theory of magnetic materials-maclaren.ppt...
TRANSCRIPT
Topics covered• Introduction• Magnetism as a quantum phenomenon• Spin and orbital moments• Paramagnetism/Diamagnetism• Spin-orbit coupling• Hundt’s rules and magnetic ions• Magnetic interactions, dipolar, exchange• Direct, indirect, super, and double exchange• The Heisenberg Hamiltonian and ferro/antiferro magnetism• Weiss model of ferromagnet• Exchange coupling in metallic superlattices• Domain walls• Micromagnetics• Kerr effect• Magneto-crystalline anisotropy
Introduction• Magnetic Moment
– Interactions, ordering, temperature dependence
• Sources – intrinsic (spin), orbitalOrbital moment m = γLEinstein-de Haas experiment
dm = IdS
m = I
m
dS
• Consider electron charge e, mass m moving in a circular orbit radius r
• Angular momentum is quantized
• Leading to µ = π r2I = -eu/2m = -µB ~9.274 × 10-24Am2
• γ=-e/2m
The Bohr Magneton (µB)
v
e
I = −e
ττ =
2πr
m
m mr= u
Magnetism is a Quantum Phenomenun
• Magnetism is inherently a quantum phenomenon• Von Leeuwen theorem
"At any finite temperature, and in all finite applied electrical or thermal fields, the net magnetization of a collection of electrons in thermal equilibrium vanishes identically."
• From classical mechanics
(Canonical momentum)
• Z=∫∫…∫exp (-β Eri,pi) dr1…drN dp1…dpN
• Limits of integration are -∞ to ∞• Simple change of variables shows partition function Z is independent of A
T =1
2m m2
p = m v + qA
=(p − qA )2
2m
Susceptibility/Magnetization and Field
• free space magnetic induction B=µ0 H, where H is the magnetic field
• In a magnetic material B= µ0 (H+M), M is the magnetization, or ,magnetic dipole moment per unit volume
• In the special case of a linear material M=χ H, χ is the susceptibility B= µ0 (1+ χ )H
• Consider a region of space with fields B0 and H0, B0 = µ0 H0,
• Now add in magnetic material. Fields inside the material Bi and Hi differ markedly from B0 and H0, and can be complicated to calculate except in simple cases e.g.slab, sphere… in which case Hi=H0-NM, N is the demagnetization factor =1/3 for a sphere.
• More complex shape need to satisfy Maxwell’s equations with M=0 outside the sample
Quantum Mechanics of Spin• orbital angular momentum
– state defined by l and ml
• Spin angular momentum– state defined by s and ms
• Energy of a spin in a magnetic field E = gµBmsB
• g~2, leads to Zeeman splitting
N¥(¥+ 1)u,m ¥u
Ns(s+ 1)u,m su
Electrons in a Magnetic Field
• Now since , we can choose gauge
condition
• Leads to
H =Q
S
([pS+ eA S]2
2m+ VS
u
+ gµB µ ·S
µ = ∇ × A
A =µ × r
2
Q
S
p2S
2m+ VS+ µB (· + gS)·µ +
e2
8m
Q
S
(µ × rS)2
H 0paramagnetism diamagnetism
Paramagnetism J = 1/2• Partition function
• Free energy
• Magnetization
• For high T, M = gµBB/kBT, χ ∝ 1/T or Curie’s Law
• Can be generalized to other values of J (Brillouin function)
= 2Ioqh(gµB /[B T)
Z = exp(gµB /[B T)+ exp(−gµB /[B T)
x = −0o
0B= tanh(gµB /[B T)
o = n[B T l nZ
Diamagnetism• Diamagnetic term in Hamiltonian
• For B along the z axis
• For a solid with N ions in a volume V, we get
• where Zeff is the # of outer shell electrons and r the ionic radius• - sign similar to Lenz’s law in induction
H d =e2
8m
Q
S
(µ × rS)2
=e2B 2
12m
Q
S
0gr2
Sg0^
∆ E =e2B 2
8m
Q
S
0gx2
S + y 2Sg0
^
− = −N
V
e2µ0
mmZeffr2
Spin Orbit Coupling• Total angular momentum is the sum of both spin and orbital contributions
• The magnetic moment is given by
• The spin and orbital moments are weakly coupled. This coupling falls out of the Dirac equation.
