the use of the five-factor model of personality as a therapeutic tool in career counseling

Journal of Career Development, Vol. 27, No. 3, 2001

The Use of the Five-Factor Modelof Personality as a Therapeutic Toolin Career Counseling

Marie S. HammondUniversity of Missouri–Columbia

Many clients requesting assistance in Career Centers are mismatched withtheir career due to issues of occupational choice. In addition, personality con-flicts with co-workers, lack of interpersonal skills, and the individual’s person-ality characteristics can affect vocational success. Theories of personality areincorporated into several theories of vocational choice and development (i.e.,Holland, Roe) resulting in some attention to personality. Likewise, client per-sonality can affect the career counselor’s ability to intervene effectively to as-sist the client in making effective career choices and decisions. More directattention to the impact of personality on an individual’s career and vocationalsuccess can enable the Career Center to increase the effectiveness of theirinterventions. This paper will discuss the methods for increasing the effective-ness of career counseling through the use of the Five-Factor Model of Person-ality into our therapeutic work with clients.

KEY WORDS: Five-Factor Model of Personality; career counseling; interpersonalstyle; intervention; career/vocational choice.

Introduction

Given the increasingly complex nature of the occupational environ-ment, brief interventions focused on career choice and preparation fora job search are only a small part of the concerns that clients bring

Address correspondence to Marie S. Hammond, now at Career Services, 17 HolmesStudent Center, The University of Tulsa, 600 South College Avenue, Tulsa, OK 74104;e-mail: [email protected].

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0894-8453/01/0300-0153$19.50/0 2001 Human Sciences Press, Inc.

154 Journal of Career Development

with them to the career counseling situation. This complexity onlyunderscores the importance of the therapeutic relationship as an im-portant tool in facilitating client problem resolution. One componentof the working alliance with which career counselors and psycholo-gists are familiar is personality characteristics (Bordin, 1979; Gelsoand Carter, 1994; Hartley and Strupp, 1983). Research on the impactof personality on the development of the working alliance supports theimportance of including considerations of client personality in select-ing treatment interventions, decreasing client drop-out from therapy,and in increasing the effectiveness of therapy (Beutler and Clarkin,1990; Orlinsky and Howard, 1995; Seligman, 1990).

Effective career counseling involves the use of assessments to pro-vide feedback to the client regarding their values, interests, personal-ity and abilities. This information about clients is then, generally, tiedto information about the world-of-work in order to enable clients tomake effective career choices and take action on those choices. Whilemany career counseling clients make use of the various assessmentsand world-of-work information to evaluate career choices and makedecisions about their career direction with relative ease, there areother clients for whom this process is more difficult. These clients mayhave difficulties beyond simple issues of researching informationabout themselves and occupations and then making a decision (seeSpokane, 1991, for a description of a diagnostic taxonomy). These cli-ents are at higher risk for experiencing career difficulties and for drop-ping out of career counseling (Spokane, 1991). This article provides adiscussion of the current uses of personality in career choice and deci-sion-making and suggests how one Career Center uses personality as-sessment to increase therapists’ understanding of the client’s person-ality and to enhance the impact of career interventions.

Personality is often defined as a group of characteristics that struc-tures one’s reactions to oneself and to the world around one, including“traits, values, attitudes, beliefs, needs, and dispositions” (Gelso andFassinger, 1992, p. 276). These characteristics are useful in careercounseling since much of career, or vocational, psychology is basedupon the assumption that the client’s personality affects their careerchoice and success. The stable nature of personality, approximately40% of which is genetically inherited (Loehlin, 1992), allows us to fa-cilitate client career choice, while the portion of personality influencedby the environment allows us to work with a client to develop newclient behaviors, world views, and responses to the work environment.This provides the opportunity to: (1) facilitate the client’s career explo-

Marie S. Hammond 155

ration and decision making process, and; (2) facilitate the client’s af-fective functioning within their career, as needed, through varioustypes of skills training (e.g., interview, emotional control, communica-tion). Thus, personality is not only central to the choice of careers, butis also critical in achieving the goal of increasing the client’s effective-ness in their chosen occupation.

