect of

measuring and valuing unpaid but productive activities.

• If time use data were to be combined with demographic information it would

be "possible to compare time use across different groups" (Joyce and Stewart

1999:3). For example, the difference in travel times between men and women

and across the age groups. If TUS were to be conducted on a regular basis, it

would allow researchers to study how activity patterns and time spent on said

activities change over time.

• TUS can also assist analysts and researchers verify other research. For

example, TUS can assist in confirming whether employment number research

is current with the figures collected in the TUS.

• Similarly, existing information on the time spent commuting could also be

verified with time-use data. National data on the time spent on travelling are

usually asked in standard survey question.

• Time-Use data can also be used to interpret price index data as a TUS

connected to an expenditure survey would make it possible to place a "time

cost" to specific goods and "arrive at an alternative price index. In the absence

- 39 -

of this linkage, time-use data collected over multiple periods could shed light

on trends in these types of time expenditures" (Joyce and Stewart 1999:5)

• Analysts use quantifiable measures, such as income earning to assess changes

in the quality of life over a period of time (Joyce and Stewart 1999).

Information gathered in TUS would allow a more complete assessment of

changes in the quality of life. It is also possible that with time-use data, a

family's command over a broad set of resources can be measured.

• An important form of investment is the amount of time and resources spent by

the population in education. A TUS, particularly ones which focus on children,

can provide information on the amount of time that children spend reading or

interacting with parents and how much they spend on homework (Joyce and

Stewart 1999).

• If TUS were conducted on a regular basis, researchers will be able to examine

how time-use patterns change over a business cycle. For example, during

times of recession, are people more suscceptible to eating home-cooked meals

as opposed to take-a-way meals? (Joyce and Stewart 1999)

• Marketers can also use information collected by the TUS to determine how

time spent in various activities differs by demographic characteristics,

earnings and income. Time-use data can also be used for legal purposes in

estimating the economic damages in personal injury cases and wrongful death

cases.

• A TUS also captures what time of day and in what order these activities are

undertaken. Such information could be useful in a variety of research

- 40 -

applications such as the study of sleep patterns and how much people sleep

(Joyce and Stewart 1999).

Because TUS gather information on various activities conducted throughout the day,

the scope of such information is wide. Availability of such information would enable

researchers to answer topical questions which have not been regarded due to lack of

research and data which can now be addressed.

International TUS

A comparison with three countries (Canada, New Zealand and the U.K.) will be made

to see how different countries have used TUS to benefit their needs and to gauge

which issues each nation will need to address as a result of the information gathered

by the TUS. The following Time Use data gathered by each of the countries are only

samples of a wide range of activities covered by the TUS but special attention was

paid to results pertaining to:

• Participant data relating to 18-24 year olds;

• Transport usage;

• Exercise and physical activity;

• Health and eating behaviours; and

• Leisure activities.

Canada

Canada conducted a General Social Survey - Time Use (GSS) in 1998 and had two

primary objectives; "to gather data on social trends in order to monitor temporal

changes in the living conditions and well being of Canadians; and to provide

- 41 -

immediate information on specific social policy issues of current or emerging

interest" (Statistics Canada 2005).

The average Canadian spent approximately 7 hours and 50 minutes working with 5

hours and 30 minutes of free time per day. 8 hours and 20 minutes per day were spent

eating meals at home compared to socialising at restaurants which were only noted as

being undertaken for 1 hour and 35 minutes per day. Two and a half hours were spent

undertaking leisure type activities such as reading and watching televisions. Sports,

movies and other entertainment events took up 20 minutes of their time and other

active sports and leisure took up another 1 hour and 10 minutes per day.

Canadians between the ages of 18-24 had between 5 hours and 15 minutes to 5 hours

and 50 minutes of free time (male and female unemployed full-time students

respectively) compared to 5 hours to 6 hours for full-time employed males and

females respectively. The average time, which a Canadian spends in transit as an

automobile driver is 45 minutes, as a passenger (15 minutes), walking (10 minutes)

and riding public transport (20 minutes).

New Zealand

A one-off TUS was conducted in New Zealand in 1999 and gathered information

from people aged 12 years and over on how they spent their time. The TUS contained

details about the proportions of time people spent on paid and unpaid work, leisure,

voluntary work, personal care and what time they do them. Other information

includes details about people doing more than one thing at a time (for example,

listening to music while riding on the train) and ranks the activities in order of

importance (Statistics New Zealand 2005). The New Zealand TUS showed:

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• 12 to 24 years old were the age group which spent large portions of their time

attending the cinema with an average of 8.3 hours over the course of a year.

Between males and females, females undertook this activity far more often.

• Television watching was the most popular leisure activity as it was an activity

which was undertaken in 88 percent of the daily diaries kept by the

participants. On average, people watched just less than two hours (119

minutes) of television or videos per day as a primary activity, in addition to a

further 48 minutes a day as a simultaneous activity when engaged in some

other task.

• Radio and music listening was relatively high among younger people (10

minutes as a primary activity and 60 minutes as a simultaneous activity).

• Eighty-five per cent of people aged 15 years and over said they had engaged in

some form of physical exercise in the seven days prior to completing the

survey. Walking was the most common form of activity with 61 per cent of

adults said they had walked as a form of exercise or enjoyment in the previous

week. The next most common form of physical activity was gardening (36 per

cent), followed by exercising at home, running, going to the gym, cycling and

swimming.

• Nearly half (47 per cent) of all adults said that they had done vigorous

physical activity. Younger people were more likely to have performed

vigorous activities. A total of 64 per cent of 15 - 24 year-olds had participated

in at least one form of vigorous exercise.

- 43 -

United Kingdom

In 2000, the UK conducted a TUS on behalf of a funding consortium made up of the

Economic and Social Research Council, the Department of Culture, Media and Sport;

the Department for Education and Skills; the Department of Health; the Department

of Transport, Local Government and the Regions; and the Office for National

Statistics. The main aim of the survey was to measure the amount of time spent by the

UK population on various activities (National Statistics UK 2002). The UK TUS

(National Statistics UK 2002) showed that:

• On average, females sleep a little longer than males. Males are in paid

employment 1 hour and 17 minutes longer than their female counterparts.

However, females spent an hour and a half longer participating in household

duties than males in the household.

• Males watch more TV and take part in more sport than females do, whilst

females spend longer on personal care and social life than males.

• Up to the age of about 14 males and females watch a similar amount of

television. Females aged 18 and 19 watch slightly more than males but

otherwise male viewing time per day is higher than females right through to

retirement.

• Males spend more time on sporting activities at almost all ages than females.

The largest differences are for 12 and 13 year olds where males spend over 30

minutes per day longer on sporting activities.

• Both females and males spent roughly the same amount of time on travel (1.5

hours). With females spending more time on socialising (1.7 hours) compared

- 44 -

with that of their male counterparts which only spends about 1.4 hours

socialising per day.

• On weekdays, 77% of adults are awake and up by 8am. By 9am 36% of adults

are at work or study increasing to a high of 43% at 11am. After 4pm

housework and free time are the largest categories, with an evening peak in

free time of 63% at 9pm. Main meals tend to be around 8am, 1pm and 6pm. At

midnight 80% of adults are asleep.

• On weekend days, adults tend to get up later, work less and do more

housework, travel and free time activities during the day. 9pm is still the peak

time for free time activities although people tend to go to bed a little later with

73% of adults in bed at midnight.

Domestic TUS

In comparison to international studies, Australia undertook its latest TUS in 1997 with

a previous TUS conducted five years earlier in 1993 by the Australian Bureau of

Statistics (ABS).

The types of activities undertaken by Australians were broken down into four main

categories (ABS 2006). These were:

• Necessary time: Necessary times are activities which are conducted for

personal survival. Activities such as sleeping and eating are undertaken at

necessary time.

• Contracted time: Contracted time is activities such as paid work and

education.

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• Committed time: Committed time describes activities to which a person has

committed him/herself because of previous social or community interactions,

such as setting up a household or performing voluntary work.

• Free time: Free time which is the amount of time left when the previous three

types of time have been taken out of a person's day

In 1997, the TUS showed that Australians spent an average of 46% of their time on

necessary time activities, 22% on free time activities, 16% on committed time

activities and 15% on contracted time activities (ABS 2006). Between males and

females, activities conducted during necessary time were equal. Although, men spent

twice as much time on contracted activities than females (19% and 11% respectively)

and women spent twice as much time on committed time activities as men (21%

compared with 12%)(ABS 2006).

Both men and women spent, on average, about half of their day on personal care

activities (46% and 47% respectively) in 1997. 53% of households purchased at least

one meal at a restaurant in the two weeks prior to the survey, while 57% purchased at

least one takeaway meal (ABS 2006).

In 1997, men in the 35-44 years age group spent the most time on employment related

activities (9 hours). Women in paid work between 25-24 and 45-54 spent around 7

hours and 30 minutes. Women aged 65 years and over spent only 4 hours and 25

minutes on these activities (ABS 2006).

