thesis: human capital management: a south african perspective thesis dr. w. goosen
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Thesis: Human Capital Management: A South African Perspective Thesis Dr. W. GoosenTRANSCRIPT
Human Capital Management:
A South African Perspective
W. Goosen
Thesis
Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of Technology
and Innovation
The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management
2012
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Human Capital Management:
A South African Perspective
by
Wynand Goosen
Student number: 4470
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree
Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of
Technology and Innovation
at
The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management
Academic Supervisor: Prof B Anderson PhD
Field Supervisor: Prof M Mehl PhD
January 2012
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DECLARATION
I declare that the research project, quantifying human capital: A South
African perspective is my own work and that each source of information used
has been acknowledged by means of a complete reference. This thesis has
not been submitted before for any other research project, degree or
examination at any university.
…………………………………….
(Signature of student)
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(Date)
Johannesburg, South Africa
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Human Capital Management:
A South African Perspective
Abstract
The research problem addresses the issue of learning taking place on broad
walks of life and not just in formal contexts. Learning so obtained attracts
limited formal recognition. The objective of the research is aimed at
developing a system whereby structure could be given to such learning, for
inclusion in formal human capital management systems. The researcher
considers amongst other the role of organizational objectives, in determining
required skills. It is suggested that required human capital could be
benchmarked against “formal learning programs”, with a view to create a
formal credit transfer system. The research also probes the possibility of
using such a system to determine specific skills gaps. Collectively, the
research is contextualized within the relevance of a Corporate Qualifications
Framework (CQF), a system that measures human capital in terms of a
strategic plan. A Corporate Qualifications Framework operates on three
principles – the required human capital (demand side), the actual human
capital (supply side) and the gap between the two. The demand side consists
of job descriptions, qualifications and occupational profiles. Supply side
standards are used to measure actual human capital by means of
performance management, performance assessment and the recognition of
prior learning (RPL).
The literature survey demonstrates how “thinking” has evolved over
centuries. The research indicates that the pursuit of knowledge seems to
focus on knowledge and not on profit.
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The development of a Meta Business Framework suggests a business
consciousness that recognizes the role of thinking and the development of
alternative realities that recognizes the evolution of humanity. Meta Business
suggests that business honours the relationship between mind and matter as
well as the interconnectedness of all things. Thus, the evolution of
educational thought, being integral to Meta Business, suggests the
development of learning to serve business requirements, whilst business is
designed for the benefit of humanity at large.
The research concludes with an overview of the research process. The
discussion is centered on the possibility of using non-formal learning as
formal credit in a process termed “work based learning”. The process entails
creating a system whereby the training conducted at the workplace
translates into credits within formal education programs. The roles of
academic institutions are important to enhance legitimacy and credibility.
The net result is the creation of a framework that is industry based – that
considers the needs and objectives of industry. The implications of the
research findings are that a CQF can be used to develop an integrated
system of human capital management.
The integrated conclusion suggests a redesign of the current educational
system in South Africa, to become adaptable and effective, serving the
needs of industry and society at large.
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Acknowledgements
My sincere gratitude to the following individuals without whom this research
journey would not have been possible:
To my Academic Supervisor, Professor Ben Anderson, for his
leadership, insight, patience, dedication and encouragement on my
journey of self-discovery and self – directedness;
To my Field Supervisor, Professor Merlyn Mehl, who has always been a
mentor and a guide
To, George Lupke, Patrick Mugumo and Celeste Smith, for their help
and encouragement.
To Dr. Linda Meyer for sharing her views and encouragement to
complete this research study;
To the staff and faculty of The Da Vinci Institute; particularly Onicca
Maculube who went beyond the call of duty in her support and as true
ambassadors of the Institute;
To the research participants, without whom, this research journey
would not have been possible.
W. Goosen
Initials + surname of student
Bryanston, Johannesburg
City/town of student’s residence
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List of Diagrams and Tables
Diagram 2.1 Development of knowledge
Diagram 2.2 Morphology
Diagram 2.3 Fractal Wallpapers
Diagram 2.4 Literature Survey
Diagram 3.1 Action Research Cycle
Diagram 3.2 Developmental Action Enquiries
Diagram 3.3 Overlapping Phases of Research
Diagram 3.4 The Paradigm Model
Diagram 4.1 From Concept to Theory
Diagram 5.1 The Current State
Diagram 5.2 The Future State
Table 3.1 The Framework of Relationships
Table 4.1 Personal Experience Concepts
Table 4.2 Categories developed from Personal Experience
Table 4.3 Literature Survey Concepts
Table 4.4 Categories developed from Literature Survey
Table 4.5 Research Questionnaires Concepts
Table 4.6 Categories developed from Research Questionnaires
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Annexures
Annexure A Research Questionnaire
Annexure B Concepts and categories from personal experience
Annexure C Concepts and categories from literature survey
Annexure D 1 Concepts and categories from research questionnaire
Annexure D2 Consolidation of research categories
Annexure E Results from research questionnaire
Annexure E1 Total jobs, vision and objectives
Annexure E2 How are people doing in their jobs
Annexure E3 Recommended training and skills GAP
Annexure E4 How would SDF measure actual human capital
Annexure E5 Is there a project plan to drive closure of GAP
Annexure E6 Management review process
Annexure E7 How is CQF implemented
Annexure F Alignment of research
Annexure G Discourse in the literature survey
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List of Acronyms
ABET Adult Basic Education and Training
ANC African National Congress
ATR Annual Training Report
CAT Credit Accumulation and Transfer
CEP Community of Expert Practitioners
CHE Council on Higher Education
CPD Continuous Professional Development
DHET Department of Higher Education and Training
DOL Department of Labour
ECTS European Credit Transfer System
EQF European Qualifications Framework
ETD Education Training and Development
ETQAs Education and Training Quality Assurance Authorities
FET Further Education and Training
GDP Gross Domestic Production
GET General Education and Training
HE Higher Education
HEQC Higher Education Quality Committee
HET Higher Education and Training
HEQF Higher Education Qualifications Framework
HRD Human Resource Development
MoU Memorandum of Understanding
NATED National Education Policy
NCV National Certificate (Vocational)
NQF National Qualifications Framework
NLRD National Learners’ Records Database
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NSA National Skills Authority
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
QMS Quality Management Systems
RPL Recognition of Prior Learning
SACP South African Communist Party
SADC Southern African Development Community
SAQA South African Qualifications Authority
SAQI South African Quality Institute
SDA Skills Development Act
SMME Small-, Medium-, and Micro Enterprise
SETA Sector Education and Training Authority
SSETA Services Sector Education and Training Authority
SMME Small, Micro, and Medium Enterprises
TQM Total Quality Management
VET Vocational Education and Training
WSP Workplace Skills Plan
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Definition of Key Terms
Articulate To provide for learners, on successful
completion of accredited prerequisites, to
move between components of the delivery
system
Assessment
tools/instruments
The nature of the assessment task given to
the learner to do. Guidelines for the
Assessment of NQF registered Unit
Standards and Qualifications (SAQA;
2000).
Higher Education
Higher Education refer to education that
normally takes place in universities and
other higher education institutions, both
public and private, which offer
qualifications on the Higher Education
Qualifications Framework.
Further Education
Further Education refers to education
offered in Further Education and Training
(FET) colleges and similar programs in
other vocational colleges.
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Occupationally directed
education, training and
development
Training that principally is conducted in the
workplace. It is also referred to as ‘on the
job training’, ‘workplace training’,
’vocational education and training’ or
‘career-oriented education’.
Occupational Education
Occupational education refers to
educational programs that are focused on
preparation for specific occupations, as well
as ongoing professional development and
training in the workplace.
Professional education
Professional education refers to educational
programs that lead to professional
registration
Quality Assurance
The sum of activities that assure the quality
of services against clear pre-determined
and described standards. Guidelines for the
Assessment of NQF registered Unit
Standards and Qualifications (SAQA; 2000)
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements vii
List of Diagrams and Tables viii
Annexures ix
List of Acronyms x
Definition of Key Terms 12
TABLE OF CONTENTS 14
CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH ORIENTATION 20
1.1. INTRODUCTION 20
1.2 BACKROUND AND DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 23
1.2.1 THEORETICAL CONTEXT 25
1.2.2 APPLIED CONTEXT 27
1.2.3 BASIC CONSTRUCT AND CONCEPTS OF THE PROBLEM 27
1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION 33
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH 34
1.4.1 BENCHMARKS, MOBILITY AND EXIT POINTS 35
1.4.2 ORGANISATIONAL INTEGRATION 37
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1.4.3 MACRO ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS 38
1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 39
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40
1.6.1 RESEARCH APPROACH 40
1.6.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND LITERATURE REVIEW 42
1.6.3 DATA COLLECTION 44
1.6.4 DATA ANALYSIS 45
1.7 STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF STUDY 47
1.8 THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS 51
1.9 CONCLUSION 52
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY 54
2.1 INTRODUCTION 54
2.2 THE CASE FOR ACCREDITATION IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING
69
2.2.1 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO STUDENTS 76
2.2.2 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO BUSINESS 78
2.2.3 ACCREDITATION AND BUSINESS NEEDS 81
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2.2.4 VOCATIONAL ACCREDITATION 87
2.3 THE CASE FOR RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 91
2.4 CORPORATE QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 101
2.4.1 CREDIT ACCUMULATION 102
2.5 POLITICAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 104
2.6 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND SKILLS NEEDS 107
2.7 BENCHMARKING OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCE 111
2.8 SKILLS, PERFORMANCE AND CERTIFICATION 113
2.9 CONCLUSION 116
DIAGRAM 2.4 LITERATURE SURVEY 118
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 121
3.1 OVERVIEW 121
3.2 DATA GATERING AND ANALYSIS 139
3.2.1 DATA GATHERING 139
3.2.2 DATA ORDERING PHASE 141
3.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS 142
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3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONAIRE 149
3.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 151
3.5 CONCLUSION 151
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH REPORT 153
4.1 BACKGROUND 153
4.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH REPORT 154
4.3 THE RESEARCH STAGES 157
4.4 RESEARCH FINDINGS 158
4.5 THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE 159
4.5.1 CONCEPTS IDENTIFIED FROM THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL
EXPERIENCE 159
4.5.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE
RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE 162
4.5.3 CONCLUSION 164
4.6 THE LITERATURE SURVEY 164
4.6.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE LITERATURE SURVEY
165
4.6.3 CONCLUSION 172
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4.7 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE 173
4.7.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONAIRE 173
4.7.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM THE CONCEPTS RELATED TO
THE QUESTIONNAIRE 174
4.7.3 CONCLUSION 177
4.8 CONCLUSION 178
CHAPTER 5 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 181
5.1 INTRODUCTION 181
5.2 THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM THE STUDY 181
5.2.1 THEME 1: THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM 181
5.2.2 THEME 2: THE ROLE OF SKILLS AS A PRODUCTIVY DRIVER
184
5.2.3 THEME 3: THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL LEARNING IN A FORMAL
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 186
5.2.4 THEME 4: THE ROLE OF AWARNESS AND CONTEXTUAL
UNDERSTANDING 189
5.3 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 192
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5.4 CONCLUSION 193
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 196
6.1 INTRODUCTION 196
6.2 REVIEW OF CHAPTER OBJECTIVES 197
6.3 PROPOSED FURTHER RESEARCH 199
6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 201
6.5 SUMMARY 201
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CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH ORIENTATION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
In April 1994 a new socio-political dispensation took the
accountability and responsibility for governing South Africa. One of
the objectives of the new government was to make education and
training available for the entire population. According to the findings
of the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) of 1994, the
structure and capacity of education in South Africa became seriously
outmoded (ANC, 1994). The consequence was that the education
system no longer delivered the industry competence required for
sustainable economic growth. The development of business skills
and competence has therefore been influenced by the limitations
relating to primary, secondary and tertiary education system in
South Africa.
This comes as a result of the modern economy demanding skills that
are focused on both professional and vocational competence. A new
system that integrates education and workplace training has to be
designed and developed. As part of such development, industry
training would have to assume increased responsibility for the
development of industry skills, using in-house industry training to
supplement, assist and in some cases, replace formal training. This
phenomenon is a precursor to the development of a system where
training and education would need to be more measurable. However,
it deserves to be mentioned that norms, developed because of
effective measurements, are in fact a result of social construction.
Thus, the existing norms, being the existing qualifications in our
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society, are assumed to be the correct benchmarks for learning and
industry requirements.
The correctness of such an assumption is debatable. In order for the
norms to be valid, the system for engagement of stakeholders would
have to be addressed. This research is not focused on the process of
stakeholder engagement but rather on how alternative norms could
be applied for existing learning. The development of a system
whereby learning programs could be identified in terms of
complexity levels, and subject matter, is imperative. The South
African education and training system is under review for the past
eleven years, considering the role and impact of, amongst others, a
National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
It was believed that by establishing a National Qualifications
Framework, learners would be empowered to advance to higher
levels of learning (RDP, 1994:63). According to Aber (1998:49) the
National Qualifications Framework is both an enabling framework
and a social construct. This means that it should enable people to
co-ordinate their learning throughout their lives. Thus, it enables a
normative system where a learner can build a portfolio of skills that
is measurable, comparable and mobile. Such an approach will enable
a learner to “grow” a skills collection that can be used to obtain a
qualification. In this regard the new system for skills development is
both holistic and sophisticated (Lategan, 2001:13). The interim
report of the Sub Committee appointed by the Committee for
Tutorial Matters (CTM), in South Africa, identified access
impediments to South African higher education institutions as early
as 1993 (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5). During 1993,
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Universities in South Africa, enrolled some 350 000 students, 44% of
whom were white. The Technikon's at that time registered 138 000
students, of whom 54% were white. Access patterns in South
African education institutions improved over the past fifteen years in
terms of cultural identity and variety, but continue to mirror a higher
education system differentiated along racial lines (Committee on
tutorial matters, 1993:5). The challenge is to create equitable access
that recognizes the principles of human development, and to allow
learning that can take place inside as well as outside the class room
(The Common Wealth of Learning, 1997:1). In South Africa, this
initiative was driven by the introduction of the South African
Qualifications Authority (SAQA), the Skills Development Act and the
National Qualifications Framework (NQF) since 1994.
On 23 February 2010 the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations
(QCTO) was launched in South Africa. The QCTO is tasked to develop
industry profiles for occupations and to use the vocational profiles to
develop curriculums to inform national qualifications. The intention is
not to replace all developed qualifications and unit standards, but
rather to compare and update existing qualifications to match the
vocational needs of industry.
The South African education system does, however, not allow for
recognition of any non-formal or prior learning, unless it is done via
the recognized, accredited residential or correspondence institutions.
The only formal system for quantification of human capital,
incorporating learning and competence, is the existing education
system. An individual can quantify (measure and compare) learning
and competence in terms of a Matric certificate, a National Diploma
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or a Degree. The Higher Education Act (101 of 1997) formally
controls the issuance of any form of “Degree” and thus the
quantification of learning and ultimately, the quantification of human
capital.
Non-formal training and education is seldom recognized by formal
institutions within South Africa, with the result that such
development is not formally acknowledged, notwithstanding the fact
that it takes place in company training rooms (Hamm and
Associates, 1997:1). Skills and competence developed in industry
does therefore not enjoy the same recognition as skills and
competence developed by elitist tertiary education systems,
notwithstanding the fact that they may be equal in standing.
Competency based models for performance and development need
to be developed and implemented that will link strategy to business
goals, clarifying the required and actual competency of individuals
and establishing standards for performance (Venter, 1998:43).
1.2 BACKROUND AND DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM
The problem of no recognition of non-formal training and education
has an historical origin and explanation. No evidence in practice or
literature could be found of recognition of non-formal training in
South Africa prior to 1985. With the evolution of the South African
economy, companies started training and later educating staff in-
house. Company training started moving closer toward formal
structure requirements, and universities, in serving industry, started
curriculating more and more according to industry needs. According
to the RDP (1994:61) industry based education and training should
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be consistent in design with the National Qualifications Framework
(NQF) whereby government integrates industry education with
formal education (Government Gazette, 1995:1). However, access to
higher education seems to be a challenge in that black and
particularly African student access to higher education, has been
mainly into academic institutions at which professional, natural
science, postgraduate and research programs, were the least
developed (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5). This, coupled
with the low performance of the Department of Higher Education and
Training (DHET) school system in mathematics and science
education, has meant that African students in higher education are
studying predominantly in the fields of education, arts and social
sciences.
Access is thus hampered by the “academic inability” of prospective
candidates. By creating a system whereby all learning, irrespective
of origin, can be assessed, measured and transferred as credit
towards (for example), a Certificate or even Bachelors degree, the
access challenge can be alleviated as learners obtain similar credits
from other sources. In addition, economic competency and skills can
be created without having to place additional strain on the education
system. Using the existing frameworks, such as the matric certificate
and the degree qualification, one could facilitate the measurement of
skills, learning and competence. Such measurement should form the
basis for the quantification of human capital.
Forty-one percent of South Africa's privately held businesses cite the
unavailability of a skilled workforce as the biggest constraint to
business growth (Business Report, 2009). At the same time, South
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African unemployment rates have not been lower than 20% since
1997 (Index Mundi, 2011). This raises the question whether there is
a connection between unemployment and the absence of a skilled
workforce. The redesign of the education and training system should
therefore have as an objective, the increased economic output of the
country as a whole and focus should be on a system that creates
skills, productivity and consequently, enables employment for all its
citizens.
1.2.1 THEORETICAL CONTEXT
The research is embedded in the human resources field and
specifically the skills development arena. Issues of using competency
based unit standards, as well as extracts from non-unit standard
based qualifications, to define job descriptions, will be investigated.
The study will draw on existing labour market theories in
competency and skills creation. The literature survey is intended to
underpin the theoretical construct and illuminate the way forward for
human capital development.
The suggested system will have to be one where learning activities
can be thought of as building blocks, so that the individual can build
a portfolio of credits for qualifications, ranging from the Further
Education and Training band (FET) to the Higher Education and
Training band (HET). It is accepted that the skills and academic
inability of students and prospective employees are mostly
concentrated in the disadvantaged population groups within South
Africa (Index Mundi, 2011). To ensure the advancement of an
underdeveloped society, this syndrome will have to be counteracted
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by a constant supply of motivated, economically active and skilled
labour. A society of low achievers implies an ineffective economy and
low tax base for government, which in turn implies inferior
government services like health, police and also, education (Sachs,
2005:60).
The sustained inability to afford further and tertiary education could
thus be viewed as a challenge that must be addressed at all possible
levels - in formal as well as non-formal education (The Common
Wealth of Learning, 1997:1). Worldwide the principle of Credit
Accumulation Transfer as formal credits for primary, secondary as
well as tertiary education, occurs in different forms. In the United
States of America, Bear (1991:45) describes the philosophy
underpinning credit for Life Experience Learning as follows:
“Academic Credit is given for what you know, without regard for
how, when, or where credit was acquired”. In the United Kingdom, a
very similar system is called the “National Vocational Qualification
Council.” The credits so obtained by students are called, “NVQ”
(Lycos, 1997:1). In the Netherlands, the system is referred to as
Higher Vocational Training (Dekker and van Schalkwyk, 1990:105),
whilst Germany’s “Bildungsgesamtplan” or education plan, provides
for vocational education (Dekker and van Schalkwyk, 1990:21). In
New Zealand a system called the National Qualifications Authority
(NZQA), regulates the context whereby formal credit is given to
vocational education (Kiwi, 1997:1). In essence, the recognition of
non-formal learning as formal qualification credits is aimed at
recognizing existing expertise, thus formalizing learning and creating
additional competence.
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1.2.2 APPLIED CONTEXT
Another impediment to access in tertiary education in South Africa is
the availability of seats (Education Statistics South Africa, 2008: 5).
While correspondence institutions such as the University of South
Africa (UNISA) are capable of coping with large student numbers,
residential institutions have limited seating space. In 2008 only
5.7% of all eligible learners in South Africa were enrolled in the
Higher Education system (Education Statistics South Africa, 2008:
5). The increasing private initiative to provide further and higher
education partly supports this crisis of access to higher education.
Government is thus simply not capable of providing solutions for the
current challenge. A large number of private education and training
institutions can and does provide quality education products to the
public. Yet, some are hampered from issuance of marketable
certification such as a degree, whilst the word “university” is actually
forbidden to be used by such institutions. Private further and tertiary
education could therefore assist in the seat shortage in tertiary
education if their programs can be used for degree credits, providing
that the playing field is fair. Industry also engages in training
conducted in-house. This is done by either appointing trainers on the
payroll of companies, or by contracting certain in-house training
needs to independent external providers.
1.2.3 BASIC CONSTRUCT AND CONCEPTS OF THE PROBLEM
Foreign universities flooded into newly democratic South Africa
during the 1990s but most pulled out after being confronted by
rigorous accreditation and registration processes, leaving the small
28
but influential and increasingly stable private tertiary sector
dominated by local groups (MacGregor, 2008). This rigorous
accreditation process further impedes formal recognition of non-
formal training in South Africa (MacGregor, 2008). Within the
Shoprite Checkers stable, and specifically OK Bazaars, a major
player in the retail industry, it was found that several possibilities
exist to re-package programs into subject equivalents. The reality is
thus, that the equivalent of higher subjects are being offered on a
fragmented basis, as part of a so-called in-house company training,
or non-formal training program. These fragmented training courses
do not enjoy any recognition similar to that of higher education
subjects. An employee, having completed such in-house training,
can therefore not obtain any formal credits for such training, when
he or she enrolls at a higher education institution in South Africa.
The reason being that in-house training is not "accredited" by the
further or tertiary education system in South Africa. The logic behind
this is that these in-house training courses vary in aspects such as
quality, contact time and level. McLernon and Hughes (2004)
examines the relationship between work-based learning (WBL) and
institutional learning (IL) with a view to determining what academic
credit is awarded for and how it is awarded. The authors further
state that there is currently no rational method of awarding credit for
work-based learning and proposes that articulations in current
frameworks for credit accumulation and transfer schemes for
academic learning may provide a substantive and transparent means
of attributing academic credit to Work Based Learning. They also
recommend that such a framework should be developed specifically
for work-based learning (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).
29
A system of accreditation is thus required whereby any in-house
program can be assessed for credit in relation to existing formal
qualifications. No such national system exists in South Africa
(Manning, 1991), although some higher education institutions do
acknowledge such learning for credit purposes within qualifications
through a process of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL). With the
introduction of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (Seta)
driven Education and Training Quality Authorities (ETQA) and the
practical use of unit standards and RPL, this possibility may evolve in
the near future for South Africans.
“Industry's original motive for training is to enable a worker to
perform his or her job function better” (Decker and van Schalkwyk,
1990:1). Later schools of thought introduced the "total person
approach" in management and human relations driven organizations
(Harrison, 1993:189). This particular school of thought argued that
by developing the total person, the functional person performing the
task develops accordingly. The implication is that company training
extends its involvement from task-orientated training to human
development via education (Harrison, 1993). “This development
implied shrinkage in the differences between education and training
as new knowledge and information became the driving force of
regional, national and global economic transformation “(Fehnel,
2001:18). Thus, suggesting the initiation of at least a connection
between workplace training needs and the recognition of the
employee.
The objective of the contemporary enterprise has evolved to long-
term shareholder’s wealth, employee development and
30
environmental responsibility (Senge, 2010). The employee has
unlimited needs and limited resources. The need for synergy
between employee and organization is thus always present.
Management is faced with the task of finding ways to ensure the
attainment of organizational objectives via its people, and in the
process, satisfying employee needs (Senge, 2010). By linking
training to employee needs and organizational objectives,
productivity can be increased. “In the process, training must add
meaning and value to the trainee's life” (Eveden and Andersen,
1992:296). Training must contribute to the employee’s
development, and in such scenario, training must be cost effective,
not only for the organization, but also for the country (Dekker and
van Schalkwyk, 1990). In order for workplace training to make such
a contribution systems to formalize such training will have to be
developed.
According to Orphen (2003:26) companies should “engage in
scenario planning in order to ensure strategic success”. Stronger
employee rights have also been established with the introduction of
new legislation (Whysall, 2003). It should be taken into account that
money spent on education in South Africa is tax deductible and
therefore decreases the tax income of a country. The money lost on
taxes could be re-applied in formal education. “Training should
therefore be documented, registered, assessed or measured. In this
regard modern companies have formal assessment feedback
systems in place “(Gering and Pienaar, 2001:40). Training and also
competency, must therefore be assessed, relative to existing
structures in education, for example the degree. The process, called
"accreditation" implies recognition of training for credit elsewhere,
31
such as a degree (Bear, 1990:23). In order to establish such
accreditation or recognition, a comparison of non-formal training
with formal training has to be made. According to Firer (2002)
organizations should view training as a strategic priority – this
implying that it should follow from the strategic plan.
Urquhart (2001) believes that the strategic challenges of the
organization need to be well defined, to enable the organization to
identify what it intends to achieve and how successful it is at
determining its goals. Such activity could assist in determining the
required human capital priorities. The registration of such human
capital will imply automatic mobility of training - once a company’s
training is compared, assessed and accredited; employees will be
able to transfer their learning when changing employers.
Documentation, registration and accreditation imply the
establishment of a database for the administering of such a system.
Such a system would have to be capable of handling large volumes
cost effectively and timeously.
