the u.s. army leadership field manual

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Center for Army Leadership

Field ManualNo. 22-100

The US Army Leadership Field Manual

BE, KNOW, DO

McGraw-HillNew York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon

London Madrid Mexico City Milan New DelhiSan Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

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Copyright © 2004 by The McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 0-07-145842-5 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-143699-5. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at [email protected] or (212) 904-4069. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting there from. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise. DOI: 10.1036/0071458425

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Introduction for the Business Reader v

Foreword vii

Preface ix

Part One The Leader, Leadership, and the Human Dimension 1Chapter 1 The Army Leadership Framework 3

Chapter 2 The Leader and Leadership: What the Leader Must BE, KNOW, and DO 21Section I. Character: What a Leader Must BE 21

SECTION II. Competence: What a Leader Must KNOW 46

SECTION III. Leadership: What a Leader Must DO 48

Chapter 3. The Human Dimension 51

Part Two. Direct Leadership: For First-line, Face-to-Face Leaders 73

Chapter 4. Direct Leadership Skills 75

Chapter 5. Direct Leadership Actions 89

Part Three. Organizational and Strategic Leadership 119Chapter 6. Organizational Leadership 121

SECTION I. What It Takes To Lead Organizations—Skills 122

SECTION II. What It Takes To Lead Organizations—Actions 131

SECTION III. A Historical Perspective of OrganizationalLeadership—General Ridgway in Korea 150

Contents

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Chapter 7. Strategic Leadership 154SECTION I. Strategic Leadership Skills 155

SECTION II. Strategic Leadeship Actions 167

SECTION III. A Historical Perspective Of Strategic Leadership—General of the Army Marshall During World War II 181

Appendix A. Performance Indicators 185

Appendix B. Character Development 193

Source Notes 196

Index 203

Contents

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The United States Army has created scores of exceptional leaders from every rank and file.

The Army emphasis on character, loyalty, honor, integrity and personal courage is relevant toleaders in any field of endeavor, especially business and organizational leadership. It is forthis reason that McGraw-Hill is publishing The US Army Leadership Field Manual.

The ideas in this book are the offspring of two centuries of US Army experience and wisdom,guided by constant learning by doing, and the need to respond to continually changing envi-ronments and challenges. If, when you think of the Army, you imagine an officer standing ona perch barking out commands to his troops, this manual will surprise you. This is not theArmy way. Leadership is not about rank or stripes on a uniform, but about responsibility,accountability, and the achievement of mission. The US Army Leadership Field Manualteaches these important lessons while reinforcing the value of selflessness. Colonel Jenkinsemphasizes this point when he declares in chapter one, “To our subordinates we owe every-thing we are or hope to be.”

At the core of the Army approach to leadership is character: “Character describes a person’sinner strength” and “Command is a sacred trust” are two vital precepts of the Army’s leader-ship code. Building on this solid foundation, The US Army Leadership Field Manual presentsvital information that can help to shape leaders who inspire people, organize actions, developstrategy, and respond to uncertainty with speed and effectiveness. While the examples andanecdotes are extracted from the Army’s colorful military history, they translate well into anyleadership context. As General Shinseki writes in his introduction, “We call on our leaders totranslate character and competence into leader actions.” There are many vivid portraits ofleader actions throughout this book.

For example, on page 16 there is a stirring depiction of the amphibious landings in Normandyin World War II. The decisive actions of those paratroopers on that fateful day may be the bestexample of leadership ever exhibited. Thrown off course by weather and enemy fire, thou-sands found themselves miles from their drop zones. Fortunately, the training of those men

Introduction for the Business Reader

By Jeffrey A. KramesAuthor, The Welch Way and What the Best CEOs Know

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Copyright © 2005 by Myrna B. Shure. Click here for terms of use.

Copyright © 2004 by The McGraw-Hill. Click here for terms of use.

kicked in at exactly the right time. Trained to take the initiative instead of waiting for an order,one unit liberated a village while many others achieved their mission despite the long odds.“This was the payoff for hard training and leaders who valued soldiers, communicated theimportance of the mission, and trusted their subordinate leaders to accomplish it.”

Many leadership books are theoretical in approach. This one is grounded in action. Itdescribes the competencies and lists the actions that lead to success on the battlefield. The USArmy Leadership Field Manual explains what any enduring organization should expect fromits leaders, and shows how to acquire the vital skills that turn ordinary soldiers—or employ-ees in any type of organization—into authentic leaders.

In the waning days of 2003, Time Magazine named the American soldier its “Person of theYear” for the second time in the magazine’s history (the first was in 1950, at the onset of theKorean War). In making this extraordinary pronouncement, Time commented: “The fight forpeace demands different skills of the soldiers: not just courage, but constancy; not just strength,but subtlety.” It is my belief that in using this manual we can learn the importance of charac-ter, while mastering the invaluable leadership lessons of constancy, strength, and subtlety.

Introduction for the Business Reader

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UNITED STATES ARMYTHE CHIEF OF STAFF

FOREWORDSoldiers represent what’s best about our Army. Day in and day out, in the dark and in themud and in faraway places, they execute tough missions whenever and wherever the nationcalls. They deserve our very best—leaders of character and competence who act to achieveexcellence. That theme resounds throughout this book and echoes our time-honored prin-ciple of BE, KNOW, DO.

This leadership manual lays out a framework that applies to all Army leaders—officer andNCO, military and civilian, active and reserve component. At the core of our leadershipdoctrine are the same Army Values embedded in our force: loyalty, duty, respect, selflessservice, honor, integrity, and personal courage (LDRSHIP). The framework also outlinesphysical, mental, and emotional attributes that together with values form character—whata leader must BE.

Being a person of character is fundamental to our Army. What makes Army leaders of com-petence are skills with people, ideas, things, and war fighting. We refer to those four setsof skills as interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical. Many are common to leadersin all situations; some additional skills are required for those who gain increasing respon-sibility. Leaders of character and competence are those with the appropriate skills, leaderswho KNOW their people, their equipment, and their profession.

All that is still not enough. We call on our leaders to translate character and competenceinto leader actions. Army leaders influence people—by providing purpose, direction, andmotivation—while operating to accomplish the mission and improving the organization.Leaders inspire others toward uncommon goals and never lose sight of the future even asthey labor tirelessly for the demands of today. That is what we expect our leaders to DO.

Unlike the previous editions, this leadership manual covers three levels of leadership—direct, organizational, and strategic. While the skills and actions necessary for leadershipsuccess at the direct level continue to be important at higher levels, organizational andstrategic leaders need additional skills to perform in their more complex roles.

I urge Army leaders to ready this manual thoroughly, study it carefully, and teach it faith-fully. But above all, I challenge you to be leaders of character and competence who lead oth-ers to excellence. Whether supporting, training, or fighting, America looks to you to BE,KNOW, and DO what is right.

Eric K ShinsekiGeneral, United States ArmyChief of Staff

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The Army consists of the active component, Army National Guard, Army Reserve, andDepartment of the Army (DA) civilians. It’s the world’s premier land combat force—a full-spectrum force trained and ready to answer the nation’s call. The Army’s foundation is confi-dent and competent leaders of character. This manual is addressed to them and to those whotrain and develop them.

Purpose

FM 22-100, The US Army Leadership Field Manual is a single-source reference for all Armyleaders. Its purpose is threefold:

• To provide leadership doctrine for meeting mission requirements under all conditions. • To establish a unified leadership theory for all Army leaders: military and civilian, active

and reserve, officer and enlisted. • To provide a comprehensive and adaptable leadership resource for the Army of the 21st

century.

As the capstone leadership manual for the Army, FM 22-100 establishes the Army’s leader-ship doctrine, the fundamental principles by which Army leaders act to accomplish the mis-sion and take care of their people. The doctrine discusses how Army values form the basis ofcharacter.

FM 22-100 also serves as the basis for future leadership and leader development initiativesassociated with the three pillars of the Army’s leader development model. Specifically, FM22-100 serves as:

• The basis for leadership assessment. • The basis for developmental counseling and leader development. • The basis for leadership evaluation. • A reference for leadership development in operational assignments. • A guide for institutional instruction at proponent schools. • A resource for individual leaders’ self-development goals and initiatives.

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FM 22-100 directly supports the Army’s keystone manuals, FM 100-1 and FM 100-5, whichdescribe the Army and its missions. It contains principles all Army leaders use when they applythe doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures established in other official Army publica-tions. This edition of FM 22-100 establishes a unified leadership theory for all Army leadersbased on the Army leadership framework and three leadership levels. Specifically, it:

• Defines and discusses Army values and leader attributes. • Discusses character-based leadership. • Establishes leader attributes as part of character. • Focuses on improving people and organizations for the long term. • Outlines three levels of leadership—direct, organizational, and strategic. • Identifies four skill domains that apply at all levels. • Specifies leadership actions for each level.

The Army leadership framework brings together many existing leadership concepts by estab-lishing leadership dimensions and showing how they relate to each other. Solidly based onBE, KNOW, DO—that is, character, competence, and action—the Army leadership frame-work provides a single instrument for leader development. Individuals can use it for self-development. Leaders can use it to develop subordinates. Commanders can use it to focustheir programs. By establishing leadership dimensions grouped under the skill domains ofvalues, attributes, skills, and actions, the Army leadership framework provides a simple wayto think about and discuss leadership.

The Army is a values-based institution. FM 22-100 establishes and clarifies those values. Armyleaders must set high standards, lead by example, do what is legally and morally right, andinfluence other people to do the same. They must establish and sustain a climate that ensurespeople are treated with dignity and respect and create an environment in which people are chal-lenged and motivated to be all they can be. FM 22-100 discusses these aspects of leadershipand how they contribute to developing leaders of character and competence. These are the lead-ers who make the Army a trained and ready force prepared to fight and win the nation’s wars.

The three leadership levels—direct, organizational, and strategic—reflect the different chal-lenges facing leaders as they move into positions of increasing responsibility. Direct leaderslead face to face: they are the Army’s first-line leaders. Organizational leaders lead largeorganizations, usually brigade-sized and larger. Strategic leaders are the Army’s most seniorleaders. They lead at the major command and national levels.

Unlike previous editions of FM 22-100—which focused exclusively on leadership by uni-formed leaders at battalion level and below—this edition addresses leadership at all levels andis addressed to all Army leaders, military and DA civilian. It supersedes four publications—FM 22-101, Leadership Counseling; FM 22-102, Soldier Team Development; FM 22-103,Leadership and Command at Senior Levels; and DA Pam 600-80 Executive Leadership—aswell as the previous edition of FM 22-100. A comprehensive reference, this manual showshow leader skills, actions, and concerns at the different levels are linked and allows directleaders to read about issues that affect organizational and strategic leaders. This information

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can assist leaders serving in positions supporting organizational and strategic leaders and toother leaders who must work with members of organizational- and strategic-level staffs.

FM 22-100 emphasizes self-development and development of subordinates. It includes per-formance indicators to help leaders assess the values, attributes, skills, and actions that therest of the manual discusses. It discusses developmental counseling, a skill all Army leadersmust perfect so they can mentor their subordinates and leave their organization and peoplebetter than they found them. FM 22-100 prescribes DA Form 4856-E (DevelopmentalCounseling Form), which supersedes DA Form 4856 (General Counseling Form). DA Form4856-E is designed to support leader development. Its format follows the counseling stepsoutlined in Appendix C.

FM 22-100 offers a framework for how to lead and provides points for Army leaders to considerwhen assessing and developing themselves, their people, and their organizations. It doesn’t pre-sume to tell Army leaders exactly how they should lead every step of the way. They must bethemselves and apply this leadership doctrine as appropriate to the situations they face.

Scope

FM 22-100 is divided into three parts. Part I (Chapters 1, 2, and 3) discusses leadershipaspects common to all Army leaders. Part II (Chapters 4 and 5) addresses the skills andactions required of direct leaders. Part III (Chapters 6 and 7) discusses the skills and actionsrequired of organizational and strategic leaders. The manual also includes six appendixes.

Chapter 1 defines Army leadership, establishes the Army leadership framework, and describesthe three Army leadership levels. It addresses the characteristics of an Army leader (BE,KNOW, DO), the importance of being a good subordinate, and how all Army leaders lead otherleaders. Chapter 1 concludes with a discussion of moral and collective excellence.

Chapter 2 examines character, competence, and leadership—what an Army leader must BE,KNOW, and DO. The chapter addresses character in terms of Army values and leader attributes.In addition, it describes character development and how character is related to ethics, orders—to include illegal orders—and beliefs. Chapter 2 concludes by introducing the categories ofleader skills—interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical—and the categories of leaderactions—influencing, operating, and improving.

Chapter 3 covers the human dimension of leadership. The chapter begins by discussing dis-cipline, morale, and care of subordinates. It then addresses stress, both combat- andchange-related. Discussions of organizational climate, institutional culture, and leadershipstyles follow. Chapter 3 concludes by examining intended and unintended consequences ofdecisions and leader actions.

Chapters 4 and 5 discuss the skills and actions required of direct leaders. The skills andactions are grouped under the categories introduced at the end of Chapter 2.

Chapters 6 and 7 provide an overview of the skills and actions required of organizational andstrategic leaders. These chapters introduce direct leaders to the concerns faced by leaders and

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staffs operating at the organizational and strategic levels. Like Chapters 4 and 5, Chapters 6and 7 group skills and actions under the categories introduced in Chapter 2.

Appendix A lists performance indicators for Army values and leader attributes, skills, andactions. It provides general examples of what Army leaders must BE, KNOW, and DO.

Appendix B discusses how Army values contribute to character development and the impor-tance of developing the character of subordinates.

Applicability

FM 22-100’s primary audience is direct leaders, military leaders serving at battalion level andbelow and DA civilian leaders in comparable organizations. However, FM 22-100 containsdoctrine applicable at all leadership levels, to all military and DA civilian leaders of the Army.

The proponent of this publication is Headquarters (HQ), TRADOC. Send comments and rec-ommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Centerand Fort Leavenworth, Center for Army Leadership, ATTN: ATZL-SWC, Fort Leavenworth,KS 66027-2300.

Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclu-sively to men.

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T here are two reasons why leadership is important to you and to the Army. The first wasexpressed eloquently by General of the Army Douglas MacArthur in a 1962 speech.GA MacArthur spoke about what he had learned about soldiering and service in a

career that spanned more than fifty years and two world wars. He distilled the lessons gath-ered from “twenty campaigns, on a hundred battlefields, around a thousand campfires” intoa few words that are as true now as they ever were:

[Y]our mission . . . is to win our wars.... [Y]ou are the ones who are trained to fight.Yours is the profession of arms, the will to win, the sure knowledge that in war there isno substitute for victory; that if you lose, the nation will be destroyed....

Make no mistake about it. GA MacArthur is speaking to you as you sit in your classroom,as you read this in the dayroom or the motor pool or at the kitchen table. You are the Army’sleaders, and on your shoulders rests this mission: win our wars. The desire to accomplish thatmission despite all adversity is called the warrior ethos and makes the profession of armsdifferent from all other professions. That ethos applies to all soldiers, not just those whosejob it is to find, fight, and defeat the enemy. You’ll read more about it in Chapter 2.