The 1997 national TUS survey showed that on average, 4 out of every 5 minutes spent

on passive leisure involved audio visual media. Television viewing and listening to

the radio/CDs accounted for over 90% of this. Most television viewing occurred

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between 6 pm and 10 pm. Peak viewing times were 8 pm for 15-24 year olds and

those aged 60 years and over, and 9 pm for those aged 25-59 years (ABS 2006).

Table 3.1 shows a comparison of the information contained within the different TUS

conducted between countries. It shows the following

• Compared to the Canadians, Australians work more on average at 9.8 hours than

their Canadian counterparts who work an average of 7 hours and 50 minutes.

Though, the 9.8 hours Australians spent on work is the culmination of unpaid and

paid work.

• While both Australian men and women average the same hours of work a day,

men from the U.K. work an hour and 17 minutes longer than women from the

U.K.

• The most common type of leisure activity for all four countries is watching T.V.

• While Canadians are eight times more likely to eat a home-cooked meal than grab

take-a-way, traditional gender roles still played a part in who cooks the meals in

Australian homes.

• The youth population of New Zealand are active participants when it comes to

exercising, while males from the U.K. are more likely to be spotted in the gym

than females.

• Canadians are quite car dependent using this mode of transport on average for

45minutes a day and 15 minutes as a passenger while females and males from the

U.K. undertake as much travelling as each other.

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Time use surveys are relatively new areas of social research which gathers large

numbers of information. This gathered information will undoubtedly assist in many

other researches or in some cases, trigger new areas of research which may have not

been addressed due to oversight. It is important for researchers to be diligent in

conducting TUS at regular intervals to gauge any changes and trends to aid strategic

decisions.

48

Table 3.1 Comparative Statistics: International vs Domestic TUS

Country Work Free Time Eating Exercise Travel Home: 8 hours and 20 minutesCanada 7 hours and

50 minutes 5 hours and 30 minutes - 2.5 hours undertaking leisure type activities such as reading and watching television

Out: 1 hour and 35 1 hour and 10 minutes Car = 45 min

Passenger = 15 min Walking = 10 min Public transport = 20 min

New Zealand

- Watch Movies on average 8.3 hours per year - 119 minutes of TV watching a day - 48 minutes a day as a simultaneous activity - 10 minutes as a primary activity and 60

minutes as a simultaneous activity of Music Listening

N/A Eighty-five per cent of people aged 15 years and over said they had engaged in some form of physical exercise in the seven days prior 47% of adults done vigorous activity. A total of 64% of 15-24 year olds in at least one form of exercise.

N/A

The UK Males are in paid employment 1 hour and 17 minutes longer than females

Males watch more TV and take part in more sport than females do, whilst females spend longer on personal care and social life than males. With females spending more time on socialising (1.7 hours) compared with that of their male

N/A Males spend more time on sporting activities at almost all ages than females

Both females and males spent roughly the same amount of time on travel (1.5 hours)

49

counterparts which only spends about 1.4 hours socialising per day.

Home: A greater proportion of women (80%) than men (49%) prepared food.

Australia Both men and women spent a total of around seven hours per day, or 49 hours per week, on paid and unpaid work activities

4 out of every 5 minutes spent on passive leisure involved audio visual media. Television viewing and listening to the radio/CDs accounted for over 90% of this. In 1997, 82% of Australian adults spent some of their free time watching television or listening to the radio. Australians who watched TV during free time did so, on average, for almost 2 hours each day 8% of men were twice as likely as women (4%) to spend some of their free time using computers as a hobby or playing computer games.

Out: 53% of households purchased at least one meal at a restaurant in the two weeks prior to the survey, while 57% purchased at least one takeaway meal

Source from: Statistics Canada 2005, Statistics New Zealand 2005, National Statistics UK 2002 and ABS 2006.

“I love to travel, but hate

to arrive.” -- Hernando

Cortez

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- 51 -

The travel diary is primary research which was undertaken to provide current time use

patterns, particularly amongst 18-24 year olds. To provide a contextual reason for

undertaking this primary research, it was decided that a travel diary was a primary

research method of which this study can use to gauge whether significant travel patterns

have made an impact on an individual time budget. The 18-24 year old cohort was chosen

as a focus age group as it was assumed that the focus age group traveled more on a daily

basis due to the assumption that in their youth and new found independence, they lead

busier and active lives. Therefore, it was important to understand their travel patterns as a

significant part of their day would be undertaking some sort of travel. The 18-20 year old

group would also prove to be an interesting group to observe as their life decisions have

directed them to either work or further study. In some cases, individuals in this cohort

manage both – part time work with study. As such, this cohort was chosen for the variety

of activities which this group lead and that each had a different direction and pattern to

someone else even within their cohort.

Data Collection

The travel diary was chosen as the method for primary research as it was a way for

information to be gathered in a form that would be easily read and completed by the

participant. As the researcher, the ease of retrieving data from the travel diaries also

magnified its value to the research and why it was the chosen method. There were three

components to the travel diary, these were; The Subject Profile, The Travel Diary and

The Reflection.

The Subject Profile

The Subject Profile was required after it became evident that some information would be

required from the participants. This information included; age, sex, location, most

frequent mode of travel and average traveling time per day. This information would give

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me a background as to who the participants were in terms of gender and age. The locality

of the participants was also important to ascertain if certain places were experiencing

more frequent travels and where. The spatial aspect was also necessary to see if locality

excluded a person from undertaking certain activities.

Although the travel diary would be completed anonymously, the participant responses

were also given a subject number in order to identify them for reasons that if they

required a summation of the results, I would be able to send one to them. Or if the

participant decided to revoke their travel diary, I would know which travel diary they

completed. These subject numbers and identity of each participant is only known to me

for confidential reasons.

The Travel Diary

The travel diaries were set out like a schedule (Appendix B) with the time listed hourly on

the left. This format was chosen to ensure the relative ease in which the participant can

keep track of their activities. This was also an easy method to read and extract

information from as activities were seen as blocks in the ‘schedule’. The hours were

broken down to one hour blocks to keep it simple for the participants to complete, but it

was also a way to ensure that only activities that were undertaken for significant amounts

of time were recorded, and thus, results are easily read. The participants were also

instructed not to record activities which took 10-15 minutes to undertake to magnify the

significance of activities which were undertaken for longer periods of time. It was also

noted that minute details such as brushing your teeth for two minutes was too

insignificant and unrelated to the study. A conscious decision to exclude such

information was also supported by the fact that the level of detail expected of the

participants would not require such exclusive details of their private lives, nor was it

expected for them to divulge intimate details.

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The participants were instructed to complete a daily diary of their activities for three

consecutive days. These days were nominated between August 24 2006 (Thursday) and

August 26 2006 (Saturday). These days were chosen to include part of the working week

(Thursday), the end of the working week (Friday) and a weekend (Saturday) to

incorporate the different activities undertaken for differing days during the week.

The participants were instructed (Appendix A) that in the spaces provided in the diaries,

to notate the following when completing their travel diaries:

1.) State the activity. (For example; watching TV, eating, traveling, etc).

Reason for detail: For obvious reasons, it was important to know what activity was being

undertaken for that time.

Questions arising from the information: Would such an activity play a significant part of

their daily schedule? What affects would this have on time allocation? What affects

would the time for this activity to be undertaken on other activities? Were certain

activities more prominent with either sex?

2.) If activity is ‘traveling’, state the mode of travel (i.e. car, bus, trains).

Reason for detail: As the focus of this study was to ascertain if traveling patterns were

affecting time allocation and thus impinging on other activities and the result of that

occurrence, it was important to note the various methods in which the participants

traveled.

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Questions arising from the information: What modes of travel are prominent amongst

this cohort? Why were certain modes more prominently used and others not? Did mode

of travel vary between sexes? This would undoubtedly represent the holes in the transport

system and the quality of transport planning on a wider scale.

3.) If traveling, state your destination and your place of origin. (For example, home

to school)

Reason for detail: It was important to the study to gauge whether location played a

significant part in the way the participants traveled. It was also vital to know if distance

played an integral part in what activities were being undertaken and what activities were

not.

Questions arising from the information: Does spatial attributes play a role in determining

what activities were being undertaken? Were people traveling via certain modes longer

and more frequently?

4.) For each activity, state how long it took for you to undertake.

Reason for detail: This information was important not only for when the activity was

‘traveling’ but it was also important to know if certain activities were being undertaken

for longer periods than others.

Questions arising from the information: Do certain activities take longer to undertake

than others? If so, why? Has the amount of time spent on one activity affected the way

other activities? What would/were/is the consequences of such an occurrence? Which of

the sexes traveled for longer?