• Lande g-factor
J = · + S
µ = gjj(j+ 1)µB
gj =3
2+
S(S + 1)− L(L + 1)
2J(J + 1)
µ = µB (· + gsS)= gJµB J
Classical View of Spin-Orbit
• Orbiting nucleus produces a magnetic field
• where
• ½ is the relativistic Thomas factor
E = −3 V (r)
H s+ = −1
2µQµ =
eu2
2m c2r
dV
dr·QS
µ =E × v
c2
Magnetism of ions/Hundt’s rules
• Hundt’s rules used to determine total angular momentum. Minimize Coulomb energy taking into account the Pauli principle
1. Maximise S (Pauli principle, minimizes U)2. Maximise L (keeps electrons I same orbit apart)3. attempts to minimize spin-orbit interaction.
• shell less than half full J=|L-S|• shell greater than half full J=|L+S|
• 3rd rule not always applicable in a solid since surrounding ions in the crystal provide an electrostatic field
Magnetic Ions in a solid• Relative importance of crystal field terms and spin-orbit coupling determines
the moment.
• Rare earth f-shell electrons– Angular momentum barrier confines electrons close to nucleus,
moments localized & atomic– Spin-orbit important
• Transition metal d-shell electrons– Crystal field larger than spin orbit – Orbital moments quenched
Magnetic Interactions• Dipole-Dipole forces (classical)
• Size estimate for two atomic moments separated by 1 Angstrom E ~ 1K
E =µ0
4πr3
p
µ1µ2 −3
r2(µ1 ·r)(µ2 ·r)
N
Exchange• The exchange interaction is a result of the Pauli principle and the Coulomb
Interaction.• Form antisymmetric wavefunctions as product of spatial and spin functions.
– Singlet state has S=0
– Triplet state has S=1
ψs =1π
2[ψa(r1)ψb(r2)+ ψa(r2)ψb(r2)]−s
ψN =1π
2[ψa(r1)ψb(r2)− ψa(r2)ψb(r2)]−N
Heisenberg Hamiltonian• Energy of singlet & triplet states
• After some algebra we can show
• Where we have used
– For a singlet
– For a triplet
Es = ψ∗sH ψs EN = ψ∗
NH ψN
H =1
4(E s + 3E N)− (E s − EN)S1 ·S2
S1 ·S2 = −3
4
S1 ·S2 =1
4
Heisenberg Hamiltonian
• Two electrons on same atom, J usually positive. Spatial part of wavefunction antisymmetric lowers Coulomb Energy. (Hundt’s 1st rule)
• Two electrons on different atoms is more complex. Some saving in kinetic energy to have a symmetric spatial wavefunction thus J can be negative
H = −Q
Sj
JSjSSSj
Direct Exchange
• Exchange interactions between electrons on neighboring sites• In rare earths f-orbitals interact with each other weakly due to localization• In transition metals d-d overlap is larger• In these metals s-d and s-f interactions important for bonding and
communicating exchange (indirect between d or f orbitals) important for RKKY like interactions in multilayers
Superexchange• Found in magnetic ionic materials, eg. MnF2 and
usually antiferromagnetic• Cannot be a direct exchange as the magnetic ions
are too far apart• Exchange is mediated through the non-magnetic ions
orbitals• Electron from non-metal hops onto metal ion and is
coupled strongly, resulting single p-electron has direct exchange with the adjacent metal ion
• Coupling may be determined via Hundt’s rulesparallel for ions with less than half filled d-shell antiparallel for ions with more than half filled d shell.
• Chromium telluride ferromagnetic, manganese telluride antiferromagnetic
internal coupling and exchange coupling couplingspin alignment of p-electron with other atom is
parallel ferromagnetic antiferromagnetparallel antiferromagnet ferromagneticantiparallel ferromagnetic ferromagneticantiparallel antiferromagnet antiferromagnet
P.W. Anderson, Phys. Rev 79, 350 (1950)H.A. Kramers, Physica 1, 182 (1934)
Double Exchange• Occurs in some oxides where the magnetic ion can have mixed valence• Leads to ferromagnetic coupling• Examples include Fe2O3