If that were not enough, there is a second reason you must strive to become the very bestleader you can be: your people deserve nothing less. When you took your oath, when youagreed to be a leader, you entered into a pact with your subordinates and your nation. Amer-ica has entrusted you with its most precious resource, its young people. Every person servingwith you is someone’s son or someone’s daughter, a brother, mother, sister, father. They arecapable of extraordinary feats of courage and sacrifice—as they have proven on GAMacArthur’s hundred battlefields and on every battlefield since then. They are also capableof great patience and persistence and tremendous loyalty, as they show every day in thousandsof orderly rooms and offices, in tank parks and on firing ranges around the world. They show

Part One

The Leader, Leadership,and the Human Dimension

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up and they do the work, no matter how frightening, no matter how boring, no matter howrisky or bloody or exhausting. And what they ask in return is competent leadership.

The most precious commodity with which the Army deals is the individual soldier whois the heart and soul of our combat forces.

General J. Lawton Collins VII Corps Commander, World War II

You have been entrusted with a great responsibility. How do you prepare yourself? How doyou learn and embrace those values and skills that will enable you to meet the challenge?

This manual is a tool to help you answer these questions, to begin or continue becoming aleader of character and competence, an Army leader. Chapter 1 starts with an overview ofwhat the Army requires of you as an Army leader. This is the Army leadership framework; itforms the structure of the Army’s leadership doctrine. Chapter 1 also discusses the three lev-els of Army leadership: direct, organizational, and strategic. Chapter 2 discusses character,competence, and leadership—what you must BE, KNOW, and DO as an Army leader. Chap-ter 3 talks about the human dimension, the many factors that affect the people and teams thatyou lead and the institution of which you and they are a part.



1-1. The Army’s ultimate responsibility is towin the nation’s wars. For you as an Armyleader, leadership in combat is your primarymission and most important challenge. To meetthis challenge, you must develop character andcompetence while achieving excellence. Thismanual is about leadership. It focuses on char-acter, competence, and excellence. It’s aboutaccomplishing the mission and taking care ofpeople. It’s about living up to your ultimateresponsibility, leading your soldiers in combatand winning our nation’s wars.

1-2. Figure 1-1 shows the Army leadershipframework. The top of the figure shows the fourcategories of things leaders must BE, KNOW,and DO. The bottom of the figure lists dimen-sions of Army leadership, grouped under thesefour categories. The dimensions consist of

Army values and subcategories under attributes,skills, and actions.

1-3. Leadership starts at the top, with the char-acter of the leader, with your character. In orderto lead others, you must first make sure yourown house is in order. For example, the first lineof The Creed of the Noncommissioned Officerstates, “No one is more professional than I.” Butit takes a remarkable person to move from mem-orizing a creed to actually living that creed; atrue leader is that remarkable person.

1-4. Army leadership begins with what the leadermust BE, the values and attributes that shape aleader’s character. It may be helpful to think ofthese as internal qualities: you possess them all thetime, alone and with others. They define who youare; they give you a solid footing. These values andattributes are the same for all leaders, regardless of

Chapter 1

The Army Leadership Framework

Just as the diamond requires three properties for its formation—carbon, heat, and pressure—suc-cessful leaders require the interaction of three properties—character, knowledge, and application.Like carbon to the diamond, character is the basic quality of the leader. But as carbon alone doesnot create a diamond, neither can character alone create a leader. The diamond needs heat. Manneeds knowledge, study, and preparation. The third property, pressure—acting in conjunction withcarbon and heat—forms the diamond. Similarly, one’s character, attended by knowledge, bloomsthrough application to produce a leader.

General Edward C. Meyer Former Army Chief of Staff

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position, although you certainly refine your under-standing of them as you become more experiencedand assume positions of greater responsibility. Forexample, a sergeant major with combat experiencehas a deeper understanding of selfless service andpersonal courage than a new soldier does.

1-5. Your skills are those things you KNOW howto do, your competence in everything from thetechnical side of your job to the people skills a

leader requires. The skill categories of the Armyleadership framework apply to all leaders. How-ever, as you assume positions of greater respon-sibility, you must master additional skills in eachcategory. Army leadership positions fall intothree levels: direct, organizational, and strategic.These levels are described later in this chapter.Chapters 4, 6, and 7 describe the skills leaders ateach level require.


Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

THE LEADERTHE LEADER

of Character and Competence Acts...

to Achieve Excellenceto Achieve Excellence


Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 1-1. The Army leadership framework

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1-6. But character and knowledge—whileabsolutely necessary—are not enough. You can-not be effective, you cannot be a leader, untilyou apply what you know, until you act and DOwhat you must. As with skills, you will learnmore leadership actions as you serve in differentpositions. Because actions are the essence ofleadership, the discussion begins with them.

Leadership Defined

Influencing

1-7. Influencing means getting people to do whatyou want them to do. It is the means or method toachieve two ends: operating and improving. Butthere’s more to influencing than simply passingalong orders. The example you set is just asimportant as the words you speak. And you set anexample—good or bad—with every action youtake and word you utter, on or off duty. Throughyour words and example, you must communicatepurpose, direction, and motivation.

Purpose1-8. Purpose gives people a reason to do things.This does not mean that as a leader you mustexplain every decision to the satisfaction ofyour subordinates. It does mean you must earntheir trust: they must know from experience thatyou care about them and would not ask them todo something—particularly something danger-ous—unless there was a good reason, unless thetask was essential to mission accomplishment.

1-9. Look, for example, at a battalion mainte-

nance section. Its motor sergeant always takesthe time—and has the patience—to explain tothe mechanics what is required of them. Nothingfancy; the motor sergeant usually just calls themtogether for a few minutes to talk about theworkload and the time crunch. The soldiers mayget tired of hearing “And, of course, unless weget the work finished, this unit doesn’t roll andthe mission doesn’t get done,” but they know it’strue. And every time he passes information thisway, the motor sergeant sends this signal to thesoldiers: that he cares about their time and workand what they think, that they are members of ateam, not cogs in the “green machine.”

1-10. Then one day the unit is alerted for anemergency deployment. Things are happeningat breakneck speed; there is no time to pause,and everything and everyone is under stress.The motor sergeant cannot stop to explainthings, pat people on the back, or talk them up.But the soldiers will work themselves to exhaus-tion, if need be, because the motor sergeant hasearned their trust. They know and appreciatetheir leader’s normal way of operating, and theywill assume there is a good reason the leader isdoing things differently this time. And shouldthe deployment lead to a combat mission, theteam will be better prepared to accomplish theirmission under fire. Trust is a basic bond of lead-ership, and it must be developed over time.

Direction1-11. When providing direction, you communi-cate the way you want the mission accomplished.You prioritize tasks, assign responsibility for com-pleting them (delegating authority when neces-sary), and make sure your people understand thestandard. In short, you figure out how to get thework done right with the available people, time,and other resources; then you communicate thatinformation to your subordinates: “We’ll do thesethings first. You people work here; you people


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Leadership is influencing people—by provid-ing purpose, direction, and motivation—whileoperating to accomplish the mission andimproving the organization.


work there.” As you think the job through, youcan better aim your effort and resources at theright targets.

1-12. People want direction. They want to begiven challenging tasks, training in how toaccomplish them, and the resources necessaryto do them well. Then they want to be left aloneto do the job.

Motivation1-13. Motivation gives subordinates the will todo everything they can to accomplish a mission.It results in their acting on their own initiativewhen they see something needs to be done.

1-14. To motivate your people, give them mis-sions that challenge them. After all, they didnot join the Army to be bored. Get to knowyour people and their capabilities; that way youcan tell just how far to push each one. Givethem as much responsibility as they can han-dle; then let them do the work without lookingover their shoulders and nagging them. Whenthey succeed, praise them. When they fallshort, give them credit for what they have doneand coach or counsel them on how to do betternext time.

1-15. People who are trained this way willaccomplish the mission, even when no one iswatching. They will work harder than theythought they could. And when their leadernotices and gives them credit (with somethingmore than the offhand comment “good job”),they will be ready to take on even more next time.

1-16. But Army leaders motivate their peopleby more than words. The example you set is atleast as important as what you say and how wellyou manage the work. As the unit prepares forthe rollout, the motor sergeant you just readabout is in the motor pool with the mechanicson Friday night and Saturday morning. If hispeople are working in the rain, the NCO’s uni-

form will be wet too. If they have missed break-fast, the leader’s stomach will be growling justas loudly. The best leaders lead from the front.Don’t underestimate the importance of beingwhere the action is.

Operating

1-17. Actions taken to influence others serve toaccomplish operating actions, those actions youtake to achieve the short-term goal of accom-plishing the mission. The motor sergeant willmake sure the vehicles roll out, on time andcombat ready, through planning and preparing(laying out the work and making the necessaryarrangements), executing (doing the job), andassessing (learning how to work smarter nexttime). The motor sergeant provides an exampleof how direct leaders perform operating actions.All leaders execute these operating actions,which become more complex as they assumepositions of increasing responsibility.

Improving

1-18. The motor sergeant’s job is not completewhen the last vehicle clears the gate. While get-ting the job done is key, the Army also expectshim to do far more than just accomplish theday’s work. Army leaders also strive to improveeverything entrusted to them: their people,facilities, equipment, training, and resources.There will be a new mission, of course, but partof finishing the old one is improving the organ-ization.

1-19. After checking to be sure the tools arerepaired, cleaned, accounted for, and put away, themotor sergeant conducts an informal after-actionreview (AAR) with the section. (An AAR is a pro-fessional discussion of an event, focused on per-formance standards, that allows participants to dis-cover for themselves what happened, why it hap-pened, and how to sustain strengths and improveon weaknesses. Chapter 5 discusses AARs.) The


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motor sergeant is self-confident enough to asksubordinates for their ideas on how to makethings work better (always a key goal). He thenacts based on his own and team members’ obser-vations. The motor sergeant looks for strongareas to sustain and praises team members asappropriate; however if the motor sergeant sawthe team members spend too much time on sometasks and not enough on others, he changes thesection standing operating procedures (SOP) orcounsels the people involved. (Developmentalcounseling is not an adverse action; it is a skillyou use to help your subordinates become betterteam members, improve performance, and pre-pare for the future. Counseling should addressstrong areas as well as weak ones and successesas well as failures. Appendix C discusses devel-opmental counseling.) If the motor sergeant dis-covers gaps in individual or collective skills, heplans and conducts the training necessary to fillthem. If something the motor sergeant did or adecision he made didn’t turn out quite right, hewill not make the same error again. More thanthat, the motor sergeant lets his people knowwhat went wrong, finds out their impressions ofwhy it happened, and determines how they willmake it work next time.

1-20. By doing these things, the motor sergeantis creating a better organization, one that willwork smarter the next time. His example sendsan important message. The soldiers see theirleader look at his own and the organization’sperformance, evaluate it, identify strong areas tosustain as well as mistakes and shortcomings,and commit to a better way of doing things.These actions are more powerful than any lec-ture on leadership.

BE, KNOW, DO

1-21. BE, KNOW, DO clearly and concisely

state the characteristics of an Army leader. Youhave just read about leader actions, the DO ofBE, KNOW, DO. Leadership is about takingaction, but there’s more to being a leader than justwhat you do. Character and competence, the BEand the KNOW, underlie everything a leaderdoes. So becoming a leader involves developingall aspects of yourself. This includes adoptingand living Army values. It means developing theattributes and learning the skills of an Armyleader. Only by this self-development will youbecome a confident and competent leader ofcharacter. Being an Army leader is not easy.There are no cookie-cutter solutions to leadershipchallenges, and there are no shortcuts to success.However, the tools are available to every leader. Itis up to you to master and use them.

BE

1-22. Character describes a person’s innerstrength, the BE of BE, KNOW, DO. Your char-acter helps you know what is right; more thanthat, it links that knowledge to action. Charactergives you the courage to do what is right regard-less of the circumstances or the consequences.(Appendix E discusses character development.)

1-23. You demonstrate character through yourbehavior. One of your key responsibilities as aleader is to teach Army values to your subordi-nates. The old saying that actions speak louderthan words has never been more true than here.Leaders who talk about honor, loyalty, and self-less service but do not live these values—bothon and off duty—send the wrong message, thatthis “values stuff ” is all just talk.

1-24. Understanding Army values and leaderattributes (which Chapter 2 discusses) is onlythe first step. You also must embrace Army val-ues and develop leader attributes, living themuntil they become habit. You must teach Army


7


values to your subordinates through action andexample and help them develop leader attributesin themselves.

KNOW

1-25. A leader must have a certain level ofknowledge to be competent. That knowledge isspread across four skill domains. You mustdevelop interpersonal skills, knowledge of yourpeople and how to work with them. You musthave conceptual skills, the ability to understandand apply the doctrine and other ideas requiredto do your job. You must learn technical skills,how to use your equipment. Finally, warriorleaders must master tactical skills, the ability tomake the right decisions concerning employ-ment of units in combat. Tactical skills includemastery of the art of tactics appropriate to theleader’s level of responsibility and unit type.They’re amplified by the other skills—interper-sonal, conceptual, and technical—and are themost important skills for war fighters.

1-26. Mastery of different skills in thesedomains is essential to the Army’s success inpeace and war. But a true leader is not satisfiedwith knowing only how to do what will get theorganization through today; you must also beconcerned about what it will need tomorrow.You must strive to master your job and prepareto take over your boss’s job. In addition, as youmove to jobs of increasing responsibility, you’llface new equipment, new ideas, and new waysof thinking and doing things. You must learn toapply all these to accomplish your mission.

1-27. Army schools teach you basic job skills,but they are only part of the learning picture.You’ll learn even more on the job. Good leadersadd to their knowledge and skills every day. Trueleaders seek out opportunities; they’re alwayslooking for ways to increase their professionalknowledge and skills. Dedicated squad leaders

jump at the chance to fill in as acting platoonsergeant, not because they’ve mastered the pla-toon sergeant’s job but because they know thebest place to learn about it is in the thick of theaction. Those squad leaders challenge them-selves and will learn through doing; what’smore, with coaching, they’ll learn as much fromtheir mistakes as from their successes.

DO

1-28. You read about leader actions, the DO ofArmy leadership doctrine, at the beginning ofthis chapter. Leader actions include:

• Influencing: making decisions, communicat-ing those decisions, and motivating people.

• Operating: the things you do to accomplishyour organization’s immediate mission.

• Improving: the things you do to increase theorganization’s capability to accomplish cur-rent or future missions.

129. Earlier in this chapter, you read about amotor sergeant who lives Army values, hasdeveloped leader attributes, and routinely per-forms leader actions. But that was an example,and a garrison example at that. What about real-ity? What about combat? Trained soldiers knowwhat they are supposed to do, but under stress,their instincts might tell them to do somethingdifferent. The exhausted, hungry, cold, wet, dis-oriented, and frightened soldier is more likely todo the wrong thing—stop moving, lie down,retreat—than one not under that kind of stress.This is when the leader must step in—whenthings are falling apart, when there seems to beno hope—and get the job done.