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5.) Also state if you are undertaking multiple tasks at the one time. (For example,

while riding the train, you were also listening to music on your iPod)

Reason for detail: It was important to note if the participants were undertaking multiple

tasks at the one time in order to see whether human behaviour and technology have

adapted their situations to cater for their own needs as a way to compensate, in this

instance and for this study, for a lack of time.

Questions arising from the information: Are multitasking popular amongst the

participants and thus, this cohort? How human behaviour adapted to certain situations

such as travel has times to cater for their own? How has the advent of technology affected

the way we undertake certain activities?

The Reflection

After completing the diary, the participant was then instructed to complete the

“Reflection” section (Appendix C) of the survey where the participants were asked if they

had enough time to complete the tasks which they had wanted to do. If they did not have

enough time do so, why was this so? The participants in their reflection page were asked

to calculate how much time each participant spent on certain activities. The participants

were also asked to tick which activities of the ones provided (an “Other” option was also

provided for participants to indicate an activity not already specified) would they have

liked to have had more time to have undertaken.

The Participants

The participants were friends, family and associates of mine whom I knew traveled to an

extent in their day to day lives. I knew these facts previously which helped in identifying

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which participants I would approach to undertake this study. These participants also

ranged in age between 18 and 24 years old. A Profile (Appendix D) was filled out to

obtain more information from the subjects.

Table: 4.1 Participant Profile

Number of Respondents 14

Males 5

Females 9

Car 7

Bus 1

Train 5

Frequent Mode of Travel

Walk 1

North 1

South 3

East 2

Location (From Central

Business District – CBD)

West 8

Average Traveling time 124.64 minutes

Source: Travel Diary 2006. Denise Fernandez

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Assumptions

There were a few assumptions underpinning the motives, the format and questions of the

study, these were:

- That certain activities would be undertaken in differing degrees between genders

- That activities and travel patterns varied between certain days of the week

- That when traveling, participants would engage in another activity whilst idle

- That focus age group (18-24 year olds) traveled more on a daily basis due to the

assumption that in their youth and new found independence, lead busier and

active lives.

- Sleep was the activity most people engaged in for longer periods of time.

Data Availability

Within the subject profile section, participants were presented with the option of whether

or not they would like to receive a summary of results at the end of the survey period and

once the results were analyzed.

A foundation to this travel diary is studies which have been previously undertaken,

namely the Australian Time Use Survey (TUS). It provides information which helps in

understating how our society functions. It useful to know how people spend their time as

it gives researchers and policy makers an insight in to a variety of issues. The aims of the

TUS (ABS 1992 and 1997) were:

o To measure the daily activity patterns and productive activities of households;

o To establish a basic Australian time use profile;

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o To understand the gender divisions of labour; and

o To provide data for national accounting of unpaid work for publication as satellite

national accounts.

Four time use surveys have been commissioned by the Australian Bureau of Statistics

(ABS) in 1992, 1997, 2001 and 2006. As this study goes to print, the results of the 2006

survey will be revealed to gain a better insight into the current status of time use in

Australia.

These time use surveys are empirical to this study as it not only serves as background

information but it also serves as comparative instrument. The travel diary was undertaken

to personally understand the current patterns of time use amongst 18-24 year olds.

Strengths and Limitations

Strengths

The travel diary and its components had strengths that contributed to the success of the

travel diary and the survey process. The strengths of the travel diaries were:

- The survey period catered for a weekday and a weekend which meant that

activities which were undertaken on specific periods throughout the week were

recorded thus accommodating the range of activities for that week.

- The format and structure of the travel diaries was designed so that the participant

would not find it hard to complete the travel diaries. The ‘schedule’ format of the

travel diary also made the diaries easier to read as people would be familiar with

the format.

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- The Reflection Section was designed so the participant thought about the amount

of activities and which activities played a significant part in their lives within the

three days. This reflective exercise hopefully made the participant more aware of

their daily activities and which areas of their day they needed to improve or pay

more attention to. The reflections not only gave an insight in to how well they

allocated time for certain activities, but it also asked the participant what they

wished they had undertaken more of during the three days. This question shows

the desires and aspirations of the participant to improve their schedules and which

activities they had participated in. It showed hope and the desire to lead better

lives.

- The information needed of the participant was specific in its intent. It asked for

the time, location, specific activity, and mode of travel (if travel was the activity

being undertaken). The specificity of such information ensured that the

participants did not feel they were pressured to declare any unnecessary

information.

- The travel diary was divided into hourly blocks in order to create a structure that

was user-friendly and comprehensive so as not to seem daunting to participants.

Limitations

- It may have been ideal to ask the participants how they felt after any traveling

undertaken to gauge if traveling made them more or less willing to undertake

certain activities. Thus, it may have been necessary to detail the effects and

emotions of such activities after it was undertaken to see if this may have

contributed to limiting the participant’s involvement in certain activities.

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- Any activity that took less than 15 minutes were not required to be recorded, but

in some instances, traveling by foot to a certain place may have taken only 10

minutes and may not have been recorded by participants (although it was

explicitly indicated that ANY traveling undertaken were to be recorded). If this

was not understood clearly by the participants, they may have overlooked this

requirement.

- The travel diary was initially to be undertaken by the participants and their

activities recorded within a seven day period in order to gain a deeper

understanding of what and when activities were being undertaken. But it was

considered that participant involvement would wane and thus, result in useless or

inaccurate information. Hence, seven days was reduced to three to ensure that

participation levels and engagement would be at its peak to gain explicit details. It

is also noted that some activities are seasonal and activities would differ

throughout the year. The travel diaries were completed at the end of winter (mid-

end of August) and therefore, activities such as going to the beach and many

outdoor activities would not be undertaken and limiting activities indoors.

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Results

Table 4.2 Reflection Results for Question “In the Past three days, how much did

you...”

Eat take-a-way (times) =26 times/14 people

=Ate take away at least ONCE

over three days

Ate at home = 54 times/14 people

= Ate at home 3.85 times over

three days

Exercised = 14.4hours/14 people

= Exercised for at least an HOUR

over 3 days

Spent on the computer = 124 hours over 3 days.

Spent time with Family

& Friends

= 124.5hours over 3 days

Traveled by Car =68.5 hours over 3 days

Traveled by Bus =13.5 hours over 3 days

In the Past three

days how much

did you…

Traveled by Train = 38.9 hours over 3 days

Source: Travel Diary 2006. Denise Fernandez

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In the Reflection section of the survey, the participants were asked “Do you think you

had enough time to achieve your goals for this week? If no, state your reason/s why.”

Out of the 14 participants, only two replied that they did have enough time during their

week to achieve their goals. A majority of the participants said “No”. Two of the

participants did not answer this question.

Of the ten participants who stated that they did not have enough time to achieve their

goals in the week, their reasons for such a statement ranged from; too busy with work and

studying, laziness, feeling tired and living too far from the city. Subject 4 states“…I call

it the ‘tyranny of time’; too busy with work and studying. Too busy worrying about

working and studying” (Subject 4 2006). Of the ten who stated that they did not have

enough time to achieve their goals, half said it was due to traveling.

Although the ‘tyranny of time’ and travel hindered most of the participants, participants

concede that it is a part of their daily activities going so far as to factor travel in to their

schedule and actually getting some form of enjoyment out of it “…traveling is definitely

something I have to factor in to my daily activities” (Subject 15 2006); “…travel is

painful and part of my life” (Subject 8 2006) and “…sometimes traveling can be fun

especially with friends on train. It is also the only time you get ‘time out’ from the

worrying and stress” (Subject 4 2006).

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Health

Participants were asked questions that would indicate if within the three days, their health

were affected. This included questions in regards to their eating behaviours; how

frequently did they eat take-a-ways and how much exercise was undertaken.

The survey revealed that within the three days of survey period, the fourteen participants

ate a take-a-way meal twenty-six times. Albeit some participants did not eat a take-a-way

meal during the survey period, other participants ate three take-a-away meals over the

three day period. That is one fast food meal per day for some participants.

On a more positive note, whilst this is the case for the participants’ fast-food eating

behaviour, it has not dampened the participants’ choice for eating at home. Collectively,

the fourteen participants ate at home 54 times over the three day survey period. This is

equivalent to eating three meals at home for each of the participant over the three days.

However, this result may be more due to circumstance as many of the participants are not

employed on a full-time (as most are full-time university students) basis and would

choose eating at home over eating take-a-way meals due to their financial situations.

In terms of physical health, the participants engaged in physical activity for a dismal 14.4

hours in three days between 14 people. This result equates to a disappointing one hour of

physical exercise over three days per participant. The level of exercise amongst the

participants ranged from five hours of activity over three days to no exercise undertaken

during the survey period.

Social

In a social sense, the participants engaged in an equal amount of time between time being

spent on the computer and time spent amongst family and friends. Over three days, both

activities massed approximately 124 hours each in three days between 14 participants.

Although it is unclear whether the time spent on the computer is for recreation or work

purposes.