Mobility implies articulation at further and tertiary levels between
qualifications and institutions. According to the 1992 "Reconstruction
and Development Plan" (RDP) South Africa need to develop an
integrated system of education and training, providing equal
opportunities to all, irrespective of race, gender, class, color,
language and political or other opinion (RDP, 1994). It is also
required to address the development of knowledge and skills to
produce high quality goods and services to develop the South African
economy and its people. “Education must be geared towards the
development of the individual and the community, and should also
32
promote tolerance and a spirit of co-operation amongst all people”
(Eveden and Anderson, 1992:83).
In view of the above a new national human resources development
strategy must be developed based on the principles of democracy,
non-racism, non-sexism, equity and redress to avoid the
shortcomings of the previous South African regime (RDP, 1990). It
is considered the duty of government to ensure that human
resources are developed effectively via industry-based education and
training boards, with union and employer participation, to design and
implement programs within industries, consistent with the standards
developed for an integrated national framework. The Industry will,
for purposes of this study, be defined as all companies engaging the
activity of in-house training of staff.
Education and training for skills development should adhere to the
following principles:
• It must be modular and outcome-based; must
recognize prior learning and experience; must
develop transferable and portable skills; must have
common standards, and
• It must be integrated within the national qualifications
and accreditation system.
Bear (1991:9) defines the term degree as a title conferred by a
school to show that a certain course of study has been successfully
completed. Degree requirements are all outcomes required for the
attainment of such a title. Manning (1997:54) identifies three goals
33
to begin with, namely; ensure that every person in the organization
knows what to do; focus attention on a few key themes and inspire
people to explore their potential.
1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION
The questions related to this research are four fold:
a) Could an organizational strategic plan be used to determine
the required human capital for an organization?
b) Is it possible that industry experience, workplace learning
competence and non-formal training programs could be
compared favorably in content, level and outcomes, with each
other?
c) Does a benchmark system exist to determine a gap analysis of
skills?
d) Is it possible to quantify human capital in relation to a
Corporate Qualifications Framework?
The question extends to whether industry can quantify human
capital in companies as a mechanism for skills assessment. If such a
mechanism could be established the process of developing a
Workplace Skills Plan in terms of the South African Skills Act, would
be greatly advanced.
The expected outcome of this study is that a system of normative
measurement for skills auditing can be developed. The problem
addressed in this study is thus the absence of an integrated,
vocational education and training accreditation system that enables
companies to determine the required level of skill, and the effects
34
thereof on employees and the economy at large. Thus, the research
also intends to address the inability to “count”, measure, recognise
or compare skills, irrespective of the origin of such skills.
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH
Education as it has evolved implies the furnishing of an individual
with a collection of skills as well as the development of his/ her
cognitive ability – thus, creating a human capital base. Training
refers to the task orientated transfer of technology to participants,
with the objective of empowering them to perform specific tasks.
The skills and competence of a society determines the economic
outputs of such a society (Sachs, 2005:72). Therefore, if a system
can be developed whereby a business community can develop its
business competence, productivity would be enhanced. Education is
generally believed to be taking place at tertiary institutions like
universities, while training is believed to be taking place on the job,
in industry, by the company itself, or it’s appointed representatives
(McLernon and Hughes, 2004). Competent members of industry with
a proven track record of ability - having performed successfully at
their jobs for long periods of time, are often people without formal
qualifications.
Such individuals, when applying for entrance to tertiary education,
receive no credit for in house training, nor do they receive
recognition for their proven track record of ability. In contrast, these
applicants are being treated the same as a person with a matric
certificate. No recognition is therefore given to human capital, unless
formalized in a formal system. What the system implies is that
35
education is only education when it is obtained via the process of
exposure of the self to formal tertiary education and in-house
training is thus not recognized at all.
As a result of non-recognition of in-house training towards formal
qualifications, individuals have in the past opted to obtain formal
qualifications rather than in-house training. The result was that the
objective for learners became to obtain qualifications rather than to
develop competence. The result has therefore been certification
without competence, with no link between the qualifications and the
strategic objectives of the business. The effect is resulting in the
creation of qualifications that do not serve the community at large.
In this study the possibility of using business strategic objectives to
determine required competence, will be investigated. The required
competence, so determined, will be tested against acceptable
benchmarks of education and training, to determine whether the
attainment of such competence can lead to a qualification.
The research intends to contribute to the professional context in as
much as it assists to define the application of an Organizing
Framework for Occupations, as an instrument to measure human
capital and to quantify jobs in relation to business plans and to
enable performance management against a national standard.
1.4.1 BENCHMARKS, MOBILITY AND EXIT POINTS
Both education and training in South Africa lack mobility and exit
points. In the banking industry in South Africa, for example, banks
often do not recognize each other’s teller training programs. The
36
employee moving from one employer to another is therefore
regarded as not being competent or having any training, or having
training that cannot be compared or measured formally. The
absence of mobility is due to the fact that human capital is not
quantified in forms other than formal degrees, certificates or
diplomas. It is therefore very difficult to benchmark a one-day
training program against a degree, diploma or certificate. There is
currently no system in South Africa by which training can be
compared or expressed in relative terms to a formal qualification.
The intention is that the National Qualifications Framework will
ultimately fulfill this requirement. However, the question remains
whether it is possible for companies to quantify their actual human
capital and compare it on a normative scale to an independent
benchmark.
Exit points in the present education system are very limited. The use
of unit standards in South Africa, however, enables the accumulation
of credits on a piece meal basis. Learners who have completed a
skills program will qualify for access into a certificate program. This
system should at least alleviate the problem of exit points, in as
much as it could provide an avenue to recognize smaller "units" of
learning. Programs such as the National Diploma in Banking and
Public Relations in South Africa, would for example, only have
reasonable exit points after the second year. This is due to the fact
that the first level of meaningful skill, being the level at which a
person is employable in industry, is reached after the completion of
24 months of this three-year National Diploma.
37
1.4.2 ORGANISATIONAL INTEGRATION
Training and education programs often lack organizational
integration. Training is quite often geared to supply the person with
skills that are only task orientated, without taking into consideration
the aspect of total person development. Staff is often being trained
in a vacuum resulting in a situation where they are capable of
performing a task without the understanding of the importance of
that task. This tunnel vision training limits the employees
understanding of the total task, the organization and its mission,
vision and objectives (Senge, 2010:297). The employee ends up
functioning without an holistic vision of the enterprise. According to
Wylie (2002:48) the answer lies in using scenario planning for the
development of organizational strategies to address development
issues related to performance. In this regard Addison (2002:25)
believes that leadership should be conducted with vision, whilst
Motloung (2009) quotes a statement from Telkom employee,
Charlotte Mokoena, who states that human capital development, call
for a holistic, multi pronged approach, to serve both business and
employee needs.
Education at tertiary institutions in turn, often function on academic
grounds that fail to take into consideration the real needs of
industry. Graduate recruits often find themselves educated but not
trained for a specific task. Both education and training should take
into consideration the needs of the individual, and endeavor to unite
the needs of the individual with the objectives of the organization.
The employee should therefore obtain some form of credit for in-
house courses completed. Such courses must contribute to the
38
fulfillment of the needs of the individual and contribute to the
attainment of the organizational objectives. When individual needs
are satisfied in striving towards organizational objectives, true
harmony and synergy can be reached within an enterprise. Cole
(1998:32) suggests that leading people requires knowledge of the
organization and its strategy.
Human capital is considered to be that which the business uses as a
base for its operations. Human capital is thus the collective ability of
individuals to sustain organizational outputs.
1.4.3 MACRO ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS
According to the Reconstruction and Development Program (1994)
an integrated system of education and training that provides equal
opportunities to all, irrespective of race, color, sex, class, language,
age, religion, geographical location and political belief, is needed.
“Education must be directed to the full development of the individual
and community, and strengthen respect for human rights and
fundamental freedoms. It must promote understanding, tolerance
and friendship among all South Africans and must advance those
principles contained in the Bill of Rights. In this regard education
should be based on the principles of democracy, non-racism, non-
sexism, equity and redress, to avoid the pitfalls of the past” (RDP,
1990:60).
Statutory bodies, based on appropriate democratic representation of
stakeholders, should establish standards and advise the national
ministry and provincial departments on policy and development
programs in education and training. Industry-based education and
39
training boards should be established with union and employer
participation, to design and implement programs within industries.
The definition of economics refers to how society satisfies its
unlimited needs with limited resources (Samuelson and Nordhaus,
1989:5). The RDP, as an economic development program, addresses
the very "HOW" of need satisfaction. This "HOW" thus pertains to the
stimulus and application of human ability to ensure optimal need
satisfaction. Education and training is responsible for the
development of new and innovative methods of need satisfaction -
the "HOW" of macro-economic needs satisfaction (Abel and
Bernanke, 1991). From there then, arises the need for a nationally
co-ordinate strategy and plan to ensure that the nation is provided
with the required skills for optimum needs satisfaction (Dekker and
van Schalkwyk, 1990:11). At a corporate level, human resource
executives need to develop systems to identify and measure its skills
base. According to Vinassa (2002:8) Human Resource executives
must become more aware of financial goals and align human
resource functions with strategic goals.
1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
It is the aim of this study to develop and establish a framework for
the assessment of non-formal training, and in the process, quantify
human capital. In doing so, this study has the following objectives:
o To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked
into a set of required competencies that can be aligned
to educational standards
40
o To demonstrate how non-formal training can be
assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-
formal programs can become credit bearing
o To demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used
for a GAP analysis in human capital management.
o To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications
Framework can be developed whereby industry can
quantify and manage human capital for purposes of
performance management.
1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
1.6.1 RESEARCH APPROACH
In pursuit of the research aim and objectives, a literature study and
qualitative investigation will be conducted. The literature study will
investigate how educational thought evolved in order to develop the
context in which a Corporate Qualifications Framework will find
applicability, using strategic planning and non-formal training in the
process. It is proposed that strategic planning be considered as a
possible source to determine the required human capital of an
organisation. The process that should be followed in determining a
strategic plan should incorporate aspects related to the vision,
mission and objectives of the organisation. The strategic objectives
will be analyzed to determine the required tasks to be performed by
employees. These tasks will then be compared and benchmarked
against the system of educational standards and unit standards
registered on the NQF. This will be followed by the development of a
graph on which all the required unit standards of competence (for an
41
organization) will be displayed. Thus, the part of the NQF that
applies to the specific business will be displayed. By using this micro
application of the NQF a business would be building a “Corporate
Qualifications Framework” (CQF). The study will investigate whether
a CQF can be used as a benchmark to consolidate the objectives of
the business with that of the qualifications of an employee.
A grounded theory approach will be followed in order to
demonstrate:
How a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set of required
competencies aligned to educational standards.
How non-formal training can be assessed against formal
benchmarks.
How non-formal programs can become credit bearing.
How a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be developed
whereby industry can quantify and manage human capital for
purposes of performance management.
Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in social science
involving the generation of theory from data (Borgatti, 2011). It is
mainly used in qualitative research, but can also be applicable in
quantitative data (Borgatti, 2011). The grounded theory is suitable
for this research based for the following reasons:
The research occurs within the natural environment of the
respondents (Bogdan and Bilken, 1982:9). There companies
identified are asked a set of probing questions to investigate
the research question.
42
Grounded theory is about discovering the participants main
concern and how they are constantly trying to resolve it
(Glasser, 1998). This research is investigating the possible use
of corporate qualifications frameworks and their applicability in
the business.
The result of grounded theory is not a report of statistically
significant probabilities, but a set of probability statements
about the relationships between concepts (Glasser, 1998). This
research is focused on exploring relationships between issues
and demonstrating frameworks that present new applications
and solutions.
Validity in its traditional sense is not an issue in grounded
theory, which instead should be judged by fit, relevance
workability and modifiability (Glasser and Strauss, 1967). This
research is not aimed at providing proof of any hypothesis.
Instead a set of research questions are addressed with a view
to develop improved business efficiency.
1.6.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Due to the nature of the research, the methodology will be
qualitative (Houp and Pearsall, 1987:60). Individual investigations
are the main method of eliciting evidence. Thus, the main source of
information would be the people who currently employ specific
systems in skills development, human resources and business
planning, as well as performance management in South Africa.
However, the source of information from people will be tested
against a solution that will have its origin firmly in applied theory.
The development of the framework will result from reports, the
43
internet, books and publications and also conference papers. A
critical analysis of policies, reports and other publications in business
and related industry magazines will also be used. Measurement and
observation of results and situations will be integrated in the
development of the proposed framework.
Personal interviews have been shown to have widespread relevance
when trying to establish opinions in research (Hannan, 2007). A
quantitative survey does not allow for dissenting views, and limits
the type of responses available to the respondents (Hannan, 2007).
When using a qualitative methodology, the company representatives
are able to give their exact opinions and are allowed the opportunity
to discuss the topic in detail. All the pros and cons can be tabled and
analyzed in detail. This not only allows the participants freedom to
respond, but also allows the researcher the chance to obtain varying
information and to develop a good understanding of how the
concerned individuals feel, rather than relying on specific questions
which do not necessarily elicit relevant and important information.
The research findings will be presented in a qualitative format and
used to discuss the results and recommendations of the research
study. A step-by-step plan for the management of the literature
review and data gathering process will be discussed in the data
collection section.
The literature review and data collection will follow closely on each
other. For more information see Annexure A.
According to Lester (1993:104) the literature review is a mini essay
about the source material of a research topic. It also sets the
44
context for the investigation of the topic and it organizes and
classifies the resources for the benefit of the reader. In this research
the literature survey is intended to orientate the research and to
outline the present and possible future environment of skills
development in South Africa.
1.6.3 DATA COLLECTION
The population, from which the sample will be drawn, will be the
services industry in South Africa. From the population, companies
will be invited to participate, based on the following purposive and
convenience sampling criteria:
Companies must be service seta members
Companies must have been levy paying members for 5 years
or longer
Companies must have a minimum of 30 and a maximum of
200 employees
Companies must employ a qualified SDF with at least 5 years
experience
Companies must be in good standing with the service seta
Companies must have sent a representative who completed
the skills development-training program between 2007 and
2009.
From the above, 169 qualifying respondents from a selection of
companies were identified. The 169 participants will be used to test
the application of a CQF. Concepts and categories will be developed
from personal experience, literature survey and research
questionnaires. Skills Development Facilitators will be asked to
45
complete the questionnaire as a POE. The research will consider all
relevant parties in the 169 respondents who would be influenced and
concerned by the establishment of a CQF.
The steps that will be followed:
1. Identifying the service industry as target sector
2. Identifying and listing of companies in industry whose training
will be measured
3. Conducting formal quantification of human capital from
selected companies
4. Interacting with Skills Development Facilitators to determine
their opinions
5. Auditing skills set of companies - assessment of non-formal
learning outcomes
6. Comparing non-formal learning outcomes with formal learning
outcomes
7. Building an in-house Corporate Qualifications Framework
8. Identifying shortcomings
1.6.4 DATA ANALYSIS
Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming
and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information,
suggesting conclusions and supporting decision making (Ader,
2008). Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches,
encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in
different business, science and social science domains (Shamoo,
1989). In statistical applications, some divide data analysis into
46
descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA) and
confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new
features in the data and CDA on confirming or falsifying existing
hypotheses (Veryard, 1984). Predictive analytics focuses on the
application of statistical or structural models for predictive
forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical,
linguistic and structural techniques to extract and classify
information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All
are varieties of data analysis (Shamoo, 1989).
The analysis of data will include the following:
o Inspecting Data - Identification and qualification of the
participants to partake in the research.
o Cleaning Data - Consideration of the number of
participants that support and are able to implement a
CQF
o Transforming Data – Investigating the ability of
participants to unpack human capital required in relation
to a strategic plan
o Modeling Data - The ability to align required skills into
job descriptions aligned to educational standards
o Allocation of functional skills to jobs, as required tasks,
from where the alignment to educational standards will
commence
o Modeling Data into the development of an integrated
human capital management framework.
47
The data analysis will be conducted in alignment with the principles
of grounded theory.
1.7 STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF STUDY
CHAPTER 2
In this chapter literature available on the subjects of accreditation,
credit accumulation, vocational credits and degree (qualification)
worthiness would be surveyed and discussed. The material will be
reviewed for relevance to the research question. Global trends will
be explored, while the success and failure of different systems will
be considered in light of the South African context. At the same time
a definition of human capital will be explored. The purpose of this
chapter is to consider accreditation as an element in developing a
benchmark against which non-formal training can be measured. The
role of strategic planning in the development of a CQF will be
investigated via the literature review. Chapter 2 will also address the
philosophical evolution of knowledge and thinking. The concept will
be explored within the principles of quantum physics and
metaphysics to demonstrate how all thinking originates from a
source that is potentially bias. The researcher will also consider the
risk that such bias may have on resultant constructs such as
qualifications.
CHAPTER 3
The methodology followed in this research is considered to be action
research and grounded theory. Action research is a reflective
48
process of progressive problem solving, in a team of practice, but
lead by a person from the group, with the view to analyse and
improve management issues and problems in such an organisation
(Lewin, 1946). Lewin further described action research as a
comparative research methodology on the conditions and effects of
various forms of social action, utilizing a spiral set of steps, each
consisting of planning, action and fact finding about the result of the
action. Such an application of action research suggests that a
grounded theory approach should be followed. Grounded theory
refers to the methodology where data is analysed in concepts and
categories and theory elicited from such data. This will be achieved
by studying the 169 portfolios of evidence, submitted by individuals
from the participating companies. These portfolios will represent
evidence in categories enabling the grounded theory process to be
used. In so doing, the companies will be investigated on an
individual basis. Findings will be scored on a data table, with a view
to eliciting theory on quantification of human capital.
CHAPTER 4
The research findings will be analyzed and discussed in Chapter 4, as
a research report. Different stages of the research will be discussed
and the application interpreted. The feedback from the research will
be considered in three sections – the researcher’s personal
experience, the literature survey and feedback from research
questionnaires. From each section a series of concepts will be
generated and clustered into categories. From the concepts and
categories will themes will emerge.
49
Research objectives will be considered in relation to emerging
themes. Categories will be discussed in relation to the stated
objectives to draw analogies and inform the emerging themes.
The research will also debate the practical implications of an
integrated human capital management system for industry. The
concept of a corporate qualifications framework is investigated as a
system of measuring human capital required within an organization.
The purpose of this chapter is, amongst other to inform the question
whether the NQF can in fact function as the benchmark against
which formal and non-formal training can be measured. This chapter
serves as the formal documentation of data related to the research
question.
CHAPTER 5
In Chapter 5 the emerging themes for an alternative framework for
human capital management is outlined. The chapter will discuss the
themes to emerge from the research. The creation of a framework
whereby non-formal programs can be accommodated within formal
programs will also be presented. The outcomes of in-house training
are compared with the outcomes of formal training programs.
According to Byham (2001:10) modern assessment centers can play
a pivotal role in identifying and maintaining talent within South
African companies. Assessment centre’s can also play a vital role as
performance management and RPL centers, to assist learners with
the accumulation and articulation of credits earned. Quality
assurance of credits obtained by means of RPL assessment, as well
50
as the understanding of project management, is crucial in the
implementation of a CQF. A CQF can also function as a mechanism
to conduct effective and normative skills auditing. By describing a
strategic plan in required human capital format, it enables the
graphic and numeric presentation of a framework that is expressed
within NQF levels and related credits. Actual human capital as
measured in performance terms, can be added to the framework to
present a graphic view of a potential skills gap. This will be done
both individually as well as collectively.
The chapter is also devoted to inform a policy framework whereby
future assessments of non-formal programs can be conducted. The
objective of this chapter is to inform an integrated system whereby
industry learning can be packaged and compared against job
descriptions as well as count as credit towards a qualification.
The possible influence of such a framework on productivity is also to
be considered in this chapter.
CHAPTER 6
This chapter considers the conclusive findings of the research and
reviews whether the research questions have been answered. The
study will be considered successful if the following criteria are met:
The utilization of an organizational strategic plan to
determine required human capital for an organization
Comparing industry experience, workplace learning
competence and non-formal training programs favorably
in content, level and outcomes with each other
51
Development a benchmark system to determine a gap
analysis of skills
Quantifying human capital in relation to a Corporate
Qualifications Framework.
The chapter presents a review of the research objectives in relation
to the emerging themes. The limitations of the study is discussed
whilst a list of further research topics are proposed.
1.8 THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS
The research will be conducted in the services industry. It will
labour under the following assumptions:
o That unit standards and / or credits for training are
acceptable in industry
o That industry accepts the measuring instruments of the
NQF
o That a Corporate Qualifications Framework could be a
practical application of the NQF
o That industry stands to gain from human capital
quantification
o That occupational profiles and job descriptions can have
credit values
o Those education institutions will accept the principle of
non-formal credit accumulation.
52
1.9 CONCLUSION
At the end of 1993, approximately 66 000 school leavers achieved
matric exemption and a further 160 000 passed their senior
certificate in South Africa (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5).
These numbers are expected to increase significantly as a result of
rising primary and secondary enrollments and performance
improvements within the South African school system. South African
Universities and Technikons admitted about 105 000 first time
students in 1994. The achievement in the future of an overall growth
in first year admissions and further progress in African student
enrollments, will place considerable strain on the higher education
system given the limited resources available. Despite this growth the
system will not be able to accommodate students who meet the
minimum requirements for entry and who wish to enroll at
universities and universities of technology. This, together with rising
expectations on the part of students for greater access and the
availability of financial aid, creates potential access conflict points.
It is therefore the aim of this study to ensure alternative means of
obtaining education other than formal enrollment at education and
training institutions. The quantification of learning, skill and
education could lead to the quantification of human capital on a
basis equal to the world system of schooling and degrees. Thus, by
ensuring that non-formal learning could count as credit towards a
qualification, the individual has more reason to learn. However, in
such learning, real productive competence is required. Credit is
earned towards a qualification whilst the learner can actually
53
perform at a higher level. The development of a CQF should enable
the attainment of a business vision in a normative and constructive
way. Such clarity should also enable the development of appropriate
learning cultures and promote wellness at large.
The nature of the benchmarks, being degrees, diplomas and
certificates, should be considered in terms of how they are
developed. A qualification ought to enable a learner with an ability to
operate successfully in the economic system. Thus, at the outset,
qualifications development should be driven from a systemic
perspective. Therefore, the process must start with a contextual
understanding and orientation that drives the creation of an
“abundance” mentality. It is no longer enough to simply have skills
in order to do a job. Modern day humans require a new value
whereby economic activity forms part of life. Happiness at work is no
longer acceptable as just a dream. More and more young people are
making career choices based on what would provide them with
growth, development and fulfillment towards self-actualization. It is
within this realm, that future economic planning needs to from.
54
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this research as outlined in chapter one are:
1. To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set
of required competencies that can be aligned to educational
standards. For this, unit standards and / or other education and
training qualifications could be utilized, in part or whole, as
standards of required competency in South Africa.
2. To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against
formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become credit
bearing. The study will investigate whether industry experience,
workplace learning, competency and non-formal training programs
compares favorably in content, level and outcomes, to such national
benchmarks reflected in formal education and training programs, in
an attempt to assess and quantify human capital within an
organization.
3. To demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used for a GAP
analysis in human capital management.
4. To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be
developed whereby industry can quantify and manage human capital
for purposes of performance management.
55
The importance of a literature survey should enable the researcher
to scope the study in more detail. By considering similar and
associated works of other authors, the risk of engaging in a topic
that has been researched already is reduced. Pertaining to the first
objective, the researcher will investigate how a strategic plan can be
unpacked into a set of required competencies that can be aligned to
educational standards. The subject matter impacts various aspects
related to strategic planning, business management, performance
management, human resource management and education and
training.
From a business perspective, the impact of a CQF on strategic
planning needs to be considered as the research investigates the
possibility that the relationship between strategic planning and skills
planning is functioning less than optimally within South Africa.
Similarly, the relationship between performance management,
strategic management and human resource management is to be
explored. In keeping, the relationship between education, training
and certification needs to be compared with strategic needs and
performance management requirements. Foucault (1969) defines
the sequences of relations to objects, subjects and announcements,
as discourse. A discursive formation is the regularities that produce
a discourse. In this research, consideration has to be given to the
discourse and discursive formations that form the realities called
learning. The potential connection between learning and the
metaphysical realm is also to be explored. The purpose of the
literature survey is thus to investigate the views relating to different
56
aspects referred to above and to develop a discourse on the research
question.
In order to develop such a discourse, the concepts of strategic
planning, competence, knowledge and actual skill are considered.
These concepts create a discursive formation and therefore suggest
a discourse.
In order to develop the discourse, the literature study will
investigate the views of various authors. See Annexure G.
The development of knowledge seems to feed the educational
institution that receives its input from the people (industry). The
problem symptom is the challenge to define competence
requirements from industry. The symptomatic solution refers the
development of education programs to address industry needs.
However, education programs don’t always address real industry
needs, thus the side effect. The fundamental solution would be to
explore whether such education actually satisfies human needs.
Education institutions formally conduct research that is utilised in
developing formal learning programs, which could lead to
certification (Burger, 2010).
The system is not, however, very robust or flexible as it does not
really absorb learning in the workplace at a dynamic pace. Thus one
of the wicked problems that need to be investigated within the
education system is the lack of integration of industry, or work
based learning into formal programs (Engel-Hills, Garraway,
Jacobs, Volbrecht, and Winberg, 2011). Innovation itself is probably
57
the most dynamic example of learning, but the innovator does not
receive any academic recognition for such inventions (Engel-Hills, et
al., 2011).