1-30. The fight between the 20th Regiment ofMaine Volunteers and the 15th and 47th Regi-ments of Alabama Infantry during the Civil Warillustrates what can happen when a leader actsdecisively. It shows how the actions of oneleader, in a situation that looked hopeless, not


8


only saved his unit, but allowed the entire UnionArmy to maintain its position and defeat theConfederate invasion of Pennsylvania. Thestory’s hero is a colonel—but it could have beena captain, or a sergeant, or a corporal. At othertimes and in other places it has been.

1-31. COL Joshua Chamberlain was awardedthe Medal of Honor for his actions on 2 July1863. After surviving terrible wounds at Peters-burg, Virginia, he and his command were cho-sen to receive the surrender of Confederate unitsat Appomattox in April 1865. His actions therecontributed to national reconciliation and aredescribed in Chapter 7.

Putting It Together

1-32. Study the Army leadership framework; itis the Army’s common basis for thinking aboutleadership. With all the day-to-day tasks youmust do, it’s easy to get lost in particulars. TheArmy leadership framework is a tool that allowsyou to step back and think about leadership as awhole. It is a canopy that covers the hundreds ofthings you do every day. The Army leadershipframework gives you the big picture and canhelp you put your job, your people, and yourorganization in perspective.

1-33. The dimensions of the Army leadershipframework shown in Figure 1-1—the values,attributes, skills, and actions that support BE,KNOW, and DO—each contain components.All are interrelated; none stands alone. Forexample, will is very important. It’s discussed inChapter 2 under mental attributes. Yet will can-not stand by itself. Left unchecked and withoutmoral boundaries, will can be dangerous. Thecase of Adolf Hitler shows this fact. Will misap-plied can also produce disastrous results. Earlyin World War I, French forces attacked Germanmachine gun positions across open fields,believing their élan (unit morale and will to

win) would overcome a technologicallyadvanced weapon. The cost in lives was cata-strophic. Nevertheless, the will of leaders ofcharacter and competence—like the small unitleaders at Normandy that you’ll read about laterin this chapter—can make the differencebetween victory and defeat.

1-34. This is how you should think about theArmy leadership framework: all its pieces workin combination to produce something bigger andbetter than the sum of the parts. BE the leader ofcharacter: embrace Army values and demon-strate leader attributes. Study and practice sothat you have the skills to KNOW your job. Thenact, DO what’s right to achieve excellence.

1-35. The Army leadership framework applies toall Army leaders. However, as you assume posi-tions of increasing responsibility, you’ll need todevelop additional attributes and master moreskills and actions. Part of this knowledge includesunderstanding what your bosses are doing—thefactors that affect their decisions and the environ-ment in which they work. To help you do this,

Army leadership positions are divided into threelevels—direct, organizational, and strategic.

Levels of Leadership

1-36. Figure 1-2 shows the perspectives of thethree levels of Army leadership: direct, organi-zational, and strategic. Factors that determine aposition’s leadership level can include the posi-tion’s span of control, its headquarters level, andthe extent of the influence the leader holding theposition exerts. Other factors include the size of


9

NCOs like to make a decision right away andmove on to the next thing . . . so the higher up theflagpole you go, the more you have to learn a verydifferent style of leadership.

Command Sergeant Major Douglas E. Murray United States Army Reserve


the unit or organization, the type of operations itconducts, the number of people assigned, and itsplanning horizon.

1-37. Sometimes the rank or grade of the leaderholding a position does not indicate the posi-tion’s leadership level. That’s why Figure 1-2does not show rank. A sergeant first class serv-ing as a platoon sergeant works at the directleadership level. If the same NCO holds a head-quarters job dealing with issues and policyaffecting a brigade-sized or larger organization,the NCO works at the organizational leadershiplevel. However, if the NCO’s primary duty isrunning a staff section that supports the leaderswho run the organization, the NCO is a directleader. In fact, most leadership positions aredirect leadership positions, and every leader atevery level acts as a direct leader when dealingwith immediate subordinates.

1-38. The headquarters echelon alone doesn’tdetermine a position’s leadership level. Soldiersand DA civilians of all ranks and grades serve instrategic-level headquarters, but they are not all

strategic-level leaders. The responsibilities of aduty position, together with the other factorsparagraph 1-36 lists, determine its leadershiplevel. For example, a DA civilian at a trainingarea range control with a dozen subordinatesworks at the direct leadership level while a DAcivilian deputy garrison commander with a spanof influence over several thousand people worksat the organizational leadership level. MostNCOs, company grade officers, field gradeofficers, and DA civilian leaders serve at thedirect leadership level. Some senior NCOs,field grade officers, and higher-grade DA civil-ians serve at the organizational leadership level.Most general officers and equivalent SeniorExecutive Service DA civilians serve at theorganizational or strategic leadership levels.

Direct Leadership

1-39. Direct leadership is face-to-face, first-lineleadership. It takes place in those organizationswhere subordinates are used to seeing their lead-ers all the time: teams and squads, sections andplatoons, companies, batteries, and troops—


10

Figure 1-2. Army leadership levels


even squadrons and battalions. The directleader’s span of influence, those whose lives hecan reach out and touch, may range from a hand-ful to several hundred people.

1-40. Direct leaders develop their subordinatesone-on-one; however, they also influence theirorganization through their subordinates. Forinstance, a cavalry squadron commander isclose enough to his soldiers to have a directinfluence on them. They’re used to seeing himregularly, even if it is only once a week in garri-son; they expect to see him from time to time inthe field. Still, during daily operations, the com-mander guides the organization primarilythrough his subordinate officers and NCOs.

1-41. For direct leaders there is more certaintyand less complexity than for organizational andstrategic leaders. Direct leaders are close enoughto see—very quickly—how things work, howthings don’t work, and how to address any prob-lems. (Chapter 4 discusses direct leader skills.Chapter 5 discusses direct leader actions.)

Organizational Leadership

1-42. Organizational leaders influence severalhundred to several thousand people. They dothis indirectly, generally through more levels ofsubordinates than do direct leaders. The addi-tional levels of subordinates can make it moredifficult for them to see results. Organizationalleaders have staffs to help them lead their peo-ple and manage their organizations’ resources.They establish policies and the organizationalclimate that support their subordinate leaders.(Chapter 3 introduces climate and culture andexplains the role of direct leaders in setting theorganizational climate. Chapters 6 and 7 discussthe roles of organizational and strategic leadersin establishing and maintaining the organiza-tional climate and institutional culture.)

1-43. Organizational leadership skills differ

from direct leadership skills in degree, but notin kind. That is, the skill domains are the same,but organizational leaders must deal with morecomplexity, more people, greater uncertainty,and a greater number of unintended conse-quences. They find themselves influencing peo-ple more through policymaking and systemsintegration than through face-to-face contact.

1-44. Organizational leaders include militaryleaders at the brigade through corps levels, mili-tary and DA civilian leaders at directoratethrough installation levels, and DA civilians atthe assistant through undersecretary of the Armylevels. They focus on planning and missionaccomplishment over the next two to ten years.

1-45. Getting out of their offices and visitingthe parts of their organizations where the workis done is especially important for organiza-tional leaders. They must make time to get tothe field to compare the reports their staff givesthem with the actual conditions their peopleface and the perceptions of the organization andmission they hold. Because of their less-fre-quent presence among their soldiers and DAcivilians, organizational leaders must use thosevisits they are able to make to assess how wellthe commander’s intent is understood and toreinforce the organization’s priorities.

Strategic Leadership

1-46. Strategic leaders include military and DAcivilian leaders at the major command throughDepartment of Defense levels. Strategic leadersare responsible for large organizations andinfluence several thousand to hundreds of thou-sands of people. They establish force structure,allocate resources, communicate strategicvision, and prepare their commands and theArmy as a whole for their future roles.

1-47. Strategic leaders work in an uncertainenvironment on highly complex problems that


11


affect and are affected by events and organiza-tions outside the Army. Actions of a theatercommander in chief (CINC), for example, mayeven have an impact on global politics. CINCscommand combatant commands, very large,joint organizations assigned broad, continuingmissions. Theater CINCs are assigned responsi-bilities for a geographic area (a theater); forexample, the CINC of the US Central Com-mand is responsible for most of southwesternAsia and part of eastern Africa. FunctionalCINCs are assigned responsibilities notbounded by geography; for example, the CINCof the US Transportation Command is responsi-ble for providing integrated land, sea, and airtransportation to all services. Although civilianleaders make national policy, decisions a CINCmakes while carrying out that policy may affectwhether or not a national objective is achieved.Strategic leaders apply many of the same leader-ship skills and actions they mastered as directand organizational leaders; however, strategicleadership requires others that are more complexand indirectly applied.

1-48. Strategic leaders concern themselves withthe total environment in which the Army func-tions; their decisions take into account suchthings as congressional hearings, Army budget-ary constraints, new systems acquisition, civil-ian programs, research, development, and inter-service cooperation—just to name a few.

1-49. Strategic leaders, like direct and organiza-tional leaders, process information quickly,assess alternatives based on incomplete data,make decisions, and generate support. However,strategic leaders’ decisions affect more people,commit more resources, and have wider-rangingconsequences in both space and time than dodecisions of organizational and direct leaders.

1-50. Strategic leaders often do not see theirideas come to fruition during their “watch”;

their initiatives may take years to plan, prepare,and execute. In-process reviews (IPRs) mightnot even begin until after the leader has left thejob. This has important implications for long-range planning. On the other hand, some strate-gic decisions may become a front-page headlineof the next morning’s newspaper. Strategic lead-ers have very few opportunities to visit the low-est-level organizations of their commands; thus,their sense of when and where to visit is crucial.Because they exert influence primarily throughsubordinates, strategic leaders must developstrong skills in picking and developing good

ones. This is an important improving skill,which Chapter 7 discusses.

Leaders of Leaders

1-51. At any level, anyone responsible forsupervising people or accomplishing a missionthat involves other people is a leader. Anyonewho influences others, motivating them toaction or influencing their thinking or decisionmaking, is a leader. It’s not a function only ofposition; it’s also a function of role. In addition,everyone in the Army—including everyleader—fits somewhere in a chain of command.Everyone in the Army is also a follower or sub-ordinate. There are, obviously, many leaders in


12

More than anything else, I had confidence in mysoldiers, junior leaders, and staff. They weretrained, and I knew they would carry the fight tothe enemy. I trusted them, and they knew I trustedthem. I think in Just Cause, which was a companycommander’s war, being a decentralized com-mander paid big dividends because I wasn’t in theknickers of my company commanders all thetime. I gave them the mission and let them do it. Icouldn’t do it for them.

A Battalion CommanderOperation Just Cause, Panama, 1989


an organization, and it’s important to understandthat you don’t just lead subordinates—you leadother leaders. Even at the lowest level, you are aleader of leaders.

1-52. For example, a rifle company has fourleadership levels: the company commanderleads through platoon leaders, the platoon lead-ers through squad leaders, and the squad leadersthrough team leaders. At each level, the leadermust let subordinate leaders do their jobs. Prac-ticing this kind of decentralized execution basedon mission orders in peacetime trains subordi-nates who will, in battle, exercise disciplinedinitiative in the absence of orders. They’ll con-tinue to fight when the radios are jammed, whenthe plan falls apart, when the enemy does some-thing unexpected. (Appendix A discusses leaderroles and relationships.)

1-53. This decentralization does not mean that acommander never steps in and takes direct con-trol. There will be times when a leader has tostop leading through subordinates, step forward,and say, “Follow me!” A situation like this mayoccur in combat, when things are falling apartand, like BG Thomas J. Jackson, you’ll need to“stand like a stone wall” and save victory.(You’ll read about BG Jackson in Chapter 2.) Orit may occur during training, when a subordi-nate is about to make a mistake that could resultin serious injury or death and you must act toprevent disaster.

1-54. More often, however, you shouldempower your subordinate leaders: give them atask, delegate the necessary authority, and letthem do the work. Of course you need to checkperiodically. How else will you be able to cri-tique, coach, and evaluate them? But the point isto “power down without powering off.” Giveyour subordinate leaders the authority they needto get the job done. Then check on them fre-quently enough to keep track of what is going

on but not so often that you get in their way. Youcan develop this skill through experience.

1-55. It takes personal courage to operate thisway. But a leader must let subordinate leaderslearn by doing. Is there a risk that, for instance, asquad leader—especially an inexperienced one—will make mistakes? Of course there is. But ifyour subordinate leaders are to grow, you must letthem take risks. This means you must let go ofsome control and let your subordinate leaders dothings on their own—within bounds establishedby mission orders and your expressed intent.

1-56. A company commander who routinelysteps in and gives orders directly to squad lead-ers weakens the whole chain of command,denies squad leaders valuable learning experi-ences, and sends a signal to the whole companythat the chain of command and NCO supportchannel can be bypassed at any time. On theother hand, successful accomplishment of spec-ified and implied missions results from subordi-nate leaders at all levels exercising disciplinedinitiative within the commander’s intent. Effec-tive leaders strive to create an environment oftrust and understanding that encourages theirsubordinates to seize the initiative and act.(Appendix A discusses authority, the chain ofcommand, and the NCO support channel.)

1-57. Weak leaders who have not trained theirsubordinates sometimes say, “My organizationcan’t do it without me.” Many people, used tobeing at the center of the action, begin to feel asif they’re indispensable. You have heard them: “Ican’t take a day off. I have to be here all thetime. I must watch my subordinates’ everymove, or who knows what will happen?” But noone is irreplaceable. The Army is not going tostop functioning because one leader—no matterhow senior, no matter how central—steps aside.In combat, the loss of a leader is a shock to aunit, but the unit must continue its mission. If


13


leaders train their subordinates properly, one ofthem will take charge.

1-58. Strong commanders—those with per-sonal courage—realize their subordinate leadersneed room to work. This doesn’t mean that youshould let your subordinates make the samemistake over and over. Part of your responsibil-ity as a leader is to help your subordinates suc-ceed. You can achieve this through empoweringand coaching. Train your subordinates to plan,prepare, execute, and assess well enough tooperate independently. Provide sufficient pur-pose, direction, and motivation for them tooperate in support of the overall plan.

1-59. Finally, check and make corrections. Taketime to help your subordinates sort out whathappened and why. Conduct AARs so your peo-ple don’t just make mistakes, but learn fromthem. There is not a soldier out there, from pri-vate to general, who has not slipped up fromtime to time. Good soldiers, and especially goodleaders, learn from those mistakes. Good lead-

ers help their subordinates grow by teaching,coaching, and counseling.

Leadership and Command

1-60. Command is a specific and legal positionunique to the military. It’s where the buck stops.Like all leaders, commanders are responsiblefor the success of their organizations, but com-manders have special accountability to theirsuperiors, the institution, and the nation. Com-manders must think deeply and creatively, fortheir concerns encompass yesterday’s heritage,today’s mission, and tomorrow’s force. To main-tain their balance among all demands on them,they must exemplify Army values. The nation,as well as the members of the Army, hold com-manders accountable for accomplishing themission, keeping the institution sound, and car-ing for its people.