Mode of Travel and Time Spent Traveling

The survey revealed that collectively, the fourteen participants traveled 120 hours over

three days using car, bus and train.

Chart 4.1 Mode of Travel and Time Spent Traveling

Chart 4.1 Mode of Travel and Time Spent Traveling

Car - 57%

Bus - 11%

Train - 32%

Source: Travel Diary 2006. Denise Fernandez

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- 65 -

Chart 4.1 clearly depicts the travel activity of the participants. It can be seen that more

than half of the traveling undertaken by the 14 participants were via private transport

(car) at 57% usage rate over three days. The use of train over the three days was an

equivalent to 32% and is the second most widely used transport system among the

participants. The bus came in as the third most widely used transport system at a usage

rate of 11% over the three days amongst the fourteen participants. It is also important to

note that walking was not considered as a mode of travel. This may be due to individual

choice as the participant may have not considered walking as a mode of travel or whether

it may have been a form of exercise instead.

Travel and Simultaneous Activity.

The participants were asked to indicate if they were undertaking another task whilst

traveling. There were fifteen noted cases where the participant was engaged in traveling

and simultaneously undertaking another activity. These simultaneous activities ranged

from listening to music on portable listening devices, reading, doing school work, gaming

on portable gaming devices and working on a portable computer.

Table 4.3 Simultaneous tasks while traveling

While traveling, I

also…

Activity Occurrence

Listened to music

on portable devices

7

Read 3

On Laptop 1

School work 2

Playing games on

portable system

2

Source: Travel Diary 2006. Denise Fernandez

Desired Activities

Out of a following list provided, the participants were asked which activities would they

have liked to have undertaken in the week if they were to have more time. Nine

participants chose “exercise” as an activity which they desire to have undertaken if they

had more time. Watching a movie and reading a book were desired activities for seven of

the participants. Five participants wished they had more time to spend with their family

and friends. Two participants would have liked to have gone out to a dinner or club

within the week. One participant, given more time, would have liked to have taken up a

sport or have done more outdoor activities, a holiday or shopping. Three participants

wished they had more time to complete school assignments.

Chart 4.2 Desired Activities

Chart 4.2 Desired Acitvities

0 2 4 6 8 1

ExerciseTake Up a SportWatch A Movie

Spend time with Family and FriendsRead a Book

Go out to Dinner/ClubUni WorkShopping

More outdoor ActHoliday

Act

ivity

No. Participants

0

Source: Travel Diary 2006. Denise Fernandez

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- 67 -

Discussion

A majority of the people surveyed indicated that they did not have enough time in which

they could complete tasks and goals. A participant was quoted in stating that this

conundrum was a product of the ‘tyranny of time’ and that participants have indicated

that traveling was a factor in their inability to achieve desired goals for the week. In most

cases, traveling is such a factor, that it is scheduled and accounted for in their daily

activities. Two things stand out as a result; one, traveling undoubtedly affects the time

management of a person and that certain activities then become limited due to travel.

Two, because of this awareness of travel time and the need to factor travel in daily

schedules, time management would be of importance and that in some cases, multi-

tasking would be necessary to achieve more things throughout the day. The advent of

travel and the increasing duration of travel undertaken have effectively compounded the

importance of conducting activities on a rigid time schedule.

The alarming figures regarding the frequency of participants dining out could be due to

the amount of travel undertaken in the day. Subject 5 stated that “Traveling makes me

tired…I always feel tired when I get home so I want to sleep and am unable to

concentrate on Uni (versity) work” (2006). It is this emotional and physical stress

attributed to traveling which has limited people’s capacity to cook healthier meals for

themselves and opting to reduce time (and stress) instead by buying take-a-way meals.

The health effects attributed to such a practice as eating take-a-way meals is perhaps one

of the more disturbing consequences of the increasing travel times of commuters.

Although, participants were buying take-a-way meals at a rate of one fast-food meal per

day, it has not dampened their need or desire to eat at home at double the number of take-

a-way meals. But as stated earlier, this could be a consequence of the participant’s

situation rather than choice as most of the participants are undertaking full-time

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university study and does not have the finances to buy take-a-way meals often. It is hoped

that this practice of eating at home with home cooked meals will become more frequent

and more of a desired choice over take-a-way meals.

The most disturbing results are perhaps the figures pertaining to the physical activity.

One hour out of the three days was the average for physical activity for the fourteen

participants. While a few participants engaged in daily physical activities, others did no

physical activities during the three day survey period. Although, when participants were

asked to nominate an activity which they would have liked to have undertaken given

more time, seven participants nominated “exercise”. This result can be read as, while

people do not have the time in their day to exercise or for physical activity; exercise is

still an activity which they hoped to undertake. This desire for exercise amongst a busy

week unfortunately requires a conscious rigid time allocation which most participant’s

lack. Exercise and the choice to do so, is a conscious effort which has become a luxury in

a time where the only exercise people undertake are entering and exiting a mode of

transport.

In terms of the social aspect, there does not seem to be any differences in the amount of

time spent on the computer as an individual activity versus time spent with family and

friends and thus crippling ones social life. Although, it is not certain (as it was not

required to be specified) if the time spent on the computer was for recreation or work

purposes. This is a positive result in those equal amounts of time (at 124 hours

collectively per activity) are being spent on individual and group activities. That even as

participants complain that travel takes up too much of their time, solitary and social

group activities does not suffer as a consequence.

Private transport still dominates transport preferences amongst the participants despite

petrol prices being at an all time high and the knowledge of general traffic and chaos. It is

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perhaps due to the waiting time for the arrival of public transport systems and the stress

in anticipating their arrival which deters people from opting to use public transport; “I

spent a lot of time walking to bus stops and waiting for buses” (Subject 10 2006). This

places an emphasis on making public transport more attractive and lucrative by

improving travel times and better schedules to limit private transport travel as people

think they are decreasing their travel time when traveling in private vehicles. It also asks

the question if the participants (and the wider population) were afforded any other

alternatives. If not, it shows the clear need to give people that option to leave their cars at

home in favour of public transport.

The advent of portable electronic systems has availed people to undertake a secondary

activity while occupied by travel. This simultaneous activity means that we could

undertake multiple activities which would otherwise occupy our time on top of an

increased travel time. While the invention of portable media systems meant that we could

listen to music and watch videos, it also indicates that there is awareness amongst the

electronic inventors of a market that are the commuters who undertake travel for long

periods of time. This indicates that if there is such a market, such a problem like

increased travel time, exists and that there is a hole in terms of idle time which can be

filled by secondary activities propagated by portable media systems.

In conclusion, this survey, although small, paints a picture of what may be a wide scale

problem due to increased travel times. The increase in travel times has implications

which affect health, social behaviour and time management which if not addressed can,

in some cases, are fatal or at the very least, cause stress and worry.

“You have to stay in shape.

My grandmother, she started

walking five miles a day when

she was 60. She's 97 today

and we don't know where the

hell she is”. -- Ellen De

Generes.

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- 71 -

Ten out of the fourteen participants from the primary surveys found that they did not

have enough time to do much of the activities which they would have like to have

achieved during the survey period. This would imply that people are just too busy to

achieve certain goals within a time a frame. Whether such time is being allocated for

work, leisure or travel, people do not seem to have enough time for everything. The

implications accrued by our busier lives to which excessive traveling compounds, results

in social and health problems. Not to mention the stress inflicted by private and public

transport use.

Health Implications

Worrying practices since the Industrial Revolution have seen people work more than their

means in a day in the belief that it was the way to measure productivity. But in fact, such

outdated mindsets have undermined our health, productivity and happiness. Productivity

“…isn’t measured by how many hours we’re putting in, but by what we’re delivering or

producing” (Dingle 2005: 22). As a result of longer hours, productivity is in fact on the

decrease as it causes fatigue and poor health. Not to mention, such results also contribute

to poor thinking and a lack of creativity which in turn can prove to be costly.

Being ‘too busy’ has also evolved our way of thinking and our lifestyles. Due to the lack

of time, we have developed a “state of deferred living” (Dingle 2005: 22) where it has

become okay to “I’ll get around to it later” or “I’ll do it tomorrow…or one day”. Such a

way of living not only prolongs intended activities to the point that it never gets done, but

it also puts off good intentions such as leading a healthier lifestyle.

Research conducted by Dr Peter Dingle has indicated that a lack of time and motivation

are two factors which are stopping us from leading healthier lives (2005). It is this lack of

motivation which ensures that we do not make the proper decisions where our health and

lifestyles are concerned.

As a consequence of our busier lifestyles, the average Australian male will now

experience his first heart attack or stroke at the age of 56. More staggering statistics show

a sharp rise in strokes amongst those under the age of 40 (Dingle 2005). Although

Australians are living longer- life expectancy of a new-born boy has increased from 55

years in 1901-10 to 77 years in 1999-2001. Likewise, the average life expectancy of a

new-born girl has increased from 59 to 82 years during the same period (Graph 5.1) – due

to medical advances (ABS 2006), people are dying from unhealthy lifestyle choices at an

increasing rate.