Diagram 2.1 Development of Knowledge
(Source: Systems wiki, 2009)
Pertaining to the third objective, an in depth analysis is needed to
consider the role of norms. Geertz (1958) writes modern myths,
stories that model problem solving strategies and describes how to
do anthropology. The author believes that some educators feel that
it is their duty to teach history as verbal and visual cultural
experiences, and thereby fostering character qualities and
universally shared values in their students. Learning that is
administered in this fashion is mostly repetitive in nature and does
not encourage creativity. Such educators are "hermeneutically
inclined", or simply, "modernists." Post-modernist educators on the
other hand, are inclined to critique theory (Rip, 2004). Geertz
believes that such authors don't essentialize; they politicize.
Convinced that "truth," "character qualities" and "universally shared
values" are just insidiously nice terms for ruling-class tastes, they
58
have turned against pedagogy of inculcation, towards one that
encourages autonomy and diversity. Not surprisingly, these two
groups remain at loggerheads (Solomon, 2003).
Redfield (2002) discusses progress that comes with evolution. It is
such evolution that brings about new ideas, new thinking and new
knowledge. Resultantly, newly required skills and competencies
develop almost every day. As we are living in the information age,
information is developing at an ever-accelerating rate. Thus, our
thinking about thinking itself, about knowledge and skill, should
evolve at a similar pace (Redfield, 2002). As content of knowledge
changes, the skills of how to analyse, deduct and deduce new
knowledge, is therefore ever increasing in value. It gives credence to
the modern day spiritual notion, “to live in the moment”, as the next
one would be very different (Tolle, 2008). In keeping, looking at the
past to determine the future will become increasingly difficult and
should decrease in use (Redfield 2002). According to Kenny
(2006:xiii) “the hallmark of Cartesian dualism was the separation
between mind and matter”. The future demands the skills of reason,
of post “Cartesian” thinking. Although Des Cartes is regarded as the
father of modern philosophy, one of the principles of Cartesian
thinking was the separation of mind and matter. The introduction of
quantum physics and the Copenhagen Interpretation (Arntz, Chasse
and Vicente, 2005) however, proves the relationship between human
consciousness and matter, starting on a sub-atomic level. The
implications of such thinking is important for this research, as this
demonstrates the evolution from pre-reformation thinking, to
reformation, to post-modern thinking about who we are, what we
are and what we could be as a people (Law, 2007). This thinking
59
suggests that “we” are the creators of our reality (Arntz, et al.,
2005). Thus, as creators of our reality, we can determine what
reality should be, decide what it would be and adjust our actions
accordingly to create such a reality (Tolle, 2008). In such context
the implications for learning is profound, as it suggests that learning
ought to drive the principle that people determine their own reality
(Byrne, 2006). The learner is therefore centerfold to a picture that is
changing, based on the learner’s intent. This principle is the premise
of all contemporary learning, as it defines not just who we are,
but what we are. Learning should therefore start at this level - the
departure point being the introduction of a new mentality that
combines human evolution with systems thinking and learning.
Carroll and Mui (2009) suggest such approach is a migration from
existence in the fourth, to that of the fifth dimension. This emerging
dimensional shift suggests a higher consciousness for the human
race and thus inspires a form of learning that resides in the human
soul (Wilson, 1991). Metaphysics is defined as the relationship that
we have with our higher selves, whilst routed in the material world,
hence the desire to discover ourselves (McTaggart, 2001). Plato
(1516) describes this consciousness dilemma as human beings living
in a cave, with their legs and necks chained together, so as not to
see anything but shadows. In the analysis, the author is describing
the inability of mankind to engage in thinking, debate and reasoning,
as being imprisoned by thoughts that are imposed on them. In the
confines of such intellectual prisons, the human mind develops the
ability to reason only in the confines of the jail. Hence, all thoughts
and values develop in context only. The effect is that reason is based
on assumptions (as is all reason) of the reality in which it occurs
(McTaggart, 1991). The work of Plato positions the philosopher as
60
the “thinker” – the human being - that questions, explores, debates
and reasons. Such modern day philosophy is expressed in various
metaphysical works. Bays and Billet (2009:3) refers to “unconscious
consumption” as a state of being where the individual is unaware of
what he is creating. By developing awareness, the human
consciousness gets to see how its action creates reality (Osho,
2001).
The challenge in becoming “aware” brings about understanding of
the current reality and how it has been formed. Such reality
formation has a path of thoughts, leading to the current reality,
much the same as a recipe to create a meal. Thus, the current
education system is a reality that formed in this fashion. During
awareness the mind is to realize how past thoughts created,
amongst others, fear, joy, sadness, wealth, poverty and an
education system (Arntz, et al., 2005). In this realization, the
consciousness or “matrix” from which we operate, determines
reality. Dawson and Allenby (2010) explain how humans are linked
forms of energy, operating in the matrix. The authors elaborate how
the human experience can be changed and new realities formed –
suggesting that a large enough group of individuals, focusing on a
new reality can create such a reality. Accordingly, education norms
will also form and change in this fashion.
Pratt (1992) refers to a concept called "transculturation". In an
electronic age, it is the process whereby subjects select and invent
new understanding from materials transmitted by mass culture. Its
goal is to employ one methodology (hermeneutics) to bootstrap
another (heuretics): that is, to divert interpretation into invention
61
(Ulmer, 2002). The implications for knowledge and subsequent
competency creation are profound. This implies that market trends
can be identified and used to invent new products. As Apple Mac
identifies consumer trends, the innovation team predicts future
needs and develops products to match this anticipated need. Thus,
the anticipated need is actually used to create the next level of
consumer needs. Effectively, using this transculturation, Apple
invents the needs of its customers before it actually happens
(Bloomsberg Businessweek, 2004).
The word “heretics’” originated as a theological term, as the flip side
or repressed other of “hermeneutics”. To interpret scriptures is to
read hermeneutically, whilst to employ scriptures as a means of
invention is to read it heuretically. Hermeneutics was secularized
during the 11th century. It provided methodologies of reading,
legitimated the study of texts and, in effect, created the Renaissance
humanist (Pratt, 1992). Contemporary literary theorists have altered
this orientation by reversing the direction of traditional scholarship.
Instead of taking a position of knowledge they have assumed a
position of ignorance and applied design and thinking strategies to
problems of textual nature. This implies the development of
deductive reasoning in education as opposed to the model of simply
learning what others wrote (Wilson, 1991). New thinking of what
learning content should be and how such knowledge should be
created, follows deductive reasoning (Pratt, 1992). Authors such as
Derrida, Barthes, Deleuze, Serres and Ulmer have in this sense
changed the formula of learning. In fact they have altered its goals
and thus, hermeneutics has become a means to heuretics (Pratt,
1992).
62
The benefits of this type of approach in education ensure that
teachers continue to train students in analysis and critique. Derrida
(2010) refers to a process called "deconstruction,” an approach to
asking the most adventurous and the most risky questions about our
learning, about our institutions and our way of teaching. Kenny
(2008) reflect the view of French born philosopher, Rene Descartes
on learning and education as follows: Descartes frequently set his
views apart from those of his predecessors. Many elements of his
philosophy have precedents in late Aristotelian philosophy, the
revived Stoicism of the 16th century. In his philosophy, Descartes
distinguishes two major points: First, he rejects the analysis of
corporeal substance into matter and form and secondly, he rejects
any appeal to ends — divine or natural — in explaining natural
phenomena. In his theology he therefore insists on “the absolute
freedom of God’s act of creation” (Kenny 2008:187). Thus,
advocating indirectly, that anything is possible. By implication, his
view that corporeal substance does not lead to matter, supports the
observation theory. The observation theory suggests that matter and
reality is formed as a result of human awareness – that the world is
what it is because humans see it as such (Arentz, et al., 2005).
Descartes shaped much of his beliefs due to a series of three
powerful dreams visions that he later claimed, profoundly influenced
his life (Kenny, 2008). In the first of these dreams, Descartes found
himself buffeted and thrown down by a powerful whirlwind while
walking near a college. In the second, he was awakened by an
inexplicable thunder or explosion-like sound in his head, seeing
sparks coming from the stove in his room. In the third dream, he
63
finds a great dictionary and an anthology of ancient Latin poets on
his bedside table. In the latter book, he reads a verse that begins
with, "What path shall I follow in life?" (Kenny 2008:187). Descartes
concluded from these visions that the pursuit of science would prove
to be, for him, the pursuit of true wisdom and a central part of his
life's work. Kenny (2008) discusses the work of Descartes further-
according to Descartes God has laid down the laws of nature. This is
to include, the art of reason. Levett and Dubner (2006) support this
approach and suggest that one should assume nothing but question
everything.
Another philosopher, Benedictus Spinoza, who lived between 1632
and 1677, said: “by substance I understand what is in itself and is
conceived through itself, that is, that whose concept does not
require the concept of another thing, from which it must be formed”
(Law, 2007: 77). Thus, understanding the original, pure thought
process. The impact on education suggests that substance would be
the basis of all knowledge and that all theory and further human
learning stems from this base.
Descartes proceeded to construct a system of knowledge and
discarded perception as unreliable. Instead he believed that
deduction alone is a reliable method of knowledge creation. He
finally established the possibility of acquiring knowledge about the
world based on deduction and perception. In terms of
“epistemology” Descartes will be remembered as having introduced
“foundationalism” (Skirry, 2008). He is quoted as having said;
“reason is the only reliable method of attaining knowledge” (Kenny,
2008: page).
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Blackburn (2010:163) states hundreds of years later: “There are
many so-called constants in nature. They are the values that cannot
be derived from theory, and so can only be determined by
measurement.” Thus, the notion of investigation or observation to
form knowledge is further supported. Alexander (2005) suggests
that one must dare to be open to question and to explore new ideas.
Such exploration could also be explained when considering research
methodology. When engaged in grounded theory research the
process suggests engaging and interrogating the data to elicit
theory.
Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system
of western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic
and science, politics and metaphysics (Law, 2007). Aristotle's views
on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship,
and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although
they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics (Ackrill, 2010).
His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which
was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic.
His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with
the advent of virtue ethics (Ackrill, 2010).
These philosophers are inadvertently examples of some of the first
heuretic thinkers and their views on the creation of knowledge
supported the development and creation of knowledge in a more
natural fashion than is the case today. According to Ulmer (2002)
morphology of methods developed, as all approaches on learning
65
methodologies share a common set of elements, which can be
abbreviated as follows (CATTT):
• Contrast-opposing a new method to an old one
• Analogy-figuration as a tactic of displacement
• Theory-repetition and documentation of newly proposed
methods
• Task-repetition and documentation of the newly proposed
methods
• Telling stories and dramatization of the new method.
Ulmer observes that every method of learning, from dialectics to
surrealism, must itself be represented in some form or genre.
Notwithstanding the value of innovation and learning, as
demonstrated in heuretics and CATT, no certification for such
processes exist in the formal education world (Hellberg, 2011).
In the diagram below the formation of a picture with the use of a
puzzle, attempts to illustrate the phenomenon of morphology.
Individual pieces represent one reality (ontology), but collectively
the pieces of the puzzle present a different reality.
66
Diagram 2.2:Morphology
(Source: http://listverse.com/2009/02/20/10-hilarious-listverse-
comments/)
Knowledge creation and knowledge formation in educational
institutions are driven by research in industry and academic decision
(Veness, 2010). However, innovation, strategic planning and the
development of job descriptions are hardly seen as interactive.
Innovation is quantified in a strategic plan only as a required
competence (Heathfield, 2011). With the introduction of the
Organizing Framework for Occupations, it can be deducted that such
type of thinking should somehow become part of the curriculum of
training (Robertson, 2011). Furthermore the same free-thinking
should relate to being innovative and should be part of all human
capital development initiatives, supported by a well-defined job
description. Such job description then, should function as a
performance standard, and be useful in obtaining formal
qualifications (Moore, 2011). Perhaps there needs to be a system
that translates a strategic plan into a skills plan. When required skills
plans are evident, it implies that the actions needed for success are
67
known to the relevant parties involved in the process of drawing up
a skills plan (Heathfield, 2011). Included in the required skills would
be the ability to think heuretically, or in effect, the ability to bring
innovation to the workplace. Thus, the business manager would
know what to do to be successful. The challenge is then, to
implement the proposed actions. Thus, the quality requirements
would be clear.
One of the “quality management” developments of the 20th century
was the introduction of quality assurance in education, defined as
accreditation. This concept aimed at bringing a sense of
standardization to education in a region and eventually in the world
at large (Oyaya, 2011). However, based on the varying education
systems in the world and the constant change in these systems, it is
fair to observe that the world and its education systems are still
evolving (Modelski, 1995).
Further discussions of how the evolution on knowledge proceeded,
are found in Scharmen (2009:81) in what is called the “genesis of a
new world”. The author explains how the Berlin Wall’s collapse in
1989 gave rise to people feeling that something new was rising from
the rubble. The rise held three elements according to him:
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* A global economic shift
* A network society with a relational shift
* A new cultural-spiritual shift
This phenomenon in itself gave inspiration to many ideas, of which
the development of new structures and systems where just one. This
newfound cultural-spiritual thinking shift was another step in
morphology. Osho (2001) discusses this spirituality as “awareness”.
The author explains his concept of awareness as essential for the
survival of the human race. This awareness refers to becoming more
aware of surroundings and especially, thoughts. Osho (2001)
believes that thought awareness would remind people who they are
and accordingly free them from enslavement of their thought
processes. Hence the drive to develop the quality of the world’s
education and training systems seems more logical. If Gladwell
(2010) is to be considered, this awareness will experience steady
growth until such time as it reaches a “tipping point” after which the
majority of humanity will buy in on the concept. However, a word of
caution comes from Stenger (2000: 345), “We must guard against
making any claim that we possess some special revelationary
equipment that guarantees our insights to be preferred to others”.
De Martini (2002) discusses the evolution of humanity on a personal
level. A detailed plan is suggested to manage the evolution of self
via skills and techniques that can be learnt. The purpose of the
exercise is to open the mind to a level that incorporates a more
spiritual and much more aware sense of existence. Lowenstein
(2005:62) discusses perfect wisdom in a Buddhist sense. The
69
Bodhisattva’s vow is to lead all beings to “nirvana,” a state of bliss,
where the sense of self is diminished. Braden (2008:83) calls this
the “terra incognita”, that what science tells people about their
brains and that which they experience via the brain.
2.2 THE CASE FOR ACCREDITATION IN EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
The motivation for the analysis of accreditation within education and
training resides in the nature and role of accreditation, as the
concept used to determine the role and norm for a skill or education
level (Bear, 1991). One of the results of morphed thinking is the
desire for education to be quality assured. Accreditation therefore
developed as the result of a complex set of values and norms that
evolved in thinking about education (Toor, 2010). Considering the
views of Plato and later authors on metaphysics, it must be
remembered that the reality of accreditation is no more than a
thinking construct, formed on the basis of previous thoughts about
education, standards and perceived quality of learning (Kenny,
2008). Thus, accreditation could be viewed as a result of human
thoughts evolving to a point (Ontology). It is assumed to be a valid
creation in the context of the “thought prison” that Plato refers to
(Kenny, 2008). Thus, thinking follows on thinking and as such,
stimulates and creates further thinking along the same lines. Such
thinking creates a pattern, like a set of dots in the matrix where
people exist. Weisstein (1998) describes the work of Mandelbrot as a
set of mathematical points in a complex plane, the boundary of
which forms a fractal. The fractal is an emerging pattern, a form or
shape that appears like a new reality, a result of thoughts. The
70
Mandelbrot set is a set of complex values of c, for which the orbit of
0, under iteration of the complex quadratic polynomial Zn+1 = zn2 +
c, remains bounded (Friesen, 2000). The Mandelbrot set is named
after Benoît Mandelbrot (Weisstein, 1998), who studied and
popularized the concept of evolving fractals. When computed and
graphed on a complex plane, the Mandelbrot set is seen to have an
elaborate boundary, which, being a fractal, does not simplify at any
given magnification. The Mandelbrot set has become popular outside
mathematics both for its aesthetic appeal and for being a
complicated structure arising from a simple definition, and is one of
the best-known examples of mathematical visualization (Friesen,
2000).
Accordingly, education can be seen as an evolving fractal. As new
information becomes available about education, this is added to the
already existing body of knowledge, thus adding to and changing the
appearance of the accreditation phenomenon, like adding to the
appearance of a fractal.
Diagram 2.3: Fractal Wallpapers
71
(Source:
http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?_adv_prop=image&
va=fractal&fr=aaplw&tab=organic&tab=organic&b=91)
The relevance of the above to accreditation in education is that, with
the different views in education as being the “mathematical set of
points in the complex plane”, accreditation forms as a pattern, a
new realty or a fractal- a most elegant solution born from what was
at first observed as a set of random views (Friesen, 2000). However,
caution has to be levied, as this new reality could also be the
foundations of a Platonian prison of thought. Deductive reasoning, as
per the Cartesian approach, suggests the development of knowledge
by means of reason, whilst Plato is one of the earliest thinkers to
realize that thought per say is contextual (Silverman, 2008). If the
original thought of accreditation is thus in any way flawed, the future
development of such thought (idea) would emerge like a fractal,
forming a reality that is incarnating flawed thinking. The work and
intention of Karl Marx (1818) serves as an example of how a
premise was developed and later misconstrued during
implementation. According to Vorhies (1991:11), Marx advocated
the formation of a new social reality called communism. In this
reality, the oppressed masses would be uplifted, ownership of
resources would become that of the community and individualism
would as a result reduce. Capitalism and wealth commanded by
individuals would fall away. However, the Marxist premise failed to
consider how greed would counteract this (Vorhies, 1991). With the
introduction of communism in Russia, the new leader, Lenin, openly
advocated violence to promote his ideology (Lennin, 1917). The
result of communist rule can be seen as a fractal, creating a reality
72
of poverty and neglect for most of the Russian nation (Putin, 2006).
The original envisaged realty of Marx was one of compassion for all,
equality and equity. However, this was used by later communists as
a platform for political reform, to manipulate the masses into
support of an idea that was twisted during implementation, to the
benefit of the few, as was the case before the Russian revolution
(Putin, 2006).
Popper (1945) criticized both Marx and Plato and introduced a new
concept called “Open Society” in which he suggests freedom for the
critical powers of man. He argued that history holds back thinking,
that it acts as a disabler of thought and by implication learning. He
also dismissed the ideas of Plato as foolish and unpractical. Thus,
Popper argues in favour of free-thinking as opposed to following the
rules, values and ideas inherited from generation to generation. This
liberation in thought can be debated in light of apartheid activist,
Steve Biko’s view on freedom (Body-Evans, 2011). Biko believed
that a physical as well as psychological liberation was needed
(Wilson, 2011). Thus, implying that the end of apartheid would
require actual freedom such as the right to vote, whilst an
intellectual freedom would have to follow, whereby the affects of
indoctrination would have to be changed (SACP, 2011). The world
has several examples of societies where this principle of freedom
emerged. In Russia, the communist party replaced the rule of the
Tzar with the objective to introduce a state that would do justice to
philosophers such as Plato and proponents such as Marx (Lucero and
Collum, 1989). However, the implementation failed and it
materialized in years to come that communist rule was as cruel and
greedy as that of their predecessors (Putin, 2006). Thus, although
73
the government changed, little change took place in the thinking of
the society at large (Lucero and Collum, 1989).
In a more recent example, The Zimbabwean region in Africa
practically operates as a modern day totalitarian state. The objective
of the first black government in Zimbabwe was the creation of a
democracy, where people can be free and vote for a democratic
elected government. However, the success of this vision has been
questioned lately. The oppressor changed, but not the social thinking
(Hondora, 2009).
The implications of such thinking, for learning, can be huge, as it
suggests that the same patterns of learning could continue
irrespective of the social, economic or political changes in society
(Pacepa, 2011). Notwithstanding the intent of freedom of thought, of
intellectualism, the shackles of historic ideology could remain
entrenched; resulting in thinking that fails to activate true learning
and subsequently failure to develop competencies envisaged
(Hackett, 1998). It remains to be debated whether accreditation per
say, is a shackle or the result of enlightened thinking. However,
accreditation is considered in this research, as a quantifiable
measure of learning.
Accreditation has various definitions. Bear (1991) defines
accreditation as a separate quality assurance activity that is used to
indicate the level of quality of education. Pharasad and Bhar (2010)
gives an overview of the Indian technical education system and
shows the value of accreditation as quality improvement and quality
assurance of educational programs. Bear (1991) suggests
74
accreditation as a process in which certification of competence,
authority or credibility is presented. The practice of accreditation
differs from country to country. In the United States of America,
organizations that issue credentials or certify third parties against
official standards are themselves formally accredited or certified by
accreditation bodies referred to as "accredited certification bodies”
(United States Department of Education, 2011). The accreditation
process in education and training suggests that the provider of
tuition, content and assessment and moderation, as well as
certification practices, are compliant with pre – determined
benchmarks. Thus, accredited providers are mandated to assess and
certify learners, and have suitable quality assurance policies and
procedures in place to manage the business of teaching and learning
(United States Department of Education, 2011). However,
accreditation practice differs greatly in different countries (Bear,
1991). In South Africa an educational institution must be accredited
in order to function, whereas in certain other countries such as the
United States of America, it is not compulsory. Also, in South Africa
the function of accreditation is under state control as opposed to
America where several non- governmental agencies exist to manage
accreditation matters (Robertson, 2011).
Educational accreditation is also a quality assurance process under
which services and operations of post-secondary educational
institutions or programs are evaluated by an external body to
determine if applicable standards are met (Brittingham, 2010).
If such standards are met in this context, accredited status is
granted by an agency. In most countries in the world, the function of
75
educational accreditation is conducted by a government
organization, such as a ministry of education (Willems, 2006). In the
United States, however, the quality assurance process is
independent of government and performed by private membership
associations (Bear, 1991).
The importance of accreditation in this research lies in the fact that
accreditation provides some degree of quality assurance for the
underlying qualifications and their components (Willems, 2006).
Included in this quality assurance is the notion that modern
qualifications are developed as a result of related industry needs. As
such, the development of the organizing framework for occupations
(OFO) focuses on the profiling of an occupation, from which a
qualification is then developed (Robertson, 2011).
The impact of the OFO and accreditation in South Africa is three fold:
Firstly, it provides a standard from which job performance and
therefore competency can be measured
Secondly, as a competency measure, it provides the
population of job descriptions with effective standards, from
which competencies identified, can be measured
Thirdly, occupational standards and qualification standards
become the same standards (Robertson, 2011).
Accreditation practices define the ultimate standards or benchmarks
against which a measurement could take place. Only with a known
benchmark can there be measurements, deviations or gaps
identified and plans devised to manage such gaps (Crossroads,
76
2011). Educational institutions tend to recognize fellow accredited
institutions, as this creates a basis for comparison (Bear, 1991).
Closely related to accreditation therefore is the issue of how such
institutions conduct cross recognition, or reciprocity.
2.2.1 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO STUDENTS
According to Brittingham (2010) accreditation in the United States is
a means to assure and improve higher education quality, assisting
institutions and programs using a set of standards developed by
peers. An institution or program that has successfully completed an
accreditation review has in place the needed instructional support,
expertise, student support and other services, to assist students to
achieve their educational goals. Accreditation has assisted to provide
the conditions necessary for the USA to develop diverse, flexible and
robust and often admired higher education systems (Brittingham,
2010).
According to the Association of MBAs (2010) the decision to enroll
for an MBA represents a major commitment, both in terms of time
and money, from the student. Therefore, in a crowded and complex
market, the MBA accreditation provides a reliable list of meticulously
tested programs and ensures that students' investments are
rewarded with the finest business education available. The
association believes that employers and top business recruiters,
looking to acquire the best managers and future business leaders,
know that graduates of their accredited programs have received the
highest quality management education. Accreditation gives business
schools international credibility and status (Bear, 1991). However,
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the number of MBA qualifications available worldwide is now in the
thousands, and only a small percentage of these would achieve
accreditation if they were submitted to rigorous international criteria
(Brittingham 2010).
The issue of accreditation therefore serves as a comfort to the
learner that the education product he/she is engaged in, is of good
quality. However, students and laymen often make the mistake to
assume that being unaccredited is equal to bad quality (Brittingham,
2010). Thus, although accreditation proves a school to be of quality,
the absence does not prove the opposite, as there are many good
schools that are in fact, not accredited. Furthermore, students
should also not assume that being accredited is equal to being
recognised (Bear, 1991). As there are so many institutions there is
no guarantee that one chosen by a student will be recognized by
another, even if they are both accredited. This enters again the
debate of international and even national, reciprocity. In the USA the
different states do not all recognize the institutions in other states.
There are even situations where accrediting agencies don’t recognize
each other (Bear, 1991).
In this minefield, no student would be blamed for feeling somewhat
lost in making a choice of where to study. The student should best
research the accreditation and subsequent industry recognition, of
any institutions under consideration. Depending on the particular
study field, industry recognition could be a stronger factor than
accreditation. Recognition by other similar institutions should also be
considered (Brittingham, 2010).