1-61. Command is a sacred trust. The legal andmoral responsibilities of commanders exceedthose of any other leader of similar position orauthority. Nowhere else does a boss have toanswer for how subordinates live and what theydo after work. Our society and the institutionlook to commanders to make sure that missionssucceed, that people receive the proper trainingand care, that values survive. On the one hand,the nation grants commanders special authorityto be good stewards of its most preciousresources: freedom and people. On the otherhand, those citizens serving in the Army alsotrust their commanders to lead them well. NCOsprobably have a more immediate impact on theirpeople, but commanders set the policies thatreward superior performance and personallypunish misconduct. It’s no wonder that organi-zations take on the personal stamp of their com-manders. Those selected to command offersomething beyond their formal authority: theirpersonal example and public actions havetremendous moral force. Because of that power-ful aspect of their position, people inside andoutside the Army see a commander as the


14

When you are commanding, leading [soldiers]under conditions where physical exhaustion andprivations must be ignored, where the lives of [sol-diers] may be sacrificed, then, the efficiency ofyour leadership will depend only to a minordegree on your tactical ability. It will primarily bedetermined by your character, your reputation,not much for courage—which will be accepted asa matter of course—but by the previous reputa-tion you have established for fairness, for thathigh-minded patriotic purpose, that quality ofunswerving determination to carry through anymilitary task assigned to you.

General of the Army George C. Marshall Speaking to officer candidates

in September, 1941


human face of “the system”—the person who

embodies the commitment of the Army to oper-ational readiness and care of its people.

Subordinates

1-62. No one is only a leader; each of you isalso a subordinate, and all members of the Armyare part of a team. A technical supervisor lead-ing a team of DA civilian specialists, forinstance, isn’t just the leader of that group. Theteam chief also works for someone else, and theteam has a place in a larger organization.

1-63. Part of being a good subordinate is sup-porting your chain of command. And it’s yourresponsibility to make sure your team supportsthe larger organization. Consider a leader whoseteam is responsible for handling the pay admin-istration of a large organization. The chiefknows that when the team makes a mistake orfalls behind in its work, its customers—soldiersand DA civilians—pay the price in terms of latepay actions. One day a message from the bossintroducing a new computer system for han-

dling payroll changes arrives. The team chieflooks hard at the new system and decides it willnot work as well as the old one. The team willspend a lot of time installing the new system, allthe while keeping up with their regular work-load. Then they’ll have to spend more timeundoing the work once the new system fails.And the team chief believes it will fail—all hisexperience points to that.

1-64. But the team chief cannot simply say,“We’ll let these actions pile up; that’ll send asignal to the commander about just how bad thenew system is and how important we are downhere.” The team does not exist in a vacuum; it’spart of a larger organization that serves soldiersand DA civilians. For the good of the organiza-tion and the people in it, the team chief mustmake sure the job gets done.

1-65. Since the team chief disagrees with theboss’s order and it affects both the team’s mis-sion and the welfare of its members, the teamchief must tell the boss; he must have the moralcourage to make his opinions known. Of course,the team chief must also have the right attitude;disagreement doesn’t mean it’s okay to be disre-spectful. He must choose the time and place—usually in private—to explain his concerns tothe boss fully and clearly. In addition, the teamchief must go into the meeting knowing that, atsome point, the discussion will be over and hemust execute the boss’s decision, whatever it is.

1-66. Once the boss has listened to all the argu-ments and made a decision, the team chief mustsupport that decision as if it were his own. If hegoes to the team and says, “I still don’t think thisis a good idea, but we’re going to do it anyway,”the team chief undermines the chain of com-mand and teaches his people a bad lesson. Imag-ine what it would do to an organization’s effec-tiveness if subordinates chose which orders topursue vigorously and which ones to half step.


15

To our subordinates we owe everything we are orhope to be. For it is our subordinates, not oursuperiors, who raise us to the dizziest of profes-sional heights, and it is our subordinates who canand will, if we deserve it, bury us in the deepestmire of disgrace. When the chips are down andour subordinates have accepted us as theirleader, we don’t need any superior to tell us; wesee it in their eyes and in their faces, in the bar-racks, on the field, and on the battle line. And onthat final day when we must be ruthlesslydemanding, cruel and heartless, they will rise asone to do our bidding, knowing full well that itmay be their last act in this life.

Colonel Albert G. Jenkins, CSA 8th Virginia Cavalry


1-67. Such an action would also damage theteam chief himself: in the future the team maytreat his orders as he treated the boss’s. And thereis no great leap between people thinking theirleader is disloyal to the boss to the same peoplethinking their leader will be disloyal to them aswell. The good leader executes the boss’s deci-sion with energy and enthusiasm; looking attheir leader, subordinates will believe the leaderthinks it’s absolutely the best possible solution.The only exception to this involves your duty todisobey obviously illegal orders. This is not aprivilege you can claim, but a duty you must per-form. (Chapter 2 discusses character and illegalorders. Chapter 4 discusses ethical reasoning.)

1-68. Loyalty to superiors and subordinatesdoes more than ensure smooth-running peace-time organizations. It prepares units for combatby building soldiers’ trust in leaders and lead-


16

Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy

The amphibious landings in Normandy on D-Day, 1944, were preceded by a corps-sized,night parachute assault by American andBritish airborne units. Many of the thousands ofaircraft that delivered the 82d and 101st (US)Airborne Divisions to Normandy on the nightof 5-6 June 1944 were blown off course. Somewound up in the wrong place because ofenemy fire; others were simply lost. Thousandsof paratroopers, the spearhead of the Alliedinvasion of Western Europe, found themselvesscattered across unfamiliar countryside, manyof them miles from their drop zones.They wan-dered about in the night, searching for theirunits, their buddies, their leaders, and theirobjectives. In those first few hours, the fate ofthe invasion hung in the balance; if the air-borne forces did not cut the roads leading tothe beaches, the Germans could counterattack

the landing forces at the water’s edge, crushingthe invasion before it even began.

Fortunately for the Allies and the soldiers inthe landing craft, the leaders in these airborneforces had trained their subordinate leaderswell, encouraging their initiative, allowing themto do their jobs. Small unit leaders scatteredaround the darkened, unfamiliar countrysideknew they were part of a larger effort, and theyknew its success was up to them. They hadbeen trained to act instead of waiting to be toldwhat to do; they knew that if the invasion wasto succeed, their small units had to accomplishtheir individual missions.

Among these leaders were men like CPTSam Gibbons of the 505th Parachute InfantryRegiment. He gathered a group of 12 soldiers—from different commands—and liberated a tinyvillage—which turned out to be outside thedivision area of operations—before headingsouth toward his original objective, the DouveRiver bridges. CPT Gibbons set off with a dozenpeople he had never seen before and no dem-olition equipment to destroy a bridge nearly 15kilometers away. Later, he remarked, “This cer-tainly wasn’t the way I had thought the inva-sion would go, nor had we ever rehearsed it inthis manner.” But he was moving out to accom-plish the mission. Throughout the CotentinPeninsula, small unit leaders from both divi-sions were doing the same.

This was the payoff for hard training andleaders who valued soldiers, communicated theimportance of the mission, and trusted theirsubordinate leaders to accomplish it. As theytrained their commands for the invasion, orga-nizational leaders focused downward as well asupward. They took care of their soldiers’ needswhile providing the most realistic training pos-sible. This freed their subordinate leaders tofocus upward as well as downward. Because


ers’ faith in soldiers. The success of the airborneassault prior to the 1944 Normandy invasion isone example of how well trained subordinateleaders can make the difference between victoryand defeat.

1-69. Empower subordinates to take initiativeand be the subordinate leader who stands up andmakes a difference. That lesson applies in peaceand in combat, from the smallest organization tothe largest. Consider the words of GEN EdwardC. Meyer, former Army Chief of Staff:

When I became chief of staff, I set two per-sonal goals for myself. The first was toensure that the Army was continually pre-pared to go to war, and the second was tocreate a climate in which each membercould find personal meaning and fulfill-ment. It is my belief that only by attainmentof the second goal will we ensure the first.

1-70. Leaders must accomplish the mission andtake care of their soldiers. For GEN Meyer thechallenge was to make sure the entire Army wasready to fight and win. He knew—and he tellsus—that the only way to accomplish such ahuge goal is to pay attention to the smallestparts of the machine, the individual soldiers andDA civilians. Through his subordinate leaders,GEN Meyer offered challenges and guidanceand set the example so that every member of theArmy felt a part of the team and knew that the

team was doing important work.

1-71. Both leaders understood the path to excel-lence: disciplined leaders with strong valuesproduce disciplined soldiers with strong values.

Together they become disciplined, cohesiveunits that train hard, fight honorably, and windecisively.

The Payoff: Excellence

1-72. You achieve excellence when your peopleare disciplined and committed to Army values.Individuals and organizations pursue excellenceto improve, to get better and better. The Army isled by leaders of character who are good rolemodels, consistently set the example, andaccomplish the mission while improving theirunits. It is a cohesive organization of high-per-forming units characterized by the warrior ethos.

1-73. Army leaders get the job done. Sometimesit’s on a large scale, such as GEN Meyer’s role inmaking sure the Army was ready to fight. Othertimes it may be amid the terror of combat. How-ever, most of you will not become Army Chief ofStaff. Not all of you will face the challenge ofcombat. So it would be a mistake to think thatthe only time mission accomplishment and lead-ership are important is with the obvious exam-ples—the general officer, the combat leader. TheArmy cannot accomplish its mission unless allArmy leaders, soldiers, and DA civilians accom-plish theirs—whether that means filling out astatus report, repairing a vehicle, planning abudget, packing a parachute, maintaining payrecords, or walking guard duty. The Army isn’t a


17

Leaders of character and competence act toachieve excellence by developing a force that canfight and win the nation’s wars and serve thecommon defense of the United States.

they knew their units were well trained andtheir leaders would do everything in theirpower to support them, small unit leaders wereable to focus on the force’s overall mission.Theyknew and understood the commander’s intent.They believed that if they exercised disciplinedinitiative within that intent, things would turnout right. Events proved them correct.


single general or a handful of combat heroes; it’shundreds of thousands of soldiers and DA civil-

ians, tens of thousands of leaders, all striving todo the right things. Every soldier, every DAcivilian, is important to the success of the Army.

Moral Excellence: Accomplishing theMission with Character

1-74. The ultimate end of war, at least as Amer-ica fights it, is to restore peace. For this reasonthe Army must accomplish its mission honor-ably. The Army fights to win, but with one eyeon the kind of peace that will follow the war.The actions of Ulysses S. Grant, general in chiefof the Union Army at the end of the Civil War,provide an example of balancing fighting to winwith restoring the peace.

1-75. In combat GEN Grant had been a relent-less and determined commander. During thefinal days of campaigning in Virginia, hehounded his exhausted foes and pushed his owntroops on forced marches of 30 and 40 miles toend the war quickly. GEN Grant’s approach towar was best summed up by President Lincoln,who said simply, “He fights.”

1-76. Yet even before the surrender was signed,GEN Grant had shifted his focus to the peace.Although some of his subordinates wanted theConfederates to submit to the humiliation of anunconditional surrender, GEN Grant treated hisformer enemies with respect and considered thelong-term effects of his decisions. Rather thandemanding an unconditional surrender, GENGrant negotiated terms with GEN Lee. One of

those was allowing his former enemies to keeptheir horses because they needed them for springplowing. GEN Grant reasoned that peace wouldbest be served if the Southerners got back to anormal existence as quickly as possible. GENGrant’s decisions and actions sent a message toevery man in the Union Army: that it was time tomove on, to get back to peacetime concerns.

1-77. At the same time, the Union commanderinsisted on a formal surrender. He realized thatfor a true peace to prevail, the Confederates hadto publicly acknowledge that organized hostilityto the Union had ended. GEN Grant knew thattrue peace would come about only if both vic-tors and vanquished put the war behind them—a timeless lesson.

1-78. The Army must accomplish its missionhonorably. FM 27-10 discusses the law of warand reminds you of the importance of restoringpeace. The Army minimizes collateral damageand avoids harming noncombatants for practi-cal as well as honorable reasons. No matterwhat, though, soldiers fight to win, to live ordie with honor for the benefit of our countryand its citizens.

1-79. Army leaders often make decisions amiduncertainty, without guidance or precedent, insituations dominated by fear and risk, andsometimes under the threat of sudden, violentdeath. At those times leaders fall back on theirvalues and Army values and ask, What is right?The question is simple; the answer, often, is not.Having made the decision, the leader dependson self-discipline to see it through.

Achieving Collective Excellence

1-80. Some examples of excellence are obvi-ous: COL Chamberlain’s imaginative defense ofLittle Round Top, GA Dwight Eisenhowerdrafting his D-Day message (you’ll read about itin Chapter 2), MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Ran-


18

To the brave men and women who wear the uni-form of the United States of America—thank you.Your calling is a high one—to be the defenders offreedom and the guarantors of liberty.

George Bush 41st President of the United States


dall Shughart putting their lives on the line tosave other soldiers in Somalia (their story is inChapter 3). Those examples of excellence shine,and good leaders teach these stories; soldiersmust know they are part of a long tradition ofexcellence and valor.

1-81. But good leaders see excellence whereverand whenever it happens. Excellent leadersmake certain all subordinates know the impor-tant roles they play. Look for everyday examplesthat occur under ordinary circumstances: theway a soldier digs a fighting position, preparesfor guard duty, fixes a radio, lays an artillerybattery; the way a DA civilian handles an action,takes care of customers, meets a deadline onshort notice. Good leaders know that each ofthese people is contributing in a small butimportant way to the business of the Army. Anexcellent Army is the collection of small tasksdone to standard, day in and day out. At the endof the day, at the end of a career, those leaders,soldiers and DA civilians—the ones whoseexcellent work created an excellent Army—canlook back confidently. Whether they com-manded an invasion armada of thousands of sol-diers or supervised a technical section of threepeople, they know they did the job well andmade a difference.

1-82. Excellence in leadership does not meanperfection; on the contrary, an excellent leaderallows subordinates room to learn from theirmistakes as well as their successes. In such a cli-mate, people work to improve and take the risksnecessary to learn. They know that when theyfall short—as they will—their leader will pickthem up, give them new or more detailedinstructions, and send them on their way again.This is the only way to improve the force, theonly way to train leaders.

1-83. A leader who sets a standard of “zerodefects, no mistakes” is also saying “Don’t take

any chances. Don’t try anything you can’talready do perfectly, and for heaven’s sake,don’t try anything new.” That organization willnot improve; in fact, its ability to perform themission will deteriorate rapidly. Accomplishingthe Army’s mission requires leaders who areimaginative, flexible, and daring. Improving theArmy for future missions requires leaders whoare thoughtful and reflective. These qualities areincompatible with a “zero-defects” attitude.

1-84. Competent, confident leaders toleratehonest mistakes that do not result from negli-gence. The pursuit of excellence is not a game toachieve perfection; it involves trying, learning,trying again, and getting better each time. This inno way justifies or excuses failure. Even the bestefforts and good intentions cannot take away anindividual’s responsibility for his actions.