Graph 5.1 Life Expectancy of Australians

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2006)

Research conducted illustrates the results of poor lifestyle choices. For instance, the latest

National Health Survey reported that 62% of men and 45% of women were classified in

the overweight or obese groups (ABS 2006). A survey into diabetes ‘epidemic’ in 1995,

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recorded that about 430,700 Australians (2.4%) reported having a form of diabetes at

some time in their lives (1996). The research also reported that people are more likely to

develop Type II diabetes. Type II diabetes is the “gradual deterioration in blood glucose

regulation” (ABS 2006) and mostly occur in obese people. Diabetes Australia identified

five main risk factors for Type II diabetes These are being aged over 40, being

overweight, having hypertension, giving birth to a baby weighing over 4 kg at birth (or

having had gestational diabetes) and having a close relative with the disease (Diabetes

Australian 2006).

Taking active steps towards a healthier mindset will lead to a healthier lifestyle. Not only

will you be healthier physically and mentally, but it will also lead to increased

productivity. If your job relies on you to make good decisions, being in poor health will

undoubtedly dampen your capabilities in being able to concentrate and to make proper

judgments.

Most of the traveling one undertakes is usually associated with work or school. In 1992,

the ABS recorded that 22% of the population used cars to travel to and from work and

42% of the population used public transport for the same purposes. On average, a person

will spend 1 hour and 4 minutes on public transport and 1 hour and 25 minutes per day

(ABS 2002). Traveling 1 hour and more on top of an 8-9 hour day, exacerbates the stress

and emotional and physical ills that ensure that we do not take care of ourselves properly.

The participants of the travel survey ate 24 take-a-way meals within the survey period.

That equates to an average of 2 take-a-way meals per person over the three days. Our

busy lifestyles will mean, that for most of us, essential meals are skipped (such as

breakfast) which the body needs for nutrition to assist with the start of our day. Skipping

meals and then substituting it for a fast-food alternative will ensure that proper nutrition

gets kicked to the curb. The amount of calories in a fast food meal these days are

astronomical and lack any nutritional value. For a brain to function properly and to its

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peak, it needs a constant supply of not just energy but also vitamins, antioxidants, omega

3 oils and minerals. This will also avoid brain decay in later life (Dingle 2005).

Due to the stress and the feelings of being drained from the long hours at work (or

school) and then the traveling associated with it, one might turn to alcohol for a release or

to congratulate oneself for a hard day’s work. While a drink in moderation, one glass for

women and two glasses for men with every meal will suffice and as research has

suggested, will be healthy for you (Dingle 2005). But moderation may be a notion that is

overlooked. Especially for the 18-24 year olds, the idea of going out with friends to

socialize after a week of being buried under work and school books, the weekend is a

time to unwind. But worrying statistics as of late have indicated that young people

‘unwind’ at excessive numbers. Males in this age group (68%) were more likely than

females in this cohort (58%) to report binge drinking in the past 12 months (binge

drinking = 5 or more standard drinks per day for females, 7 or more standard drinks per

day for males) (Youthfacts 2006) and that 14% (265,000) of the young people surveyed

consumed alcohol at risky or high-risk levels in the week prior to the survey (15% of

males, 13% of females) (Youthfacts 2006).

Social and Behavioural implications

In terms of behaviour and social trends, the travel surveys have shown ten occurrences

over three days where portable media systems have kept a participant occupied while

traveling. The advent of portable media devices has enabled us to participate in

simultaneous activities, such as listening to music while traveling on trains. It has ensured

that such idle time can be spent on such activities which would, if not for the portable

devices, be something that we would have missed out on altogether because of our lack

of time.

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Such technological innovations have indeed created more things to do in place of

productive and healthier activities (Taylor 2006). Away from the idle time of one hour

train travels, these advances in technology have populated our time schedules and as a

result have decreased our desires and motivation to be healthier. In some cases,

technology has contributed to social exclusion and unhealthy habit use.

People aged 18 to 24 years, or the Y Generation are more susceptible to using, partaking

and adopting technological advancements due to their consumer and “need-it-right-now”

attitudes (Wikipedia 2006). As such, it is expected that they are prone to the problems

and issues resulting from the excessive use of technological paraphernalia to the extreme

that they, because of such attitudes, are increasingly being exploited.

To demonstrate the alarming social impacts of such technological advancements, a

confectionery advertisement was recently run on television to promote chocolate bars and

at the same time promoting a competition held in its name. The competition advertised

the winning prize as a Portable Sony Playstation (PSP). The campaign showed young

adults looking down at their PSP’s while walking and because they were not looking up

to see any oncoming dangers, they would regularly bump into each other and in some

distressing images, people bumping into walls and doors. While the intention of the

campaign was to be comical and thus, entice people to devour their chocolate bars and at

the same time, enter the competition, it showed a disturbing image of solitary activity

where physical dangers are ignored because people stopped paying attention to them as

they are too caught up in such devices. Not only are advertising campaigns encouraging

unhealthy eating by promoting chocolate bars, but the advertisement for the competition

to win the PSP’s also shows the unhealthy social lifestyle which it promotes.

Another example which shows a disturbing trend for solitary activities and which are

very popular amongst the 18-24 year olds are the Apple iPod’s. Apple iPod’s are portable

hard drives where people can store and download music and videos. While one is not too

concerned with what it does, the marketing position which Apple has employed has only

enforced our solitary and confined ways of life. The images below show Apple’s main

marketing images of lone silhouettes dancing and listening to their iPod’s.

Image 5.1 and 5.2 iPod Marketing Image

The above marketing images employed by iPod although very successful

approach clearly shows that this technology is best enjoyed by one person. The

images in the above advertisement are clearly on their own without much contact

from the world beyond their headphones. (Photos taken from: The Apple Website

[2006])

While this is what one does with the iPod, it shows a disturbing trend in undertaking

activities in which only one person participates. Not only that, such devices shut the

outside world out to the point where we become less involved in our surroundings

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creating a generation of ‘self-absorbed, ignorant musos’. It’s an unhealthy social path, but

which many lead.

Transport and Mobility Implications

Although time spent on public transport is less than time spent on private transport, a half

of the people surveyed still favoured or frequently (more so) uses private transport. Thus,

it is safe to say that as the Australian population faces the ‘tyranny of distance’ due to the

vast land, it would consequently suffer the ‘tyranny of time’. Twelve participants in the

travel diary lived outside the inner suburbs of Sydney with most living in suburbia. So it

is not so hard to comprehend that private transport would become the favoured mode of

transport as suburbs have evolved the way we travel.

The implications of the results of this study on travel are an obvious one: promote

alternative modes of transport to the car. The current state of oil prices and its delicate

nature have prompted people to turn their backs on private transport and have created a

favorable conditions to show people that alternatives to the car are just as good, not only

for themselves personally, but also for the environment. Emissions from private transport

and its ill effects on the environment have been a strong ongoing argument for the use of

alternative transport method. The environment suffers as vast bushland and natural

environments are cleared to make way for new freeways and roads. The increasing drive

to encroach on the environment have no doubt affected where wildlife habitats are found.

The survival of flora and fauna are threatened due to the disturbance of their natural

surroundings.

The implications of increasing demands to travel via private transport are worrying. This

not only means that we are breeding a generation of car dependent-gas guzzlers, but it

also instills habits which are detrimental to ones health. Dependence on the car ensures

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limited exercise as it’s just easier and quicker to get inside a car and drive to your

destination instead of walking. Again, due to our busy schedules, finding quick

alternatives to ensure activities are completed are a blessing and because Australia suffers

from the ‘tyranny of distance’ the option to commute by car not only gets things done

quicker, but it also makes sense and are easier to manage.

Car dependency is also shaping the way we live and where. In a Sydney Morning Herald

article entitled “Back to the ‘burbs: The Case for the Car” author, Michael Duffy

interviews Wendell Cox, an avid supporter of car use. Cox argues that cars have provided

significant economic benefits. These include “more choice for employers and employees

which can then lead to a more efficient labour market and economy. Cheaper retail prices

can also result because shoppers will drive to the place that offers the best prices” (Duffy

2006: 31). In essence, the car created the suburbs. But each individual is different in their

style and therefore their housing choice. If cars determine where we live, where is the

luxury of choice? Suburbs do not cater for every individual taste or circumstance, so why

should people be limited to a certain housing option as dictated by the car?

Cox promotes the creation of more freeways as a way to solve Sydney’s transport

problems. This may be true, but in the same article, Professor Newman of Murdoch

University disputes this claim and points out that building more roads would be pointless

as “traffic always fills any available road space, like gas expands to fill a pipe. Building

more freeways in Sydney has not slowed the traffic problems; it has just created car

dependence” (Duffy 2006: 31). This fact supported by Sydney’s expenditure of $10

billion on freeways and tunnels, and yet, traffic congestion is still rife (Duffy 2006).

