179© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 G. G. Tan, Pastures of Change, Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation 10, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76553-2

Amdo (T: a mdo) Name of a historical region of eastern Tibetapi (T: a ph’i) Fresh cheese made from darabcud (T: bcud) From Buddhist philosophy, content or form of lifebdud (T: bdud) Demonsbtsan (T: btsan) Furies, violent spirits‘bu (T) See yartsa gunbuchiwa (T: lci wa) Dried yak dung used for fuelchongcao (C) See dongchong xiacaochorten (T: mchod rten) Tibetan stupa, reliquarychos sgar (T: mchod sgar) Religious encampmentchuba (T: phyu pa) Long Tibetan robechura (T: phyur ra) Dried cheese made from daracun (C) Administrative villagecunshuji (C) Village-level party secretarycunzhang (C) Village-level leaderdara (T: da ra) Milk from which the cream/butter has been removeddewa (T: sde ba) Villagedigpa (T: sdig pa) Sindmu (T: dmu) Malevolent spirit causing dropsyDo Kham (T: mdo khams) Eastern Tibet comprising two historical regionsdongchong xiacao (C) Caterpillar fungusdomad (T: mdo smad) Another name for Amdodotod (T: mdo stod) Another name for Khamdrelwa (T: ‘brel ba) Relationship, link, connectiondri (T: ‘bri) Female yakdrib (T: sgrib) Pollutiondrog, also sog (T: srog) Essence of lifedrogmo (T: ‘brog mo) Female nomadic pastoralist

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1 T: Tibetan, C: Chinese, Wylie transliteration is provided in parentheses.

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drogpa (T: ‘brog pa) Tibetan nomadic pastoralist, male nomadic pastoralistdroma (T: gro ma, gyo ma) Edible tuber of Potentilla anserinadrub zang (T: ‘gros gzang) A casual loverdud si thun cham (T: bdud rtsi thun mchams) Name of a star connected with

Tibetan medicinedzo (T: mdzo) Hybrid cow-yak animaldzomo (T: mdzo mo) Female hybrid cow-yak animalfengyu (C) Complete grazing prohibitiongar (T: sgar) Encampmentgasar (T: dga’ sa, also dga’ po) Lover, husbandgepa (T: skud pa) Yarn or rope made from tsiglog klad (T: glog klad) Computergo re (T: go re) Braids of fried wheat doughgonpa (T: dgon pa) Monasterygowa (T: go wa) Village chiefgtsang rigs (T: gtsang rigs) Limpid, permeableguanxi (C) Networks, social relationsgur (T: gur) Summer white tentgza’ (T: gza’) Rahu, a god with nine headshei shihui (C) Black society, underworldhuang (C) Barren, wastelandjigten pa’i lha (T: ‘jig rten pa’i lha) Worldly deitiesjin (C) Chinese unit of measurement; approximately 600 gjin mu (C) Grazing prohibition for several yearsjod pon (T: gyod dpon) Mediatorjowa (T: gyod pa) Representative in negotiationskang da jid (T: kang da byid) Powerful animal medicine, Batrachuperus pinchoniikatsa (T: kha tsha) Animal illness; foot-and-mouth diseasekhata (T: kha btags) Ceremonial scarf, usually whiteKham (T; khams) Name of a historical region of eastern Tibetkhenpo (T: mkhan po) Head lamakora (T: skor ra) Circumambulationkulu (T: khu lu) Soft down from the undercoat of yaksla (T: bla) Soullatse (T: la rdzas, lha btsugs) Sacred cairns with prayer flagslha (T: lha) God, deitylha pon (T: lha dpon) God-officiallha yag (T: lha g.yag) God-yak; a yak that has been liberated and offered to a deitylon pon (T: lon dpon) Ministerslu (T: klu) Water deity, water spiritlu rig dan (T: klu rig ldan) Name of a star connected with Tibetan medicinelun mu (C) Grazing rotationsmagpa (T: mag pa) Called-in son-in-lawmamo (T: ma mo) Female wrathful dakinismani prayer stones (T: ma ni rdo) Stones on which the chant ‘o mane padme