Electron hopping
Fe2+ (3d6) Fe3+ (3d5)
Ferromagnetism
• Mean field solution
• Assuming S=1/2
H = gµB
Q
S
SS·(µ + µ m f)
µ m f = ∗M
H = −Q
Sj
JSjSi·Sj+ gµB
Q
j
Sj ·µ
µ m u = −2
gµB
Q
j
JSj < Sj >
x
x s= tanh
pgµB S(B + ∗x )
[B T
N
Curie temperature• Solve the two equations for appearance of non zero M
• Leads to
– z is # of nearest neighbors
• susceptibility
x
x s= tanh(y )
x
x s=
2[B T
gµB ∗x sy
Tc =gµb∗x s
2[B=
nµ2eff
3[B=
JJ
2[B
− ∝1
T − TC
Properties of some common ferromagnets
M aterial T c (p ) m om entQe 1043 2.2No 1394 1.c2ui m31 0.m1G H 289 c.TM nSb T8c 3.TEuO c0 m.9EuS 1m.T m.9
Moment in Bohr magnetons
Stoner Criterion & Band magnetism• Consider a density of electron states g(E)• Move spin down electrons from to spin up band at• Change in KE
• Change in PE
• Where we used the molecular field = and• Change in total energy is
• Spontaneous ferromagnetism (Stoner criterion) is possible if•
Eo − ffE E o + ffE
ffE p E = g(E o )ffE /2× ffE = 12g(Eo )ffE 2
ffEP E = −ix
0 µ0(∗x )dx = − 12µ0∗x 2 = − 1
2µ0µ2B ∗(n↑ − nt)2
∗x n↑ − nt = g(Eo )ffE
∆ E = ∆ E p E + ∆ EPE = 12g(E o )(ffE )2(1− U g(E o ))
U g(Eo )≥ 1
Antiferromagnetism• If the exchange interaction J<0 then nearest neighbor moments will align
antiparallel.• Often occurs for crystals with interpenetrating lattices• Can be treated via a Weiss mean field theory using the two sublattices• Leads to a susceptibility
• TN is known as the Neel temperature shows this form but the extrapolated Weiss temperature differs from simple mean field Neel temperature. Need to include 2nd neighbor interactions (both sublattices)
− ∝1
T + TN
Other magnetic ordering• Ferrimagnetism – two sublattice moments with different values are coupled
antiferromagnetically e.g. Fe3O4
• Helical ordering seen in some rare earth magnets e.g Dy
– Minimizing wrt
– Leads to or
• Frustrated systems such as antiferromagnetism on a triangular lattice, spin glasses
E= -2uS2(J1 Ioqθ+ J2 Ioq2θ)
θ
(J1 + 4J − 2Ioqθ)qinθ= 0
θ= 0,i θ= −J1
4J2
Exchange coupling in Magnetic Superlattices
• Model proposed by Stiles (PRB 48, 7238, 1993)• Based upon a quantum well model and the reflection coefficient for waves
incident upon the well (see below) with R<<1• Change in energy
• In 1-d for free electrons leads to
• Reason for the oscillations is the step function in occupation numbers at kF
R T
t
∆ E (N)Mu
i
mo
2
1
Nqin(2[o N)
∆ E (N)=
m E o
µdE (E − Eo )ffn(E ,N)
Exchange coupling• Ferromagnetic state
• Antiferromagnetic state
• Exchange coupling
+M M M M
M MM
M+
J(N)=u
i
mo
2
UgG ↑↑g2 + gG ↑tg2 − 2gG ↑↑G ↑tg
E×
1
Nqin(2[o N+ φ0)
3-d and realistic Fermi surfaces• Moving from 1-d to 3-d for free electrons
– Fermi surface spherical– Contributions from all k//
– Contributions to integrand oscillate except when parts of Fermi surface are parallel (approximate with stationary phase integration)
– Spanning vector of 2kF determines oscillations just like 1-d model• Realistic Fermi surface oscillations determined by spanning vectors in the
growth direction that link parallel sheets of the Fermi surface
Stiles, PRB 48, 7238 (1993)
Fe/Au/Fe wedgesData from Unguris et al. PRL 79, 2734 (1997)
SEMPA
MOKE
Theory: M.D. Stiles, J. Appl. Phys. 79(8), 5805 (1996)
Period and coupling strength in good agreement with measurement
http://physics.nist.gov/Divisions/Div841/Gp3/Projects/MagNano/sempa_exchange_proj.html
# of layers
Domain Walls• Wall is region between two magnetic
domains
– Bloch wall (a) - spins rotate in plane parallel to the wall
– Neel wall (b) - spins rotate in plane perpendicular to the wall
• Competition between exchange and anisotropy.