Summary

1-85. Leadership in combat is your primary andmost important challenge. It requires you toaccept a set of values that contributes to a coreof motivation and will. If you fail to accept andlive these Army values, your soldiers may dieunnecessarily. Army leaders of character andcompetence act to achieve excellence by devel-oping a force that can fight and win the nation’swars and serve the common defense of theUnited States. The Army leadership frameworkidentifies the dimensions of Army leadership:what the Army expects you, as one of its lead-ers, to BE, KNOW, and DO.

1-86. Leadership positions fall into one of threeleadership levels: direct, organizational, andstrategic. The perspective and focus of leaderschange and the actions they must DO becomemore complex with greater consequences as theyassume positions of greater responsibility.Nonetheless, they must still live Army values andpossess leader attributes.


19


1-87. Being a good subordinate is part of being agood leader. Everyone is part of a team, and allmembers have responsibilities that go withbelonging to that team. But every soldier and DAcivilian who is responsible for supervising peopleor accomplishing a mission that involves otherpeople is a leader. All soldiers and DA civilians atone time or another must act as leaders.

1-88. Values and attributes make up a leader’scharacter, the BE of Army leadership. Charac-ter embodies self-discipline and the will to win,among other things. It contributes to the moti-vation to persevere. From this motivationcomes the lifelong work of mastering the skills

that define competence, the KNOW of Armyleadership. As you reflect on Army values andleadership attributes and develop the skills your

position and experience require, you become aleader of character and competence, one whocan act to achieve excellence, who can DOwhat is necessary to accomplish the missionand take care of your people. That is leader-ship—influencing people by providing pur-pose, direction, and motivation while operatingto accomplish the mission and improving theorganization. That is what makes a successfulleader, one who lives the principles of BE,KNOW, DO.


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2-1. Beneath the Army leadership frameworkshown in Figure 1-1, 30 words spell out your jobas a leader: Leaders of character and compe-tence act to achieve excellence by developinga force that can fight and win the nation’swars and serve the common defense of theUnited States. There’s a lot in that sentence.This chapter looks at it in detail.

2-2. Army leadership doctrine addresses whatmakes leaders of character and competence andwhat makes leadership. Figure 2-1 highlightsthese values and attributes. Remember fromChapter 1 that character describes what leadersmust BE; competence refers to what leadersmust KNOW; and action is what leaders must

DO. Although this chapter discusses these con-cepts one at a time, they don’t stand alone; theyare closely connected and together make up whoyou seek to be (a leader of character and com-petence) and what you need to do (leadership).

SECTION I. CHARACTER: WHAT A LEADER

MUST BE

Chapter 2

The Leader and Leadership:What the Leader Must BE,

KNOW, and DO

I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United Statesagainst all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; andthat I will obey the orders of the President of the United States and the orders of the officers appointedover me, according to regulations and the Uniform Code of Military Justice. So help me God.

Oath of Enlistment

I [full name], having been appointed a [rank] in the United States Army, do solemnly swear (oraffirm) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies, for-eign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligationfreely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well and faithfully dis-charge the duties of the office upon which I am about to enter. So help me God.

Oath of office taken by commissioned officers and DA civilians

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Everywhere you look—on the fields of athleticcompetition, in combat training, operations, andin civilian communities—soldiers are doing whatis right.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army Julius W. Gates



2-3. Character—who you are—contributes sig-nificantly to how you act. Character helps youknow what’s right and do what’s right, all thetime and at whatever the cost. Character is madeup of two interacting parts: values and attrib-utes. Stephen Ambrose, speaking about the CivilWar, says that “at the pivotal point in the war itwas always the character of individuals thatmade the difference.” Army leaders must bethose critical individuals of character themselvesand in turn develop character in those they lead.(Appendix E discusses character development.)

Army Values

2-4. Your attitudes about the worth of people,concepts, and other things describe your values.Everything begins there. Your subordinatesenter the Army with their own values, developedin childhood and nurtured through experience.All people are all shaped by what they’ve seen,

what they’ve learned, and whom they’ve met.But when soldiers and DA civilians take theoath, they enter an institution guided by Armyvalues. These are more than a system of rules.They’re not just a code tucked away in a draweror a list in a dusty book. These values tell youwhat you need to be, every day, in every actionyou take. Army values form the very identity ofthe Army, the solid rock upon which everythingelse stands, especially in combat. They are theglue that binds together the members of a nobleprofession. As a result, the whole is muchgreater than the sum of its parts. Army valuesare nonnegotiable: they apply to everyone andin every situation throughout the Army.

2-5. Army values remind us and tell the rest ofthe world—the civilian government we serve,the nation we protect, even our enemies—whowe are and what we stand for. The trust soldiersand DA civilians have for each other and thetrust the American people have in us depends onhow well we live up to Army values. They are thefundamental building blocks that enable us todiscern right from wrong in any situation. Armyvalues are consistent; they support one another.You can’t follow one value and ignore another.

2-6. Here are the Army values that guide you,the leader, and the rest of the Army. They formthe acronym LDRSHIP:LoyaltyDuty Respect Selfless Service Honor Integrity Personal Courage

2-7. The following discussions can help youunderstand Army values, but understanding isonly the first step. As a leader, you must not onlyunderstand them; you must believe in them,model them in your own actions, and teach oth-ers to accept and live by them.


22



of Characterof Characterand Competence Acts...

Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

“Know” “Do”

SK

ILL

S

AC

TIO

NS

AT

TR

IBU

TE

S

Figure 2-1. Army Values


Loyalty

2-8. Since before the founding of the republic,the Army has respected its subordination to itscivilian political leaders. This subordination isfundamental to preserving the liberty of allAmericans. You began your Army career byswearing allegiance to the Constitution, thebasis of our government and laws. If you’venever read it or if it has been a while, the Con-stitution is in Appendix F. Pay particular atten-tion to Article I, Section 8, which outlines con-gressional responsibilities regarding the armedforces, and Article II, Section 2, which desig-nates the president as commander in chief.Beyond your allegiance to the Constitution, youhave an obligation to be faithful to the Army—the institution and its people—and to your unitor organization. Few examples illustrate loyaltyto country and institution as well as the exampleof GEN George Washington in 1782.

2-9. GEN Washington’s example shows howthe obligation to subordinates and peers fits inthe context of loyalty to the chain of commandand the institution at large. As commander ofthe Continental Army, GEN Washington wasobligated to see that his soldiers were taken careof. However, he also was obligated to ensurethat the new nation remained secure and that theContinental Army remained able to fight if nec-essary. If the Continental Army had marched onthe seat of government, it may well have

destroyed the nation by undermining the lawthat held it together. It also would havedestroyed the Army as an institution by destroy-ing the basis for the authority under which itserved. GEN Washington realized these thingsand acted based on his knowledge. Had he donenothing else, this single act would have beenenough to establish GEN George Washington asthe father of his country.

2-10. Loyalty is a two-way street: you shouldnot expect loyalty without being prepared to

The Leader and Leadership: What the Leader Must BE, KNOW, and DO

23

Bear true faith and allegiance to the USConstitution, the Army, your unit, andother soldiers.

Loyalty is the big thing, the greatest battle asset ofall. But no man ever wins the loyalty of troops bypreaching loyalty. It is given to him as he proveshis possession of the other virtues.

Brigadier General S. L. A. Marshall Men Against Fire GEN Washington at Newburgh

Following its victory at Yorktown in 1781, theContinental Army set up camp at Newburgh,New York, to wait for peace with Great Britain.The central government formed under the Arti-cles of Confederation proved weak and unwill-ing to supply the Army properly or even paythe soldiers who had won the war for inde-pendence. After months of waiting many offi-cers, angry and impatient, suggested that theArmy march on the seat of government inPhiladelphia, Pennsylvania, and force Congressto meet the Army’s demands. One colonel evensuggested that GEN Washington become KingGeorge I.

Upon hearing this, GEN Washington assem-bled his officers and publicly and emphaticallyrejected the suggestion. He believed that seiz-ing power by force would have destroyedeverything for which the Revolutionary Warhad been fought. By this action, GEN Washing-ton firmly established an enduring precedent:America’s armed forces are subordinate to civil-ian authority and serve the democratic princi-ples that are now enshrined in the Constitu-tion. GEN Washington’s action demonstratedthe loyalty to country that the Army mustmaintain in order to protect the freedomenjoyed by all Americans.


give it as well. Leaders can neither demand loy-alty nor win it from their people by talkingabout it. The loyalty of your people is a gift theygive you when, and only when, you deserve it—when you train them well, treat them fairly, andlive by the concepts you talk about. Leaderswho are loyal to their subordinates never letthem be misused.

2-11. Soldiers fight for each other—loyalty iscommitment. Some of you will encounter themost important way of earning this loyalty:leading your soldiers well in combat. There’s noloyalty fiercer than that of soldiers who trusttheir leader to take them through the dangers ofcombat. However, loyalty extends to all mem-bers of an organization—to your superiors andsubordinates, as well as your peers.

2-12. Loyalty extends to all members of allcomponents of the Army. The reserve compo-nents—Army National Guard and ArmyReserve—play an increasingly active role in theArmy’s mission. Most DA civilians will not becalled upon to serve in combat theaters, buttheir contributions to mission accomplishmentare nonetheless vital. As an Army leader, you’llserve throughout your career with soldiers ofthe active and reserve components as well asDA civilians. All are members of the same team,loyal to one another.

Duty

2-13. Duty begins with everything required ofyou by law, regulation, and orders; but it

includes much more than that. Professionals dotheir work not just to the minimum standard, butto the very best of their ability. Soldiers and DAcivilians commit to excellence in all aspects oftheir professional responsibility so that whenthe job is done they can look back and say, “Icouldn’t have given any more.”

2-14. Army leaders take the initiative, figuringout what needs to be done before being toldwhat to do. What’s more, they take full respon-sibility for their actions and those of their sub-ordinates. Army leaders never shade the truth tomake the unit look good—or even to make theirsubordinates feel good. Instead, they followtheir higher duty to the Army and the nation.

2-15. CPT McConnell understood and fulfilledher duty to the Army and to the soldiers she sup-ported in ways that went beyond her medicaltraining. A leader’s duty is to take charge, evenin unfamiliar circumstances. But duty isn’treserved for special occasions. When a platoonsergeant tells a squad leader to inspect weapons,the squad leader has fulfilled his minimum obli-gation when he has checked the weapons. He’sdone what he was told to do. But if the squadleader finds weapons that are not clean or serv-


24

Fulfill your obligations.The essence of duty is acting in the absence oforders or direction from others, based on an innersense of what is morally and professionallyright. . . .

General John A. Wickham, Jr.Former Army Chief of Staff

Duty in KoreaCPT Viola B. McConnell was the only Armynurse on duty in Korea in July of 1950. Whenhostilities broke out, she escorted nearly 700American evacuees from Seoul to Japanaboard a freighter designed to accommodateonly 12 passengers. CPT McConnell assessedpriorities for care of the evacuees and workedexhaustively with a medical team to care forthem. Once in Japan, she requested reassign-ment back to Korea. After all she had alreadydone, CPT McConnell returned to Taejon to carefor and evacuate wounded soldiers of the 24thInfantry Division.


iced, his sense of duty tells him to go beyond theplatoon sergeant’s instructions. The squadleader does his duty when he corrects the prob-lem and ensures the weapons are up to standard.

2-16. In extremely rare cases, you may receivean illegal order. Duty requires that you refuse toobey it. You have no choice but to do what’s eth-ically and legally correct. Paragraphs 2-97, 2-98, and 2-99 discuss illegal orders.

Respect

2-17. Respect for the individual forms the basisfor the rule of law, the very essence of whatmakes America. In the Army, respect means rec-ognizing and appreciating the inherent dignityand worth of all people. This value reminds youthat your people are your greatest resource.Army leaders honor everyone’s individual worth

by treating all people with dignity and respect.

2-18. As America becomes more culturallydiverse, Army leaders must be aware that theywill deal with people from a wider range of eth-nic, racial, and religious backgrounds. Effectiveleaders are tolerant of beliefs different fromtheir own as long as those beliefs don’t conflictwith Army values, are not illegal, and are notunethical. As an Army leader, you need to avoidmisunderstandings arising from cultural differ-ences. Actively seeking to learn about peopleand cultures different from your own can helpyou do this. Being sensitive to other cultures canalso aid you in counseling your people moreeffectively. You show respect when you seek tounderstand your people’s background, seethings from their perspective, and appreciatewhat’s important to them.

2-19. As an Army leader, you must also fostera climate in which everyone is treated with dig-nity and respect regardless of race, gender,creed, or religious belief. Fostering this climatebegins with your example: how you live Armyvalues shows your people how they should livethem. However, values training is another majorcontributor. Effective training helps create acommon understanding of Army values and thestandards you expect. When you conduct it aspart of your regular routine—such as duringdevelopmental counseling sessions—you rein-force the message that respect for others is partof the character of every soldier and DA civil-ian. Combined with your example, such trainingcreates an organizational climate that promotesconsideration for others, fairness in all dealings,and equal opportunity. In essence, Army leaderstreat others as they wish to be treated.

2-20. As part of this consideration, leaders cre-ate an environment in which subordinates arechallenged, where they can reach their fullpotential and be all they can be. Providing tough


25

Treat people as they should be treated.The discipline which makes the soldiers of a freecountry reliable in battle is not to be gained byharsh or tyrannical treatment. On the contrary,such treatment is far more likely to destroy thanto make an army. It is possible to impart instruc-tion and to give commands in such manner andsuch a tone of voice to inspire in the soldier nofeeling but an intense desire to obey, while theopposite manner and tone of voice cannot fail toexcite strong resentment and a desire to disobey.The one mode or the other of dealing with subor-dinates springs from a corresponding spirit in thebreast of the commander. He who feels therespect which is due to others cannot fail toinspire in them regard for himself, while he whofeels, and hence manifests, disrespect toward oth-ers, especially his inferiors, cannot fail to inspirehatred against himself.

Major General John M. Schofield Address to the United States Corps of Cadets

11 August 1879


training doesn’t demean subordinates; in fact,building their capabilities and showing faith intheir potential is the essence of respect. Effec-tive leaders take the time to learn what their sub-ordinates want to accomplish. They advise theirpeople on how they can grow, personally andprofessionally. Not all of your subordinates willsucceed equally, but they all deserve respect.

2-21. Respect is also an essential component forthe development of disciplined, cohesive, andeffective warfighting teams. In the deadly con-fusion of combat, soldiers often overcomeincredible odds to accomplish the mission andprotect the lives of their comrades. This spirit ofselfless service and duty is built on a soldier’spersonal trust and regard for fellow soldiers. Aleader’s willingness to tolerate discrimination orharassment on any basis, or a failure to cultivatea climate of respect, eats away at this trust anderodes unit cohesion. But respect goes beyondissues of discrimination and harassment; itincludes the broader issue of civility, the waypeople treat each other and those they come incontact with. It involves being sensitive to diver-sity and one’s own behaviors that others mayfind insensitive, offensive, or abusive. Soldiersand DA civilians, like their leaders, treat every-one with dignity and respect.