hum’ have been carved

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mi rab den (T: mi rabs bdun) Seven generationsminzu (C) Nationality, ethnicitymirtagpa (T: mi rtag pa) Impermanencemisha (T: mi sha) Blood feud; enemymu (C) Unit of measurement used in China, 1/15th of a hectarenag sgar (T: nag sgar) Black encampments, a term for tent monasteriesnag tsang (T: nag tshang) Type of black tentnamshe (T: rnam pas shes pas) Consciousnessnang (T: nang) Insidenei (T: nas) Roasted barley flournolog (T: ngo log) Rebelnor (T: nor) Wealth, synonym for yaksnyingma (T: rnying ma) Old teachings; a sect of Tibetan Buddhismphyir (T: phyir) Outside, outerPonchen (T: dpon chen) Big leaderqi (C) Energyra (T: sbra) Type of black tentrashor (T: sbra shing) Long wooden tent pole; in Kham, this is used to open the

top flap of the black tentrgyal po (T: rgyal po) Mischievous spiritrisher (vernacular, also T: ri skor) Patrol around the mountainrinpoche (T: rin po che) Precious onerongpa (T. rong pa) Farmer, agriculturalistrongmadrog (T. rong ma ‘brog) Semi-pastoralistrukor (T: rus skor) Encampmentsamadrog (T. sa ma ‘brog) Semi-pastoralistsang (T: bsang, bsangs) Smoke-purification ritualsan peitao jianshe (C) Three that form a set constructionssbra dgon (T: sbra dgon) Tent monasteriesshedra (T: bshad grwa) Buddhist teaching collegeshengtai yimin (C) Ecological resettlement policyshugpa (T: shug pa) Juniper shrubsi da tusi (C) Four big kingdoms, in reference to Dege, Lithang, Bathang, and

Chaklasi peitao jianshe (C) Four that form a set constructionssozhe (vernacular) Name for a 4-year-old yaksngo sman (T: sngo sman) Herbaceous medicinesnod (T: snod) From Buddhist philosophy, container or vessel for sentiencesrinpo (T: srin po) Cannibal demontagma (T: stag ma) Rhodendrontendrel (T: rten ‘brel) Dependent origination, interdependence, omenterma (T: gter ma) Treasureterton (T: gter ston) Treasure revealertianran (C) Formed by the sky, pure and naturaltri (vernacular) Wooden yarn-spinning contraption

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trim (T: khrims) Decreetrug (T: phrug) Densely woven panels of the black tenttsa da jid (T: rtswa da byid) Grass-animal medicinetsampa (T: rtsam pa) Tibetan roasted barley, mixed with tea and buttertshowa (T: tsho ba) Group of encampments, camp grouptsi (T: rtsid) Yak hair, cut from coarse hair from the belly, tails, and sidestsipa (T: rtsid pa) Yarn made from coarse yak hairtshe (T: tshe) Duration of lifetshe thar (T: tshe thar) Act of “liberating life”tuigeng huanlin (C) “Retiring fields, restoring forests” campaigntuimu huancao (C) “Retiring livestock, restoring pasture” campaigntusi (C) “King,” official Chinese title bestowed by the Qing emperorwe’u (T: be’u) A 1-year-old yak calfxiang zhengfu (C) Township governmentxiaowei (C) Indistinct smellxibu dakaifa (C) “Western Development Strategy” campaignxiu mu (C) Halt to grazing for several monthsXizang (C) Tibetyartsa gunbu (T: dbyar rtswa dgun ‘bu) Caterpillar fungus; Ophiocordyceps

sinensisyaruh (vernacular) Name for a 2-year-old yakyasum (vernacular) Name for a 3-year-old yakyou mumin dinju (C) Nomad Settlement projectyullha (T: yul lha) Homeland deityZhara (T: bzhag bra) Name of a mountain; also a territorial deity or master and

a soul mountainzhibdag (T: zhing bdag/gzhi bdag) Territorial deity, territorial masterzhorshi (T: zho shig) Full-fat semi-soft cheeseziwa (T: gzi ba) Judgezog (T: zog) Cow-yak animal

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Bibliography

195© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 G. G. Tan, Pastures of Change, Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation 10, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76553-2