The Five-Factor Model of Personality

Extensive research beginning in the early part of the 1900s, exam-ined personality as it was described in the English language. The ba-sic assumption of this approach to personality suggested that if per-sonality was important to the continued functioning of a society, itshould be clearly indicated in the number of terms available to de-scribe personality in the language of that society. For example, thereare over 18,000 terms in the English language to describe people (Dig-man, 1990). Over the years, researchers have attempted to group andorganize personality descriptors into useable frameworks, ranging insize from 3 to 36 “factors,” or categories. Recent research, specificallyon adult personality has resulted in the general acceptance (Digman,1989, 1990; Ostendorf and Angleitner, 1994; Watson and Clark, 1992;Wiggins, 1996) of five basic personality dimensions that are replicableacross age, gender, race, nationality, culture, and language (e.g.,Church and Katigbak, 1989; de Raad, Hendriks, and Hofstee, 1992).Table 1 (Costa and McCrae, 1992b; Fiske, 1949; Norman, 1963; Tupesand Christal, 1972) provides a summary of some of the terms used todescribe these dimensions. The five dimensions were numbered basedupon their importance within the group of personality descriptors. Inother words, Dimension 1 explained more of personality than all otherdimensions, while Dimension 2 explained more of personality thanDimensions 3, 4, and 5.

The terms listed in Table 1 provide a basis for thinking about eachdimension and how they might play out when further delineated.Seminal work in clarifying the five dimensions has been accomplishedby Costa and McCrae (1985), among others, resulting in a model ofpersonality labeled the “Five-Factor Model of Personality” (FFM). Ta-ble 2 (Costa and McCrae, 1992b) presents a summary of the termsused to describe the behaviors most characteristic of an individual asthey approach each end of the continuum for the five factors of theFive-Factor Model of Personality. The focus of the “Five-Factor Model


Table 1Labels Assigned to the Most Commonly Occurring

Dimensions of Personality

Dimension Labels

I Extraversion, Surgency, Sociability, Assertiveness,Social Adaptability/Activity/Ambition, InterpersonalInvolvement, Power

II Agreeableness, Likeability, Socialization, Conformity,Psychoticism, Paranoid Disposition, FriendlyCompliance, Love

III Conscientiousness, Superego Strength, Dependability,Task Interest, Thinking Introversion, Constraint,Prudence, Self-Control, Will to Achieve, Work

IV Neuroticism, Emotional Stability, Emotional Control,Anxiety, Emotionality, Negative Emotionality,Adjustment, Affect

V Openness to Experience, Culture, Independence,Inquiring Intellect, Intelligence

of Personality” is on normal adult personality; therefore, clients arecompared to “people in general.” These traits are normally distributed,with the more extreme scores indicating greater likelihood of display-ing the distinctive features of the trait. Most of the adult population(68%) displays a mixture of behaviors, usually related to the charac-teristics of the particular situation. Thus, this model could provide abasis for increasing the effectiveness of our work in career psychology.

Practical Applications: The FFM in Career Choice

Holland’s (1985a) hexagon provides the career counseling clientwith an easily understood framework for understanding occupationsand the world of work. So how does the Five-Factor Model of Personal-ity interface with Holland’s RIASEC model? A study examining therelationship between an brief measure of the FFM (Costa, McCrae,and Holland, 1984) found that “[p]ersonality dispositions show astrong consistent association with vocational interests.”