Selfless Service

2-22. You have often heard the militaryreferred to as “the service.” As a member of theArmy, you serve the United States. Selflessservice means doing what’s right for the nation,

the Army, your organization, and your people—and putting these responsibilities above yourown interests. The needs of the Army and thenation come first. This doesn’t mean that youneglect your family or yourself; in fact, suchneglect weakens a leader and can cause theArmy more harm than good. Selfless servicedoesn’t mean that you can’t have a strong ego,high self-esteem, or even healthy ambition.Rather, selfless service means that you don’tmake decisions or take actions that help yourimage or your career but hurt others or sabotagethe mission. The selfish superior claims creditfor work his subordinates do; the selfless leadergives credit to those who earned it. The Armycan’t function except as a team, and for a teamto work, the individual has to give up self-inter-est for the good of the whole.

2-23. Soldiers are not the only members of theArmy who display selfless service. DA civil-ians display this value as well. Then ArmyChief of Staff, Gordon R. Sullivan assessed theDA civilian contribution to Operation DesertStorm this way:

Not surprisingly, most of the civiliansdeployed to Southwest Asia volunteered toserve there. But the civilian presence in theGulf region meant more than moral supportand filling in for soldiers. Gulf War veteranssay that many of the combat soldiers couldowe their lives to the DA civilians whohelped maintain equipment by speeding upthe process of getting parts and other sup-port from 60 logistics agencies Army-wide.

2-24. As GEN Sullivan’s comment indicates,selfless service is an essential component ofteamwork. Team members give of themselves sothat the team may succeed. In combat some sol-diers give themselves completely so that theircomrades can live and the mission can beaccomplished. But the need for selflessness isn’t


26

Put the welfare of the nation, the Army, andsubordinates before your own.The nation today needs men who think in termsof service to their country and not in terms of theircountry’s debt to them.

General of the Army Omar N. Bradley


limited to combat situations. Requirements forindividuals to place their own needs below thoseof their organization can occur during peace-time as well. And the requirement for selfless-ness doesn’t decrease with one’s rank; itincreases. Consider this example of a soldier oflong service and high rank who demonstratedthe value of selfless service.

2-25. When faced with a request to solve a diffi-cult problem in an overseas theater after six yearsof demanding work, GA Marshall didn’t say, “I’vebeen in uniform for over thirty years, we just wona world war, and I think I’ve done enough.”Instead, he responded to his commander in chiefthe only way a professional could. He said yes,took care of his family, and prepared to accom-plish the mission. After a year overseas, whenfaced with a similar question, he gave the sameanswer. GA Marshall always placed his country’sinterests first and his own second. Army leaderswho follow his example do the same.

Honor

2-26. Honor provides the “moral compass” forcharacter and personal conduct in the Army.Though many people struggle to define theterm, most recognize instinctively those with akeen sense of right and wrong, those who livesuch that their words and deeds are abovereproach. The expression “honorable person,”therefore, refers to both the character traitsindividuals actually possess and the fact that thecommunity recognizes and respects them.

2-27. Honor holds Army values together whileat the same time being a value itself. Together,Army values describe the foundation essentialto develop leaders of character. Honor meansdemonstrating an understanding of what’s rightand taking pride in the community’s acknowl-


27

GA Marshall Continues to ServeGA George C. Marshall served as Army Chief ofStaff from 1939 until 1945. He led the Armythrough the buildup, deployment, and world-wide operations of World War II. Chapter 7 out-lines some of his contributions to the Alliedvictory. In November 1945 he retired to a well-deserved rest at his home in Leesburg,Virginia.Just six days later President Harry S. Trumancalled on him to serve as Special Ambassadorto China. From the White House President Tru-man telephoned GA Marshall at his home:“General, I want you to go to China for me,” thepresident said.“Yes, Mr. President,” GA Marshallreplied. He then hung up the telephone,informed his wife of the president’s requestand his reply, and prepared to return to gov-ernment service.

President Truman didn’t appoint GA Mar-shall a special ambassador to reward his faith-ful service; he appointed GA Marshall becausethere was a tough job in China that needed tobe done. The Chinese communists under MaoTse-tung were battling the Nationalists underChiang Kai-shek, who had been America’s allyagainst the Japanese; GA Marshall’s job was tomediate peace between them. In the end hewas unsuccessful in spite of a year of frustratingwork; the scale of the problem was more thanany one person could handle. However, in Jan-uary 1947 President Truman appointed GAMarshall Secretary of State. The Cold War hadbegun and the president needed a leader

Americans trusted. GA Marshall’s reputationmade him the one; his selflessness led him tocontinue to serve.

Live up to all the Army values.What is life without honor? Degradation is worsethan death.

Lieutenant General Thomas J.“Stonewall” Jackson


edgment of that reputation. Military ceremoniesrecognizing individual and unit achievementdemonstrate and reinforce the importance theArmy places on honor.

2-28. For you as an Army leader, demonstratingan understanding of what’s right and taking pridein that reputation means this: Live up to all theArmy values. Implicitly, that’s what you prom-ised when you took your oath of office or enlist-ment. You made this promise publicly, and thestandards—Army values—are also public. To bean honorable person, you must be true to youroath and live Army values in all you do. Livinghonorably strengthens Army values, not only foryourself but for others as well: all members ofan organization contribute to the organization’sclimate (which you’ll read about in Chapter 3).By what they do, people living out Army valuescontribute to a climate that encourages all mem-bers of the Army to do the same.

2-29. How you conduct yourself and meetyour obligations defines who you are as a per-son; how the Army meets the nation’s commit-ments defines the Army as an institution. Foryou as an Army leader, honor means puttingArmy values above self-interest, above careerand comfort. For all soldiers, it means puttingArmy values above self-preservation as well.This honor is essential for creating a bond oftrust among members of the Army and betweenthe Army and the nation it serves. Army leadershave the strength of will to live according toArmy values, even though the temptations to dootherwise are strong, especially in the face ofpersonal danger. The military’s highest award isthe Medal of Honor. Its recipients didn’t do justwhat was required of them; they went beyondthe expected, above and beyond the call of duty.Some gave their own lives so that others couldlive. It’s fitting that the word we use to describetheir achievements is “honor.”

2-30. No one will ever know what was runningthrough the minds of MSG Gordon and SFCShughart as they left the comparative safety oftheir helicopter to go to the aid of the downedaircrew. The two NCOs knew there was noground rescue force available, and they cer-tainly knew there was no going back to their


28

MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart in Somalia

During a raid in Mogadishu in October 1993,MSG Gary Gordon and SFC Randall Shughart,leader and member of a sniper team with TaskForce Ranger in Somalia, were providing preci-sion and suppressive fires from helicoptersabove two helicopter crash sites. Learning thatno ground forces were available to rescue oneof the downed aircrews and aware that a grow-ing number of enemy were closing in on thesite, MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart volun-teered to be inserted to protect their criticallywounded comrades. Their initial request wasturned down because of the danger of the sit-uation. They asked a second time; permissionwas denied. Only after their third request werethey inserted.

MSG Gordon and SFC Shughart wereinserted one hundred meters south of thedowned chopper. Armed only with their per-sonal weapons, the two NCOs fought their wayto the downed fliers through intense smallarms fire, a maze of shanties and shacks, andthe enemy converging on the site. After MSGGordon and SFC Shughart pulled the woundedfrom the wreckage, they established a perime-ter, put themselves in the most dangerous posi-tion, and fought off a series of attacks. The twoNCOs continued to protect their comradesuntil they had depleted their ammunition andwere themselves fatally wounded.Their actionssaved the life of an Army pilot.


helicopter. They may have suspected that thingswould turn out as they did; nonetheless, they didwhat they believed to be the right thing. Theyacted based on Army values, which they hadclearly made their own: loyalty to their fellowsoldiers; the duty to stand by them, regardless ofthe circumstances; the personal courage to act,even in the face of great danger; selfless service,the willingness to give their all. MSG Gary I.Gordon and SFC Randall D. Shughart livedArmy values to the end; they were posthu-mously awarded Medals of Honor.

Integrity

2-31. People of integrity consistently actaccording to principles—not just what mightwork at the moment. Leaders of integrity maketheir principles known and consistently act inaccordance with them. The Army requires lead-ers of integrity who possess high moral stan-dards and are honest in word and deed. Beinghonest means being truthful and upright all thetime, despite pressures to do otherwise. Havingintegrity means being both morally completeand true to yourself. As an Army leader, you’rehonest to yourself by committing to and consis-tently living Army values; you’re honest to oth-ers by not presenting yourself or your actions asanything other than what they are. Army leaderssay what they mean and do what they say. If youcan’t accomplish a mission, inform your chain

of command. If you inadvertently pass on badinformation, correct it as soon as you find outit’s wrong. People of integrity do the right thingnot because it’s convenient or because they haveno choice. They choose the right thing becausetheir character permits no less. Conductingyourself with integrity has three parts:

• Separating what’s right from what’s wrong. • Always acting according to what you know to

be right, even at personal cost. • Saying openly that you’re acting on your

understanding of right versus wrong.

2-32. Leaders can’t hide what they do: that’swhy you must carefully decide how you act. Asan Army leader, you’re always on display. If youwant to instill Army values in others, you mustinternalize and demonstrate them yourself. Yourpersonal values may and probably do extendbeyond the Army values, to include such thingsas political, cultural, or religious beliefs. How-ever, if you’re to be an Army leader and a per-son of integrity, these values must reinforce, notcontradict, Army values.

2-33. Any conflict between your personal val-ues and Army values must be resolved beforeyou can become a morally complete Armyleader. You may need to consult with someonewhose values and judgment you respect. Youwould not be the first person to face this issue,and as a leader, you can expect others to cometo you, too. Chapter 5 contains the story of howSGT Alvin York and his leaders confronted andresolved a conflict between SGT York’s personalvalues and Army values. Read it and reflect onit. If one of your subordinates asks you to helpresolve a similar conflict, you must be preparedby being sure your own values align with Armyvalues. Resolving such conflicts is necessary tobecome a leader of integrity.


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Do what’s right—legally and morally.The American people rightly look to their militaryleaders not only to be skilled in the technicalaspects of the profession of arms, but also to bemen of integrity.

General J. Lawton Collins Former Army Chief of Staff


Personal Courage

2-34. Personal courage isn’t the absence offear; rather, it’s the ability to put fear aside anddo what’s necessary. It takes two forms, physicaland moral. Good leaders demonstrate both.

2-35. Physical courage means overcomingfears of bodily harm and doing your duty. It’sthe bravery that allows a soldier to take risks incombat in spite of the fear of wounds or death.Physical courage is what gets the soldier at Air-borne School out the aircraft door. It’s whatallows an infantryman to assault a bunker tosave his buddies.

2-36. In contrast, moral courage is the willing-ness to stand firm on your values, principles,and convictions—even when threatened. Itenables leaders to stand up for what they believeis right, regardless of the consequences. Leaderswho take responsibility for their decisions andactions, even when things go wrong, displaymoral courage. Courageous leaders are willingto look critically inside themselves, considernew ideas, and change what needs changing.

2-37. Moral courage is sometimes overlooked,both in discussions of personal courage and inthe everyday rush of business. A DA civilian at ameeting heard courage mentioned several timesin the context of combat. The DA civilian pointedout that consistent moral courage is every bit as

important as momentary physical courage. Situa-tions requiring physical courage are rare; situa-tions requiring moral courage can occur fre-quently. Moral courage is essential to living theArmy values of integrity and honor every day.

2-38. Moral courage often expresses itself ascandor. Candor means being frank, honest, andsincere with others while keeping your wordsfree from bias, prejudice, or malice. Candormeans calling things as you see them, evenwhen it’s uncomfortable or you think it might bebetter for you to just keep quiet. It means notallowing your feelings to affect what you sayabout a person or situation. A candid companycommander calmly points out the firstsergeant’s mistake. Likewise, the candid firstsergeant respectfully points out when the com-pany commander’s pet project isn’t working andthey need to do something different. For trust toexist between leaders and subordinates, candoris essential. Without it, subordinates won’t knowif they’ve met the standard and leaders won’tknow what’s going on.

2-39. In combat physical and moral couragemay blend together. The right thing to do maynot only be unpopular, but dangerous as well.Situations of that sort reveal who’s a leader ofcharacter and who’s not. Consider this example.


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Face fear, danger, or adversity (physical ormoral).The concept of professional courage does notalways mean being as tough as nails either. It alsosuggests a willingness to listen to the soldiers’problems, to go to bat for them in a tough situa-tion, and it means knowing just how far they cango. It also means being willing to tell the bosswhen he’s wrong.

William ConnellyFormer Sergeant Major of the Army

WO1 Thompson at My LaiPersonal courage—whether physical, moral, or acombination of the two—may be manifested ina variety of ways, both on and off the battlefield.On March 16, 1968, Warrant Officer (WO1) HughC. Thompson, Jr. and his two-man crew were ona reconnaissance mission over the village of MyLai, Republic of Vietnam. WO1 Thompsonwatched in horror as he saw an American soldiershoot an injured Vietnamese child. Minutes later,when he observed American soldiers advancingon a number of civilians in a ditch, WO1 Thomp-


Leader Attributes

2-40. Values tell us part of what the leadermust BE; the other side of what a leader mustBE are the attributes listed in Figure 2-2. Leaderattributes influence leader actions; leaderactions, in turn, always influence the unit ororganization. As an example, if you’re physi-cally fit, you’re more likely to inspire your sub-ordinates to be physically fit.

2-41. Attributes are a person’s fundamentalqualities and characteristics. People are bornwith some attributes; for instance, a person’s

genetic code determines eye, hair, and skincolor. However, other attributes—includingleader attributes—are learned and can bechanged. Leader attributes can be characterizedas mental, physical, and emotional. Successfulleaders work to improve those attributes.

Mental Attributes

2-42. The mental attributes of an Army leaderinclude will, self-discipline, initiative, judg-ment, self-confidence, intelligence, and culturalawareness.

Will

2-43. Will is the inner drive that compels sol-diers and leaders to keep going when they areexhausted, hungry, afraid, cold, and wet—whenit would be easier to quit. Will enables soldiers


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VA

LU

ES

“Be”


“Do”

SK

ILL

S

AC

TIO

NS

“Know”

of Character and Competence Acts...and Competence

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Figure 2-2. Leader attributes

Leadership is not a natural trait, something inher-ited like the color of eyes or hair.... Leadership is askill that can be studied, learned, and perfected bypractice.

The Noncom’s Guide, 1962

son landed his helicopter and questioned ayoung officer about what was happening on theground.Told that the ground action was none ofhis business, WO1 Thompson took off and con-tinued to circle the area.

When it became apparent that the Americansoldiers were now firing on civilians, WO1Thompson landed his helicopter between thesoldiers and a group of 10 villagers who wereheaded for a homemade bomb shelter. Heordered his gunner to train his weapon on theapproaching American soldiers and to fire ifnecessary. Then he personally coaxed the civil-ians out of the shelter and airlifted them tosafety. WO1 Thompson’s radio reports of whatwas happening were instrumental in bringingabout the cease-fire order that saved the livesof more civilians. His willingness to place him-self in physical danger in order to do themorally right thing is a sterling example of per-sonal courage.

The will of soldiers is three times more importantthan their weapons.