AAdaptations, see ChangeAmdo, 1, 10, 21, 41, 84, 104, 109, 110, 123,

126–128, 131Amne Machen, 41Animal

autonomy, 7behavior, 30dogs, 26domesticated, 5, 8, 25, 26dri, 26, 27, 30, 128, 129dzomo, 180horses, 26, 31, 130husbandry, 3, 4, 6, 10, 24, 31, 43, 48, 63,

65, 86, 109, 111, 150, 170, 174liberation rituals, 130nor, 30, 105sheep, 3, 10, 26, 124wild, 25yaks, 3, 10, 14, 25, 26, 88, 105, 107, 128,

130, 146zog, 26 (see also Yaks and dri) (see also

Yaks and dri)Aristocracy

hereditary, 99kingdoms, 100nobles, 104pastoral estates, 100, 104

BBarns, 1, 30, 47, 50, 59, 121, 122, 126Bateson, G., 11–13, 53, 117, 120, 168, 171Black yak-hair tent, 29

See also Ra and nag tsang

Boarding school, 119, 127, 128, 136, 138–141

Gelug sect of, 102Nyingma sect of, 37, 129

Bureaucracydictated by international development, 71

CCapitalist system, 162–163Captain Cook, 167Caterpillar fungus

as commodity, 153, 155, 162, 163, 167, 168

disputes and, 163gathering, 31, 150, 169as gift, 161, 162historical exchange, 148–153prices, 143, 149, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157,

161, 162in Tibetan medicine, 111trade volume, 154as traditional Chinese medicine, 143, 162transactions, 155

Changeadaptations, 13, 15, 16, 53, 113, 119, 120,

171, 172change for a better future, 16, 77concept, 14, 15, 172conceptual framework, 14cultural, 167, 168as ideology, 49kinds of, 11–15, 17, 53, 66, 117, 119,

120, 127, 130, 131, 137, 138, 140, 171, 172

Index

196

Change (cont.)observed, 13, 118, 130, 171orders of, 11–13, 15, 53, 119, 169, 171patterns, 168, 170, 172as phenomenological experience, 1planned, 81, 87, 91, 92, 119processes, 13, 14, 66, 112, 117, 168, 171products, 13–15, 49, 50, 58, 59, 64, 66, 67,

72, 75, 87, 90, 93, 113, 118–121, 124, 126, 143, 171, 172

as relationships, 12–14, 117, 120, 127, 130, 131, 168, 170–172

transformations, 13, 15, 53, 66, 90, 113, 117–120, 137, 138, 167, 172

as unhinged from substance, 12Chinese government, 47–50, 58, 61, 64, 65,

76, 121–124campaigns

shengtai yimin, 48, 61, 64, 65tuimu huancao, 48–50, 61, 64, 65xibu dakaifa, 76

household responsibility system, 57, 121, 140

nine-year compulsory education, 47Nomad Settlement project, 48, 49, 64,

124–127policies

san peitao, or three that form the set, 47, 49, 58

sipeitao or four that form the set, 47, 49, 121–124

Co-managed grasslands, 15Commodity, 3, 14, 38, 65, 84, 118, 125, 129,

139, 141, 143, 144, 153, 155, 158, 161–163, 167, 168

as value, 3, 129, 144, 153, 162, 163, 167 (see also Caterpillar fungus and yak)

Communes, 47, 57Complexity, 14, 17, 24, 52, 117, 119, 120,

129, 170, 171, 174Consciousness, 39, 40, 118, 146Conservation, 50, 60, 77, 83, 86, 169, 173, 175

See also Nature reservesConstruction

products, 39, 64, 121, 122, 127work (see Multi-resource strategy)

Cooperatives, 47, 56, 57, 84

DDartsedo, 23, 62, 63, 101, 103, 111, 112, 138,

153Density, 6, 7, 12, 60, 130

Development, 51as change for a better future, 15–16, 71as community development, 73, 75, 77, 91cycles, 27, 89history of American, 71international, 14–16, 27, 43, 67, 71, 119,

172as modernization, 54, 72, 73, 75, 91organization (see Star Foundation)as participation, 73practitioners, 71, 75, 80, 83–85, 87, 89, 91products, 66, 67, 72, 86proposal review, 85and underdevelopment, 75, 82, 87, 90–92USAID, 72, 73, 87, 90