The results of the latter study (Costa, McCrae, and Holland, 1984)


Table 2Descriptors for the Dimensions of theFive-Factor Model of Personality

Dimensions End of DescriptorsContinua

Extraversion High talkative, frank, open, adventurous,sociable, assertive, energetic,composed, cheerful, optimistic

Low silent, secretive, cautious, reclusive,emotional maturity, mild, kindly,conventional, calm, reserved,independent, even-paced

Agreeableness High good-natured, not jealous, mild,cooperative, emotionally mature,mild, trustful, adaptable, kindly,attentive to others, self-sufficient,sympathetic

Low irritable, jealous, headstrong,negativistic, assertive, talkative,orderly, egocentric, skeptical,competitive, critical thinkers

Conscientiousness High fussy, tidy, responsible, scrupulous,persevering, orderliness,responsible, conscientious,conventional, purposeful, strong-willed, determined, punctual,reliable

Low careless, undependable,unscrupulous, quitting, fickle,adaptable, imaginative,hedonistic, less exacting

Neuroticism High nervous, tense, anxious, excitable,hypochondriacal, less adaptable,dependent, unstable

Low unshakable, self-sufficient, placid,stable, poised, even-tempered,relaxed, adaptable


Table 2 (Continued)

Dimensions End of DescriptorsContinua

Openness to High broad interests, independent-Experience minded, imaginative, intellectual

curiosity, social pose,unpredictable, artisticallysensitive, polished, refined,cultured, esthetically fastidious,reflective, emotionally sensitive

Low artistically insensitive, unreflective,narrow, crude, boorish, simple,direct, narrow interests, socialand politically conservative

suggest that Extraversion has been shown to be a predictor for successin training activities and in sales or management occupations. Oneinference of the study suggests that individuals scoring at the “Intro-version” end of the Extraversion Factor might benefit from discussionor training in skills related to success in training activities. It alsosuggests that individuals falling on the “Extraversion” end of this con-tinuum may have already learned many skills necessary to succeed intraining activities. Clients scoring similar to those at the “Introver-sion” end of the continuum who choose careers in sales or manage-ment may benefit from discussions about the characteristics requiredto perform in these careers successfully. Informational interviewingcan be used both to increase the client’s skills and provide them withinformation to further clarify the types of activities and abilities theywill need to develop in order to succeed in sales and management oc-cupations.

There is a high correlation between Extraversion and Social andEnterprising occupations (Costa et al., 1984) on the Self-DirectedSearch (SDS, Holland, 1985b). This relationship appears to be intu-itive, given Holland’s research and theory (1985a) on careers and per-sonality. However, many individuals who are more “Introverted” havean interest in the Social and/or Enterprising occupations. Once again,this impels Career Counselors to engage the client in further discus-sions and occupational research in order to facilitate the client’s un-


derstanding of the implications of their career choice. Networking andinformational interviewing can assist the client in practicing and de-veloping necessary skills, in addition to increasing their understand-ing of the every day reality of these occupations.

Higher scores on Openness to Experience are correlated with Artis-tic and Investigative occupations, while low scores on this same scaleare correlated with Realistic and Conventional occupations (Costa etal., 1984) on the SDS. Thus, congruence between results of interest orability measures and these scales increase the likelihood that careerchoices in line with the personality assessment results will be effectivechoices. Occupational choices incongruent with this personality factorshould engender further discussion of the reasons for these choices.Clients who continue to pursue careers inconsistent with personalityalong this dimension would likely benefit from activities and discus-sions mentioned in the previous paragraphs regarding incongruencebetween Extroversion/Introversion and career choice.

High scores on Conscientiousness are correlated with high job per-formance levels (Costa et al., 1984). They also increase the likelihoodof success in careers requiring intense and sustained efforts or highaspirations. Thus, while higher scores obtained by individuals withhigh aspirations and performance levels would not be a cause for con-cern, lower scores on this dimension suggest the need for a discussionof the incongruence between career choice and scores on Conscien-tiousness.

The Use of the Five Factor Model of Personality (FFM)in Career Counseling

The usefulness of the Five-Factor Model of Personality in CareerCounseling extends beyond its application to career choice. The FFMcan also facilitate the career counseling process in the following ways:(1) assist the Career Counselor to understand the client’s internal ex-perience, (2) provide a context for understanding the client’s concerns,(3) aid in anticipating potential difficulties in the course of careercounseling, and (4) assist the Career Counselor in developing a practi-cal treatment plan.