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2.2.2 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO BUSINESS
According to WorldWideLearn (2010) accreditation ensures a basic
level of quality in the education received from an institution. The
author believes it ensures that degrees will be recognized for the
true “achievements” they are. Thus, accreditation for business
implies that “achievements” (competency) could potentially be
benchmarked and thus industry performance could be plotted
against the same, leading to the satisfaction of the third objective,
namely that a gap analysis becomes possible (De Coi, Herder,
Koesling, Lofi, Olmedilla, Papapetrou and Siberski, 2007).
Competence is viewed as effective performance within a
domain/context at different levels of proficiency (Cheetam and
Chivers, 2005). De Coi, et al. (2007) further elaborates that
competencies are described as reusable domain knowledge. They
suggest that a model, representing competencies, describes what a
competence is and how it is composed of sub-competencies. These
competencies are general descriptions. For example, being a good
taxi driver or an expert Oracle database administrator are concepts
with fixed meaning (domain knowledge), independent of which
person possesses such competence. This is important to be noticed,
because competencies are to be referenced from certifications or job
descriptions, in order to stimulate their re-use. De Coi, et al. (2007)
implies that domain knowledge / competence is to be obtained,
amongst others, from qualifications. Thus, if such qualifications are
accredited, the accompanying competencies are recognised formally
as well. Distance-Learning-College-Guide.com (2010) elaborates on
the reasons why qualifications should have accreditation and refer to
some risks of registering for qualifications without accreditation:
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Without accreditation by a nationally recognized accrediting
organization, a school is not eligible to participate in
government student assistance programs. This means that, a
student would not be eligible for federal grant or loan money in
the USA.
Most employers who offer tuition assistance will not reimburse
tuition paid to a school that is not accredited.
Transfer of credits from one school to another, will only be
possible if the student attended an accredited college or
university.
According to the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS)
(2000) the organization launched an awareness campaign in the
United Kingdom (UK) in November 2000, targeted at business and
Government. The aim of the campaign was to raise the profile of
UKAS and the value of accreditation. The campaign, which is part
funded by full details BIS (formerly known as full details DTI), was
launched by Lord Sainsbury, the former Minister of Science and
Innovation in the UK. In 2007/8, the campaign continued to drive up
levels of awareness as a result of continued support from BIS, closer
relationships with partners and external suppliers and greater
internal resources.
UKAS has made significant progress raising the awareness of
accreditation structures in the UK. This has been achieved through
many initiatives: from senior level meetings, direct mailing of
promotional literatures, inter- and cross-departmental workshops
and presentations, as well as through press releases and events.
Meetings, workshops and follow-up activities have taken place in 18
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different government departments, which have broadened the
network of contacts and positioned accreditation as a solution, to
either supporting or acting as an alternative, to regulation (UKAS,
2010).
Thus, accreditation itself is not a concept that is known and
understood by all. As far as the business community is concerned,
the real requirement is skills, and accreditation is not necessarily
perceived as a quality measurement of skills. According to Trapnell
(2010:68) the accrediting organization Association for Accreditation
of Colleges, Schools and Business (AACSB) was founded in 1916 by
a group of leading business schools with the goal of “enhancing the
quality of management education at a collegiate level”. Since that
time, AACSB has granted business accreditation to 528 institutions
in 30 countries. In addition, AACSB accounting accreditation, an
extension of its business accreditation processes, has been granted
to 168 programs in 5 countries (Trapnell, 2010). AACSB began to
expand its accreditation program internationally in 1995 when it
granted accreditation to the first business school outside of North
America. International growth gained significant momentum in 2000
when the organization committed to a global agenda. As of April
2006, AACSB international business accreditation has been extended
to 85 business schools outside the USA (Trapnell, 2010). The author
suggests that, in a very competitive global market, education
institutions are constantly seeking recognition and differentiation in
order to effectively compete for top students and faculty. AACSB
accreditation has therefore become an important statement to key
constituencies of the quality of a business school’s offering.
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From an external viewpoint, earning internationally recognized
accreditation, informs other schools and external stakeholders (i.e.
employers, prospective and current faculty and students) about the
educational quality derived from being held accountable for
international standards through peer review and self-assessment
processes (Bear, 1991). Furthermore, positive benefits result from
an association and involvement with an international community of
management educators associated with business schools that have
achieved AACSB accreditation (Trapnell, 2010:68). However, in
South Africa, the trend is towards local accreditation as opposed to
international accreditation (Further Education and Training Colleges
Act, 2006). International brands in education such as Comité
International d'Esthétique et de Cosmétologie (CIDESCO, 2010) and
the International Therapy Examination Council (ITEC, 2010), are not
fully recognised by South African authorities. This, for example,
affects the reciprocity of qualifications in the beauty sector
adversely.
For the prospective employer, accreditation can be an indicator of
education and training quality. “Accreditation can also serve as a
selection criterion to assist a company in identifying high-quality
schools from which to recruit talented managers and leaders”
(Trapnell, 2010:68).
2.2.3 ACCREDITATION AND BUSINESS NEEDS
As demonstrated in Diagram 2.1, the issue of knowledge recognition
and generation in business, has become distorted over time.
Thinking appears to be polarized in two directions. On the one hand
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there appears to be the academic school of thought that believes
that all learning should be developed and controlled by the
educationists. The proponents of this theory seems to view the world
as scholarly driven and means to dictate to the rest of the world how
industry should conduct itself (Conway, 2010). The second school of
thought promotes the idea that industry should determine what is
taught, as it is at the forefront to society’s economic need
identification process. Proponents of this theory, or point of view,
seem to think that academic knowledge is impractical and mostly
irrelevant (Web-Institute-for-teachers.com, 2000). Various levels of
intensity of these thinking nodes exist, depending on the individuals
involved.
A possible solution could be a moderated approach that includes
ideas from both sides. As such, Beere (2007) considers the value of
competency based learning in a formal education institution. Chopra
(2009:73) believes that “an enormous amount of energy becomes
available when you give up the need to be right. Relationships
always suffer when there is a need for a right or a wrong”.
Osho (2001) discusses the state of Samadhi, super consciousness
and awareness. In these states the need for right and wrong
disappears and only observation (awareness) remains. Like an
empty canvas, this state produces the opportunity to act from a
point of stillness and objectivity.
Pink (2009) discusses the concept of extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation of individuals. According to Pink a financial incentive or
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reward can cause a de-motivation, as it takes away the reason for a
person to act from the heart.
Thus, if one could connect the thinking of the authors, it appears
that the energy from a state of objectivity (awareness) can be used
as a natural motivator. This motivator is equally applicable in
stimulating the need to learn as what it is in stimulating the need to
earn. Thus, it can be deducted that intrinsic motivators can be used
to stimulate performance.
If industry could therefore use the fact that business learning and
performance can carry qualification credits, individuals would have
more opportunity to act from a self-motivated point. Redfield (1996)
wrote a book called “The Tenth Insight” in which a future vision of
humanity is discussed. The author suggests that the vision needs to
be pursued in order to bring about human evolution. This evolution
is happening in human thought. Hence the change in how we view
knowledge and knowledge creation. In keeping, whatever the
relationship between business and education may be, accreditation
thinking is also evolving.
If ways could be developed to accredited training done in-house, to
obtain credits towards the attainment of qualifications, it may enable
the individual to consolidate personal development, academic
learning and corporate performance. At the moment these issues are
mostly seen as separate. However, as in the case of reality creation,
this view is self-developed and self-imposed by society and can thus
change for the better (Redfield, 1996).
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Demartini (2002:207) believes that “a person’s purpose becomes
clear when guided by the soul.” This may clarify an inspiring
purpose, and enable one to act from a point of personal drive. Hicks
and Hicks (2009) record a channeling from a spirit called Abraham,
in which the question of career choices is discussed. In the debate
the motivation and drive of humans are discussed and reference is
made to how people choose careers. The ability to remain in the
same career for a long time is also questioned. The point of the
debate is again the motivation for growth, for development and in
effect “learning”. However, not only learning as we see it
scholastically, but also learning as we see it spiritually. Such learning
refers to learning at a soul level.
Redfield (2002:17) describes the awareness that Osho refers to as
awakenings. Redfield also believes that human development is linked
to the evolution of the universe itself and also suggests that true
learning comes from direct experience. If this is to be applied in the
workplace it promotes the suggestion to use such experience and
learning towards a formal recognition scenario. The qualification
award itself should be seen as the conclusion, though, as the real
benefit is that such qualification of formalized learning, presents us
with a legitimate model to recognize the achievements of the
individuals in the workplace. As such, Business Dictionary (2011)
defines a qualification as the “Capacity, knowledge, or skill that
matches or suits an occasion, or makes someone eligible for a duty,
office, position, privilege or status. Qualification denotes fitness for
purpose through fulfillment of necessary conditions such as
attainment of a certain age, taking of an oath, completion of
required schooling or training, or acquisition of a degree or diploma.
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Qualification does not necessarily imply “competence.” In quantum
physics the spiritual principle of “life is what you make of it” is
proven by means of the observation principle (Arentz, et al., 2005).
In this experiment, the behaviour of matter is proven to be
dependent on human consciousness (Hawking, 2008).
According to Business Link (2010) training and development are key
ingredients for surviving the economic downturn and ensuring that a
workforce has the skills needed for growth and success. An employer
may have high quality in-house training programs that could be
considered for accreditation on a formal Qualifications Framework to
earn credits. An organization may also want to be recognised as an
awarding organisation. Ball (1989:64) believes that companies often
have employees that perform very well and beyond expectations.
“Often, these employees will not have the best academic
credentials.” Such individuals would do very well if their work-
based learning could count for credits towards qualifications.
According to Kingston (2006) the Leitch report was developed to put
employers at the heart of determining skills and qualifications needs.
This report makes it easier for employers to have their own training
accredited (Kingston, 2006). A number of employers have already
successfully been involved, including McDonald, Network Rail and
Flybe. According to Business Link, these three companies are now
recognised awarding organizations. Others, including Honda have
had their training accredited through working in partnership with
existing awarding organizations. The Leitch Review of Skills was an
independent review by Lord Sandy Leitch, the Chairman of the
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National Employment Panel, commissioned by the British
Government in 2004, to identify the UK’s optimal skills mix for 2020
to maximize economic growth, productivity and social justice and to
set out the balance of responsibility for achieving the required skills
profile and consider the policy framework required to support it. The
report recommended that the UK should raise achievements at all
levels of skills and recommended that it commit to becoming a world
leader in skills by 2020, as benchmarked against the upper quartile
of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) - effectively a doubling of attainment at most skill levels
(Werquin, 2010).
One of the objectives of businesses training their people, is return on
investment (ROI) (Meyer and Opperman, 2011). Thus,
measurement of such ROI should investigate the following elements:
• Did the training deliver what was expected for the business?
• What further training and development can be implemented to
continue to take the business forward?
• Does the training motivate staff?
• How is its quality assured?
Employer Based Training Accreditation (EBTA) (2011) is about
finding ways to make the impact of in-house training more explicit
(Coeducate Project, 2011). EBTA works with businesses to establish
whether a university can accredit their internal training. It also
supports employers who want to further develop training and build
towards formal national qualifications. Thus the mobility of such
accredited training is also addressed. The practice of accrediting
training by educational institutions is highly suspicious if such
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programs do not articulate or carry credit towards a further
qualification by such institutions. EBTA’s services are supported by
government funding as part of its strategy to support business
growth and development. The real, academic benefit of EBTA is
however that external verification of the quality and standard of in-
house training and matching in-house training to national
qualification standards becomes possible. In addition, the process
can assist in developing capacity to improve skills. Effectively, this
approach thus quantifies or measures non-formal training (EBTA,
2011). The development of such normative skills enables us to
compare, remediate, review and re-develop in order to achieve new
heights of innovation (Charlton, 2008).
2.2.4 VOCATIONAL ACCREDITATION
The term vocation comes from the word “vocare” meaning “to call”
(Business Directory, 2010). It is used to describe an occupation to
which a person is drawn or feeling called for, to fulfill. Thus
vocational accreditation refers to measuring the vocation against a
benchmark. Thus, supporting the notion that the industry or the job
requirement should determine the level of required learning as
opposed to the schooling system (Beere, 2007). However, the
modern application of vocational accreditation does not exclude the
academic notion, but rather embraces the practice thereof (Web-
Institute-for-teachers.com, 2000). Especially the inclusion of specific
educational techniques, thinking skills and quality assurance
methodologies are well represented in modern vocational
accreditation processes (Hong Kong Qualifications Framework,
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2011). As such various models of vocational accreditation are
constantly developing over the world.
According to Bulgarelli (2009) the Council of the European Union
adopted a resolution in November 2002 in Copenhagen for the
promotion of such vocational accreditation. Policy documents
provided the initial impetus for the Copenhagen process, a strategy
that aims to improve the performance, quality and attractiveness of
Vocational Education and Training (VET), focusing on the
development of a single framework for the transparency of
qualifications and competences, credit transfer in VET and quality
assurance. Together, these priorities aim at promoting mutual trust
in training provision and transparency as well as recognition of
competencies and qualifications.
The result is thus establishing a basis for increasing mobility across
the European Union. These priorities have been successively
confirmed by the Maastricht (2004), the Helsinki (2006) and the
Bordeaux (2008) communiqués as well as by the recently approved
council conclusions on a strategic framework for European
cooperation in education and training (Bulgareli, 2009).
Bulgareli (2009) further explains how quality assurance can play a
decisive role in modernizing European VET and improving
performance and attractiveness and thereby achieving better value
for money. Accordingly, many European countries need to increase
VET responsiveness to changing labour market demands, increasing
the effectiveness of VET outcomes in improving the match between
education and training demand and supply. The author believes that
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better levels of employability for the workforce, improved access to
training, especially for vulnerable labour market groups, should
become a high priority.
Accordingly, a common quality assurance framework (CQAF) was
developed in Europe. Member countries where invited to promote
the CQAF. Thus, vocational education enjoys considerable status in
Europe. The question that arises is what the effect of this focus is on
actual output, for example Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and
also GDP per capita. Europe, consisting mostly of developed
countries is focused on vocational education, but also enjoys higher
standard of living than that of developing countries (Bulgarelli,
2009). By combining work based accreditation and vocational
accreditation an interesting phenomenon may develop, as work
based accreditation can then become vocational accreditation. This
enables the accumulation of credits in both the workplace and
classroom, to measure the attainment of qualifications and also, the
level of performance at which a person operates (Capella University,
2011).
The emerging role of workplace learning needs to be highlighted in
view of the above. Workplace learning takes place at the workplace
and is often introduced as workplace training in order to improve
employee skills. Workplace learning can also happen via coaching
and mentoring, observation or by repetition, enabling the
development of an experience base (Kerka, 1998). Knowledge as
well as practice can therefore be developed. In the process, such
organizations may develop learning organization values. According
to the University of Massachusetts (2011) workplace learning is
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offered in various forms, such as supervisory training and
management development. The University of Southern Mississippi
(2011) offers a Masters Degree in Workplace Learning. The
relevance of workplace learning to this research is that such learning
often takes place with little or no formal recognition. It is entirely
possible for workplace learning to be equal in content and level, to
modules in formal qualifications. However, workplace learning
seldom enjoys such recognition.
In South Africa there are two ways to address the problem. Firstly
the workplace could apply to become an accredited provider (SAQA,
2011). Thus, to establish formal quality assurance and alignment to
known or acceptable standards. The second is to outsource the
alignment and quality assurance to an existing provider. This option
requires the provider to ensure alignment of workplace learning to
acceptable standards as well as the introduction of quality assurance
requirements.
Such workplace learning could therefore, possibly become credit
bearing within a formal qualification. Credits could possibly be
accumulated in the workplace that may be transferred to formal
qualifications (Capella University, 2011). The research could possibly
probe the viability of such practice. A question that should be asked
is whether industry would recognize such qualifications? The
administration of such credits would have to be investigated.
Frameworks to align required skills and potential credits would also
have to be developed.
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2.3 THE CASE FOR RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION AND
TRAINING
Although accreditation could serve as the basis for skills or education
standards, a review of accreditation without considering reciprocity,
is not complete. According to Beach (1906) education reciprocity
followed after trade reciprocity. The practice of reciprocity refers to
the formal / informal recognition of qualifications between
countries or systems (Colten, 1981). In effect, the qualifications of
different countries are “mapped” against each other based on
elements such as content or curriculum, specific outcomes,
assessment criteria and exit level outcomes. Reciprocity in this
research is important as it pertains to the system of recognizing
different educational programs (Tammaro and Weech, 2008).
The University of Kentucky (2010) developed a system to facilitate
the movement of teachers from one state to another. The University
Of Kentucky College Of Education collected the teacher certification
requirements for 50 states within the USA. Accordingly, the
University recognized that different states are continually revising
their teacher certification/licensure rules and requirements. This
system thus facilitates the practice of reciprocity between states.
However, reciprocity is more than simply recognizing qualifications,
it operates as a system that compares the cross recognition of such
qualifications and is also focused on the “how” of the recognition. As
such, the United States Department of Education (2010) believes the
term “reciprocity” is used widely across the country, but that the
true meaning of the term is often overlooked. Reciprocity within the
United States context seems to be a system whereby a
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recommendation for licensure from a state-approved education
training program at an accredited college or university is recognized
in another state, according to the Department of Education in the
United States. The reciprocity is governed by the Interstate
Agreement developed by the National Association of State Directors
of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC) (Plymouth state
University, 2011). However, reciprocity does not guarantee that a
license in one state can be "traded in" for a license in another state
(Plymouth state University, 2011). Thus, decisions of reciprocity
vary from state to state and are not governed by the Interstate
Agreement. According to Mthembu (2001) a South African case
study pertaining to reciprocity concluded that higher education in
developing countries would be destroyed if rampant
internationalization of higher education from developed countries
were not stopped.
Mudimbe (1996) explains the discourse on Africa from an Afrocentric
perspective. According to Hames-Garcia reciprocity could create an
intellectual prison that is operating as a thought factory that may
very well avoid real philosophy from developing and accordingly
constrain thought and learning (Hames-García, 2004).
Taussig (1993) on the other hand, believes that, to become aware of
the west in the eyes and handiwork of its others, to wonder at the
fascination of their fascination, is to abandon border logistics and
enter into the 'second contact' era of the borderland, where 'us' and
'them' lose their polarity and swim in and out of focus.
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Mthembu and Taussig further identified some difficulties to engage in
international education. They alert us to pitfalls and paradoxes of
cross-cultural exchange in a post-colonial era, and therefore, the
fears of internationalization and reciprocity lies in the perceived risk
that the west would indoctrinate the developing world. The Mthembu
approach is earthed in the notion that the developing world should
be allowed its own space to develop and that its students should
study in their own countries only. Litwiller (2009) on the other hand,
considers practical applications between cross-cultural education
programs and their local communities. Against a backdrop of rapid
internationalization in universities and schools nationwide, Litwiller
developed a workshop and guidebook to provide the means to start
thinking more in-depth about the nature of relationships with
community partners.
The first two critics, a South African professor of mathematics and
an American anthropologist, raise questions for USA educators
seeking to internationalize education programs. Although the risks of
reciprocity may not seem onerous, it is best advised to consider
these in the development of reciprocity agreements. Successful
reciprocity should include balanced development and symbiotic
relationships. Such relationships can be assistive, but should avoid
being prescriptive (Taussig, 1993). One such a relationship was
developed between South Africa (via the Services Seta) and the
European Union, pertaining to the cross recognition of qualifications
in hairdressing. The agreement reached, concluded that South
African hairdressing qualifications would be recognised in Europe,
with the proviso that such migrants would do a module on
“entrepreneurship” as part of their continuous professional
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development (CPD) when they work in Europe. At the same time,
people qualified in Europe would be recognised in South Africa, but
would need to do “afro Hair” as part of their CPD, when working in
South Africa (Goosen, 2005). However, not all countries seem to
have the ease of such reciprocity thinking. In some parts of the
world, standards vary hugely from country to country and
sometimes even within countries (Bear, 1991).
In particular, reciprocity in the USA and Canada are often
problematic. According to the Canadian Tourism Human Resource
Council (CTHRC)(2010) the Canadian Tourism Sector should have
better mechanisms for assessing, comparing and recognizing prior
learning to achieve true learner and labour mobility for its non-
regulated occupations. The CTHRC states that accurate, fair and
reliable mechanisms enable educators and learners to assess,
compare and recognize skills and credentials. In keeping, the CTHRC
is building on its existing national occupational standards
and industry-certification program by means of research projects.
The Council further mentions that these projects compare and map
learning outcomes for a variety of educational institutions as well as
industry associations, both nationally and internationally.
The goal is to further the development of protocols, processes and
frameworks to support effective mechanisms for recognizing prior
learning (RPL) within tourism occupations. Such RPL activities are
not limited to Canadian origin but can also come from other
countries (SAQA, 2011). This practice enables and facilitates a
meaningful reciprocity platform. In South Africa, the reciprocity
practice developed into a system whereby the contents of one
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qualification are mapped to another, by means of comparison of the
Curriculum or Unit Standards, Specific Outcomes and Assessment
Criteria (SAQA, 2011). The nature of mapping is determined by
whether the qualification has unit standards or is developed with
academic outcomes only (Tammaro and Weech, 2008). This practice
is not always desirable as the objective of mapping is to achieve
cross recognition and such detailed mapping may highlight details
that differ whilst the overall exit outcomes of the qualification
creates the same set of competencies. Thus, an individual could
have obtained a qualification in one country that differs in finite
content from a similar one in another country (SIT Study Abroad,
2011). However, both the qualifications could serve the same
occupation. In the cosmetology industry, the skills of massage are
taught differently in different countries (Habia, 2010). However, the
qualified masseuse is mostly involved in the same occupation. An
alternative to finite mapping is thus to compare the outcomes
created, as this may achieve the motivation for cross boarder
recognition, or reciprocity (Quality Schools International, 2008).
Competent, certified and qualified individuals provide a skilled labour
force. However, employers need to have a framework to be able to
know how to compare qualifications with one another. Where career
paths are well articulated, it aids in the recruitment, selection and
retention of skilled workers. One such a system is to create an
Organizing Framework for Occupations (OFO). As such, the Canadian
National Occupational Standards into the Tourism Techniques
Articulation Project, aimed at integrating relevant national
occupational standards into the curriculum of Cégep de Saint-
Félicien, and achieving reciprocity between the Canadian Tourism
96
Human Resource Council (CTHRC, 2010) and this Quebec-based
college, allowing students to acquire a variety of management and
occupation-specific skills. Upon graduation, it also leads to the
automatic receipt of an emerit certificate for occupational
knowledge. Individuals who receive this emerit certification could
also receive recognition toward the Tourism Techniques program at
Cégep de Saint-Félicien. As this sets a central benchmark of
occupational standards, the same standards could be used in
measuring the skills and performance of employees.
In the event management industry, the Canadian Tourism Human
Resource Council is leading the development of an “Event
Management Standard”. Occupational standards are the skills,
knowledge and attitudes needed to be considered competent in an
occupation. Standards are created from a detailed occupational
analysis that results in the identification of criteria-based
performance and knowledge requirements for that occupation.
Accordingly the Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK)
model (2010) is a knowledge framework and descriptive summary of
the scope and processes that are used in the management of events.
It is a sequential system reflecting the changing nature of event
management. As this sets the stage for an occupational standard,
later processes in industry where actual skills of employees are
measured against this standard, could be possible. Thus, EMBOK
sets the stage for aligning workplace learning to be translated into
credits in a formal qualification. Thus, a Corporate Qualifications
Framework could be developed; suggesting work based learning to
be recognised as formal credits.
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In 1998, South Africa established the Sector Education and Training
Authorities (SETAs), including the Services SETA and THETA
(Tourism and Hospitality Training Authority), amongst others (Skills
Development Act, 1998). South Africa’s National Qualifications
Framework (NQF) was established, in part, to facilitate the
assessment of the international comparability of standards and
qualifications. According to the International Labour Organization
website both Canada and South Africa have recognized credentials
for the events industry that are based on standards. A comparative
analysis of these standards could therefore further the development
of a model for the events community and events industry in both
countries.
To meet future needs, the Canadian Tourism Human Resource
Council (CTHRC) (2010) suggested the development of a foreign-
credential-recognition (FCR) model. It was suggested that the FCR
model should be developed and connected with the sector’s existing
occupational standards as well as its professional certification
(credential) programs.
In 2005, a comparative study of the CTHRC and the Caribbean
Professional Certification Systems conducted a review of selected
international credential-recognition systems. The study considered
the systems and identified what is common amongst them and
relevant to Canada. Similar work has been conducted on establishing
joint recognition systems between South Africa and the European
Union in skills that include industries such as Marketing and
Hairdressing (Goosen: 2005). Where the Canadian study aimed at a
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better understanding of assessment and recognition methodology,
the South African- European project aimed at comparing outcomes.
In the South African model, the issues not covered in respective
qualifications, where listed as Continuous Professional Development
issues in the countries where issues where lacking. This enabled the
formation of a reciprocity system that created cross boarder and
international recognition for learners and employees with such
qualifications. The Canadian project also looked at identifying
concerns associated with establishing an FCR model (CTHRC, 2010).
Although much related work has been done in South Africa, the
South African drive in terms of a formal FCR model still needs to be
formalized.