Do Kham, see Tibetan historical regionsDomestic Mode of Production (DMP), 35Dongchong xiacao, see Caterpillar fungusDrelwa, see RelationshipsDrogpa, see Nomadic pastoralistsDwyer, P.D., 7, 12, 13, 66, 117–119, 138Dynamic mutual adaptation, 7Dynamism, 14, 16, 17, 117Dynasties

Ming, 1, 21, 101, 103, 109Qing, 1, 21, 22, 103, 109, 131

Dzachukha, 26, 27, 38, 101, 106

EEastern Tibet, see Do KhamEcological resilience, 53, 173, 174Education, 173

primary, 139 (see also Boarding school)Egalitarian, 16, 98, 99, 104–106, 108, 135Ekvall, R., 24, 26, 34–36, 41, 51, 55, 97, 101,

103, 104, 106–109, 112, 132Emic perspective, 14, 24Enclosure

movement, 2, 59, 132policies, 128products, 15, 121

Equilibrium, 52, 53, 60, 168, 173, 174Etic perspective, 14, 24Exchange

historic, 97, 112items, 112predatory, 8, 112trade route, 112trade terms, 112

FFences, see Enclosure

Index

197

Feudsblood, 104, 108, 140as fission, 6, 106, 108mediation, 108movement, 6, 16, 33, 98,

106–111, 134Fission, see FeudsFood

butter, 10, 30, 56, 118cheese, 10, 30, 56tea, 107, 112, 118, 149tsampa, 10yoghurt, 30, 56, 118zhorshi, 32

GGansu Province, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 48–49Ganzi Prefecture, 129, 138Gesar, king of Ling, 77, 91Grassland policies, see Chinese government

policiesGrazing

allocation, 3, 57, 132restriction, 48, 61, 128rotation, 47, 48, 60, 123, 132, 134

Green governmentality, 49, 51, 60–64, 127

HHouses, 1, 2, 6, 14, 15, 27, 30, 37, 39, 47, 49,

50, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 100, 101, 112, 120–122, 124, 126–128, 134, 136–138, 150, 155, 159, 171

Hui traders, 134, 155–158

IImpermanence, 170

See also MirtagpaIncarnate lamas, see Tsultrim Lodro, Khenpo

SodargyeIndicators, see Development productsInequality, 16, 58, 74, 75, 90, 98, 99, 104–106,

113, 120, 132, 140, 141, 164Inner Mongolia, 1, 9, 50, 55, 61, 64, 124, 173Intensity, 2, 3, 6, 7, 12, 29, 117, 130, 150, 174Interactions, see RelationshipsIrreversibility, 135, 137, 168

JJobbing, see Multi-resource strategy

KKham

language, 120region, 1, 10, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 56, 97, 98,

100–103, 119, 121, 131, 134Kingdoms

bathang, 102Chakla, 101–103, 110, 112Dege, 21, 39, 100–103, 109, 112Lithang, 102si da tusi, 102

Kinshiparrangements, 106, 110, 134and conjugal practices, 106, 134and household organization, 37, 99, 106,

107, 134Magpa, 134matrilineality, 110matrilocality, 33patrilineality, 33patrilocality, 33polyandry, 34, 105, 106, 133, 134polygyny, 106

LLand

as barren or huang, 1, 55as landscape, 27, 41, 58, 61, 122–124loss, 60, 62, 110, 128, 131, 140, 175ownership, 5, 47, 57, 105, 124as paths and sites, 123tenure, 53, 60, 122use-rights, 59, 121, 124, 152, 163as zero-, one-, or two-dimensionalities, 122

Lhagang, 33, 41, 101, 109–111, 138Logical Framework, 80

See also LogFrame

MMabufang, 101, 103, 107Magpa, see KinshipMarket-logic, 140, 144, 163Material

exchanges, 1, 4, 7, 97, 112observed change, 13, 118products, 1, 13–15, 43, 49, 50, 66, 67, 75,