Several recent studies (Costa, McCrae, and Holland, 1984; McCraeand Costa, 1986; Miller, 1991; Muten, 1991) provide information rele-vant to the process of career counseling. These studies found thatthose who are high on the emotional stability factor (Neuroticism)


were more likely to have problems of a longstanding nature, experi-ence greater levels of distress, experience greater job dissatisfaction,or have difficulty focusing on career or educational pursuits with littleinsight into the effects of distress on their functioning. McCrae andCosta (1986) found that those high on the Neuroticism were morelikely to rely on hostile reactions, escapist fantasy, self-blame, seda-tion, withdrawal, wishful thinking, passivity, and indecisiveness.Strategies for working with individuals scoring at the higher end ofthe continuum include planning on a longer treatment period, main-taining very focused treatment goals, skill training in emotional con-trol and problem-solving, assistance in understanding their emotions,and therapy focused on the client’s issues prior to focusing on careerissues. Referral of clients scoring on the higher end of the Neuroticismfactor for concurrent personal therapy may facilitate the work of ca-reer counseling.

The second factor, Extraversion, also has implications for therapy(Miller, 1991; Muten, 1991). Standing on this factor, ranging from highExtraversion to high Introversion, provides information regarding theease of establishing a working alliance. Clients scoring higher on “Ex-traversion” were generally better at verbalizing, more optimistic, andmore comfortable in social situations. While these characteristics sug-gest that clients scoring higher on Extraversion will easily and activelyparticipate in therapy, their social adeptness can interfere with ad-dressing the issues that make them uncomfortable. The use of a moreinterpersonal, rather than directive style, can further facilitate careercounseling. These clients were more likely to use rational reaction, posi-tive thinking, substitution, and restraint for coping with stress or anxi-ety (McCrae and Costa,1986). These coping styles can be harnessed bythe counselor to contain the client’s anxiety (Spokane, 1991) and en-hance the client’s ability to achieve their goals in career counseling.

Those clients scoring at the “Introversion” end of the Extraversiondimension tended to verbalize less and have greater difficulties ex-pressing themselves to others resulting in the self-perception ofgreater difficulties socializing (Miller, 1991; Muten, 1991). Addressingthese issues can add to the client’s employment-related effectivenessand enhance the likelihood that career counseling will be effective.Thus, interventions designed to assist clients in developing a moreaccurate self-perception, as well as skills training in these areas, canprovide useful adjuncts to your work with the client. Use of a moredirective style was also seen as more effective (McCrae and Costa,1986) with clients scoring lower on the Extraversion factor.


Standing on the Openness to Experience factor can be particularlyuseful in career counseling, suggesting the client’s likely reaction tovarious treatment interventions (Miller, 1991; Muten, 1991). Thoseclients scoring higher on this factor are more likely to value the in-sights from their internal experiences, as well as to be more open tonew and different experiences. They will more readily make use ofinternal imagery, be able to take another’s viewpoint, and to tolerateambiguity. These same individuals were more likely to respond to ab-stract or non-conventional interventions and to be able to use fantasyto develop self-regulation and monitoring skills. The use of humor andfaith to cope with difficult situations (McCrae and Costa, 1986) can beharnessed by the Career Counselor to assist the client in coping withthe anxiety engendered by the career exploration process. Those scor-ing at the lower end of this continuum made less use of fantasy andimagination, were less able to tolerate the unexpected, and had a pref-erence for more structured experiences. Treatment implications in-clude the use of concrete activities and advice giving. Clients scoringlower in Openness will be more receptive to emotional support andrational therapies.

Those clients scoring higher on Openness to Experience may be hin-dered by their wide range of interests which may result in indecisionand career shifting. Results from a study (Heppner and Hendricks,1995) comparing the effectiveness of the interventions used by careercounselors on an undecided career counseling client and an indecisivecareer counseling client suggest that there are some interventionsthat may be more effective with these clients. The authors’ sugges-tions included: using a more personal approach, including greater useof relationship and interpersonal skills, and providing support andhope. Addressing anxiety, exploring beliefs that may be non-func-tional for the client, and allowing therapy to extend beyond six ses-sions are further suggestions to improving the outcomes of careercounseling with these clients.