Surely, it is within a person’s best interest to find alternatives to private transport. But

this is sometimes not as easy as it sounds. While Australia suffers from vast lands and

distance, private transport gives people the luxury to be at ease with how they travel.

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Using a car is more manageable than scheduling public transport that is a certainty. But at

what cost will the car take precedence before it’s too late?

“True enjoyment comes from

activity of the mind and

exercise of the body; the

two are united”. --

Alexander von Humboldt

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Although the increasing travel time may not be the only culprit for increasing time loss,

the increased travel times, especially travel associated with work, have compounded the

problem. While the implications of social trends magnified by increased travel time may

seem dire for our health and social life, we can still address these to limit the impact such

a stress can make. The fact is, each and every individual can do their part in the fight

against the ‘tyranny of time’ for no one is completely helpless. At every level, there is

that responsibility to promote and encourage healthier living by developing alternatives

suitable for every circumstance. The government, the companies and individuals all can

partake in ensuring that we develop active steps to achieve a healthier existence. The

following will outline the steps, plans, polices and strategies of governments, companies

and individuals which if followed successfully will ensure that the implications of

increased travel times and its associated problems will be limited which will not only

benefit those within the 18-24 year old age range, but the whole population.

Government

Government actions in response to these implications may be limited as some are just too

hard to control and regulate. For example, the government cannot control much less ban

technology in order for people to be less self-involved and to communicate more with

each other. Such measures would be extreme and impossible to police and impose on the

population. Additionally, such actions would hinder the development and productivity of

the nation to compete with a global market, catapulting the country in to the dark ages.

Legislating employment may seem like a good idea in improving lifestyle conditions, but

it can also exacerbate the problem. Working takes up a bulk of our time and is highly

regarded as a factor in being able to make healthier lifestyle choices. It would seem

sensible to direct efforts in legislating employment and working conditions and as such,

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would undoubtedly affect travel time (and its consequences) as most people undertake

travel associated with work. But as previously stated, this may not work or in some

occasions exacerbate or create new problems. France, as a response to increasing

demands for jobs, legislated a rise in work hours to a 35 hour week in the hope of cutting

unemployment queues by redistributing work from those with too much work to those

with too little (Richardson 2005). Or in the case of Uganda in the early 70’s, the then

President Idi Amin, simply made unemployment illegal (Richardson 2005).

However, the government can also be tools for change. Recent and continuing efforts by

the policy makers have seen a change in the direction of efforts by offering people with

families subsidies such as childcare. Such offers from the government is hoped to resolve

two things; that parents will now have more time to work longer hours. This scheme also

affords both parents to enter the workforce increasing their household income and

participating in the overall productivity of the nation. Not only that, the subsidies are also

hoped to assist people to manage work and lifestyle on a healthier level. But the

governments can do to reduce the consequences may lie with “…giving people greater

options within their existing work/life balance, perhaps through considering changes to

taxation policy, and sometimes through direct government subsidies” (Richardson 2005:

17).

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Companies

Obviously, companies can do more. It is now common practice for companies to create a

relaxed, flexible working environment and through company policies have adopted

flexible working hours, paid maternity and maternity leave, childcare assistance or

facilities, work-from-home opportunities, family support services, job sharing and

keeping older workers on. Company policies such as those previously mentioned have

enabled working people to manage their time. In fact, the more companies implement

such policies, the more they are reporting in staff retention rates, recruitment, morale and

activity (Richardson 2005). But there’s always room for improvement. In order for

companies to continue to support the adoption of such policies, they need to see results.

Basically, more companies would respond and adopt such workplace policies if it

translated to bigger profits. The chart below suggests that creating a workplace more

attractive than another is becoming more important in the process of money making than

it has been for quite a while (Richardson 2005)

Graph 5.1 Total employment as a % of the total population

Source: Richardson, C (2005), “What’s eating up our

time”?, About the House, May 2005.Pg 14 – 17.

The reason for this is because Australia is experiencing a worker shortage. Australia’s

population is aging and as the baby boomers retire, the jobs which they leave behind are

not being filled. The changes in the demography of Australia may be an advantage in

assisting a healthier work and life balance. Companies will be in a position where they

will compete for the limited pool of workers which will force companies to make their

workplaces more attractive by developing policies and incentives which will benefit

potential employees. If companies are placed in such a position, it would be easier for

employees to negotiate their time afforded by the company policies (Richardson 2005).

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Individuals

Of course it is not enough to leave the solutions up to the government or the corporate

body. Individuals will need to prescribe to self-imposed actions in order to maintain a

solid balance between work and life so that stress brought on by work, family and life in

general do not compound.

Graph 5.2 shows that if you just spend 2 hours a day on your health, you will increase

your productivity and add 12 to 20 hours of quality time added to your life.

Graph 5.2 The Pay Off

Taken from: Dr Dingle, P. (2005). “Why Busy People Waste Time and Die Young”.

B+FS. June/July 2005. Pg: 24.

In order to reverse attitudes and limit consequences as a result of our busy lives, we must

learn to “DEAL”. “DEAL” stands for Diet, Environment, Attitude and Lifestyle. It’s a

way of thinking and of managing what we choose to do with our lives to stay healthy. Of

course it may seem like only common sense that everything is okay in moderation. But

for some, moderation is not something they can control so it is important to note that each

aspect of our lives is intertwined with another aspect. DEAL is a way to remind us that it

takes more than a good diet to stay healthy (Dingle 2005).

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A good diet high in nutrition and limited intake of processed foods would set you on your

way to a good diet. There are plenty of diet plans out currently which promotes healthy

and balanced eating. More importantly, it is the choices we make when it comes to our

eating habits which need to change. Alarming figures from the primary study have

indicated that people are eating out more. ABS statistics supports such a trend with

reports that on an average week, 53% of households purchased at least one meal at a

restaurant. For households containing couples with non-dependent children, 63%

purchased at least one meal at a restaurant. This figure rose for couples with dependent

children at 76% (ABS 1998). It may seem convenient after a long day of work to grab

McDonalds on the way home because it’s just too tiring to cook a meal. But we must be

diligent in making healthier choices when it comes to food. If we are required to eat out,

then opting for healthier meals (as the direction which many fast foods have headed such

as McDonalds and Subway) and to stay away from fried foods are the way to go.

The environment is our homes. The state of how we live dictates how productive we can

be. Doing simple things around the home will make a big difference. But immediate

actions are required now. Opting to leave the car at home and choosing to take public

transport, walk or cycle instead is a start. Because the status of oil prices these days, the

benefits of such alternatives double (Dingle 2005).

The next is attitude. Identifying what’s important to you will clear up any misguided

thoughts and thinking which otherwise would lead to unhealthy decision making. Positive

thinking will leave you free to make the right choices. Being positive and developing

goals and the process to getting there all amounts to a clearer way of thinking. This will

translate to a healthier attitude and healthier choices (Dingle 2005).

Lifestyle involves knowing what to start when and how to stop. If situations are causing

you stress, make alternatives. If being in traffic inside your car causes you to want to rip

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your hair out, it may be time one opts for public transport. Better yet, walk. If being

indoors all day makes you crazy, think about working your meetings and lunch hours

outside the building to get you rejuvenated. Being fit means you are participating in life

to the full. Productivity is at its lowest when you are unfit and because you’re less

productive, you are more inclined to be under more pressure and stress. If that’s the case,

learn how to stop. Take some time out for yourself, it that’s not possible, then you know

you’re doing too many things. This is now the time to perhaps schedule your time and get

it to a more productive and stress-free level.

Planning Directions

Where you live and how it’s planned can have a huge affect on the choices you make

about your lifestyle. In planning terms, many responses have developed as a result from

addressing dilemmas which existed in its time. For example, the garden city movement

was an answer to overcome problems of industrialization such as the existence of slums,

poor health, sanitation and overcrowding in cities. It aimed to incorporate the best aspects

of the town with the best of the country (Wikipedia 2006). In the 1920’s the objective

slightly differed in Clarence Perry’s Neighbourhood Unit. He aimed to create a greater

sense of community and place within residential areas (Hall 2002). Ebenezer Howard’s

Garden City was influenced by the small country town with large amounts of green

space, clean air and small population. Clarency Perry was influenced by the ‘wards’ that

Howard divided his residential areas into with each ward containing approximately 5,000

people and a local show and school (Hall 2002). It is easy to see that through the Garden

City movement, Howard and Hall were trying to create healthier living spaces for the

people. But we also need to be aware that planning movements also trigger responses

dealing with its own failures. Where the Garden City failed, the post modernism 1960’s

neo-empirical movement improved. This new line of thought, although it was a reflection

of the past for sensory urban experiences, it was not limited by romantic images (Lang

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2000). In proposing future cities and urban precincts this movement was selective in the

experiences which they decided to look at. When it came to turning observation into

design, they favored the picturesque ala the new urbanism development in Seaside,

Florida USA (Lang 2005).