90, 93, 98, 118, 120–122, 171, 172Mediation

jodpon, 108jowa, 133leopard-skin chief, 108ziwa, 133

Index

198

MedicineTibetan, 42, 111, 143, 146–149, 152, 153,

158, 163traditional Chinese, 143, 148, 158, 160,

162Migrant labor, see Multi-resource strategyMind/heart (sems), 4, 10, 56, 143, 146, 147Minnegal, M., 12, 13, 66, 117, 119, 138Minyag

area, as part of Chakla kingdom, 101, 109, 112

Gungkar, 41Monasteries

black-tent, 37gonpa, 37Nyingma, 37, 38sects of Tibetan Buddhism, 37, 131tent, 35, 37, 38

Movement, 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 27, 31, 33, 36–38, 42, 51, 59, 60, 83, 84, 89, 93, 98, 103, 106–111, 113, 120, 122, 129, 132, 134, 147, 163, 164, 169, 170, 174

Multi-resource strategy, 57, 126, 127, 133Mutual-aid groups, 47, 56

NNam she, see ConsciousnessNamkhai Norbu Rinpoche, 30, 38Nature

as human-environment relations, 52, 54, 174

as orientalism, 52, 54as paternalism, 52, 174and society, 51, 52, 54, 82, 174

Nature reserves, 173Nomadic

households, 2, 8, 33–39, 47, 100, 117, 150labor, 15, 32, 89, 140, 170law, 36mediation, 108military skill, 1, 6, 16, 24, 51, 101–103,

109movement, 1, 2, 4–7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16, 31,

33, 36–38, 51, 59, 60, 83, 84, 89, 93, 98, 103, 106–111, 113, 120, 122, 129, 134, 147, 163, 164, 169, 170, 174

pastoralism, 2, 24, 48, 97, 117, 144pastoralists, 1, 24, 47, 76, 97, 117, 143,

167Nonhuman others, 15, 16, 39–43, 109, 127

Nuer, 3, 35, 98, 99, 104, 108Nyanchen Thangla, 41, 110–111Nyarong demon, 102, 109, 111

See also Gonpo namgyal

OOrientalism, 52, 54

PPapua New Guinean, 13Pastoral estates, 100, 101, 104, 105Pastoralism

ideal-type, 4, 6, 82, 170mode of production, 4, 6, 8, 15, 16, 24,

109, 113, 121, 140specialization, 6–8, 97, 170way of life, 2, 6, 10, 24, 48, 51, 93, 113,

118, 122, 140Pastoralists

Baluchi, 24, 39Golog, 37, 41, 101, 103, 107, 132, 134,

135Washul Serthar, 103Western Iranian, 8, 112, 113yomut turkmen, 6, 24

Pasturesdegradation of, 48, 53, 60, 139fenced, 58, 59, 66, 123, 132, 134reorganization of, 57summer, 36, 89, 122, 123, 128, 134winter, 6, 58, 59, 66, 89, 121, 123, 128,

132, 134, 136, 137People-animals-land, 6, 7, 9, 12Plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose, 168,

170Policies, see Chinese government policiesPollution, 130, 135, 160, 163

See also dribProcesses of change, see ChangeProducts of change, see Change

QQinghai Province, 9, 21, 23, 25, 48, 62, 86, 88,

101, 126, 127, 135, 138, 149, 152, 153, 155, 173

RRaids

as fusion, 106–108

Index

199

Ranching, 3–6, 174Relationships

cultural categories, 14, 168as drelwa, 25, 43, 118, 130, 144existence of, 119, 120, 137, 169, 171kind of, 12, 13, 42, 117–119, 125, 132,

135, 137, 143, 167–169with animals, 3, 15, 16, 119, 126, 129, 171with other pastoralists, 24with territorial deities and masters, 140

Republican period, 22, 101, 102Resilience, see Ecological resilienceRevenge killings, see FeudsReversibility, 12, 161Ritual practices, see Animal liberation rituals;

Smoke-purification rituals

SSacred geography, 3, 48, 110, 111

See also Territorial deities, worldly deitiesSahlins, M.D., 14, 35, 43, 107, 118, 167–170Sanjiangyuan, 48, 62, 86, 173Sedentarization, 8, 12, 113, 120–127Segmentary

lineage, 6, 35, 106opposition, 99, 106, 107system, 6, 35, 98, 106–108, 123

Semi-pastoralists, 106rong ma drog, 4, 10sa ma drog (see Transhumance)