Exchange wants a slowly varying wall since the energy rises as Si.Sj
Anisotropy wants to lock spins to a particular crystal direction
Wall size (Bloch)• Suppose wall extends over N layers• Anisotropy contributions – assuming uniaxial anisotropy
• Exchange
for small angles
adding contribution from the N layers
• Total energy is sum of exchange and anisotropy
NQ
S
K qin2 θS MN
i
m i
0K qin2 θdθ=
N K
2
E = −2JS1 ·S2
M JS2θ2
= JS2i2/N
E = JS2 i2
N a2+
N K a
2
Wall size (cont.)• Minimizing wrt N leads to
• And
• Where is known as the exchange stiffness
ff= N a = iSN
2J/K a
N = iSN
2J/K a3
A ex = JexS2/a
σB f = iSN
2JK /a = iN
A exK
Domain Formation• Creation of domain walls costs energy• Dipolar energy reduced• Domains are formed to balance these two effects
Micromagnetics• Micromagnetics minimizes the energy of the system that includes exchange,
anisotropy, external fields, and demagnetization (dipolar)• Typically solved by breaking the sample into small elements and calculating the
torque on the moment from an effective field determined from the energy function
• Damping is included to drive the solution to equilibrium• In principle exchange, anisotropy can be found from electronic structure theory• Several public domain codes oommf (NIST), magpar (Vienna)
– http://magnet.atp.tuwien.ac.at/scholz/magpar/– http://math.nist.gov/oommf/
Etot =
m
Ω(l exIh + l ani+ l ext + l Hem ag)dm
=
m
Ω
s
A
(
(3 jx)2 + (3 j y )2 + (3 jJ)2
u
+
K 1(1− (a ·j)2)− J ·H ext−1
2J ·H Hem ag
V
dm
Calculation of hysteresis from 1st principles
HRTEM image of grain boundary in Co1Pd5
Idealized model of the interface
Calculated boundary exchange
R.H. Victora, S.D. Willoughby, J.M. MacLaren, and Jianhua Xue, IEEE Trans. Mag., 39, 710 (2003).
Calculated hysteresis loop• Anisotropy only perturbed right at boundary plane• Exchange coupling falls off quickly• Modeled distribution of grains and used calculated anisotropies and
exchanges
Secondary Magnetic Properties• magneto optics
– Rotation of the plane of polarized light on either reflection/transmission• magneto crystalline anisotropy
– Energy cost as magnetization rotated wrt crystal axes• magnetostriction
– Change in shape of a sample as it is magnetized• magnetoelastic effect
– Influence of stress on magnetization
• all dependent on spin-orbit coupling
Kerr & Faraday effects• Kerr effect – rotation of the plane of polarization of reflected light• Faraday effect – rotation of the plane of polarization of transmitted light• Key is the symmetry of the dielectric tensor• Same as symmetry in Lorentz force
Example of Polar Kerr Effect• M perpendicular to film, dieletric tensor
• Maxwell’s equations
• Linear media
T=
S
].1 .2 0
−.2 .1 00 0 .3
H
J
D = TE, J = σE, µ = µH
3 ·D = 4iρ 3 × H =4i
cJ +
1
c
0D
0N
3 ·µ = 0 3 × E = −1
c
0µ
0N
Polar Kerr Effect (cont)• Consider incident plane waves
• Leads to modified Maxwell equation
• and
• At normal incidence for transverse waves
• Eigenvalue problem (circularly polarized light)
3 × H =1
cT(≥)
0E
0N, T(≥)= 1+
S4iσ(≥)
≥with
[20D = [2E − (, ·E),,
(T− n2)D = D
n2 = .1 ± S.2 D = x ± Sy
E(r,N) = E 0exp(S(, ·r− ≥N))
H (r,N) = H 0exp(S(, ·r− ≥N))
Polar Kerr effect (cont)• Incident plane wave equals sum of left and right circularly polarized beams• Each reflected from the surface (see Jackson) for reflection coefficients
• After some simplifications we arrive at the standard formula
• Formulae for different geometries more complicated (see chapter by J.M MacLaren in Magnetic Interactions and Spin Transport , eds Chtchelkanova, Wolf, Idzerda, pub. Kluwer, 2003.