According to the University of Kentucky (2010) the rules in the case
for cosmetology licensing reciprocity agreements between the USA
and Canada are confusing. While there are certainly some reciprocity
agreements, they aren't consistent throughout the USA states and
Canadian provinces. Within the USA, all 50 states require
cosmetologists to be licensed; however, requirements differ from
one state to another. Most requires one to have a high school
diploma plus a diploma from a state-licensed cosmetology school or
beauty college. Thereafter the candidate must pass a state licensing
examination. By comparison, in Canada, some provinces don't
require cosmetologists to have a license, while others have very
strict licensing requirements. To transfer a license from Canada to
the USA, the employee has to consider the rules in each state.
Certain states request that you re-take the written or practical exam
before being granted a license, others require additional beauty
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training courses. Some have relaxed reciprocity regulations and
require only an application, proof of current license and a fee.
The same holds true for Canada - each province has different
licensing requirements and different rules regarding reciprocity.
Alberta gives credit for education received elsewhere, but requires
an exam to get a license. Manitoba and Newfoundland, by contrast,
review each application individually and then decide whether to
grant reciprocity based on that cosmetologist's education and
experience.
Certain international organizations offer certifications that are
recognized by multiple countries. “Habia”, a government appointed
standards setting body in the United Kingdom, partnered with the
National Cosmetology Association in the USA to form the
International Cosmetology Licensing Organization in 2006. Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and 34 USA states have agreed
to recognize certain qualifications granted by Habia (Habia, 2010).
Within the USA, the National Accreditation Commission of
Cosmetology Arts and Sciences (NACCAS) have worked to establish
reciprocity agreements with other countries, including Canada
(Habia, 2010).
Reuven and Gilad (2010) examine the existence of reciprocity in
online learning networks. The study analyzed the response relations
between participants in 75 online learning networks at the Open
University of Israel. Specifically, the study investigated whether the
observed reciprocity of responses can be explained by the random
selection of partners to respond to, or whether a reciprocal selection
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process of partners is at work. The finding was that reciprocal
selection processes are at work in online learning networks. The
effect is thus the same as in traditional education, namely that
reciprocity does not happen unless driven by interested parties.
As such, the approach of non- interference in African Universities,
would lead to low and possibly no recognition of African based
qualifications by the developed Western world. As the developing
world stands to gain by reciprocity, the drive for, especially South
Africa, should be towards more, as opposed to less, reciprocity
(Taussig, 1993). The cross border development of occupational
standards that are at least similar in nature and deliverables,
enables cross boarder alignment of occupational profiles and hence,
of occupational qualifications (Robertson, 2011). These standards
are then easily used to develop job descriptions that can also apply
across borders. As these standards are becoming uniform, it is
easier to compare such between countries. Especially in scenarios
where a company operates as a multinational, the same standards
can apply for the same job although operating in different countries.
Furthermore, for industries where the service or product is more
homogenous, cross border standards make it easier to compare
performance. Thus, skills comparison becomes easier.
One of the ways in which reciprocity can be addressed, is the
development of designations. The Purchasing Management
Association of Canada (PMAC) has signed agreements with the
Institute for Supply Management (ISM) in the USA and the
Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply (CIPS) in the UK to
provide reciprocity between each organization’s globally recognized
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designation (PMAC, 2011). According to the agreement, supply chain
management professionals, holding one designation, are eligible to
receive the reciprocal designations, provided they meet specific
criteria. The organization suggests that, possessing a reciprocal
designation will enhance the international recognition of this skill-
set.
Designations are industry awards for the recognition of a person
when functioning at a certain level. Examples of designations include
that of the Charted Accountant. Designations are not qualifications,
but often require that a person holds a certain qualification; has a
defined level of industry related experience and adhere to a code of
conduct - thus, showing evidence of operating at a certain level
(SAQA, 2011). This approach could be very beneficial if incorporated
within the reciprocity debate. Designations can be used to cross
recognize individuals and their performance across many platforms
where qualifications may differ. The test is whether the person
operates continuously at the required standard of the occupation
(Exponential SA, 2011).
2.4 CORPORATE QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS
Once the workplace is aligned to formal standards, albeit by
becoming a provider or aligning with one, programs offered at the
workplace could possibly become credit bearing. As such, these
programs obtain a position on the National Qualifications
Framework. However, it may be unlikely that the workplace learning
would constitute an entire qualification. As such, the learning so
undertaken, could potentially present a partial qualification that
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addresses the direct needs of the workplace (Hong Kong Education
Bureau, 2008). Such collection of training programs could constitute
a Corporate Qualifications Framework for the workplace. Learners
and employees could possibly even plan on how these credits on the
Corporate Qualifications Framework could be attained. Such credits
will then possibly be earned for career advancement, as training, but
also as credits towards a formal qualification (Capella University,
2011).
2.4.1 CREDIT ACCUMULATION
Where a strategic plan can be used to determine the required human
capital in business and industry skills used as credit in such
benchmarks, it could be possible to use such a system to determine
normative skills gaps. This implies that there will be a need to collect
and accumulate credits on a peace meal basis. Aberystwyth
University (2011) discusses a concept called “Credit Accumulation
and Transfer Schemes (CATS)”which is used by universities in the
United Kingdom to monitor, record and reward “passage through a
modular degree course and to facilitate movement between courses
and institutions.” It is also possible to equate CATS with the Scottish
Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF, 2011) and the European
Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) (2011).
According to Adam (2000) the task of the Leiria International
Seminar was to discuss workable alternatives and build consensus
about Credit Accumulation and Transfer Systems. This seminar was
one of the international seminars agreed to in Helsinki. The purpose
of this seminar was to discuss credit accumulation and transfer
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systems in the context of the Bologna process and the linkages to
lifelong learning. Adam suggests that the experience gained by the
European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) provided the framework for
much of the national and international development of credit
accumulation and transfer and the internationalization of higher
education.
During the same seminar, the Minister of Education from Portugal
stressed the need for more student and teacher mobility to aid
European integration. The minister also felt that there needed to be
more harmonization between different national educational policies.
A further point mentioned by Adam was that the European education
system needs to improve its international competitiveness and the
employability of its citizens. This would also lead to more
competition between European systems, which would improve and
sharpen individual educational provisions. The worldwide acceptance
of European degrees and diplomas requires better information about
their content, competencies and academic and professional
objectives (Adam, 2000).
Heath (2007) developed a theory about the “stickiness” of ideas and
concepts. The author investigates the aspects that make a story
stick (remembered). Credit accumulation could be one such a factor.
If a person knew that company training and experience could count
as credit towards a qualification, the “stickiness” of what they do,
should increase. Thus, such employees would be more motivated to
do well in both the training and the work base performance.
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Adam also mentions that the Bologna Declaration called for the
“adoption of a system of easily readable and comparable degrees.”
The aim of the seminar was to work towards the creation of a
European credit system. A subsequent speaker at the seminar,
Volker Gehmlich presented a vision of a global credit accumulation
and transfer system that could encompass adult education,
vocational and professional training, higher education and lifelong
learning.
From the discussions of the European Union, the efforts of the
United Kingdom in workplace and vocational accreditation, plus the
South African impetus in the establishment of concepts related to
RPL and OFO, it seems that the agenda for credit accumulation
intends to favor of credit accumulation from non-formal sources. The
benefits for such a system could be plenty. However, if the contents
of learning are going to be driven and dominated by the traditional
educational institutions, a global bureaucratic system may very well
be the only result. The system would need flexibility in terms of the
contents so as to accommodate credits for innovation. In addition,
accredited workplace learning with proper articulation towards
qualifications, may very well be considered (Adam, 2000).
2.5 POLITICAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
Mantashe (2010:1) indicated that “education will solve poverty,
unemployment and growing inequalities in South Africa.” It should
enable people to break the chain of poverty and contribute to the
economy. Similarly The Freedom Charter (1955) stated that basic
education would be free and compulsory for all children.
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A word of caution for free education however, is always wise. A
distinction must be made between the right for education and
obligation that goes along with such a right. The risk is that society
may develop a belief that its education is the responsibility of
government, leading to the pendulum swinging in favor of the
scholastic control of our learning (Beere, 2007). This brings the
added risk that governments can manipulate education to suit their
own agendas and as such, undermine the value of democracy.
The doors of learning and culture shall be opened, setting out
principles of free, universal, compulsory and equal education,
promising to wipe out illiteracy, and undertaking to remove all
cultural, sporting and educational color bars (Mantashe, 2010). The
first 12 years of learning must be able to give children the basic
skills to enter the labour market. It must never happen that a child
is deprived of education because of their family's economic status
(Freedom Charter: 10). A compelling argument in favour of (at least
basic) free education is the fact that uneducated citizens are in
nobody’s interest, not government, not society and certainly not the
uneducated individual. However, the degree of control of the
scholastic system, which is ultimately government controlled, is to
be debated. In this instance the right or wrong answer is not the
point, but debate and engagement is (Sachs, 2005). As long as we
can, as a human race, allow ourselves to be intellectually challenged
into heuretic thinking, our chances of evolving into more advanced
beings, are improved (Heathfield, 2011).
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By allowing governments to decide what we read, believe and what
we learn, we surrender who we are. We surrender our sole purpose
and we lose our motivation to learn, to grow and to act, both
spiritually and corporately (Osho, 2001). Therefore, the success and
failure of our education system itself rests on its ability to be open
and to allow itself to be challenged.
Thus, for the education system to be successful in the future, it will
need to be more sophisticated than it is today (Squire, 2009). If we
are to address the education backlog, the skills gap, poverty and
productivity, in South Africa, the system will need to be more flexible
and adaptive. Van der Linde (2002) discusses the role of good
educational management in a changing South Africa. Commitments
to change should include the following:
1. All qualifications should demonstrate a sense of understanding
towards industry driven needs
2. Scholastic educational needs will have to be considered,
including aspects related to pedagogy and didactics
3. Innovation skills will have to be a priority in developing
qualifications and heuretic thinking will have to be evident in
qualifications
4. Certain industry-based training and workplace learning will
have to carry educational credits and a qualification will have
to indicate how credit can be accumulated over time
5. Quality Assurance would have to be relevant, flexible and
implementable
6. Qualifications would have to become the benchmark of
contextualization and move away from being recognitions for
knowledge only.
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The role of government in education should be to bring education to
the masses (SACP, 2011). One of the ways in which education can
be brought to the masses, is the massification of delivery via e-
learning. Various e-learning systems are available and many of the
world’s leading universities are using a wide variety of such systems.
Wankel and Kinglsley (2009) present a detailed discussion of the use
of the system called “Second Life”. In this system, a virtual
university can be built in virtual space. The net effect is a virtual
university. Anderson (2007) explains how, with the use of the
Internet, even small quantities of products such as music can be
sold, as storage cost are almost nothing on the servers where it is
kept. The same applies to online education.
2.6 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND SKILLS NEEDS
The connection between strategic planning and skills needs should
be that strategy defines required skills (Duggan, 1999). Such
required skills should, if heuretic thinking applies, include systems
requirements like innovation. Some universities have a workplace
component in their degree structure. This component allows the
student to bring a component of workplace activity into the degree,
as credits (Ixion, 2010). This requirement goes a long way in
addressing the dynamics of the degree process and can create a link
between strategic planning and skills needs (Skiff,2002).
Furthermore, the determination of the actual skills level and
subsequent gaps, defines the relationship between skills levels and
strategic planning (Duggan, 1999).
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According to Barber (2010) in the state of Victoria, the Skills for
Growth program is a strategic planning and workforce development
program, run by the Government of Victoria, providing small and
medium businesses in the State of Victoria with free access to skilled
business consultants and to employee training opportunities. The
goal of the program is to help small and medium business owners
achieve greater levels of near-term and long-term success by
mapping out their business' key goals and priorities and evaluating -
and closing - capability gaps in their workforce. Key benefits that the
Skills for Growth program is meant to create for participating
businesses include:
• Superior business performance and productivity
• Increased workforce efficiency and effectiveness
• Enhanced capacity for innovation
• Expanded range of employee capabilities
• Reduced overall costs
All of which, of course, lead to the realization of the ultimate benefit
for businesses - improved profits (Barber, 2010). After a business
registers with the Skills for Growth program and selects a Service
Provider that best suits its needs, the Service Provider assigns an
independent workforce planning and training specialist who contacts
the business owner and arranges for an on-site visit. Workforce
planning and training specialists are required to have completed a
Training and Assessment (TAA) course as well as an accredited
course on Assessing Informal Learning (AIL).
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Barber (2010) lists the following steps as part of the first phase of
the Skills for Growth program:
Phase 1
• Completion of a high-level business analysis that looks at,
among other things, the strategic direction of the business
• Assessment of the skills and training needs of employees as
they relate to the business' strategic direction
• Development of a Workplace Training and Action Plan that
identifies business and employee skills needs and that
recommends referrals to relevant training programs and
learning opportunities.
There are no costs associated with participating in the first phase.
Phase 2
The second phase of the program unfolds only if the business owner
or manager chooses to proceed with the training recommendations
(which are accompanied by three quotes).
Following, are the steps identified within the second phase of the
Skills for Growth program:
• Facilitation of staff placement into training with an accredited
training organization
• Completion of a follow-up review after staff have completed
training - or have undergone at least three months of training
- and of a Skills for Growth report which must be reviewed and
approved by the business (any employees hired by the
business after the initial review receive individual training
plans).
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Strategic planning and skills needs should have a direct connection
(Skiff, 2002). Skills needs ought to be a function of intended,
strategic business direction and long term planning. Care has to be
taken not to have a short term only approach. As the new age
requirements for knowledge management are emerging, it is
becoming evident that innovation and the ability to re-invent the
business constantly, is a dire need (Fujio Cho, 2011). In order to live
in the new world, the legacy of this generation should be the
creation of education systems that serves business needs, to take
people through the 21st century. At the moment the world is plagued
by economic dissatisfaction (European Journal of Political research,
2011). In the UK conversations about spending cuts dominate the
political debate (Fox News, 2010). In Europe, particularly Greece,
riots are a regular occurrence in defiance of economic policy
(Klystron, 2011). In Africa, poverty remains a problem in a post-
colonial era (Global Issues, 2010).
If anything is evident from the world economic situation, it is that
the education system has failed to produce a society that can
engage in meaningful activity to satisfy even its most basic needs
(Squire, 2009). A radical, violent change is needed in thinking about
education. According to Brown (2005) a skills revolution is required
before any economic revolution will ever be successful.
Stevens (1994:230) explains a concept of how people can be subject
to the forces of their “dragons.” One such a dragon, the greed
dragon, causes the individual to develop an un-satisfied sense of
wanting. So much so, that all sense of what is already achieved is
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lost and the view of a “half empty glass” remains. For South Africa,
given its past, this is particularly profound. One of the legacies of
apartheid is the negative emotional scares that it has left its citizens
with (Jaruzel, 2008). Education could be a powerful instrument in
this equation. However, if it fails to act as a system where
motivation can be developed, it is doomed. One such a very simple
way is the development of a system such as RPL, credit
accumulation and designations (SAQA, 2011).
Training and education in the future would have to be developed in
such a way that the needs of the organisation and its growth are
clearly accommodated (Skiff, 2002). In addition, curricula would
have to serve the need for personal development and foster skills in
thinking, innovation, value systems and self-management.
Structurally the qualification would need to consist of different
components, so that the learner has the benefit of building the skills
base at his/her own pace (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).
2.7 BENCHMARKING OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCE
Houron (2008:1) states: “Whatever the size or nature of your
organization, the ideal is to move your business from one of
"excellence to significance." Reaching this goal involves an
understanding that talent is the foundation of business success. The
author lists helpful guidelines to maximize the effectiveness of
benchmarking:
• Select an assessment that was designed and validated to
be relevant to the relevant industry, and only choose
instruments that conform to the Standards for Educational and
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Psychological Testing and the Uniform Guidelines on Employee
Selection Procedures.
• Benchmark employees on skills, not personality traits.
Skills are applied constructs, while personality traits are often
abstract. Personality traits are not synonymous with skills or
competencies.
• Large sample sizes are not necessary to conduct valid
benchmarking exercises.
• Consult with Industrial and Organizational Psychology
professionals when interpreting and applying benchmark data.
Always include a professional with strong expertise in the use
and interpretation of the assessment used for benchmarking.
The value of assessment and benchmarking transcends recruitment.
Together, they are investments that provide a strong competitive
edge by driving the most valuable asset - human capital. Therefore,
the selection and benchmarking of employees are crucially important
(Pisello, 2010). The importance of the development of the right
profile cannot be overstated. Traditionally the skills needed for
business were all identifiable up front. In the future, one of the
required factors will be that management will need the skills to not
only deal with change, but also to cause it, to seek it and to
implement it as such (Skiff, 2002).
Zander (2002) believes we live in a world of measurement. The
author elaborates further in exploring the connection between
awareness and measurement. Zander’s argument culminates in
developing an awareness of the limitless potential of the human race
suggesting once more that perhaps we could re-look what we
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measure. In the South African society, the benchmarking of skills
and competencies can be regulated in terms of a variety of existing
standards (SAQA, 2011). In the FET and HET sectors there are
various qualifications that can be used as a standard. Any
qualification is, per se, a standard of skill and competency. This
standard can, although not always easily, be unpacked and used in
more finite scenario’s, such as job descriptions. The notion to link a
qualification to a job or profession is not new (Robertson, 2011). For
example, a medical doctor has to have a specific degree and
practical experience before being able to function in a medical
position. In the accounting profession the requirements from various
employers for the financial manager position, has been a person with
a Charted Accountant status. However, having a qualification or a
certain skills level, is no guarantee that a person will perform
consistently at a required level (Exponential SA, 2011).
2.8 SKILLS, PERFORMANCE AND CERTIFICATION
If a strategic plan can be used to determine the required human
capital, and industry experience is used as credit in an integrated
system, it implies that there could be a link between skills,
performance and eventually, certification (Skiff, 2002). Skill (techne
in Greek) is used to denote expertise developed in the course of
training and experience. It includes not only trade and craft skills as
acquired by apprenticeship, but high-grade performance in many
fields, such as professional practice, the arts, games and athletics
(Gregory, 1987:715). The performer of the task should match the
demands of a task. In order to perform a task, a strategy for
implementation must be developed.
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According to Gregory (1987:715) there are three main parts to a
skill:
• Perception of object or events - perceiving all relevant factors
• Choice of response - making a decision
• Execution of the choice made - normally requires motor
coordination and timing
Senge (2010:15) discusses the development of industry and notes
that the world industrialization boasts great success. However, due
to this success, certain economic and social challenges developed
over time. It is this very level of achievement that would require the
human race to develop a radical change in the way the world is
viewed. This in itself requires a new skills set. Thus, if our economic
thinking about what we achieve has to change, then so does our
thinking about our performance. Not just how well we perform, but
at what do we perform? This proposed change would suggest that
we measure other things as what we did in the past. In keeping, our
award system and recognition of achievement will need to alter
(Senge, 2010). Once this type of thinking evolves, the certification of
the players would also need to change, hopefully for the better.
Drucker (1993) argued that a skill could not be explained in words, it
could only be demonstrated. Thus, the only way to learn a skill in
the past was through apprenticeship and experience. However, with
the introduction of unit standards, skills can now be described,
defined and documented in finite detail (Robertson, 2011).
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Furthermore, it can also be assessed, measured and counted. It can
even be mapped against similar skills, on an international basis.
Wade and Parent (2002) explore the mix of organizational and
technical skills demanded of Webmasters, and the degree to which
those skills influence job performance. The study was composed of
two parts. First, a job-content analysis of 800 Webmaster positions
was conducted in order to determine the mix of skills demanded of
Webmasters by employers. Secondly, a survey of 232 Webmasters
was undertaken to test the relationships between the skills identified
in the first phase of the study and job performance. The job-content
analysis suggested that employers seek technical skills over
organizational skills, and, in contrast, the survey results showed that
Webmasters regard organizational skills as most important in
performing their jobs.
The establishment of an empirical link between job skills, workplace
learning and job performance opens the field to further research
related to skills required by information systems personnel.
Middleton (2010:59) believes that talent is either over estimated or
undervalued. Thus, the measurement of skills and performance
becomes even more important.
The connection between skills, performance and certification should
be a continuous line. Required skills should be defined in relation to
what is needed for business success. These required skills ought to
function as the performance benchmark for industry as well as for
the contents of qualifications (Skiff, 2002). When compliance to the
job performance is met, it implies the individual is competent. This
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supports the compliance of the standard with educational
requirements, such as having the appropriate knowledge base.
Collectively these elements imply competency that may be certified,
for purposes of a qualification (Plymouth State University, 2011).
2.9 CONCLUSION
The integration of the research objectives suggests the use of a
framework where business objectives are used as the guidelines to
design competence objectives. Clustered together, this competence
set constitutes a job description, a benchmark from which industry
experience and also learning objectives can be deduced. Thus, to
measure against this benchmark could enable performance
management and the formalizing of learning objectives (Houron,
2008). In essence this approach suggests a framework where
education, learning and workplace performance are measured all in
one (Lategan, 2001).
The question remains whether the notion of a CQF can be
implemented in industry. The focus of this research is to probe the
possibility by working with a sample of companies, to ascertain the
acceptability of a CQF.
The question of the research is fourfold:
1. To assess whether an organizational strategic plan can be utilised
to determine the required human capital for an organization.
2. To determine whether industry experience, workplace learning,
competence and non-formal training programs could be compared
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compares favorably in content, level, and outcomes with each
other.
3. To determine whether a benchmark system exist to determine a
gap analysis of skills.
4. To determine if industry can qualify human capital in relation to a
Corporate Qualifications framework.
Debate on knowledge,
skills, education and
competency (heretic
thinking).
Evolution of
knowledge
Business
Planning
Analysed origins of
knowledge
development. Inform
view and area to
research.
Debate how business planning
is conducted at the moment
pertaining to skills needed.
Analyse skills
required and
suggest research on
how required skills
could be developed.
Required
human
capital
versus as
actual
human
capital
Debate how required
Human capital can be used
as benchmark to
performance manage
actual human capital
Analyse actual
skills, its
development and
suggest research on
how to view in
future
Business
objectives
originates
from market
needs
Debate on how business
generates knowledge
Analyse how
business
knowledge can be
formalised
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Diagram 2.4 Literature Survey
In compiling the literature survey the structure of the survey
addressed the evolution of thought on knowledge creation and
management over time. The process started with the identification of
views on knowledge and followed on to debate and analyse the
origin of knowledge with a view to inform the area of research. An
important notion of contextual determination was highlighted to
demonstrate that all knowledge development is based on a premise.
The consciousness of humans determine matter, thus ultimately al
truth is in the eye of the beholder. The issue was illuminated in light
of the Copenhagen observation and the influence of mind over
matter (Arentz, et al., 2005). Business planning is discussed and
probed with a view on how business planning is conducted pertaining
to skills needs, exploring how to define required human capital. The
comparison between required and actual human capital suggests
that required human capital may be used as a benchmark to
performance manage actual human capital (Skiff, 2002).
In the literature survey, an attempt has been made to illustrate and
discuss the evolution of knowledge itself. The overview starts with
the advent of theology and the Aristotelian approach, when
knowledge to the masses was forbidden and transgressors
prosecuted. With the ages came change such as the contribution of
Rene Descartes, who no longer accepted blind faith and introduced
the age of reason. This was the start of “heuretic” thinking (Ulmer,
2002). This gave rise to the understanding of knowledge on the
basis of two schools of thought:
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blind faith and interpretation, where knowledge was simply
passed along and accepted, and
heuretic thinking that introduced reason, debate, interpretation
and even innovation.
As a result of the two very opposing forces, a third school of
thought, “morphology” evolved. Ulmer (2002) refers to the
introduction of a common set of elements and suggests,
inadvertently, a system where some knowledge is accepted and
some interpreted. However, the effect on the education system of
the world was more complex. Traditional educators felt that they
knew best and thus wanted to own the right to develop education
programs accordingly. At the same time industry needs changed
much faster than what had been incorporated into educational
programs. Thus, through the ages, it seems that knowledge had
been quantified on an indirect, unsatisfactory basis towards industry.
Hence, corporate training was introduced to fill the gap that the
education system could not. The introduction of accreditation for
education added to norms but also to complexity (Bear, 191). Both
educational and industry schools of thought wanted more input into
the system of development. The morphed results are that modern
qualifications should be designed to accommodate educational
principles, industry needs and learner flexibility (such as credit
accumulation and workplace credits). Industry, at the same time,
should consider a system to manage its total learning. Such total
learning could introduce a system whereby the organizational
objective are pursued, but would also enable the same pursuit to be
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used as credits for formal learning (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).
The question remains whether this can be implemented in industry.
The focus of this research is to probe the possibility by working with
a sample of companies, to ascertain the acceptability of a CQF.
The literature survey concludes with the question, how can business
training be formalized, and suggests an industry probe with a
sample of companies. The approach by business, the international
debate and the drive by government in the establishment of SAQA
and its subsequent initiatives, are all indicative of the need for a
normative system of education and training in South Africa. The
overall trend that is emerging seems to be for a system where
education can be measured and benchmarked in industry (Skiff,
2002). However, care has to be taken in the development of such
norms and benchmarks, as these are themselves, the result of
structured thinking, based on historical values of what education
should be. Economically, society desire a level of satisfaction that
refers to issues such as housing, running water, electricity and
decent work. All of these desires are in fact issues of normative
values (Williams, 2000). In order to achieve these desires, society
and individuals need a certain level of skill. Society at large does not
experience a satisfaction of its needs (Williams, 2000). However,
through education and training, new and better skills can be
developed to improve such need satisfaction.