Serfs, 99, 100See also Serfdom

Settlementmodels of, 48

Sichuan Province, 9, 21, 23, 25, 48, 59, 77, 88, 126, 138, 139, 149, 173

Sin, 130, 135, 163See also digpa

Smoke-purification ritual, 42, 135See also Sang

Spaceas homogeneous units, 88as phenomenological, 1tabula rasa, 88, 174

Specialization, see PastoralismStar Foundation, 76–81, 83, 86–90State

Chinese, 1, 2, 7, 9, 14, 15, 26, 33, 38, 43, 47, 49–56, 58–60, 64–67, 71, 76, 82, 86, 90, 91, 93, 105, 119, 120, 122, 126, 127, 132, 133, 169, 172

governmentality, 49, 50, 64

legibility, 50–53societies against the, 52

Structureof the conjuncture, 168related to change, 168as system, 6, 12, 14, 16, 118, 138,

168, 169Summer horse festivals, 31

TTargets, see Development productsTendrel, 11, 25, 42, 43, 131, 169Territorial deities, 14, 15, 41, 42, 52, 109,

110, 119, 123, 126, 135, 140, 163, 171

See also Territorial mastersThargyal, R., 33, 39, 97, 100, 101, 103, 105,

108, 109, 111, 112, 133Tibet

as contested, 9, 144idea and image, 16, 160

Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR), 9, 10, 21, 25, 27, 48, 65, 144, 149

Tibetanagriculturalists, 1, 8, 10, 17, 39, 170cosmology, 25, 39, 40, 43, 118, 125, 145,

147, 167, 169cultural categories, 169culture, 16, 50, 81, 91, 92, 118historical regions, 9 (see also Amdo,

Kham)kings, 21, 97kingdoms, 21, 39, 101, 102, 106, 110language, 78, 81, 87, 92, 138middlemen, 150, 153, 155–160nomadic pastoralists, 1, 24, 47, 76, 97,

117, 143, 167plateau, 1–17, 21, 23, 25, 38, 47, 48, 53,

55, 56, 71, 73, 86, 90–93, 97, 101, 103, 110, 119, 128, 144, 149, 160, 174, 175

semi-pastoralists (see Transhumance)Time

development cycles, 89as seasonal, 89

Towns, see Dartsedo, Lhagang, RangakaTrade, see ExchangeTransformations, see ChangeTranshumance, 6, 10, 98Transmission, 168Triads, 7, 9, 143, 158, 159, 168

Index

200

Tribes, 8, 100, 103, 104, 109and subtribes, 33of Tibetan pastoralists

Dzachukha, Golog, Washul Serthar, 8, 100, 103, 104, 109

Tshe thar, 129Tsing, A.L., 71, 144, 162, 163, 167Tuimu huancao, see Chinese government

campaigns

VValue, 3, 4, 14, 42, 43, 61, 73, 90, 106, 112,

117, 118, 125, 129, 130, 141, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 152, 153, 162–164, 167–169, 172

Variables, 12–14, 43, 60, 66, 112, 117–119, 126, 127, 132, 133, 135, 137, 138, 140, 167–169, 171–173

Vegetarianismanti-slaughter movement, 164ethics, 129practices of, 129teachings, 129, 164

WWorldly deities, see Territorial deities

X

xibu dakaifa, see Chinese government campaigns

Xikang province, 22, 102Xinjiang, 1, 9, 50, 55, 65Xizang, 9, 92

YYak and dri

breeds, 3, 25as commodity, 3, 129, 163deaths, 107, 128disease, 26, 130domesticated, 25dung (chiwa), 29–31, 34, 62, 122hair products, 10, 27, 29, 31, 32, 37liberation, 3milk products, 26, 30, 56slaughter, 31, 128–130, 169types, 25wild, 25

Yartsa gunbu, see Caterpillar fungusYunnan Province, 9, 10, 21, 23, 25, 48, 144,

149Yuthog Yontan Gonpo, 147, 149

ZZhara Latse, 110, 111Zilphukhog, 33, 100, 101, 103, 105, 109, 112

Index