E r =1− n+
1+ n+E + +
1− n−1+ n−
E − = 2E 0
;(1− n+ n− )x + S(n− − n+ )>
[
(1+ n+ )(1+ n− )
D =.2
i.1(1− .1)
=Tx y
iTxx(1− Txx)
=−σx y
σxxi
1+ S4i;σxx
Density Functional Theory• Based on two theorems by Hohenberg & Kohn
– Ground state energy is a functional of the electron density– Energy minimized for the true density
• Made practical by Kohn-Sham– Find density from an effective single particle Schrödinger equation– Potential depends on electron density– Density determined from solutions (wavefunctions)– Potential includes electron-ion, electron-electron, and exchange-correlation
potential.– Many accurate approximations to exchange & correlation– Solve self-consistently
• Extended to magnetic systems as spin-density functional theory• Despite being a ground state theory, wavefunctions and eigenvalues of
excited single particle states can explain properties like the Kerr effect
Kubo formula• Linear response leads to the Kubo formula for the optical conductivity
• This can be evaluated using single particle wavefunctions and operators using the momentum rather than current operators
σ×β = Sne2
m ;ff×β +
1
u;Ω
m µ
0dNeS;Neψg
;j× (−,N),jβ(,0)
[gψs
σ×β = Sn0e2
(; + S/τ4 )[m ∗]− 1
+Se2
m 2uΩ
Q
,
HQ
T σ
HHQ
T HσH
1
; T HσH,T σ
|− ×
T σ T HσH−βT HσHT σ
; − ; T HσH,T σ + Sff−
−βT σ T HσH− ×
T HσHT σ
; + ; T HσH,T σ + Sff,
r
Kubo formula (cont)• Matrix elements include spin-orbit coupling
− ×T σ,T HσH(,)=
m
Ωdrψ∗
T σ,(r)
(
−Su0
0x×+
u
4m c2(σ × 3 V (r))×
u
ψ T HσH,(r)
σxx(;) =e2
m 2u
m
d3[
HQ
T σ
HHQ
T HσH
g− +T σ,T HσHg2 + g−−
T σ,T HσHg2
2; T HσH,T σ
×
(1
(; − ; T HσH,T σ(,)+ Sff)+
1
(; + ; T HσH,T σ(,)+ Sff)
u
σx y (;) =e2
m 2u
m
d3[
HQ
T σ
HHQ
T HσH
g− +T σ,T HσHg2 − g−−
T σ,T HσHg2
2; T HσH,T σ
×
(1
(; − ; T HσH,T σ(,)+ Sff)+
1
(; + ; T HσH,T σ(,)+ Sff)
u
Anisotropy• Magnetization prefers to align with certain crystallographic directions – easy
and hard axes• Origin is spin orbit coupling• Can be calculated using modern electronic structure methods• Larger in technologically interesting superlattices where the symmetry is
lower• Often seen in superlattices is a sum of interface/surface and bulk
contributions
• Neel model is a useful framework for understanding anisotropy – symmetry based expansion
K j = 2K s/N+ K m
E = E0 + L(r)Ioq2 θ+ H (r)Ioq4 θ+ QQQ
Anisotropy for magnetic transition metals
Column 1:Daalderop et al., PRB 41, 11919, 1990 (LMTO s,p,d partial waves)
Column 2:Daalderop et al., PRB 41, 11919, 1990 (LMTO s,p,d,f partial waves)
Column 3: Fritsche et al., J. Phys. F 17, 943 (1987)
Column 4: Trygg et al., PRL 75, 2871 (1995)
Column 5: Trygg et al., PRL 75, 2871 (1995) (adding in orbital polarization)
Agreement ok, Ni LSD gives poor Fermi surface
S> qtem theor> (µenAatom ) exp. eaq> axiqbII Qe -0.T -0.4 c.4 -0.T -1.8 -1.4 (100)fII ui -0.T -0.m 10 -0.T -0.T 2.c (111)hIp No 1m -29 -29 -110 -mT (0001)fII No 0.T 2.2 1.8 (111)
Anisotropies for Superlattices
• Theory Victora and MacLaren, PRB, 47 11919 (1993)• Experiment Engel et al. PRL, 67, 1910 (1991)• Interface term well described (larger)• Volume term less accurate (smaller)
NoAPH 2K s (ergqAIm 2) K m (ergqAIm 3)theor> experim ent theor> experim ent
(111) 1.32 1.3 -1.8 × 10c -0.m × 10c
(100) 1.14 1.2 -m.4 × 10c -4.T × 10c
(011) 1.3 -1.9 × 10c
Other results - Co/Pd
(+) Draaisma et al., JMMM 66, 351 (1987)(♦) den Broeder et al., Appl. Phys. A 49, 507 (1989)Theory Daalderop et al. in “Ultrathin magnetic films”, Springer Verlag, 1994
Neel Model & Disorder• Disorder at the interface is seen to reduce the anisotropy• Disorder – Pj = probability of a magnetic atom on a particular site.
• For pure materials K=0, so
hence
mjj
mjj
fjj
mjj
fn
jji
WPPWPP
WPPWPPWPK
1111
11001
2
)1()1(
)1(22
++
+=
−+−
++−+=∑
mmff WWWW 1010 ; −=−=
21
1)(2 +
=
−= ∑ j
n
jjpi PPKK
Application to FePd• Hirotsu’s data for L10 FePd (private communication)• Kp=2.6x107 ergs/cc • Ki=1.0x107 ergs/cc • LRO = 0.65
• Neel theory for Ki ~ 0.652 x 2.6x107 ergs/cc ~ 1.1x107ergs/cc
• Ki/Kp can also be derived from XRD diffraction intensities (MacLaren,Victora, Sellmyer, unpublished)
• Calculated Kp for a=.386 nm ,c/a=0.968 1.2x107 ergs/cc