The development of a new mentality is eminent, and in fact, a
requirement, if we are to transform society. Within the current
qualification structure, in South Africa, non-relevance is
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demonstrated by the skills taught at institutions of teaching. Critical
thinking, system thinking, understanding of self in relation to the
world and not even to mention, spiritual consciousness, are all
absent in the development of the mind of the learner. Therefore in
the absence of a contextual awareness, the individual exists in a
vacuum of senselessness.
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 OVERVIEW
According to North Central Regional Education Library (2011:1)
“action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused
efforts to improve the quality of an organization and its
performance. It is typically designed and conducted by practitioners
who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research
can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team
approach is called collaborative inquiry.”
Ferrance (2000:2) states; “implicit in the term action research is the
idea that teachers will begin a cycle of posing questions, gathering
data, reflecting and deciding on a course of action. When these
decisions begin to change the environment, a different set of
circumstances appears with different problems posed, which require
a new look.” Action research projects are started with a particular
problem to solve. However, the answers may lead to more
questions.
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Diagram 3.1: The Action Research Cycle
(Source: O’Brien, 1998)
http://www.web.net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html
The proposed methodology to be followed in this research is
considered to be action research, as the activity will consist of a
cycle of posing questions, gathering data, reflection and deciding on
a course of action. For this reason action research is a reflective
process of progressive problem solving in a team of practice, but
lead by a person from the group, with the view to analyse and
improve management issues and problems within an organisation
(Lewin, 1946). In this research, a series of questions are posed to a
selection of companies, pertaining to their ability to plot required
skills against their strategic plans. Lewin further described action
research as a comparative research methodology including the
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conditions and effects of various forms of social action, utilizing a
spiral set of steps, each consisting of planning, action and fact
finding about the result of the action. Accordingly, the results of the
questions will be compared to each other. As this comparison is
made, it is anticipated that observations will be made and feedback
from companies will give rise to more questions. Torbert (2004)
introduced the use of “developmental action inquiry” as a research
methodology, as reflected tin Diagram 3.2
Diagram 3.2: Developmental Action Enquiry
(Source: O’Brien, 1998)
http://www.web.net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html
This methodology is a way of conducting action research.
Accordingly, the potential development of a CQF, could ascribe to
these views in the following ways:
a) The research process is reflective in as much as it “reflects” or
considers the position of learning, skills and competency from
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various perspectives. These should include the hermeneutics
as well as heuretic schools of thought. The methodology
should further reflect on the role of future qualifications with
job descriptions, including standards and benchmarks related
to education.
b) The research also investigates the relationships between
strategic planning, required human capital and actual human
capital and related skills gaps, in a systematic way. Data is to
be collected on these relationships and the development of
theory is anticipated from such data.
c) The potential CQF could possibly serve as an emergent theory.
This may suggest a management system that informs business
decisions about skills needs in a normative way, thus forming
theory emerging from the data.
Field research (Cohen, 2011) originated from anthropology and
is sometimes also known as either participant research, or
“ethnography” (Cohen, 2010). The term “field research” is also
used by industry as a generic reference to collecting or
creating information outside of a laboratory or typical
workplace (Baker, 1988). Accordingly, the process suggested
for this research, also involves field research and direct
observations. Participant observations, data collection, and
survey research are examples of field research activities.
Accordingly, the research will focus on a systematic
methodology of generating theory from data (Baker, 1988).
The research starts with a particular set of data or facts and
investigates emerging theory from such data. Thus the
research is “grounded” on existing data (Borgatti, 2011). The
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approach of generating theory from data is referred to as a
“grounded theory”.
According to Borgatti (2011) grounded theory is a theory that
is developed from a corpus of data. Thus, grounded theory is
not theory deducted from grand theory, as it takes a case
rather than variable perspective (Glasser other authors 1967).
For purposes of this research, each of the participating
companies will constitute a different case. Different cases are
made for the unique companies in this research. Each
company has a set of variables that interact to produce certain
results. The objective is to develop a generic system whereby
such a business could manage the balance between required
and actual human capital. The question is thus whether a set
of (grounded) data could be identified from which a theory
could emerge.
According to Dick (2011) grounded theory begins with a
research situation. In such research the “situation” is reflected
in the research question. The research is conducted mainly via
questioning, observation, conversation and interviewing. The
process is driven by constant comparison and triangulation.
Thus, theory emerges. In this research, interrogation of data
to develop theory is suggested via the following questioning
process:
Can a strategic plan be utilised in determining the required
human capital for a business?
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If so, following from such potential results, the question to
follow is whether the required human capital can be broken
down into meaningful jobs.
The next question is whether such jobs could be aligned to
educational standards or competencies?
If the previous questions are affirmative, the researcher will
investigate whether specific jobs can be aligned to standards,
functioning as a benchmark for both performance management
as well as educational credit?
If the answers to all the above questions are positive, the next
question could be whether the collective application of the
above-mentioned activities provides a system whereby a
company has a framework within which to manage its human
capital and skills levels.
According to Dick (2005) grounded theory is an emergent
methodology. Glaser, Strauss and Corbin are three published
authors on grounded theory as discussed by Mills, Bonner and
Francis, (2006). The authors suggest that constructivist grounded
theory is a popular method for research studies primarily in the
disciplines of psychology, education and nursing. They find Strauss
and Corbin’s texts on grounded theory to possess a discernable
thread of constructivism in their approach to inquiry. Charmaz
(2001) explains constructivist grounded theory as a process where
the researcher engages in data collection, analysis of such data and
rendering of participants’ experiences into grounded theory.
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Grounded theory can therefore be considered a methodological spiral
that started with Glaser and Strauss’ original text. The variety of
epistemological positions that grounded theorists adopt are located
at various points on this spiral and are reflective of their underlying
ontologies (Mills, Bonner and Francis, 2006).
According to Glasser and Strauss (1967) the major strategy used in
grounded theory is the general method of comparative analysis. The
authors suggest that much of current research is primarily the
verification and expansion of existing theory or the development of
theory through logical deduction rather than from the experimental
data itself. Dick (2005) believes that grounded theory begins with a
research situation. “Within that situation, your task as researcher is
to understand what is happening there and how the players manage
their roles. You will mostly do this through observation,
conversation and interview. After each bout of data collection you
note down the key issues: this I have labeled "note-taking".
Constant comparison is at the heart of the process” (Dick, 2005:2).
In this research, the research “situation” is defined in the research
“question”. The research is indeed focused on determining “what is
happening “in the context as well as investigating the roles that
participants play in the process of exploring the research process.
Observation plays a very important role, as it is anticipated that the
research question will highlight new questions and make
observations not previously known (O’Brien, 1998).
Data collection in this research will use a variant of the note taking
practice. A more structured questioning and interviewing system is
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suggested to collect data. Comparison of findings would be
important, as the research question is addressing an issue that
pertains to a collective rather than individual finding. Glasser, and
Strauss (1967: 5) argue that the “adequacy of a theory can't be
divorced from the process of creating it”. Accordingly in this
research, it is anticipated that theory will emerge from data, in the
sense that patterns will be observed, creating more questions and
potentially more theory.
Dick (2005) continues to explain that the grounded theory process
compares interview (or other data) to interview (or other
data). Theory is anticipated to emerge directly after each category
of questioning. The author suggests that, when theory begins to
emerge, data to theory comparison should start. As such, it is
anticipated that the questions asked (data collection) in this
research, will lead to the identification of certain findings (emerging
theory) and observations. The results of this comparison are to be
written down. This “note taking” is known as coding. The
researcher’s task is to identify categories (roughly equivalent to
themes or variables) and their properties (sub-categories) (Dick,
2005). In this research it is anticipated that such categories will
consist of questions that generate data on the applicability of
qualifications frameworks in the sample of companies that will
participate.
During coding, certain theoretical propositions should occur. For
example, these should indicate a bias for or against the development
of qualification frameworks, as the formation of theory. These may
be about links between categories, or about a core category. As the
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categories and properties emerge, the theory emerges. Such
emergence could be equated to the formation of fractals as
discussed in chapter 2. Another step would be to write notes about it
- called “memoing” (WorldiQ, 2011).
Once the core category and its linked categories start to saturate
they no longer need to be added to the theory formation. In this
research it is expected that theory will emerge from data after
investigation of data presented from the participating companies.
After the attainment of the theory, it is expected that additional data
sources be considered in an attempt to strengthen the theory
emerging at that point in time. In other words, more data does not
change the theory, nor does it add to the theory, but rather confirms
the same theory.
At this stage the research should move to sorting. The researcher
should group memos, like with like, and sequence them in whatever
order will make the theory clear. As this study will be using pre-
defined categories, it is expected that theory will emerge from the
total data presented as opposed to data gathered from single
companies in the study. The literature is accessed as it becomes
relevant. It is not given special treatment. Glaser and Strauss
(1967) makes the point that most research, including qualitative
research, is hypothesis testing. However, in this instance there is no
hypothesis, but a research question.
According to Dick (2005) a grounded theory study works through the
following mostly-overlapping phases. In short, data collection, note-
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taking, coding and memoing occur simultaneously from the
beginning. Sorting occurs when all categories are saturated.
Diagram 3.3 Overlapping Phases of Research
(Source: Dick,2005),
http;//www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/grounded.html
Writing occurs after sorting. Dick (2005) further suggests that the
researcher can be flexible, thus does not need to follow the elements
of grounded theory exactly. In this study deviations will be made as
mentioned, pertaining to memoing. The theory is emergent, thus
the methods can be emergent too (Glaser, 1998).
What most differentiates grounded theory from much other research
methodologies is that it is explicitly emergent and thus
constructivist (Mills, et al., 2006). It does not test a hypothesis. It
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sets out to find what theory accounts for the research situation as it
is. In this respect it is action research: the aim is to understand
the research situation (Dick, 2005).
The objective is to discover the theory implicit in the data (Glasser,
1998). This distinction between "emergence and forcing", as Glaser
suggests, is fundamental to understanding the methodology. Dick
(2005) also believes that grounded theory has its own sources of
rigor. Thus, it is responsive to the situation in which the research is
done. As such, there is a continuing search for evidence that
disconfirms the emerging theory. In this research, this notion will
not be pursued, as the disconfirmation will happen naturally where
negative answers to questions are discovered. It is driven by the
data in such a way that the final shape of the theory is likely to
provide a good fit to the situation. Glaser (1998) suggests two
criteria for judging the adequacy of the emerging theory; namely
that it fits the situation and that it works. Thus, the intention is that
it assists in the efficiency of business.
Observation can deliver a great deal of information towards theory
formation. Observations can be made during interviews and
questionnaires – leading to development of theory. Although any
data collection method can be used, this research is gathering
information via questionnaires and observations made by
participants in such questionnaires. Focus groups can also be used
in other qualitative research and are suited to grounded theory. As
such, the possibility of focus groups may be explored in this
research. However, as theory emerges from data, the need for such
focus groups (or not) will also emerge. Informal conversation, group
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feedback analysis, or any other individual or group activity, which
yields data, is considered the same (Baker, 1988). The possibility is
thus open ended.
Glaser (1998) recommends against recording or taking notes during
an interview of another data collection session. No such recording is
anticipated for this research. Key-word notes may be taken during
the interviews. However, it will be based on need and observation
and not predetermined. Such notes will be converted to themes
afterwards. Memoing will also take place as and when needed. The
flexible approach is justified in terms of the pre-determined
categories and questions. The benefits of that will be the managing
of the emerging theory. Coding will also be easier as it will enable to
compare like with like.
In this research, the questionnaire probes a process to elicit a series
of questions such as:
What is going on here?
What is the situation?
How is the situation being managed?
Therefore, what categories are suggested?
In grounded theory a category is a theme that extracts sense of
what an informant has said. It is interpreted in the light of the
situation studied and the emerging theory. After a time one category
will be found to emerge with high frequency of mention, and will
appear to be connected to many of the other categories, which are
emerging. This is considered the core category (Borgatti,
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2011). Normally it is hazardous to choose a core category too early
in the data collection. However, when it is clear that one category is
mentioned with high frequency and is well connected to other
categories, it is safe to adopt this as the core category (Borgatti,
2011). This research is anticipated to identify such categories in the
questionnaire, as the categories are identified via the research
questions. When a core category has been identified, the researcher
can cease coding of any sentences, which do not relate to it. In
most instances coding rapidly becomes more efficient as the study
progresses. At some point the researcher will code for the core
category, other connected categories and properties of both. Any
identified connections between categories are recorded in memos
(Borgatti, 2011).
When collecting and interpreting data about a particular category, a
point of diminishing returns will eventually be reached. Eventually
interviews or questions add nothing to what is already known about
a category. It is anticipated that this principle will apply in this
research as the questioning and investigation is of similar nature
between the possible participating companies (Dick, 2005).
In using grounded theory methodology it is assumed that the theory
is concealed in data to be discovered. Coding makes some of its
components visible. Memoing adds the relationships, which link the
categories to each other. The next task is to decide how to structure
the report to communicate the theory, thus called sorting. This
provides the basis for the anticipated theory (Milles, et al., 2006).
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In this study, the research situation is defined upfront and as such
indicated the literature that may have an impact on the research.
Accordingly, the literature study addressed issues surrounding the
research and the scenario in which the theory could emerge. It could
be suggested that literature was treated as data upfront. However, it
is observed that literature surveys in grounded theory based
research could in fact follow research activity, as opposed to
traditional research where literature is surveyed first.
Constant comparison remains a core process of grounded theory
(Dick, 2005). A key issue is how you treat apparent disagreement
between emerging theory and the literature. According to Glasser,
and Strauss (1967) most research today is designed to verify
existing theories and not to generate new ones. Researchers extract
knowledge from existing "grand theories" rather than explore new
areas not covered by existing theories. In this research less
emphasis is placed on extracting knowledge from existing theory and
more emphasis on extracting theory from data. Glasser, and Strauss
(1967) suggests that the existing research culture emphasizes and
reveres good scientific, quantitative verification studies and
downplays more qualitative studies whose objective is theory
generation. Accordingly, most theory is apparently generated
through logical deduction from past studies and knowledge and not
from the data itself.
"In discovering theory, one generates conceptual categories or their
properties from evidence, then the evidence from which the category
emerged is used to illustrate the concept" (Glasser, and Strauss
1967:23).
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Grounded theory can appear in various forms. "Grounded theory can
be presented either as a well-codified set of propositions or in a
running theoretical discussion, using conceptual categories and their
properties" (Glasser, and Strauss 1967:31). This research uses the
question and discussion format, as it is often easier to interpret and
deduct theory.
It is anticipated that the categories will begin to form patterns and
interrelations which will ultimately form the core of the emerging
theory. Building grounded theory requires an interactive process of
data collection, note taking, coding, analysis and planning what to
study next. The researcher needs to be theoretically sensitive as
he/she is collecting and coding data to sense where the data is
taking the research process and what to do next.
The saturation point is reached when the additional information no
longer lead to additional theory formation. Saturation can also occur
in different categories, thus making it possible for the research to
move on to other categories. This practice allows for the systematic
identification of the existence of theory.
Ontology is a systematic account of such existence (Sowa, 2005).
Thus, the discovery of answers to the above research questions,
may suggest a systematic discovery of the existence of an idea or
concept related to a corporate qualifications framework. Sowa
(2005) describes the subject of ontology as the categories of things
that exist or may exist in some domain. The product of such a study
is called ontology. Ontology is thus the types of things that are
assumed to exist in a domain of interest. As such, the ontology of
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the researcher is the environment of learning, the recognition of
such learning, the norms pertaining to such learning and the
systems of quantifying such learning. Grounded theory as the
systematic extraction of data to emerge new theory, thus
contributes to ontology continuously.
Walonick (1992) states that a system is characterized by the
interactions of its components and the non-linearity of those
interactions. Accordingly, the researcher anticipates that this
research will culminate in a new ontology. The research is therefore
aimed at creating knowledge in a systematic way that can later be
documented. Thus, the epistemology, or philosophical theory of
knowledge, which considers how we know what we know, is
addressed.
According to Colorado State University (2010) the world’s most
important research is not found in libraries, but in the field.
Information regarding the relevance of human learning and
quantification of learning will be collected by developing a
questionnaire to identify the link between required in the workplace
and the strategic plan (Ontology). The purpose of the proposed
questionnaire is to gather data on how (epistemology) companies
actually conduct their skills planning in relation to their strategic
objectives.
The objectives of the research is to demonstrate how a strategic plan
can be unpacked into a set of required competencies that can be
aligned to educational standards, to demonstrate how non-formal
training can be assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-
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formal programs can become credit bearing, and to demonstrate
how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be developed
whereby to quantify and manage human capital for purposes of
performance management.
Such a framework should also enable companies to be robust,
flexible and innovative, in qualifying their human capital. Currently
corporates within South Africa are often utilising Training Needs
Analysis (TNA) to quantify their human capital. Such ontology is,
however, focused on creating training based on what the individual
needs, versus what the business needs.
In this study, a team of 2 field assistants will be trained and briefed
on the process of collecting data from the identified population. The
field assistants will be recruited on the basis of the following criteria:
A graduate qualification in business
Evidence of skills in human capital management
Evidence of effective communication skills
The ability to work with people
A high level of analytical skills
The ability to conduct field research
Evidence of effective time management skills
The proposed research will follow the grounded theory approach.
Once all the data has been gathered (data collection and note
taking) from the different companies, the researcher will analyse the
sets of data (coding) as related to each of the companies
(Memoing). This analysis is to take place in the form of extracting
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information from the participating companies that nominated and
sponsored individuals to attend and complete training in skills
development (Categorising). All of these individuals will submit a
portfolio of evidence in which the application of a CQF could be
analysed. During the engagement process the researcher will need
to ascertain the existence of a company strategy and business
related planning processes for each company (Ontology).
Once the strategic plan is analysed the researcher will need to
analyse how each company “unpacked“such a plan into required
human capital (Epistemology). The required human capital will then
be used to develop job descriptions by allocating tasks to such job
descriptions. Once a job description is compiled the researcher will
need to gather evidence from the companies regarding how the
occupants of such jobs, if any, were performing within these jobs
(Constant comparison).
It is suggested that the performance management systems utilised
by the companies have to meet the following criteria:
Measuring competence against agreed standard(s) –constant
comparison
Utilizing a normative system to equate competence in relation
to standard(s) – constant comparison
Presenting an analysis of competence demonstrating potential
performance or skills gaps (Grounded theory and ontology
emerges)
Suggesting ways of identifying and closing a skills gap
(Sorting, saturating and reporting)
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Evidence is to be displayed of how required skills are aligned to a
strategic plan (Epistemology). At the same time the related
education requirements, also need to be identified.
A CQF could in view of the above, potentially function as a system to
manage the levels of human capital in an organisation and to align
the business objectives of a strategic plan to specific job
descriptions, should the emerging theory confirm the research
questions. The job descriptions should be benchmarked against
known and agreed standards, thus creating a standard against which
job performance, competence and qualifications are managed
(Robertson, 2011). This process unpacks the road map of grounded
theory in this research. Constant comparison, memoing, categorizing
and sorting is anticipated in developing ontology about the
quantification of human capital.
3.2 DATA GATERING AND ANALYSIS
3.2.1 DATA GATHERING
Pandit (1996) explains how the grounded theory approach advocates
the use of multiple data sources to stimulate the emergence of
theory. Pandit further quotes Glaser and Strauss (1967: 65): “ In
theoretical sampling, no one kind of data on a category nor
technique for data collection is necessarily appropriate. Different
kinds of data give the analyst different views or vantage points from
which to understand a category and to develop its properties”. The
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different views are referred to as slices of data. Accordingly, the
authors argue that, although a researcher may choose to use only
technique of data collection, theoretical sampling for saturation of a
category allows for a broader investigation, in which there are no
limits to the techniques of data collection, the way they are used, or
the types of data acquired.
Pandit continues to stat that the use of multiple data sources
enhances construct validity and reliability. The latter is further
enhanced through the preparation of a case study database, which is
a formal assembly of evidence distinct from the case study report
(Pandit, 1996). In this research, each company could be viewed as
such a case study. Every company is indeed distinct from its
potential case study report. Pandit is further supported in this notion
by Yin (1989). The author states that every case study project
should strive to develop a formal, retrievable database, so that in
principle, other investigators can review the evidence directly and
not be limited to the written reports. In this research the reports per
company will consist of the populated questionnaires. Such reports
are anticipated to also serve as detailed information per company
and could be used for other grounded research if so required.
Pandit suggests the development of a rigorous data collection
protocol by employing multiple data collection methods. Qualitative
and quantitative data collection can be used in systematically
establishing a case study database. It is anticipated that
(questionnaires), documentary sources will be treated like sets of
field notes. Analysis and category generation will be developed from
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questionnaires. This in turn will lead to the emergence of a
theoretical framework.
3.2.2 DATA ORDERING PHASE
“The arraying of events into a chronology permits the investigator to
determine causal events over time, because the basic sequence of a
cause and its effect cannot be temporally inverted. However, unlike
the more general time-series approaches, the chronology is likely to
cover many different types of variables and not be limited to a single
independent or dependent variable” (Yin, 1989:119). It is
anticipated that the data in this research will follow a chronology.
Consider the questioning process mentioned above. This suggested
chronology is anticipated to create a process of analysis to
saturation, leading to sorting and reporting on the different
categories that should emerge from the questionnaires.
Element Description
Phenomenon The occurrence of learning in all walks of life. The fragmented,
unrecognized nature of learning. Workplace learning. Accreditation and
reciprocity.
Causal
Relationships
The relationship of strategic planning to skills required. The relationship
of such skills to formal education. The relationship of skills to workplace
performance. The relationship of workplace learning and performance to
accreditation. The relationship that all elements have to each other in
total, culminating into a possible framework.
Context The legal framework in which learning, education, training and
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Table 3.1 The Framework of Relationships
Borgatti (2011) suggests a system called Axial Coding. In this
process, the author relates categories to each other via a process of
inductive and deductive thinking. In this research, the axial coding is
anticipated to serve accordingly. The categories considered via the
Questioning process not only enables a chronology, but also enables
identification of the relationship that categories have with each
other. Thus, grounded theory considers causal relationships and fit
things into a basic framework of relationships. In this research the
frame consists of the following elements:
Table 3.1: The Framework of Relationships
3.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS
competency development operates. The needs of industry. The rights
and needs of individuals. The role of quantifying all learning. The
possibility of credit accumulation and accredited work based learning.
Intervening
conditions
What hampers the conditions? What can be done to connect categories?
Action
Strategies
The action that the research is performing to extract theory from data.
The use of the questionnaires to determine categories, coding and
eventually theory.
Consequences The anticipated framework, the emergent theory. The additional
observations pertaining to learning.
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Data analysis starts with the research question that is to be
answered by analyzing the data generated in the study. The origin of
the data is therefore important, as it addresses the opinions and
practice of the selected companies as respondents under review in
the study (Dick, 2005).
In the course of organizing the data in this study, certain trends are
anticipated to emerge that can be highlighted in order to address the
research question (Borgatti, 2011). These include whether the
companies have strategic plans and whether jobs in such companies
are aligned with the strategic plans. Skills gaps are further analysed
in relation to the same jobs and strategic plans. Data analysis is the
activity in which the raw data so obtained is organized so that
useful information can be deduced from it (Pandit, 1996). The raw
data in this study takes the form of a questionnaire, interview
responses and workshop observations. In its raw form, the
information can only be useful on a comparative basis. In the data
analysis process, the raw data is ordered in a way that will be useful
(Borgatti, 2011). Survey results are to be tallied, to evidence the
number of responses (Wisegeek, 2010). In answering the research
question, more observation could be stimulated by the data analysis
itself, possibly leading to additional deductions to what was asked in
the questionnaire. This will be followed by organizing data in a way
that supports the logical flow towards the answer. Spreadsheets,
graphs and charts can be used to consider data from a number of
different perspectives in order to categorize and define the different
variables of the study. Data analysis is the process used to evaluate
the raw data and extract information from it. Data will be obtained
from a number of different organisations. This data will then be used
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to develop an evaluation that the researcher can use to make
informed decisions. The data table will become a visual instrument
comprised of named columns and rows that is used to arrange
information. The data table will be used to organize disparate data,
as well as to permit data to be easily manipulated and analyzed.
Causal Conditions
Phenomenon
Context
Intervening Conditions
Action / Interaction
Strategies
Consequences
Diagram 3.4: The Paradigm Model
Source: Pandit (1996). http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-
4/pandit.html#yin
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In this research data will be tabulated in a spreadsheet format,
known as data tables. Data tables generally present numerical data
inside of a grid format. However, they can also be used to present
text, Internet hyperlinks, or even images. Data tables are beneficial
as information retrieval devices. Since data tables are created with
the aid of computer technology, they often produce results that are
more accurate than those produced via manual calculation (Dick,
2005).
What are the Data Analysis Methods?
According to Gode, 2010) According to Gode the term 'data analysis
methods' commonly refers to qualitative data analysis methods.
Gode further defines 15 types of data analysis methods:
1. Typology: It's basically a classification system or methodology,
taken from patterns, themes or other kinds of groups of data. This
type of method implements the thought that, ideally, categories
should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, if possible.
2. Taxonomy: This method is complex classification containing
multiple levels of conceptions or abstractions. Higher levels include
lower levels forming superordinate and subordinate categories.