Just as Howard, Hall and the neo-empirical movement tried to solve the problems which

the population currently suffered from, we need to find planning solutions which we can

implement to solve our current dilemma of being starved for time or basically ‘being too

busy’. Compound this dilemma with an increasing travel time averaging an hour and a

half and you have the piece de resistance in what is becoming an all too frightening

picture of stress induced ailments and a culture of the self-involved jukebox lifestyle. It is

perhaps in our best interest to assert that, indeed, transportation and technologies exist to

alter the relationship between geographic space and time which making it feasible for

individuals to participate in activities in more locations and times and that because space

and time are central to human existence, these technologies profoundly impact our lives

and the world (Janelle 1969). The identification of the problem is the first step to solving

it. Accepting that we then have the responsibility to alter the current situation is the next.

State policy has recognized the inefficient and troublesome conduct we undertake each

day as we travel from place A to place B. As a result, an overhaul of the New South

Wales Planning system was introduced, called the Sydney Metropolitan Strategy. The

NSW Government plans to use the Strategy to assist the planning and management of

growth that will occur in the Greater Metropolitan Region (GMR) of Sydney in the next

30 years. The Strategy was developed to ensure that “the GMR will continue to be a great

place for us all to live“(DIPNR 2004). This is the long term vision of the NSW

Government in managing, planning and addressing the needs of the GMR population in

terms of housing and jobs serviced by roads and public transport, with local schools and

hospitals.

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The Strategy has developed nine strategies which are all linked in order for success. They

all are efforts in to developing a direction and strategy for the management of growth and

change and how our cities will work together. Direction 4 of the Strategy is to build

“liveable new communities” (DIPNR 2004). It focuses on the development of greenfield

sites to contain local jobs, access to safe and reliable public transport, local shops,

schools and parks. Housing variety will also be available giving people a wide choice to

suit their needs and circumstance. Direction 5 introduces its centres policy which is the

cornerstone of the Strategy. The identification of eleven centres (Fairfield, Bankstown,

Parramatta, Penrith, Blacktown, Campbelltown, Liverpool, Wyong, Gosford,

Wollongong and Newcastle) will be renewed and redeveloped to provide a greater mix in

housing (to buy or rent). Direction 6 will improve these centres in its ability to attract

business and employment strengthening its capabilities to compete with the market.

These directions will ensure that those living in the urban fringes and the suburbs would

find equal employment and housing opportunities within their reach.

Directions 4, 5 and 6 will not only provide greater equality to the vast numbers of people

living within the GMR, but it is also a response to the burgeoning issues which has been

detailed in this study. The provisions of direction 4 will ensure that people living in

newly developed areas will not need to travel beyond their means to the CBD for

employment and services, reducing the amount of time traveling, thus a reduction in

stress giving a person more time to spend quality time developing healthier lifestyles.

Direction 5 sees efforts undertaken to provide existing communities with opportunities to

match that elsewhere in the State. Providing a variety of housing choices will not only

attract a diverse population with different circumstances to these areas, creating a vibrant

and active community, but it is also hoped that this is the beginning to bridging social

gaps and division between the West and the North. Those between the ages of 18 and 24

will benefit greatly from these developments, especially those who stated in the primary

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research of this study who factored traveling in to their daily schedule; such

considerations would be less frequent if services, employment and housing are nearby.

Providing the centres also avail themselves for social and cultural opportunities, it would

provide frequent instances for 18 to 24 year olds (and perhaps of all ages) to participate in

social activities, thus being less inclined to spend too much time undertaking solitary

activities given a choice.

More importantly, the expansion of activity to the outer areas will foster the growth and

economic viability of the GMR to compete nationally and possibly even globally. As

such, this expansion will generate an increase in the need for better access and

infrastructure connectivity between the centres for the Strategy to be of success.

In response to this need, direction 7 sees the State Government establish strategic bus

corridors and a six-year railway clearways program to increase the number of services

and improve reliability (DIPNR 2004). To compliment such efforts, the following are

also envisaged to get closer to the Strategy’s visions and aims:

- To improve people’s travel in and around the Central Business District (CBD) an

Inner Sydney Transport Strategy is being developed.

- New infrastructure to the Transitway (North-West), the Epping to Chatswood

Railway line, The Western Sydney Orbital and the Cross City Tunnel.

- The renewal of Parramatta Road and regional transport improvements

- An improved integrated city wide bus network.

- The untangling of the existing railway lines thus limiting delays

- The Ports Growth Plan which was developed to provide direction for industry in

trade through NSW ports.

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Direction 7 is a healthy move towards fixing troubled public transport networks in to

becoming more efficient and reliable to make such services more attractive to the people.

Improvements in road networks are also seen as a positive direction in managing access

to areas where public transport is not readily available. Improvements in road networks

will also help in the transportation of goods between centres and regions. For 18 to 24

year olds (and definitely for the wider population), improvements in public transport

networks in terms of efficiency and reliability would endear the public in to using these

services more quickly. Although trade and industry would benefit greatly in the creation

of new roads, it does not necessarily mean that this if the best solution for individual

needs. Building new roads will not detract people from using their cars as the availability

of more roads may endear them to use it more frequently.

The Strategy hinges very much on each of these directions (and the rest) to work together

and succeed in its goals. For if one fails, such as the provision of adequate and reliable

transport networks between centres, the system will collapse if people can not go from

place A to place B. This is not to say that the Strategy is the only line of defense against

the problems outlined in this study. More can definitely be done in planning terms and

solutions – planners just need to look at the issues and be aware that circumstances

change. They need to avail themselves to change and be open to it and learn from

previous lessons to mark knowledge and experience gained such as the Garden City

Movement and then the New Urbanist Movement.

It is very much in everyone’s best interest to not only be aware of what is available to

them by the government and by companies, but to be conscious of any improvements

which can be made to the above plans, policies and strategies which can ultimately

benefit how one lives. Most of all, it is imperative that one stakes their claim and own

their responsibility in doing what’s best for themselves. Government and company

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policies will only go so far before individual choices are required to fulfill and maintain a

healthy lifestyle.

“The pen is the tongue of

the mind.” -- Miguel de

Cervantes

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Time is essentially becoming a rarity of sorts. Usually, when something becomes rare

or is lacking, it is then considered valuable and significant. It is perhaps for this reason

that we complain that we require more as we pack our daily schedules with more

things than we can handle. On top of an already bulging schedule, one will travel from

point A to point B and the quicker you get there, the better. One may not necessarily

see the compounding stress placed on a person by travelling for certain distances. But

it is certainly there. With Australia being such a vast land, it suffers from the ‘tyranny

of distance’. Consequently, suffering from the ‘tyranny of distance’ also means that

the ‘tyranny of time’ is inherent. Such is the reason for advances in transportation

which not only helped us conquer the ‘tyranny of distance’ but it also made it easier

for us to manage our time better.

The initial introduction summarises the essence of this study. It also presents the

notion of the importance of mobility and the technological advances which have

afforded the luxury of bridging gaps and spaces in limited amounts of time. While on

the same token, such advances have also caused us additional stress as we realise the

importance of scheduling and factoring travel time into our daily routines. From this,

a structure of the study was introduced to provide direction.

We depart from the initial concepts and the structure to be reacquainted with the

foundational studies gathered from literature reviews. We learned from the literature

reviews that previous studies have touched on the notions of travel restricting choice

and the irony behind travel imposing limitations on schedules, thus causing stress and

ill-effects to health. Torsten Hägerstrand taught us that conflicting needs and desires

(competing activities) cannot occupy the same space which forces us to make a

choice. Again, people are imposed with another stressor in having to decide which

activities takes precedence.

Chapter 2 follows on from where we left with the literature review but delves in to a

focus on time and human geography. As an example of seeing the two notions

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married together, the transition of nineteenth-century America from family orientated

artisan mode of production to large scale factory shops is used. This example not

only saw the separation of home and work but it also introduced spatial distinction

between spaces of “production” and “reproduction”, thus providing people with a

new sense of social interaction and experience.

Chapter 3 ensured that the unfamiliar would be acquainted with a useful tool such as a

Time Use Survey (TUS). TUS’s are a new area of study which is becoming more

significant in gauging and providing populations with what they need. It also assists in

research and forecasting to provide the essentials for future populations. This chapter

also compared domestic time use to international time use data, By making

comparisons, we see the differences in what the needs of a certain population are and

how a nation is taking shape. TUS’s in essence, shape the nation’s identity in terms of

giving them a sense of direction. By analysing such data, it is hoped that we can better

plan for the future in meeting the needs of a future population.