Standing on the Agreeableness factor was found to be suggestive ofthe client’s subjective reaction to the therapist and others (Miller,1991, Muten, 1991). At higher levels clients tend to see the world in apositive manner, had higher needs for others’ appreciation, preferredto avoid conflict and disappointing others, and were easy to forgive.They may avoid conflict and attempt to discern the therapist’s desires,rather than understanding their own. These characteristics providethe client with an optimism that can see them through the anxietyand stress of a career change, but may also require more focused work


by the Career Counselor to ensure that the client is aware of the nega-tive aspects of particular choices or career-related decisions. Thoselower in Agreeableness were found to have a more sarcastic or ironicsense of humor, desire to influence others more, were more skeptical,and dislike reporting to others. The interpersonal nature of this factorsuggests that those more skeptical of others will be less likely to trustthe process and may terminate early unless clear results can beshown.

The final factor, Conscientiousness, was observed to provide infor-mation on the degree of effort the client is likely to put forth, theirability to withstand discomfort, and their ability to obtain success(Miller, 1991; Muten, 1991). While low levels of Conscientiousness areoften indicative of a client who is not as strictly adherent to schedulesand deadlines, thus making progress in therapy tenuous, it also hasimplications for their career path. Clients scoring low on the Conscien-tiousness factor would be more likely to present with difficulties re-lated to expectations, goal setting, motivation, and interpersonal diffi-culties in the workplace. This difficulty may stem from differencesbetween the client’s personal tendencies and the expectations of cli-ent’s parents, community, and/or society. Facilitating the client’s un-derstanding of the impact of their personal choices on their careerscan assist them in making informed choices about their career path.

Many adults seeking career counseling have reached critical pointsin their career. Burnout, plateauing, layoff, and other issues all stimu-late re-thinking one’s career path. Piedmont (1993) examined the per-sonality correlates of burnout, with results providing support for thecorrelation between personality and burnout. Specifically, Neuroti-cism, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness factors correlated withthe three aspects of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,and decreased perceptions of personal accomplishment). Thus, indi-viduals with high scores on the Neuroticism factor were more likelyto experience burnout because they generally were more anxious, de-pressed, and vulnerable to stress reactions. Similarly, those withhigher levels of Extraversion had a greater need for excitement andrisk taking. Those with lower levels of Agreeableness were generallyaltruistic and accommodating, but when approaching burnout becamecynical and suspicious, acted rude when feeling threatened, and weremore likely to use manipulation when feeling threatened by others.Those with higher levels of Conscientiousness who experienced burn-out tended to be more self-disciplined, orderly, and achievement ori-ented. Results from examining the predictive power of personality


found that the Neuroticism and Agreeableness factors correlated withhigher scores on the emotional exhaustion and depersonalizationscales, over and above correlations with the work environment mea-sure. This information can facilitate our understanding of the client’spresentation, as well as reluctance to pursue certain avenues duringtherapy. In addition, these individuals are likely to be more sensitiveto intervention or the perceptions that they have little control overevents. Client concerns regarding control or lack of control may ap-pear to be superfluous to the focus of career change, however, address-ing these issues in therapy can not only facilitate career counseling,but enhance the client’s coping skills, and therefore the client’s poten-tial for future success.

Summary and Conclusions

The Five-Factor Model of Personality provides information useful toengaging the client in developing an awareness of their strengths andweaknesses, as well as providing the Career Counselor with informa-tion to assist them in working more effectively with the client. Careerpsychology has long assumed that personality is a critical componentof effective career choice and career success. Research suggested thatissues related to the development of the working alliance, treatmentplanning, and outcome were related to personality characteristics. Theincorporation of this information into our therapeutic work with cli-ents should increase the efficacy and quality of our interventions. TheFive-Factor Model of Personality has been shown to be valid acrossracial, ethnic, and linguistic lines, thus providing a global descriptionof basic personality traits for a wide variety of clients. As a result,therapeutic work can address not only issues directly related to careerchoice, but can also address issues related to successful workplacefunctioning (Goleman, 1995).

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