Colonel Dandridge M.“Mike” Malone Small Unit Leadership:

A Commonsense Approach


to press the fight to its conclusion. Yet will with-out competence is useless. It’s not enough thatsoldiers are willing, or even eager, to fight; theymust know how to fight. Likewise, soldiers whohave competence but no will don’t fight. Theleader’s task is to develop a winning spirit bybuilding their subordinates’ will as well as theirskill. That begins with hard, realistic training.

2-44. Will is an attribute essential to all mem-bers of the Army. Work conditions vary amongbranches and components, between thosedeployed and those closer to home. In the Army,personal attitude must prevail over any adverseexternal conditions. All members of the Army—active, reserve, and DA civilian—will experi-ence situations when it would be easier to quitrather than finish the task at hand. At thosetimes, everyone needs that inner drive to presson to mission completion.

2-45. It’s easy to talk about will when things gowell. But the test of your will comes whenthings go badly—when events seem to be out ofcontrol, when you think your bosses have for-gotten you, when the plan doesn’t seem to workand it looks like you’re going to lose. It’s thenthat you must draw on your inner reserves topersevere—to do your job until there’s nothingleft to do it with and then to remain faithful toyour people, your organization, and your coun-try. The story of the American and Filipinostand on the Bataan Peninsula and their subse-quent captivity is one of individuals, leaders,and units deciding to remain true to the end—and living and dying by that decision.


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The Will to PersevereOn 8 December 1941, hours after the attackon Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces attacked theAmerican and Filipino forces defending thePhilippines. With insufficient combat powerto launch a counterattack, GEN Douglas

MacArthur, the American commander, orderedhis force to consolidate on the Bataan Penin-sula and hold as long as possible. Among hisunits was the 12th Quartermaster (QM) Regi-ment, which had the mission of supporting theforce.

Completely cut off from outside support, theAllies held against an overwhelming Japanesearmy for the next three and a half months. Sol-diers of the 12th QM Regiment worked in thedebris of warehouses and repair shops undermerciless shelling and bombing, fighting tomake the meager supplies last. They slaugh-tered water buffaloes for meat, caught fish withtraps they built themselves, and distilled saltfrom sea water. In coffeepots made from oildrums they boiled and reboiled the tiny coffeesupply until the grounds were white. As long asan ounce of food existed, it was used. In the lastdesperate days, they resorted to killing horsesand pack mules. More important, these sup-porters delivered rations to the foxholes on thefront lines—fighting their way in when neces-sary. After Bataan and Corregidor fell, membersof the 12th QM Regiment were prominentamong the 7,000 Americans and Filipinos whodied on the infamous Bataan Death March.

Though captured, the soldiers of the 12thQM Regiment maintained their will to resist.1LT Beulah Greenwalt, a nurse assigned to the12th QM Regiment, personified this will. Realiz-ing the regimental colors represent the soul ofa regiment and that they could serve as a sym-bol for resistance, 1LT Greenwalt assumed themission of protecting the colors from theJapanese. She carried the colors to the prisonerof war (PW) camp in Manila by wrapping themaround her shoulders and convincing herJapanese captors that they were “only a shawl.”For the next 33 months 1LT Greenwalt and theremains of the regiment remained PWs, living


Self-Discipline

2-46. Self-disciplined people are masters oftheir impulses. This mastery comes from thehabit of doing the right thing. Self-disciplineallows Army leaders to do the right thingregardless of the consequences for them or theirsubordinates. Under the extreme stress of com-bat, you and your team might be cut off andalone, fearing for your lives, and having to actwithout guidance or knowledge of what’s goingon around you. Still, you—the leader—mustthink clearly and act reasonably. Self-disciplineis the key to this kind of behavior.

2-47. In peacetime, self-discipline gets theunit out for the hard training. Self-disciplinemakes the tank commander demand anotherrun-through of a battle drill if the performancedoesn’t meet the standard—even though every-one is long past ready to quit. Self-disciplinedoesn’t mean that you never get tired or dis-couraged—after all, you’re only human. It doesmean that you do what needs to be done regard-less of your feelings.

Initiative

2-48. Initiative is the ability to be a self-starter—to act when there are no clear instructions, to actwhen the situation changes or when the plan fallsapart. In the operational context, it means settingand dictating the terms of action throughout thebattle or operation. An individual leader with ini-tiative is willing to decide and initiate independ-ent actions when the concept of operations nolonger applies or when an unanticipated opportu-nity leading to accomplishment of the comman-der’s intent presents itself. Initiative drives theArmy leader to seek a better method, anticipatewhat must be done, and perform without waitingfor instructions. Balanced with good judgment, itbecomes disciplined initiative, an essential leaderattribute. (FM 100-5 discusses initiative as itrelates to military actions at the operational level.FM 100-34 discusses the relationship of initiativeto command and control. FM 100-40 discussesthe place of initiative in the art of tactics.)

2-49. As an Army leader, you can’t just giveorders: you must make clear the intent of thoseorders, the final goal of the mission. In combat,


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on starvation diets and denied all comforts. Butthrough it all, 1LT Greenwalt held onto the flag.The regimental colors were safeguarded: thesoul of the regiment remained with the regi-ment, and its soldiers continued to resist.

When the war ended in 1945 and the surviv-ing PWs were released, 1LT Greenwalt pre-sented the colors to the regimental com-mander. She and her fellow PWs had perse-vered. They had resisted on Bataan until theyhad no more means to resist.They continued toresist through three long years of captivity.They decided on Bataan to carry on, and theyrenewed that decision daily until they were lib-erated. The 12th QM Regiment—and the otherunits that had fought and resisted with them—remained true to themselves, the Army, andtheir country. Their will allowed them to seeevents through to the end.

The leader must be an aggressive thinker—always anticipating and analyzing. He must beable to make good assessments and solid tacticaljudgments.

Brigadier General John T. Nelson, II

The core of a soldier is moral discipline. It is inter-twined with the discipline of physical and mentalachievement.Total discipline overcomes adversity,and physical stamina draws on an inner strengththat says “drive on.”

Former Sergeant Major of the Army William G. Bainbridge


it’s critically important for subordinates tounderstand their commander’s intent. Whenthey are cut off or enemy actions derail the orig-inal plan, well-trained soldiers who understandthe commander’s intent will apply disciplinedinitiative to accomplish the mission.

2-50. Disciplined initiative doesn’t just appear;you must develop it within your subordinates.Your leadership style and the organizational cli-mate you establish can either encourage or dis-courage initiative: you can instill initiative inyour subordinates or you can drive it out. If youunderwrite honest mistakes, your subordinateswill be more likely to develop initiative. If youset a “zero defects” standard, you risk stranglinginitiative in its cradle, the hearts of your subor-dinates. (Chapter 5 discusses “zero defects” andlearning.)

Judgment

2-51. Leaders must often juggle hard facts,questionable data, and gut-level intuition toarrive at a decision. Good judgment meansmaking the best decision for the situation. It’s akey attribute of the art of command and thetransformation of knowledge into understand-ing. (FM 100-34 discusses how leaders convertdata and information into knowledge and under-standing.)

2-52. Good judgment is the ability to size up asituation quickly, determine what’s important,and decide what needs to be done. Given a prob-lem, you should consider a range of alternativesbefore you act. You need to think through theconsequences of what you’re about to do beforeyou do it. In addition to considering the conse-quences, you should also think methodically.Some sources that aid judgment are the boss’sintent, the desired goal, rules, laws, regulations,experience, and values. Good judgment alsoincludes the ability to size up subordinates, peers,and the enemy for strengths, weaknesses, andpotential actions. It’s a critical part of problemsolving and decision making. (Chapter 5 dis-cusses problem solving and decision making.)

2-53. Judgment and initiative go hand in hand.As an Army leader, you must weigh what youknow and make decisions in situations whereothers do nothing. There will be times whenyou’ll have to make decisions under severe timeconstraints. In all cases, however, you must takeresponsibility for your actions. In addition, youmust encourage disciplined initiative in, and


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The Quick Reaction PlatoonOn 26 December 1994 a group of armed anddisgruntled members of the Haitian Armyentered the Haitian Army Headquarters in Port-au-Prince demanding back pay. A gunfightensued less than 150 meters from the groundsof the Haitian Palace, seat of the new govern-ment. American soldiers from C Company, 1-22Infantry, who had deployed to Haiti as part ofOperation Uphold Democracy, were guardingthe palace grounds. The quick reaction platoonleader deployed and immediately maneuveredhis platoon towards the gunfire. The platoonattacked, inflicting at least four casualties andcausing the rest of the hostile soldiers to flee.The platoon quelled a potentially explosive sit-uation by responding correctly and aggres-sively to the orders of their leader, who knewhis mission and the commander’s intent.

I learned that good judgment comes from experi-ence and that experience grows out of mistakes.



teach good judgment to, your subordinates.Help your subordinates learn from mistakes bycoaching and mentoring them along the way.(Chapter 5 discusses mentoring.)

Self-Confidence2-54. Self-confidence is the faith that you’ll actcorrectly and properly in any situation, even onein which you’re under stress and don’t have allthe information you want. Self-confidencecomes from competence: it’s based on master-ing skills, which takes hard work and dedica-tion. Leaders who know their own capabilitiesand believe in themselves are self-confident.Don’t mistake bluster—loudmouthed braggingor self-promotion—for self-confidence. Trulyself-confident leaders don’t need to advertise;their actions say it all.

2-55. Self-confidence is important for leadersand teams. People want self-confident leaders,leaders who understand the situation, knowwhat needs to be done, and demonstrate thatunderstanding and knowledge. Self-confidentleaders instill self-confidence in their people. Incombat, self-confidence helps soldiers controldoubt and reduce anxiety. Together with willand self-discipline, self-confidence helps lead-ers act—do what must be done in circumstanceswhere it would be easier to do nothing—and toconvince their people to act as well.

Intelligence2-56. Intelligent leaders think, learn, andreflect; then they apply what they learn. Intelli-gence is more than knowledge, and the ability tothink isn’t the same as book learning. All peoplehave some intellectual ability that, when devel-oped, allows them to analyze and understand asituation. And although some people aresmarter than others, all people can develop thecapabilities they have. Napoleon himselfobserved how a leader’s intellectual develop-

ment applies directly to battlefield success:

It is not genius which reveals to me sud-denly and secretly what I should do in cir-cumstances unexpected by others; it isthought and meditation.

2-57. Knowledge is only part of the equation.Smart decisions result when you combine pro-fessional skills (which you learn through study)with experience (which you gain on the job) andyour ability to reason through a problem basedon the information available. Reflection is alsoimportant. From time to time, you find yourselfcarefully and thoughtfully considering howleadership, values, and other military principlesapply to you and your job. When things don’t goquite the way they intended, intelligent leadersare confident enough to step back and ask,“Why did things turn out that way?” Then theyare smart enough to build on their strengths andavoid making the same mistake again.

2-58. Reflection also contributes to your origi-nality (the ability to innovate, rather than onlyadopt others’ methods) and intuition (direct,immediate insight or understanding of importantfactors without apparent rational thought or infer-ence). Remember COL Chamberlain at LittleRound Top. To his soldiers, it sometimes appearedthat he could “see through forests and hills andknow what was coming.” But this was no magicalability. Through study and reflection, the colonelhad learned how to analyze terrain and imaginehow the enemy might attempt to use it to hisadvantage. He had applied his intelligence anddeveloped his intellectual capabilities. Good lead-ers follow COL Chamberlain’s example.

Cultural Awareness2-59. Culture is a group’s shared set of beliefs,values, and assumptions about what’s important.As an Army leader, you must be aware of cul-tural factors in three contexts:


35


• You must be sensitive to the different back-grounds of your people.

• You must be aware of the culture of the coun-try in which your organization is operating.

• You must take into account your partners’ cus-toms and traditions when you’re working withforces of another nation.

2-60. Within the Army, people come fromwidely different backgrounds: they are shapedby their schooling, race, gender, and religion aswell as a host of other influences. Although theyshare Army values, an African-American manfrom rural Texas may look at many things differ-ently from, say, a third-generation Irish-Ameri-can man who grew up in Philadelphia or aNative American woman from the PacificNorthwest. But be aware that perspectives varywithin groups as well. That’s why you should tryto understand individuals based on their ownideas, qualifications, and contributions and notjump to conclusions based on stereotypes.

2-61. Army values are part of the Army’sinstitutional culture, a starting point for howyou as a member of the Army should think andact. Beyond that, Army leaders not only recog-nize that people are different; they value thembecause of their differences, because they arepeople. Your job as a leader isn’t to makeeveryone the same. Instead, your job is to takeadvantage of the fact that everyone is differentand build a cohesive team. (Chapter 7 dis-cusses the role strategic leaders play in estab-lishing and maintaining the Army’s institu-tional culture.)

2-62. There’s great diversity in the Army—religious, ethnic, and social—and people of dif-ferent backgrounds bring different talents to thetable. By joining the Army, these people haveagreed to adopt the Army culture. Army leadersmake this easier by embracing and making useof everyone’s talents. What’s more, they create a

team where subordinates know they are valu-able and their talents are important.

2-63. You never know how the talents of anindividual or group will contribute to missionaccomplishment. For example, during WorldWar II, US Marines from the Navajo nationformed a group of radio communications spe-cialists dubbed the Navajo Code Talkers. Thecode talkers used their native language—aunique talent—to handle command radio traf-fic. Not even the best Japanese code breakerscould decipher what was being said.

2-64. Understanding the culture of your adver-saries and of the country in which your organiza-tion is operating is just as important as under-standing the culture of your own country andorganization. This aspect of cultural awarenesshas always been important, but today’s opera-tional environment of frequent deployments—often conducted by small units under constantmedia coverage—makes it even more so. As anArmy leader, you need to remain aware of currentevents—particularly those in areas where Amer-ica has national interests. You may have to dealwith people who live in those areas, either aspartners, neutrals, or adversaries. The more youknow about them, the better prepared you’ll be.

2-65. You may think that understanding othercultures applies mostly to stability operationsand support operations. However, it’s critical toplanning offensive and defensive operations aswell. For example, you may employ differenttactics against an adversary who considers sur-render a dishonor worse than death than againstthose for whom surrender is an honorableoption. Likewise, if your organization is operat-ing as part of a multinational team, how wellyou understand your partners will affect howwell the team accomplishes its mission.

2-66. Cultural awareness is crucial to the suc-cess of multinational operations. In such situa-


36


tions Army leaders take the time to learn thecustoms and traditions of the partners’ cultures.They learn how and why others think and act asthey do. In multinational forces, effective lead-ers create a “third culture,” which is the bridgeor the compromise among partners. This is whatGA Eisenhower did in the following example.

Physical Attributes2-67. Physical attributes—health fitness, phys-ical fitness, and military and professional bear-

ing—can be developed. Army leaders maintainthe appropriate level of physical fitness and mil-itary bearing.

Health Fitness

2-68. Health fitness is everything you do tomaintain good health, things such as undergoingroutine physical exams, practicing good dentalhygiene, maintaining deployability standards,and even personal grooming and cleanliness. Asoldier unable to fight because of dysentery isas much a loss as one who’s wounded. Healthysoldiers can perform under extremes in temper-ature, humidity, and other conditions better thanunhealthy ones. Health fitness also includesavoiding things that degrade your health, suchas substance abuse, obesity, and smoking.