Chapter 4 discusses in depth the process and reasons for conducting and structuring

the travel diaries. This discussion reasons the suitability and appropriateness of the

questions and how the survey was conducted in order to assist the gathering of

information. Deciding to structure the travel diaries the way it is enabled an easy way

for important information to filter through. Choosing participants aged 18 to 24 years

old ensured that the survey had a focus group and that on a micro-scale have shown

trends prevalent across all age groups. The survey showed that there is a formidable

dependence on car usage amongst 18 to 24 year olds as most live outside the CBD. It

is surprising that this age group was not deterred by the current oil prices and that it

can be concluded that at any cost, the car was still the favoured mode of transport

even though statistics have shown that travelling on private transport involves more

time than those who use public transport. Perhaps this is more of a consequence of a

lack of transport alternatives than it is preference.

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The survey also showed that this age group lacks time to achieve goals for the week

and concede that travelling between places does take its toll. So, in order to avoid

stresses associated with work and school, travelling is factored in to their daily

schedules. Instead of making life easier and hassle-free, travelling has become an

added stressor as it compounds on their already busy lives.

Positive results from this survey included the number of times participants ate home

cooked meals outnumbering the times spent eating take-a-way meals. It shows that

while people complain of lacking time and the added hassles of travelling, they are

making the right choices when it comes to what they eat. Increasing pressures forced

by work and school commitments and the added stress of commuting has not

dampened the social appetite of the participants while at the same time, they balance

socialising with solitary activities such as spending time on the computer. One

worrying result of this survey showed this age cohort’s lack of exercise. Out of the

fourteen people participating, only one hour of exercise was undertaken per person in

three days, with some participants excluding exercise all together. With rising

numbers of people developing Type II diabetes across the nation, it is worrying that

this age group lacks the ability to take some form of exercise to lead healthier lives.

Perhaps this result is a testament of the lack of time this age cohort is experiencing or

maybe it’s a result of its car dependency. Whatever the reason, it is still a worrying

fact and these young people need to realise that they will not be young forever.

Chapter 5 discusses the implications of the above survey and what the likely futures

are for these young people. Health, social and mobility implications are explored. If

such practices were to continue into later years, the young people of today will be

living in dire and unhealthy circumstances. What people need to realise is that they

have a choice and the freedoms to take an active stance in their ability to manage time

(when something becomes too much, decide that it is and reduce it) and hence

improving their ability to make the right choices.

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Chapter 6 explores the ways in which governments, companies and individuals can to

ensure they are protected from the dire consequences of a busy lifestyle. But it does

point out that while governments can regulate and companies can promote better

working conditions, it is up to the individual to ensure that they are aware of such

policies and programs and that they are the ones ultimately making the choices.

Planning directives and strategies such as the Sydney Metropolitan Strategy is a step

forward to addressing the transport and living issues which concerns this study. To be

able to implement these strategies would be a great achievement for the health of the

area and its people.

Reflecting back on this study, it’s hard not to see where it could have been improved

upon. There are some pressing issues in regards to the primary surveys and that

perhaps additional questions should have been asked to ensure more detailed answers.

Questions in regards to; alternative transport availability and how each participant felt

after travelling should have been included in the survey in order to gauge the extent of

transport availabilities and emotional circumstances.

It was also hard to co-ordinate the participants and tabulating their answers were even

harder to notate as each answer differed. Perhaps better categorisation of questions

and answers should have been considered. While it was intended that there be a

follow-up group discussion in regards to the survey (and this was proposed in the

initial stages of the study), it would have been hard to co-ordinate participants’

schedule to accommodate a focus group discussion. This aspect would have greatly

assisted in developing an in-depth discussion on the reasons why private transport

usage is so high amongst the young and also their thoughts on travelling as a whole.

While I enjoyed the research component of this thesis, it was hard not to include too

much in-depth discussion on the time and human geography aspects of this study. In

this instance it was necessary to learn the art of ‘cutting down’ on the information

already gathered as some of which would have been unnecessary within the

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discussion. Cutting down on unnecessary detail was imperative in order to engage

people reading and if they have to sort through all the unnecessary details they may

not have been motivated to continue.

Writing the implications and directions (Chapter 5 and 6) aspects of this thesis took

more of a social focus than it did a planning one. This was probably due to the

concepts of associated travel compounding the affects of social health. I have also

noticed that while many studies have gone into analysing the affects of work on time

schedules and budgets, there should be a line of study that looks in to the affects of

travelling or what travelling adds to an already busy lifestyle.

In concluding this study, it is important to reiterate the value of time. While we

consider time to be of an asset for production means, people have to ensure that they

are not completely buried in the super-busy lifestyle we have created for ourselves.

While advancements in transport have meant we bridged the gap in Australia’s ‘the

tyranny of distance’ to move through quicker thus leaving us with more time. But the

downfall of this system also means that as we contract the time nominated for travel

per the provisions of technological advancements in transport, communication and

entertainment, it has given us more things to do. So, instead of creating time as

afforded by improving transport systems, we have filled that ‘free time’ with products

of technology. We are then still left with the complaints in lack of time and the

wayward choices we make due to this issue. As we are pressed for time, our ability to

make the right choices are distracted that we resort to choosing the easy fix because

we get so anxious about doing the next thing on our agenda.

On that note, it is obvious that more study can be undertaken in this field. It is also

best to remind people that we do indeed have a choice. That time, transport and what

we do in between do not dictate our living conditions and our lifestyles – we dictate it.

As I finish this comment, it is perhaps best to encourage other people to find possible

- 100 -

ways to continue and maybe finish this study by developing ways in which we can

reclaim time for ourselves.

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FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Travel Diary Hello and Welcome! This daily activity diary will contribute to my thesis on how people budget their time and whether travel patterns affect how they spend their time. Aren’t you lucky you were the chosen few? There will be three (3) components to this task. These are: 1.) Subject Profile 2.) Travel Diary 3.) Reflection A daily diary of activities will be kept for a total of three (3) days between 24/08/06 and 26/08/06. An example diary is attached. At the end of the week, a set of “reflection questions” will be asked in regards to the activities which you undertook that week.

Please Note: For the purpose of this study, an activity is defined as

“an action or movement, which is longer than 15 minutes”.

For any activity, which is undertaken for less than 15 minutes, use your discretion to either; 1.) Count it towards the next major activity (ie, an activity

undertaken for more than 15 minutes); or 2.) Group all activities in to one. For example, if you went

to the bathroom (7 minutes), had a shower (10 minutes) and brushed your teeth (3 minutes), then you can call

APPENDIX A

20 minutes” instead of

at as “Went to bathroom for

Once all information has been collected and analysed, a

hat to do:

Step 1: Complete the Subject Profile, FIRST. patterns

complete this diary the following must be

- State the activity. (eg: watching TV, eating etc…).

- your destination and your

- k for you to

- you are undertaking multiple tasks at

Step 3: Upon completion of the travel diary, complete

ny problems?

you encounter any problems please do not hesitate to call

ANY THANKS

thnoting each activity down).

Summary:

summary of the data collected will be created for you to view/keep if you so wish. Please tick the “I wish to receive a summary of the results” option on your subject profile.

W

Step 2: Mark on the Daily Diary your activity for the day. The Daily Diary is broken up in to hourly blocks to make it easier for you to notate your activities. In order todetailed for each activity.

- If activity is ‘travelling’, state the mode of travel (ie: car, bus, train). If travelling, state place of origin. (eg: home to school) For each activity, state how long it tooundertake. Also state ifthe one time. (eg, While riding the train, you were also listening music on your ipod)

the “Reflection Section”.

A Ifme (0422 350 236) or e-mail me at: z3060564@student.unsw.edu.au. I will ensure all your queries will be answered. MDENISE

APPENDIX B

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

APPENDIX C

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

APPENDIX D

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

FACULTY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT BACHELOR OF PLANNING

Declaration Relating to Disposition of Undergraduate Thesis

This is to certify that I …………………………………………… being a student for the degree of Bachelor of Planning, am aware that the University reserves the right to retain at its own discretion the copy of my thesis submitted for examination. I consent to the thesis being placed in the Faculty Library, to be consulted there and to part(s) of this thesis being quoted in manuscripts of typescripts for the purpose of scholarship or research, provided my authorship is acknowledged. In the light of the Copyright Act (1968) I declare that I wish to grant the University further permission for the following actions provided my authorship is acknowledged

Copy or allow others to copy in any medium part(s) of the thesis for the purpose of scholarship or research;

Copy or allow others to copy in any medium the whole of the thesis for the purpose of

scholarship or research;

Publish, or allow others to publish, an abstract of the thesis;

Publish or allow others to publish, part(s) of the thesis;

Publish or allow others to publish, the whole of the thesis;

I wish to attach the following condition(s) to the use of the thesis:

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

Signature _________________________

Witness _________________________

Date _________________________

E:\CD THESIS\Thesis Declaration - Planning.doc