3. Constant Comparison/Grounded Theory: This method was
developed in the 60s and has the following steps:
• Look at the document to be analyzed, such as a field note.
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• Identify parameters to categorize events and behavior, which
will be named and coded on document.
• Code comparison will help find consistencies and deviations.
This is done until categories saturate and no new codes
related to it are formed.
• Finally, certain categories become centrally focused categories
more commonly known as core categories. These cores
categories are made subjects of case study.
4. Analytic Induction: Here, an event is studied and a hypothetical
statement is developed of whatever happened. Other similar events
are studied and check if they fit the hypothesis. If they don't, there's
a need to revise the hypothesis. Eventually hypotheses is developed
that supports all the observed cases.
5. Logical Analysis/Matrix Analysis: It is basically an outline of
generalized causation, logical reasoning process, etc. It mostly
includes use of flow charts, diagrams, etc. to graphically represent
these, as well as written descriptions.
6. Quasi-statistics: More often than not, enumeration is used in
this method to provide manifest for categories formed or to
determine if observations are untrue.
7. Event Analysis/Micro-analysis: In this method, importance is
on finding an accurate beginnings and endings of events by
determining specific boundaries or points that mark boundaries or
events.
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8. Metaphorical Analysis: Here, it's required to go on with various
metaphors while checking how well they correspond with what is
being observed. Participant may be asked for metaphors, which they
should interpret.
9. Domain Analysis: This type of analysis is mostly used to
describe social and cultural situations, and patterns within it. Start
by emphasizing what is social situation to participants while they can
interrelate it with cultural meanings.
10. Hermeneutical Analysis: The word 'hermeneutical' literally
means not going for objective meaning of text, but interpreting the
text for the people involved in the situation. This is done by never
overemphasizing self in an analysis, instead reiterating the people's
story. Meaning of any content resides in author intent, context, and
the reader - finding themes and relating these three is involved in
this method.
11. Discourse analysis: This method usually involves video taping
of events so that they can be played over and over again for deeper
analysis.
12. Semiotics: Here, we determine how signs and symbols are
related to their meanings while they are being constructed. The
analysis needs to assume that the meaning is not inherent and it
comes from other things related to the symbol.
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13. Content Analysis: This method is never used with video and it
is only qualitative in development of categories. Standard rules of
categorization in content analysis include:
• Identifying a chunk of data to be analyzed at a time (whether
it is a line, a sentence, a phrase, and a paragraph.
• Categories must be inclusive and mutually exclusive.
• Should have precisely defined properties.
• All data fits some category i.e. exhaustive categorization.
14. Phenomenology/Heuristic Analysis: There is emphasis on
individual explanation to people. This method emphasizes the effects
of research and the researcher's personal experience. The term
"phenomenology" is used to describe a researcher's experience.
15. Narrative Analysis: Also known as 'Discourse analysis', this
method gives more importance to interaction. How the narrator
chooses to tell frame wise that is how he/she will be perceived.
Always compare ideas while avoiding revealing negatives about self.
This analysis can involve study of literature or journals or folklore
In this study various components of the above methods will be
considered. The combination of data analysis methods will allow for
flexibility and interpretation. Meaningful deductions will therefore be
made from data.
The findings of the research will be documented in a way that
enables comparative results of companies to be compared with each
other. The following items will be included as part of the document:
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1. Name of Company
2. Full Name of participant
3. Contact details
4. Was a Strategic Plan completed?
5. Company consent to implement a CQF
6. Functional objectives
7. Job descriptions
8. Educational standards assigned to job descriptions
9. Total number of jobs required
10. Performance management plan
11. Staff competency report
12. Skills gaps
13. Project plan for closure of skills gap
3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONAIRE
The questionnaire will be developed with the following research
objectives in mind:
a) Review of the reflective process, from analyzing the strategic
plan, to developing specific job profiles.
b) Aligning human capital planning with Skills Development
Facilitator unit standards.
c) Collecting relevant information required developing a corporate
qualifications framework.
d) Informing the research question and enabling the creation of a
Corporate Qualifications framework.
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The research is considered to be participatory, as management of
companies would have the opportunity to make inputs into the
questionnaire. Such input would be in the form of opinions about the
usability of the proposed system. Such comments would be analysed
and discussed to demonstrate the use of the framework. From the
responses extracts and comments will be analysed, in grounded
theory fashion and utilized to interpret suggestions relevant to
findings of the implementation of a CQF as emergent theory.
PARTICPANTS
Company management – Owner, Human Resource Manager, General
Manager or Skills Development Facilitator. The role of these
individuals consists of, amongst others, planning and managing skills
development initiatives and as such, the skills gap (Sources of data).
Research assistant– Trained individual to assist in gathering data.
The role of research assistant is to collect, interpret and present data
in order for the researcher to draw conclusions.
The selection of companies participating in this study will be based
on specific factors including the following:
a) Companies will need to be part of the Service Sector and a
levy-paying member of the Service Seta.
b) Companies will have to have had participated in previous
Service Seta programs, especially Quality Management
Systems training (QMS) and Skills Development training (SDF)
during the last 36 months. This requirement is included to
ensure that participating companies do not withdraw during
the process due to a lack of motivation, or capacity.
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Furthermore, the development of an approved QMS implies
that an organisation already has a strategic plan in place
supported by relevant human resource. The CQF is aimed at
improvement and not invention.
c) Companies will have to express at least an informal desire to
participate in “Continuous Professional Development“ and must
have identified the development and implementation of a CQF
as desirable for their organizations. SDF training should also
have been completed. From a total of 400 potential qualifying
companies, 169 qualifying companies were identified.
3.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND
UNDERSTANDING
Bellinger (2004) states that wisdom arises when one understands
the foundational principles responsible for the patterns representing
information. He continues by stating that wisdom, even more so
than knowledge, tends to create its own context. Knowledge
development will be stimulated by the development of a system that
addresses the management of corporate and personal skills in a
normative way. It could also enable thinking and understanding of
how work based accreditation can operate in South Africa, whilst
the international objectives of credit accumulation and transfer
are scrutinized in more detail.
3.5 CONCLUSION
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Considering the research question, action research and in
particularly grounded theory is a suitable research methodology for
this study. The research intends to investigate and analyse data with
a view to deduct theory from such data. Grounded theory operates
on the basis of interrogating data in a process that stimulates the
extraction of data from it. In this study, the purpose is to develop
theory that enables the quantification of human capital in industry.
With the use of a grounded theory approach, a research
phenomenon is identified, being human capital.
During the research process concepts, categories and themes, as
emerging from the literature review and focus group discussions, will
be identified by the researcher in an attempt to formalize more
detailed questions to be incorporated into the proposed
questionnaire. This will allow for further triangulation of data
gathered during the study. The data gathered from the questionnaire
will then also be coded, categorized and analyzed.
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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH REPORT
4.1 BACKGROUND
The research findings are presented and discussed in this Chapter
against the background of information gathered from the
researcher’s professional work experience, the literature review and
industry as related to workplace learning. This chapter informs the
foundation for developing a system whereby a CQF can be
implemented by, amongst other, utilizing the strategic plan of a
company to co-determine the required human capital for an
organisation and align such required human capital to educational
standards. To notion of using non-formal training as credit bearing in
formal training is discussed as part of benchmark system to be used
for GAP analysis. An integrated, “Corporate Qualifications
Framework” is presented whereby industry can quantify and manage
human capital for purposes of performance management as well as
credit accumulation in formal programs.
In the process, the limitations within human capital management
structures, as well as the limitations in appreciating the linkages
between industry experience, workplace learning and past learning
experiences, result in people not being recognised appropriately, in
performing their job roles.
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The researcher applied grounded theory principles outlined in the
preceding chapter. The purpose of this Chapter is to present the
discoveries of the researcher’s personal experience, the literature
review and the research questionnaire.
According to SAQA (2011) RPL suggests the measurement of actual
human capital using past performance, informal and non-formal
learning. In quantifying the required human capital for an
organisation and measuring the actual human capital against it,
training needs of employers and employees (skills GAPS) can be
identified. Sources and thinking around credit accumulation, credit
transfer and articulation could be utilised in defining the “required”
human capital as related to the dimensions of a Corporate
Qualifications Framework (CQF). The potential gap between formal,
informal and non-formal training is also highlighted within a
“Corporate Qualifications Framework”.
The implications of an Organising Framework on Occupations (OFO)
on human capital management will also be considered as part of this
research report.
4.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH REPORT
According to Colorado State University (2010) the research report on
findings of the field research should function as a narrative. The
positioning of the research and the method of presentation will have
an influence on the interpretation by the readers. Accordingly,
Colorado State University proposes that qualitative researchers
include the following questions when writing their findings:
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How much information needs to be included in the text about
theories that may have guided the research, disciplinary biases
and personal hunches
How much background information is needed to interpret findings
How to present the findings of the report accurately and fairly in
a reasonable length
Rudner and Schafer (1999) and Longman (2010) discuss sections
that are required within a research report. The research findings of
this study will therefore be arranged along the following aspects:
A concise title that describes the findings clearly. The intention is
to avoid jargon and to support findings with an aim to clarify the
objectives
Description of method. This report is compiled by using actual
data from companies that attended training on the
implementation of a CQF. Their ability to implement a CQF is
analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively
Results are discussed in the form of a report that informs the
research objectives.
Apart from the literature review and the acknowledgment of the
researcher’s experience in human capital management, the
participating companies played an important role in informing
current practices in human capital management. The companies
consisted of organisations that recruited, briefed and dispatched
individual representatives to be trained as Skills Development
Facilitators (SDFs) on the implementation of a CQF. The candidates
completed portfolios of evidence in which they had to demonstrate
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the analysis of a strategic plan, the allocation of business activities
to tasks and job descriptions, as well as alignment to educational
standards. In addition, candidates had to participate in a
competency measurement of staff against specific standards, to
demonstrate a skills gap, measured in terms of educational
standards.
The researcher’s professional experience is documented in Annexure
B. Concepts and categories identified as part of the research process
and linked to personal experience, are also documented in Annexure
B.
The investigation within the participating companies started with an
analysis of the job roles needed within their organisation and how
these were aligned to the existing organisational strategy and
business objectives. This was followed by an investigation into
current competencies of staff as related to specific jobs and how
such competence aligned to the proposed job roles for their
company. The following broad aspects had to be considered by the
participants:
1. How the required job roles are linked to the business objectives
2. What would management need to know about skills development
3. What would the SDF have to know about required human capital
4. How would actual human capital be recorded and measured
5. What role does career planning and development play within the
organisation.
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4.3 THE RESEARCH STAGES
Stage 1 involved documenting and analyzing a record of the
researcher’s personal experience and exploring concepts and
categories from the documented experiences (for more details see
Annexure B).
Stage 2 involved the analysis of the literature survey. Concepts and
categories developed from the literature survey can be found in
Annexure C.
Stage 3 involved the finalization and dissemination of the research
questionnaire that was completed by 169 SDFs. The SDFs
represented different industries from the service industry including
industry expert practitioners and training providers (for more details
see Annexure E).
As a result of the data gathered in stages 1 and 2, a research
questionnaire was designed in an attempt to gather more
information from participating stakeholders. The questionnaire was
then disseminated to the 169 SDFs, for completion as a portfolio, to
test the implementability of a system to manage human capital. The
research questionnaire’s intent was to gain insight into the
perceptions and experiences of organisations with regard to human
capital management and to assess the validity of developing
categories as identified during stage 1 and 2.
Stage 4 involved the interpretation and analysis of data gathered
from the researcher’s personal experience (Stage 1), the literature
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survey (Stage 2) and data gathered from the 169 participating
companies (Stage 3). During this stage the researcher became
involved in an iterative process of reflection and triangulation,
identifying relevant concepts, categories and emerging themes.
The research study sought to explore lucidity in provisos of
epistemology, ontology and methodology in current models and
frameworks to measure both required and actual human capital
within an organisation.
Chapter 4 aims to present the findings of the research and to discuss
the findings in relation to the development of an integrated
framework for human capital management. The themes that
emerged during the research process will be discussed in Chapter 5.
4.4 RESEARCH FINDINGS
For purpose of the research report the personal experience of the
researcher, the findings from the literature review and the results
from the research questionnaire are reported separately. This is
done in respect to the complexity of information resulting from the
research process. The integration of data gathered from these three
stages will be consolidated when reporting on the emerging themes
in Chapter 5.
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4.5 THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
4.5.1 CONCEPTS IDENTIFIED FROM THE RESEARCHER’S
PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
The personal experience of the researcher confirmed specific
concepts related to the objectives of the study (Chapter 1):
To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set
of required competencies that can be aligned to educational
standards.
To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against
formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become
credit bearing.
To demonstrate how a benchmark system can inform a GAP
analysis of human capital.
To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can
be developed whereby industry can quantify and manage human
capital for purposes of performance management.
A total of 57 concepts were identified by the researcher in reflecting
upon his experience in the field of human capital management.
These concepts are captured in Table 4.1.
Nr. Concepts
DJ* 1
Limited organisations structures
DJ 2 No performance management systems
DJ 3 No meaningful job descriptions
DJ 4 No link between job role and organisation roles.
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TWR**1 Limited job descriptions
TWR 2 Performance management loosely defined.
TWR 3 Qualifications offered had limited relationship with
industry.
TWR 4 Low consultation with industry about content of
qualifications.
TWR 5 No management view on integration
TLC ****1 Client base limited ability to manage human capital
TLC 2 Training per say is not enough, people also want
have a fit for what they do.
TLC 3 My learning not integrated
TLC 4 Company learning too classroom based
TLC 5 Jobs did not address purpose.
TLC 6 Not happy in my job
GR**** 1 My colleagues lack purpose in what they do.
GR 2 Not happy in my work.
GR 3 People work only because of money objectives.
I*****1 Training of Skills Development Facilitators (SDF).
I2 SDF ‘s had very limited understanding of human
capital management.
I3 No evidence of any system to link roles of individuals
to organisational role.
I4 No link to higher purpose.
I5 Need for systems noted
I6 Training needs noted
I7 Limited productivity
I8 Limited success in training
I9 Limited capacity
RI****** 1 Training learners on various learnerships.
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RI 2 Learners not happy.
RI 3 Learners not motivated.
RI 4 Learners no purpose
RI 5 No financial assistance for learners to establish
RI 6 No integration with learning
RI 7 No real purpose to be entrepreneurial
RI 8 Focus is on getting a stipend
RI 9 Still prefer degree
RI 10 (ECDC). No job descriptions linked to organisational
roles.
RI 11 No purpose
RI 12 Jobs did not address any human aspects.
RI 13 Learning via especially unit standards, became very
technical
RI 14 Learning very task orientated as opposed to human
oriented.
RI 15 Learning not integrated for learning.
RI 16 Learner misses big picture.
OFO*******1 Limited impact for industry
OFO 2 : No real system for companies
OFO 3 Needs further detail
OFO 4 Only macro plan
OFO 5 Very technical in orientation
OFO 6 Quiet on human front
G********1 Limited career guidance
G2 Matric standard on the decline
G3 Learners lack purpose
G4 Low reading speed
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G5 Low comprehension
G6 Inability to integrate
G7 Learner lack discipline
G8 Low attention span
*DJ – Department of Justice
**TWR – Technikon Witwatersrand
***TLC – The Learning Corporation
****GR – Gold Rose Investments
*****I- Infomage
******RI- Rims
*******OFO – Organising Framework for Occupations
********G – General
Table 4.1: Personal Experience Concepts
A detailed description of responses related to the identified concepts
are captured in Annexure B.
4.5.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM CONCEPTS RELATED TO
THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE
The researcher has clustered the 57 concepts into 6 categories as
indicated in Table 4.2.
Nr. Category
Category 1: Ill-defined human capital context.
Category 2: Lack of detail regarding job roles and
organisational roles.
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Category 3: No integrated framework of workplace learning
and formal learning.
Category 4: Limited connection with higher purpose.
Category 5: Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO)
needs further detail.
Category 6: Education needs new approach.
Table 4.2 Categories Developed from Personal Experience
The researcher classified his personal experience into different
phases, as related to time, employment and consulting. In view
thereof, the 57 concepts were clustered along these parameters, into
the above 6 categories (For more details see Annexure B).
Category 1, 2 and 3 informs research objective 1 and underlines the
problems of strategic planning and its limited application in skills
planning. The lack of clear job descriptions and a lack of an
integrated human capital framework has also been indicated as
limiting factors in aligning strategic planning with human capital
management within organisations.
Category 4 indicates the need to develop an increased contextual
awareness of higher purpose. This informs one of the research
objectives related to “how” Corporate Qualifications Frameworks” are
to be developed. The concept implies that caution should be
exercised not to develop frameworks without considering the
importance of contextual awareness.
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Category 5 suggests the need for refinement of an Organising
Framework for Occupations (OFO), thus relating to the objective
pertaining to performance management.
Lastly, Category 6 indicates the need for education reform. This
category informs all 4 of the research objectives.
4.5.3 CONCLUSION
The aim of the research is to develop and establish a framework for
the assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of
human capital. In view of the above it seems that the assessment of
non-formal training is ad-hoc, is not aligned across sectors and
industries, is not appropriately defined, does not appropriately take
into account contextual factors and does not allow for an inclusive
and transparent engagement of relevant stakeholders. The end
result does therefore not allow for the quantification of human
capital and therefore limits the management thereof.
4.6 THE LITERATURE SURVEY
The literature review provided important insight regarding the aim
and objectives of the study (Chapter 1). Of specific interest is
aspects related to the following objective:
To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against
formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become
credit bearing.
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In the following sections the researcher will provide details regarding
the concepts and categories identified during the literature review.
4.6.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE LITERATURE
SURVEY
The literature survey confirmed 128 concepts as captured in Table
4.3 (for more detail regarding information gathered during the
literature review see Annexure C).
Nr. Concepts
L1 Unlimited Human needs
L2 Need for self actualization
L3 Higher purpose
L4 Absence of clarity
L5 Soul Guidance
L6 Meta Physical approach
L7 Human motivators
L8 Role of money versus other motivators
L9 Evolution
L10 Norms, measures
L11 Acknowledgement of learning
L12 Social status
L13 Education seen as element in evolution
L14 Evolving fractal
L15 Ontology
L16 Education plays role in need satisfaction
L17 Accreditation implies quality
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L18 Accreditation implies benchmarks
L19 Reciprocity implies international recognition
L20 Mobility
L21 Concerns of globalization
L22 Thought evolution
L23 Metastic thinking
L24 Protocols, frameworks
L25 Opportunity to massif education and learning
L26 Designations, CPD
L27 Thought evolution
L28 Future view, vision
L29 Basis for business
L30 Plan according to desired outcome
L31 Act in accordance with plan
L32 Measure implementation of plan
L33 Identify GAPs
L34 Act on GAPs
L35 Take corrective action
L36 Integration
L37 Personal planning
L38 Not equivalent
L39 Limited understanding
L40 Competency requires know and do
L41 Education requires knowing
L42 Workplace education
L43 Integration needed
L44 Very limited application
L45 No alignment system
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L46 World trend
L47 Integration need
L48 Productivity
L49 Motivation
L50 No formal system
L51 Resistance from formal education
L52 Various systems for measuring performance
L53 Limited system to equate performance to formal learning
L54 Need system to benchmark
L55 Skills equals income
L56 Income leads to development and motivation
L57 Motivation inspires performance
L58 Certification confirms skills and performance
L59 Reciprocity
L60 Mobility
L61 Strategic Framework
L62 Role of workplace in learning
L63 Workplace accredited learning
L64 Workplace is place of learning
L65 Recognition
L66 Motivation
L67 Evolution
L68 Purpose
L69 Credit bearing programs
L70 Career advancement
L71 Qualifications
L72 Offered at the workplace
L73 Formal qualifications
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L74 Industry need
L75 Corporate level need
L76 Required human capital
L77 Accumulate credits
L78 Various frameworks
L79 Integration
L80 Worldwide recognition
L81 Reciprocity
L82 Competitiveness
L83 RPL
L84 OFO
L85 Freedom Charter
L86 Awareness about education role
L87 Soul Purpose
L88 Poverty
L89 Productivity
L90 Quality
L91 Curriculum align with human needs
L92 Government role
L93 Private providers
L94 Online learning role
L95 Heuretic Thinking
L96 Link skills need to strategic planning
L97 Profitability
L98 Productivity
L99 Workplace action plans
L100 Economic dissatisfaction
L101 Education components
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L102 Credit accumulation
L103 Improve productivity
L104 Selection
L105 Skills
L106 Assessment / Norms
L107 Measurement
L109 Standards of skills
L110 Performance
L111 Education level
L112 Designation
L113 Integration
L114 Link education and in-formal learning
L115 Objectives
L116 Recognition
L117 Rewards
L118 Empirical Link
L119 Competency
L120 Evolution of knowledge
L121 Business planning
L122 Required human capital
L123 Actual human capital
L124 Skills GAP
L125 Business objectives
L126 Market needs
L127 New systems
L128 Need for systems
Table 4.3 Literature Survey Concepts
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A detailed description of responses related to the identified concepts
are captured Annexure C.
Nr. Category
Category 1 Trend to use planning a basis for action.
Category 2 Lack of detail regarding job roles and organisational roles.
Category 3 No integrated framework of workplace learning and formal
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Table 4.4 Categories developed from Literature Survey
The researcher clustered the literature review data into specific
domains in an attempt to identify emerging categories. The domains
included the following:
The importance of contextual awareness
The role of education
The relevance of Accreditation
The role of Reciprocity
The importance of strategic thinking
The role of competence
The role of benchmarking
The importance of performance management
The relevance of certification
The role of vocational accreditation
The impact of credit accumulation
The appreciation of political objectives
In view of the above 128 concepts, 6 categories were identified (for
more details see Annexure C).
learning.
Category 4 Limited contextual awareness and understanding of
purpose.
Category 5 Certification has a psychological effect.
Category 6 Evolving construct needed for an alternative education
system.
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Category 1 informs research objective 1 and underlines the role of
executive management to engage strategically in defining required
competence and aligning educational standards with business
objectives. In line with the above, category 2, referring to the lack of
clearly defined job roles, underlines the relevance of a Corporate
Qualifications Framework in quantifying and managing human capital
for purposes of performance management. Similarly, category 3,
referring to limitations on integrated frameworks for workplace
learning, confirms the relevance of a Corporate Qualifications
Framework.
Categories 4 and 5 seem not to relate directly to any of the
predefined objectives of the research. However, taking into account
the aim of the study, as referring amongst other, to the
quantification of human capital, one needs to consider the potential
impact of contextual awareness, purpose and psychological effect on
employees if such quantification of human capital does not
materialize.
Category 6 refers to the relevance of alternative education systems,
which forms one of the cornerstones of the aim of the study in
developing and establishing a framework for the assessment of non-
formal training.
4.6.3 CONCLUSION
The aim of the research is to develop and establish a framework for
the assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of
human capital.
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In view of the above it seems that there may be systemic limitations
within the human capital development context. Upon further
investigation one needs to unpack such interpretation by questioning
assumptions related to strategic planning, conceptual understanding
of education and training, and how these aspects may relate to
human capital management. The appreciation of social and
psychological dynamics will also need to be clarified in more detail
when discussing the emerging themes in Chapter 5.
4.7 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE
The research questionnaire evolved as a result from concepts and
categories identified as part of stages 1 and 2 of the research. The
questionnaire consisted of 12 questions and was completed by 169
respondents from the services sector within South Africa.
4.7.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE RESEARCH
QUESTIONAIRE
The Evaluation of the 169 reports confirmed 10 concepts as reflected
in Table 4.5 (for more details see Annexure D).
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Table 4.5 Research Questionnaire Concepts
4.7.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM THE CONCEPTS
RELATED TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE
A logical clustering of the concepts confirmed 7 categories after the
evaluation of the 169 reports as indicated in Table 4.6 (for further
detail see Annexure A and F).
Nr. Category
Nr. Concepts
RQ 1 Lack of objectives set per business function
RQ 2 Lack of Job descriptions that are developed in relation to strategic
plan and business function
RQ 3 Lack of GAP analysis that include skills that can be measured
RQ 4 Lack of skills GAP’s that can be managed in normative ways
RQ 5 Lack Human Capital that could be managed per person
RQ 6 Lack of reporting mechanisms for individual progress
RQ 7 Lack of reporting mechanisms for company progress
RQ 8 Lack of integrated systems to measure progress of employees and
employers
RQ 9 Lack of recognition of the need for integration of the metaphysical
need with business needs
RQ 10 Lack system that facilitates mobility, workplace learning,
articulation, accreditation and reciprocity
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Category 1: Integrated strategic planning
Category 2: Integrated Human Capital management system
Category 3: Productivity
Category 4 Corporate Qualifications Framework
Category 5 Integrated systems reporting per person
Category 6 Performance management
Category 7 Higher level of contextual awareness
Table 4.6 Categories developed from the research questionnaire
The research questionnaire (Annexure A) was constructed to elicit
comprehensive responses from participants in relation to the
management of human capital. The questions were semi-structured
and therefore allowed for interpretation and information sharing.
Participants clearly demonstrated very specific group think on
seminal topics such as “the need for an integrated system of human
capital management, benchmarking and credit accumulation” and
“the need for a framework to address the issues of purpose,
awareness and conceptual understanding at the workplace.”
Categories 1 and 2 inform the objectives of strategic planning in
developing required human capital and the development of a
Corporate Qualifications Framework, as stated in objectives 1 and 4.
Categories 3, 4 and 6 inform the objective of developing a Corporate
Qualifications framework to quantify and management human capital
for purposes of performance management.
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Category 5 relates to objectives 3 and 4, focusing on the importance
of benchmarking performance against clearly defined job roles.
Lastly, category 7 does not directly relate to a specific research
objective. However, it does raise the question of “how” a Corporate
Qualifications Framework could impact on employees’ performance
and either motivate or demotivate performance.
Diagram 4.1 aims to demonstrate the process of extracting concepts
from personal experience, the literature survey and the research
questionnaire, clustering such into categories and allowing for theory
to emerge from such categories.
Diagram 4.1 From Concepts to Themes
Concepts developed from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and Research
Questionnaires
Categories developed from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and
Research Questionnaires Concepts
Theory emerges from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and
Research Questionnaires
Categories
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4.7.3 CONCLUSION
Taking into account the aim of the research, the concepts and
categories, as identified from the research questionnaire, confirm the
lack of integration between strategic intent and business operations
as related to human capital management. This is reflected by the
following comments made by participants:
“ We need more training in strategic management”
“Top management does strategic management but does not
engage lower management in the process”
“Top management does not monitor implementation and does
not mentor lower management in applying strategic
principles.”
It also seems that a link could be drawn between performance
management, productivity and reporting on human capital
management. Taken into account that it has also been mentioned
that job roles are not well defined by organisations (Goosen, 2009),
one could argue that the proposed link may become problematic in
modern day organisations.
Although respondents mentioned the need for further technical
training in an attempt to advance performance management, they
failed to identify the need to develop a learning strategy,
incorporating the advancement of contextual awareness. Such
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contextual awareness could play an important role in the happiness
and subsequent motivation and productivity of employees.
The possible link between a CQF, job performance and formal
learning credits, could also assist in facilitating contextual awareness
in as much as employees maybe more inclined to learn proactively if
linkages are made to what is important and meaningful for the
individual. At the same time, the employee may also be more
inclined to higher performance if such performance could lead to
credits on formal learning programs.
4.8 CONCLUSION
The non-formal and ad-hoc nature of human capital management
within modern day organisations seems to reflect a systemic
dilemma for human capital management specialists. These may
include, amongst others, educational specialists, human resource
practitioners and functional management specialists.
Underpinning this seemingly systemic dilemma is the need for an
integrated human capital management system to facilitate the
effective utilisation of limited human resources within an emerging
socio economic environment. As indicated by the feedback from the
169 respondents, performance and subsequently productivity is
largely hampered because of limitations within the existing human
capital management system.
In addition to the ad-hoc nature of human capital management, ill-
defined job roles and limited contextual understanding indicates a
further dilemma for the economy at large. Business organisations
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that struggle with the identification of clear job roles subsequently
also struggle to align job roles with strategic intent and therefore
fails at providing contextual understanding of such job roles to
employees. At the same time, employees experience confusion in job
roles, leading in turn to loss of contextual understanding as well as
potential loss in productivity.
As human capital management seems to be inappropriately defined,
the development of systems that should utilize workplace learning as
an opportunity to award formal credits in education, are hampered.
Therefore resulting in a situation were the workplace cannot function
as a place of learning, placing additional strain on the existing formal
education sector in providing learning and education solutions.
However, the formal education system does not have the capacity to
engage workplace learning for purposes of awarding credits in formal
learning programs. The resultant social and psychological effects are
that learners in the workplace remain under-recognised for both
their performance and learning efforts.
Taking into account the 3 stages during which the research was
conducted, the involvement of 169 respondents (167 companies),
the identification of 197 concepts and the emergence of 19
categories, the researcher wishes to conclude by presenting the
following emerging themes (a more detailed description regarding
each of these will be discussed in Chapter 5):
the role of strategic management in the development of an
integrated human capital management system.
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the role of skills development as productivity driver.
the role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment.
the role of awareness and contextual understanding.
The evaluation of the researcher’s personal experience and the
literature study suggests the development of a system that includes
a long term approach to human capital development and
management and in particular, the cultivation of a higher level of
consciousness. The evaluation of 169 responses confirmed the need
for an integrated framework that considers the need to address the
above.
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CHAPTER 5 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter 5 proposes an alternative framework for human capital
management and contextual awareness.
Due to the multitude of concepts and categories articulated in the
research report, the researcher is of the opinion that a further
narrowing of categories are required to support the research process
and validate the research findings.
The proposed framework contemplates both “required“ and “actual”
human capital as it relates to the strategic business requirements of
a company.
5.2 THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM THE STUDY
The iterative nature of the research allowed the researcher to
identify the following emerging themes from the research:
5.2.1 THEME 1: THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN
THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED HUMAN CAPITAL
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
In the experience of the researcher, as master practitioner on
Human Resource Management, industry has a very limited
understanding of the link between strategy and job descriptions.
182
The ability of organisations to integrate job descriptions with
performance standards and to align such with education standards is
also limited.
From the identified concepts and categories, the researcher’s
personal experience indicates that the integration of strategic drivers
within the human capital management appears to be limited.
Although strategic management takes place at top management
level, the same cannot be said for human capital management at
lower levels. The research indicates that the ability to link strategy
to skills requirements and purpose of work is limited in both
cognition and application within South African companies. Strategic
planning is seldom normative, thus making measurement a
challenge. In addition strategic planning is also often complex and
somewhat esoteric and tends to follow the latest “buzzwords” and
academic rhetoric, whilst struggling to find application at an
operational level.
The problem for effective human capital management seems to
relate amongst other, to a lack of implementation and lack of well-
defined action plans, that is also not being monitored effectively.
Strategic planning should engage all stakeholders and should
incorporate a methodology to monitor the implementation of
strategic intent. The strategic planning in human capital
management ought to identify required human capital and devise
systems to ensure the provision and maintenance of such resources.
However, limited guidance for actual industry application is
available.
183
Care has to be taken not to develop a system that operates in a
mechanistic tendency only. The role of human evolution and
contextual awareness needs to be connected to an integrated
framework and managed as part of the implementation strategy of a
CQF.
Findings from the researcher’s personal experience, literature survey
and research questionnaire, indicate that an organisational strategic
plan could be used to determine required human capital within an
organisation. Evidence of this analysis is found in the portfolios of
evidence submitted by the representing organisational candidates
(see Annexure A and E).
The human capital requirements within each of the participating
companies were analysed and unpacked into tasks and activities that
were later clustered into job descriptions. These activities, written as
Key Performance Indicators, were then aligned to specific
educational standards. The “lack of job descriptions developed from
strategic planning, effective GAP analysis and human capital
management per person” emerged as key components underpinning
theme 1.
In an attempt to contribute towards formalizing a framework for the
assessment of non-formal training, participating companies were
required to review their existing job descriptions. Once these were
reviewed, these job descriptions functioned as the benchmark
against which individual employees could be assessed. Companies
had to provide evidence that a performance measurement of staff
184
have been conducted against a specific set of standards. In doing so
companies could identify their potential skills GAP as measured in
terms of educational standards. In addition participants had to
prepare a project plan, to demonstrate their competence in
managing the closure of such skills GAPs. During this process the
lack of implementation of strategic planning became eminent.
Based on the results from the 169 respondents (see Annexure A and
E), the vision and mission statements of each of these businesses
were utilised to define a set of business objectives specific to each
participating company. These were then aligned to specific job
descriptions required to enhance the performance of each company
and ultimately related to existing education and training unit
standards. This activity highlighted the “lack of reporting
mechanisms for the company and employees”.
Companies rated the newly defined job roles in terms of both
required activity and actual activity in an attempt to define a
potential competence gap. In the event of a competence gap the
newly defined job roles served as a benchmark for performance
development, indicating the need for an integrated human capital
management system. However, this process also illuminated the
absence of “contextual awareness” in human capital.
5.2.2 THEME 2: THE ROLE OF SKILLS AS A PRODUCTIVY DRIVER
The researcher’s personal experience indicated concepts and
categories that suggest, “ Job roles are not well defined”. Given the
185
“limited connection with higher purpose”, a motivation level of
employees seems to be low.
The result of low skills levels in South Africa, lead to additional time
needed to perform tasks that other individuals in foreign countries
do in less time. The level of actual skills in industries across the
economic spectrum is in constant need of improvement (Beere,
2007). The result is a reduced output or “productivity”.
Furthermore the introduction of the OFO in South Africa suggests
that job profiles would be developed from which job descriptions and
performance management systems will emanate. However, the OFO
will need considerable expansion and much “more detail” to fulfill
this function within the South African context. Job roles would need
clear and measurable definition in order to enable employees to truly
understand the importance of the task at hand. Employees would
also need to have a reason for occupying such a job. The job would
need to provide the individual with a “purpose” in order to ensure
optimal and productive employees.
Similarly the literature survey indicated concepts and categories that
highlight the limited ability of the workplace to provide a sense of
higher purpose to the individual. In addition the limitations of a
relationship between productivity and education in history, seems
evident from the survey. However, the survey does indicate that
industry has “a trend to use planning as a basis for action”.
However, implementation and monitoring remain as limiting factors.
The result culminates in limited guidance, “limited performance
management” and low productivity. The need for an “integrated
186
system” to manage human capital suggests a system that clarifies
job roles and monitors performance against such job roles on a basis
that addresses human purpose and productivity.
From the research questionnaire the issues of “limited productivity,
low levels of awareness, lack of integration and performance
management” are highlighted.
The research aim “to develop and establish a framework for the
assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of human
capital” is partially addressed in this theme.
5.2.3 THEME 3: THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL LEARNING IN A
FORMAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
In the experience of the researcher very limited application of non-
formal learning, as credits for formal learning, actually exists within
South Africa. Where such models are in fact developed, the
application is limited to in-house needs and don’t articulate to full
qualifications (Bear, 1991).
Current human capital management processes within South Africa
seem to lack both “definition and integration”, thus leading to
hampering the notion of a system that could recognise non-formal
learning in a formal context. The development of a human capital
management system that functions optimally should include “non-
formal and informal learning as credits in a formal learning context”.
In addition a “new approach for the education system” should ensure
that such learning is accredited and also articulates to further,
187
formal qualifications. Learning should also have a large degree of
mobility and reciprocity on at least a national level.
The “new education approach” should also incorporate a solution to
the “limited connection with higher purpose”. Education programs
would need to find ways to adapt curriculums to stimulate
“contextual awareness” amongst learners and employees.
The literature survey supports the introduction of an “evolving
construct of a new education system”. By implication the very
thought construct of the education system needs redesign to
incorporate the requirements of amongst others, “credit bearing
workplace learning.” The essence of such a system would require a
flexible system to document learning. “Planning would need to be
the basis for action”.
Based on the results from the 169 participants in the research
project, participants indicated that they are willing to align job
descriptions to business objectives and to educational standards.
Actual competencies were identified and action steps designed for
the GAP closure are indeed followed.
A “Corporate Qualifications Framework” can be developed whereby
industry can quantify and manage human capital as above, for
purpose of performance management, staff learning and objectives
attainment. The objective behind the development of the
“Corporative Qualification Framework” is to create a simplistic
system whereby the providers of learning; employers and employees
188
can quantify what they know and what they do. Thus, to measure
competency for work as well as qualification purposes.
The research questionnaire indicated that required human capital for
all 169 participants in the list could be determined by using the
strategic plan of the organisations. By comparing the actual human
capital to the required human capital using an educational standard
as a measurement tool, a skills GAP is identified. Business
objectives, job descriptions, performance appraisals and GAP
analysis were developed by participants on their respective
organisations to create a “CQF”. Thus, an integrated human capital
and performance management system becomes possible.
All the respondents in the research had to develop a set of required
tasks from their organisation’s proposed business plan. Companies
such as White Zulu, SA Post Office and Direct Axis developed a set of
required competencies from the tasks as related to the business
plan. Individual employees were then measured against these
competencies. However, the feedback indicated that they did not
have adequate skills to execute the jobs required to effectively
implement the proposed business plans within their organisations.
After discovering the skills GAP from each company, training was
recommended based on accredited education standards within the
formal education and training landscape within South Africa. Each
company had a management review process that included a report,
capturing information relating to the following:
Participating employees
Modules completed (including training content)
189
Service provider
Employee results.
Effectively, the introduction of a system to give formal credit to non-
formal learning, should create a more positive workplace scenario,
as well as reduced stress on the formal sector in terms of access and
capacity.
5.2.4 THEME 4: THE ROLE OF AWARNESS AND CONTEXTUAL
UNDERSTANDING
The research suggests that modern day training should aim at
providing skills to individuals on a “contextual basis”. Learners often
obtain the ability to perform tasks very well, without truly
understanding the importance or the real need for such tasks. This
results in the person performing a task without understanding the
contextual relevance of such activity and how it relates to both the
business objectives and the strategic plan. The resultant effect could
be a drop in motivation levels, which in turn may lead to limited
interest in achieving company objectives and therefore potentially,
resulting in a reduction in productivity.
The “non-contextual” dilemma as discussed above could be related
to the “limited awareness” challenge as indicated by participants.
Limited awareness suggests that, amongst other, employees lack
self-understanding of “purpose”. The net effect of “limited
awareness” or “contextual understanding” can therefore be that an
individual does not see the task as important and does not feel
appreciated and is subsequently not inspired to perform in his or her
190
job role. Where an individual could find purpose in what they do,
performing such tasks becomes a joy and is no longer seen as just a
job. The pursuit of “purpose” per says ought to be a component in
the design of all human development activity.
The “evolving education approach” could assist in developing a
system that recognises the importance of the consciousness level of
the individual in what they do. Sustainable, responsible education
and mindfulness about the job role could enhance motivation and
thus “performance”.
The literature survey further suggests that “awareness” or
“consciousness” becomes part of the learning agenda. This
awareness could facilitate the development of purpose for the
employee. With purpose comes the reason for being in a certain job
role.
The study shows that key performance areas should therefore not
just focus on the task at hand. If job descriptions are developed to
measure contextual awareness and consciousness, “alignment to
educational standards” should be considered. The issue of
“awareness” can be addressed to support the critical cross-field
outcomes as well as underpin any potential fundamental unit
standards. For this reason it becomes important to develop a set of
guidelines in developing educationally aligned job descriptions.
One major challenge confronting business is how to harness human
potential for the benefit of long-term wealth for all stakeholders. It
has been said, if employees were to follow the precise letter of job
191
descriptions and organisational protocol, things would soon grind to
a halt (Maggelan Research: 2010). In other words, getting the “job”
done involves a lot more than just the tasks associated with the job
description. A lot of organisational success depends on “how” rather
than “what needs to be done”. Human relations and the feeling of
citizenship, or belonging, is very important (Maggelan Research:
2010).
Maggelan Research (2010) states that, a lot of energy goes into
treating underperforming employees, while neglecting the health of
the organization as a whole. Companies seem to do a good job of
treating an underperforming individual and then send him or her
back to a “sick workplace”, a place with low morale, negative
supervision and poor safety. Instead of treating just the “trees,”
integrated organizational wellness looks at treating the” entire
forest.”
The introduction of a “CQF” could in itself contribute to
organisational wellness and promote organisational citizenship in the
sense that an employee can measure and plan their own
“educational development pathway”. This ought to have a positive
effect on motivation and subsequently “performance” and
organisational deliverables.
Writing Help Central (2010) defines corporate objectives as
statements of intent that provide the basic direction for the activities
of an organization in pursuit of its mission. To think of objectives as
statements of intent and goals as quantifiable targets, enables
192
management to understand the overall business “purpose” and
required tasks more clearly.
Only if employees understand a vision, can they share in it and
support it. Once the individual understands and supports the
organisational vision, he or she can incorporate the vision to become
his or her “own” - in other words, the objectives of the organisation
become the objectives of the individual. This could enable the
organisation and employee to function in synergy, thus adding to
“contextual awareness”.
5.3 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA
South Africa is faced with an enormous challenge with bridging the
gap between the lack of skills among lower-level workers and the
need to be highly productive, particularly at the lower levels of
employment. Keeping this situation in mind it is clear that there is a
strong relationship between education, development and training
and that elements of all three are involved whenever an action is
undertaken to improve an employee's performance in the enterprise.
The distinction between the three rests upon whether the
undertaking is for general betterment, for improvement in a specific
job or for better performance in the enterprise in future.
Assessing training needs in South Africa are more complex than
simply identifying the required task to fulfill and objective. Due to
the past imbalances and inherent lack of fundamental education, a
large part of the population suffers from a limiting self-belief. This
self-belief imprisons their thinking to a level of low performance and
193
subsequently, limited earning potential. The result is that education
and training has to address more than just skills transfer, but also
has to address the issues of physiological nature.
5.4 CONCLUSION
In this study, it is evidenced that job roles, performance
management and training initiatives were often developed and
conducted without considering the “interrelationship” amongst each
other. Human capital management systems also seem to operate on
a fragmented basis within South African companies and
“performance management” and “skills needs” are often seen as
different from one another.
During the research, concepts and categories were identified from
data gathered from personal experience, a literature survey and a
research questionnaire. These concepts and categories seem to
overlap to some extent. In particular “contextual awareness” and
“higher consciousness” seem to emerge as an overarching theme,
resulting from concepts and categories underpinning:
the role of strategic management in the development of an
integrated human capital management system
the role of skills development as productivity driver
the role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment.
194
At the same time the outcome of this study suggest that
organisations consider the design and implementation of an
integrated human capital management framework whereby all
learning, training and development will be “quantified” in terms of
formal learning requirements and standards.
In conclusion the following framework is proposed by the researcher
to inform a review of human capital management practices with
South African organisations:
Concepts
Concepts
Theme: 1 The role of
strategic managmentin
the development of an
integrated human capital
management system
Theme: 2: The
role of skills
development as
productivity
driver
Theme: 3: The role
of non-formal
learning in a formal
learning environment
Diagram 5.1: Current State
Concepts
Categories
Categories
Categories
Theme: 4: The role
of awareness and
contextual
understanding
195
The proposed framework for human capital management (diagram
5.2) illustrates the importance of the coexistence of ideas and
activities as related to strategic planning, productivity and non-
formal learning, within the modern day workplace. This framework is
proposed with specific reference to those organisations operating
within an emerging economy where the sense of self and the
contribution of the individual are often framed within a social
context.
Diagram 5.2 Future State
Theme:1
Theme:2
Theme:3
Theme:4
196
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Productivity is one of the most important concerns of the South
African economy. Therefore government should ensure that private
enterprises are equipped with the required skills as well as the
necessary fiscal to drive economic transformation.
The largest trade union federation in South Africa, COSATU, and
government are in a tripartite relationship with the SACP. The
current Minister of Higher Education and Training and the newly
appointed officials into the ministry of education are also office
bearers or long-standing members of the SACP and the ANC.
Educational policy is therefore driven within this thought construct.
(Meyer, 2012).
The transformation needed in the education sector should address
the development of cognitive functionality, prior to engaging in the
training of job related skills. Critical elements in learning, such as
computer skills, functional numeracy and literacy, are a basic pre-
requisite for development, and a fundamental requirement for
workplace learning.
This chapter considers the conclusive findings of the research and
debates the merit of the research. During the research study, the
following aspects were addressed:
197
1. The role of an organizational strategic plan in determining the
required human capital for an organisation.
2. The relevance of industry experience, competence and non-formal
training as compared to formal education and training standards.
3. The potential use of non-formal learning as credits in formal
learning programs.
4. The relevance of an integrated human capital management
framework and potential Corporate Qualifications Framework for
South African organisations.
5. The development of contextual awareness in understanding
learner development.
6. The role of skills and productivity in human capital management.
7. The identification of skills GAPs and the management thereof to
the benefit of the organization.
6.2 REVIEW OF CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
During the research it transpired that strategic planning is not
functioning optimally. The research objective to “demonstrate how a
strategic plan can be unpacked into a set of required competencies
that can be aligned to educational standards” appears to have been
satisfied from the feedback of the research questionnaires. Similarly,
the personal experience of the researcher supports the notion. From
the development of concepts and categories, “the role of strategic
management in the development of an integrated human capital
management system” emerged as an important theme. This theme
suggests that the above objective of the research has been
addressed adequately.
198
However, it needs to be mentioned that companies that participated
in the research were all selected from the Service Sector Education
and Training Authority domain. The role of strategic planning in the
development of an integrated human capital management system
has therefore not been explored beyond the realm of the services
sector in South Africa.
The objective “to demonstrate how non-formal training can be
assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs
can become credit bearing” found merit in the emerging theme “the
role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment”.
Findings from the literature survey suggest evolving practice in other
parts of the world, towards the development of systems that may
address this.
However, in the development of the suggested framework this
theme would require a great deal of planning and systems design.
The introduction of a system whereby non-formal training, such as
work based learning, becomes credit bearing in formal programs
could however, be potentially administration intense. The research
did not consider the impact of the additional administration burden
as it falls outside the scope of the study. Included in this
administration burden is the need for quality assurance, articulation,
mobility and record keeping. All these elements would have a
potential cost implication that may require additional research.
The objective “to demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used
for a GAP analysis in human capital management” is addressed in
“the role of strategic management in the development of an
199
integrated human capital management system”. The use of an
integrated framework suggests the development of benchmarks by
using known educational standards.
However, the potential risks should also be mentioned – job roles
deduced from strategic plans may follow a highly “task orientated”
approach, whilst education standards could suggest elements that
may be esoteric and at times academic.
The objective “to demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications
Framework can be developed whereby industry can quantify and
manage human capital for purposes of performance management” is
addressed in both themes 2 and 3.
However, an integrated human capital management system that will
be developed, based on required competencies alone, is at risk of
being “too normative”, if the findings of theme 4, “the role of
awareness and contextual understanding” is not addressed in a
meaningful way. A mindful balance between task and awareness
may very well address this problem.
“The role of skills development as productivity driver” emerged as a
theme, but was not considered as an initial objective of the study.
However, whether an increase in skills implies increase productivity
needs to be explored in more detail.
6.3 PROPOSED FURTHER RESEARCH
200
The research highlighted the need for further investigation into the
following:
i. The practical application of a CQF in industry with specific
reference to developing automated systems and software.
ii. Determining Return on Investment (ROI) on the investment
of workplace education versus productivity.
iii. Effectiveness of workplace learning versus formal learning.
iv. The real recognition of South African qualifications in the
global arena, reciprocity and international employment
prospects.
v. The importance of contextual awareness and how to improve
actual consciousness of employees in an attempt to address
the development of purpose.
vi. The real impact of a lack of contextual awareness on the
poverty mindset.
vii. Possible cost implications of using non-formal learning as
formal learning credits.
201
6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The following limitations can be noted:
i. The exclusion of learner and employee experiences from the
research study.
ii. The responses solicited during the research questionnaires are
the opinions of the research participant’s perspectives and
experiences.
iii. The real impact of the Organising Framework of Occupations
and the QCTO on the development of job descriptions.
iv. The real impact of the Organising Framework of Occupations
and the QCTO on the development of qualifications for
occupationally directed education and training providers.
v. Limited information of the real impact of lack of awareness on
the world of work, productivity, society and human
development.
6.5 SUMMARY
The main focus of the transformation of education is to be
responsive to the needs of students of all ages and the intellectual
challenges of the environment. This assumes, amongst other, a
commitment to democracy, social justice and the economic and
social development of the system at large. It demands increasing
access and equity in higher education particularly in relation to the
participation rate of previously disadvantaged learners as well as
mature learners.
202
There is little meaning in knowing how to perform a task or job if
such a job has no purpose for the individual involved. Only through
the development of one’s higher self, does one address the issue of
purpose. Without finding purpose, all education and skill, remain
useless. The potential use for business is substantial, but requires a
transformation in “thinking” of the stakeholders.
Employers would need to become more aware of potential
educational standards that they could use in the design of job
descriptions. Employers should also be more active in
communicating workplace demands and requirements to training
providers. This would require a closer relationship between industry
and the providers of learning. The responsibility of the provider
community would be to become more agile, more responsive and
more open to faster changes, to accommodate the needs of industry.
In chapter one reference is made to the assumption that the
“norms“ used are indeed applicable. Thus, the quantification of
learning takes place in relation to qualifications that may not
necessarily represent true stakeholder or industry requirements. The
introduction of the Organising Framework for Occupations aims to
address this issue and may lead to the development of more realistic
norms in the future.
In chapter 6, the integrated use of a CQF is addressed in the context
of work place learning and work place credit. The integrated
conclusion suggests a redesign of the educational model that should
203
be more flexible, more adaptable and more effective, serving the
needs of society at large.
The role of innovation and advancement of nations will have a
perpetual demand on educational institutions in providing the
required competencies for global industry needs. Education and the
capacity of employees will become the international measurement of
countries per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Production). In view
thereof the role of the workplace provision will become increasingly
important.
204
Diagram 6.1 Evolution of the Research Project
Chapter 1: Research Question, aims and objectives
Lack of integrated
Human Captital
Management
Chapter 2: Literature Survey - evolution of thought
Chapter 3: Research
Methodology
Grounded
Theory
Chapter 4:
Research Findings
Chapter 5:Emerg
ing Themes
Recommendations
Chapter 6: Objectives reviewed,
Limitations discussed
205
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