Physical Fitness

2-69. Unit readiness begins with physically fitsoldiers and leaders. Combat drains soldiersphysically, mentally, and emotionally. To mini-mize those effects, Army leaders are physicallyfit, and they make sure their subordinates are fitas well. Physically fit soldiers perform better inall areas, and physically fit leaders are betterable to think, decide, and act appropriatelyunder pressure. Physical readiness provides a


37

GA Eisenhower Forms SHAEFDuring World War II, one of GA Eisenhower’sduties as Supreme Allied Commander in theEuropean Theater of Operations (ETO) was toform his theater headquarters, the SupremeHeadquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force(SHAEF). GA Eisenhower had to create an envi-ronment in this multinational headquarters inwhich staff members from the different Alliedarmies could work together harmoniously. Itwas one of GA Eisenhower’s toughest jobs.

The forces under his command—American,British, French, Canadian, and Polish—broughtnot only different languages, but different waysof thinking, different ideas about what wasimportant, and different strategies. GA Eisen-hower could have tried to bend everyone to hiswill and his way of thinking; he was the boss,after all. But it’s doubtful the Allies would havefought as well for a bullying commander orthat a bullying commander would have sur-vived politically. Instead, he created a positiveorganizational climate that made best use ofthe various capabilities of his subordinates.Thiskind of work takes tact, patience, and trust. Itdoesn’t destroy existing cultures but creates anew one. (Chapter 7 discusses how buildingthis coalition contributed to the Allied victoryin the ETO.)

Disease was the chief killer in the [American Civil]war. Two soldiers died of it for every one killed inbattle. . . . In one year, 995 of every thousand menin the Union army contracted diarrhea anddysentery.

Geoffrey C. Ward The Civil War

Fatigue makes cowards of us all.General George S. Patton, Jr.

Commanding GeneralThird Army, World War II


foundation for combat readiness, and it’s up toyou, the leader, to get your soldiers ready.

2-70. Although physical fitness is a crucial ele-ment of success in battle, it’s not just for front-line soldiers. Wherever they are, people who arephysically fit feel more competent and confident.That attitude reassures and inspires those aroundthem. Physically fit soldiers and DA civilians canhandle stress better, work longer and harder, andrecover faster than ones who are not fit. Thesepayoffs are valuable in both peace and war.

2-71. The physical demands of leadershippositions, prolonged deployments, and continu-ous operations can erode more than just physi-cal attributes. Soldiers must show up ready fordeprivations because it’s difficult to maintainhigh levels of fitness during deployments anddemanding operations. Trying to get fit underthose conditions is even harder. If a person isn’tphysically fit, the effects of additional stresssnowball until their mental and emotional fit-ness are compromised as well. Army leaders’physical fitness has significance beyond theirpersonal performance and well-being. Sinceleaders’ decisions affect their organizations’combat effectiveness, health, and safety and notjust their own, maintaining physical fitness is anethical as well as a practical imperative.

2-72. The Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT)measures a baseline level of physical fitness. Asan Army leader, you’re required to develop aphysical fitness program that enhances your sol-diers’ ability to complete soldier and leader tasksthat support the unit’s mission essential task list(METL). (FM 25-101 discusses METL-basedintegration of soldier, leader, and collective train-ing.) Fitness programs that emphasize trainingspecifically for the APFT are boring and don’tprepare soldiers for the varied stresses of combat.Make every effort to design a physical fitnessprogram that prepares your people for what you

expect them to do in combat. Readiness shouldbe your program’s primary focus; preparation forthe APFT itself is secondary.

Military and Professional Bearing

2-73. As an Army leader, you’re expected tolook like a soldier. Know how to wear the uni-form and wear it with pride at all times. Meetheight and weight standards. By the way youcarry yourself and through your military cour-tesy and appearance, you send a signal: I amproud of my uniform, my unit, and myself.Skillful use of your professional bearing—fit-ness, courtesy, and military appearance—canoften help you manage difficult situations. Aprofessional—DA civilian or soldier—presentsa professional appearance, but there’s more tobeing an Army professional than looking good.Professionals are competent as well; the Armyrequires you to both look good and be good.

Emotional Attributes

2-74. As an Army leader, your emotionalattributes—self-control, balance, and stabil-ity—contribute to how you feel and therefore tohow you interact with others. Your people arehuman beings with hopes, fears, concerns, anddreams. When you understand that will andendurance come from emotional energy, youpossess a powerful leadership tool. The feed-back you give can help your subordinates use


38

Our . . . soldiers should look as good as they are.Sergeant Major of the Army Julius W. Gates

Anyone can become angry—that is easy. But tobe angry with the right person, to the rightdegree, at the right time, for the right purpose,and in the right way—that is not easy.

Aristotle, Greek philosopher andtutor to Alexander the Great


their emotional energy to accomplish amazingfeats in tough times.

2-75. Self-control, balance, and stability alsohelp you make the right ethical choices. Chapter4 discusses the steps of ethical reasoning. How-ever, in order to follow those steps, you mustremain in control of yourself; you can’t be at themercy of your impulses. You must remain calmunder pressure, “watch your lane,” and expendenergy on things you can fix. Inform your bossof things you can’t fix and don’t worry aboutthings you can’t affect.

2-76. Leaders who are emotionally mature alsohave a better awareness of their own strengthsand weaknesses. Mature leaders spend theirenergy on self-improvement; immature leadersspend their energy denying there’s anythingwrong. Mature, less defensive leaders benefitfrom constructive criticism in ways that imma-ture people cannot.

Self-Control

2-77. Leaders control their emotions. No onewants to work for a hysterical leader who mightlose control in a tough situation. This doesn’tmean you never show emotion. Instead, you mustdisplay the proper amount of emotion and pas-sion—somewhere between too much and too lit-tle—required to tap into your subordinates’ emo-tions. Maintaining self-control inspires calm con-fidence in subordinates, the coolness under fireso essential to a successful unit. It also encour-ages feedback from your subordinates that canexpand your sense of what’s really going on.

Balance

2-78. Emotionally balanced leaders display theright emotion for the situation and can also readothers’ emotional state. They draw on theirexperience and provide their subordinates theproper perspective on events. They have a rangeof attitudes—from relaxed to intense—withwhich to approach situations and can choose theone appropriate to the circumstances. Suchleaders know when it’s time to send a messagethat things are urgent and how to do that with-out throwing the organization into chaos. Theyalso know how to encourage people at thetoughest moments and keep them driving on.


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Self-Control in CombatAn American infantry company in Vietnam hadbeen taking a lot of casualties from booby traps.The soldiers were frustrated because they couldnot fight back. One night, snipers ambushed thecompany near a village, killing two soldiers. Therest of the company—scared, anguished, andfrustrated—wanted to enter the village, but thecommander—who was just as angry—knewthat the snipers were long gone. Further, heknew that there was a danger his soldiers wouldlet their emotions get the upper hand, that theymight injure or kill some villagers out of a desireto strike back at something. Besides being crim-inal, such killings would drive more villagers tothe Viet Cong.The commander maintained con-trol of his emotions, and the company avoidedthe village.

Sure I was scared, but under the circumstances, I’dhave been crazy not to be scared.…There’s noth-ing wrong with fear. Without fear, you can’t haveacts of courage.

Sergeant Theresa Kristek Operation Just Cause, Panama

An officer or noncommissioned officer who loseshis temper and flies into a tantrum has failed toobtain his first triumph in discipline.

Noncommissioned Officer’s Manual, 1917


Stability

2-79. Effective leaders are steady, levelheadedunder pressure and fatigue, and calm in the faceof danger. These characteristics calm their sub-ordinates, who are always looking to theirleader’s example. Display the emotions youwant your people to display; don’t give in to thetemptation to do what feels good for you. Ifyou’re under great stress, it might feel better tovent—scream, throw things, kick furniture—but that will not help the organization. If youwant your subordinates to be calm and rationalunder pressure, you must be also.

Focus on Character

2-80. Earlier in this chapter, you read how char-acter is made up of two interacting sets of char-acteristics: values and attributes. People enterthe Army with values and attributes they’vedeveloped over the course of a lifetime, but thoseare just the starting points for further characterdevelopment. Army leaders continuously developin themselves and their subordinates the Armyvalues and leader attributes that this chapter dis-cusses and Figure 1-1 shows. This isn’t just anacademic exercise, another mandatory trainingtopic to address once a year. Your charactershows through in your actions—on and off duty.

2-81. Character helps you determine what’sright and motivates you to do it, regardless ofthe circumstances or the consequences. What’smore, an informed ethical conscience consistentwith Army values steels you for making theright choices when faced with tough questions.Since Army leaders seek to do what’s right and


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Never let yourself be driven by impatience oranger. One always regrets having followed thefirst dictates of his emotions.

Marshal de Belle-Isle French Minister of War, 1757-1760

BG Jackson at First Bull RunAt a crucial juncture in the First Battle of BullRun, the Confederate line was being beatenback from Matthews Hill by Union forces. Con-federate BG Thomas J. Jackson and his 2,000-man brigade of Virginians, hearing the soundsof battle to the left of their position, pressed onto the action. Despite a painful shrapnelwound, BG Jackson calmly placed his men in adefensive position on Henry Hill and assuredthem that all was well.

As men of the broken regiments flowedpast, one of their officers, BG Barnard E. Bee,exclaimed to BG Jackson, “General, they aredriving us!”Looking toward the direction of theenemy, BG Jackson replied, “Sir, we will givethem the bayonet.” Impressed by BG Jackson’sconfidence and self-control, BG Bee rode offtowards what was left of the officers and menof his brigade. As he rode into the throng hegestured with his sword toward Henry Hill and

Just as fire tempers iron into fine steel, so doesadversity temper one’s character into firmness,tolerance, and determination.

Margaret Chase Smith Lieutenant Colonel, US Air Force Reserve

and United States Senator

shouted,“Look, men! There is Jackson standinglike a stone wall! Let us determine to die here,and we will conquer! Follow me!”

BG Bee would later be mortally wounded,but the Confederate line stiffened and the nick-name he gave to BG Jackson would live on inAmerican military history. This example showshow one leader’s self-control under fire canturn the tide of battle by influencing not onlythe leader’s own soldiers, but the leaders andsoldiers of other units as well.


inspire others to do the same, you must be con-cerned with character development. Examinethe actions in this example, taken from thereport of a platoon sergeant during OperationDesert Storm. Consider the aspects of characterthat contributed to them.

2-82. The soldier’s comment at the end of thisstory captures the essence of character. He said,“We’re from America …” He defined, in a very

simple way, the connection between who youare—your character—and what you do. Thisexample illustrates character—shared valuesand attributes—telling soldiers what to do andwhat not to do. However, it’s interesting forother reasons. Read it again: You can almostfeel the soldiers’ surprise when they realizedwhat the Iraqi PWs were afraid of. You can pic-ture the young soldier, nervous, hands on hisweapon, but still managing to be a bit amused.The right thing, the ethical choice, was sodeeply ingrained in those soldiers that it neveroccurred to them to do anything other than safe-guard the PWs.


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Character and PrisonersThe morning of [28 February 1991], about ahalf-hour prior to the cease-fire, we had a T-55tank in front of us and we were getting ready[to engage it with a TOW]. We had the TOW upand we were tracking him and my wingmansaw him just stop and a head pop up out of it.And Neil started calling me saying, “Don’tshoot, don’t shoot, I think they’re getting off thetank.” And they did. Three of them jumped offthe tank and ran around a sand dune. I told mywingman, “I’ll cover the tank, you go on downand check around the back side and see what’sdown there.” He went down there and foundabout 150 PWs….

[T]he only way we could handle that manywas just to line them up and run them through. . . a little gauntlet . . . [W]e had to check themfor weapons and stuff and we lined them upand called for the PW handlers to pick them up.It was just amazing.

We had to blow the tank up. My instructionswere to destroy the tank, so I told them to goahead and move it around the back side of theberm a little bit to safeguard us, so we wouldn’tcatch any shrapnel or ammunition coming off.When the tank blew up, these guys startedyelling and screaming at my soldiers, “Don’tshoot us, don’t shoot us,”and one of my soldierssaid, “Hey, we’re from America; we don’t shootour prisoners.” That sort of stuck with me.

The Battle of the BulgeIn December 1944 the German Army launchedits last major offensive on the Western Front ofthe ETO, sending massive infantry and armorformations into a lightly-held sector of theAllied line in Belgium. American units wereoverrun. Thousands of green troops, sent tothat sector because it was quiet, were captured.For two desperate weeks the Allies fought tocheck the enemy advance. The 101st AirborneDivision was sent to the town of Bastogne. TheGermans needed to control the crossroadsthere to move equipment to the front; the101st was there to stop them.

Outnumbered, surrounded, low on ammuni-tion, out of medical supplies, and withwounded piling up, the 101st, elements of the9th and 10th Armored Divisions, and a tankdestroyer battalion fought off repeated attacksthrough some of the coldest weather Europehad seen in 50 years. Wounded men froze todeath in their foxholes. Paratroopers foughttanks. Nonetheless, when the German com-mander demanded Americans to surrender, BGAnthony C. McAuliffe, acting division com-mander, sent a one-word reply: “Nuts.”


2-83. BG McAuliffe spoke based on what heknew his soldiers were capable of, even in themost extreme circumstances. This kind of cour-age and toughness didn’t develop overnight.Every Allied soldier brought a lifetime’s worthof character to that battle; that character was thefoundation for everything else that made themsuccessful.

2-84. GA Eisenhower, in command of thelargest invasion force ever assembled andpoised on the eve of a battle that would decidethe fate of millions of people, was guided by thesame values and attributes that shaped theactions of the soldiers in the Desert Stormexample. His character allowed for nothing lessthan acceptance of total personal responsibility.If things went badly, he was ready to take theblame. When things went well, he gave credit tohis subordinates. The Army values GA Eisen-hower personified provide a powerful examplefor all members of the Army.

Character and the Warrior Ethos

2-85. The warrior ethos refers to the profes-sional attitudes and beliefs that characterize theAmerican soldier. At its core, the warrior ethosgrounds itself on the refusal to accept failure.The Army has forged the warrior ethos on train-ing grounds from Valley Forge to the CTCs andhoned it in battle from Bunker Hill to San JuanHill, from the Meuse-Argonne to Omaha Beach,from Pork Chop Hill to the Ia Drang Valley, fromSalinas Airfield to the Battle of 73 Easting. Itderives from the unique realities of battle. Itechoes through the precepts in the Code of Con-duct. Developed through discipline, commit-ment to Army values, and knowledge of theArmy’s proud heritage, the warrior ethos makesclear that military service is much more than justanother job: the purpose of winning the nation’swars calls for total commitment.

2-86. America has a proud tradition of win-ning. The ability to forge victory out of thechaos of battle includes overcoming fear,hunger, deprivation, and fatigue. The Armywins because it fights hard; it fights hardbecause it trains hard; and it trains hard becausethat’s the way to win. Thus, the warrior ethos is


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GA Eisenhower’s MessageOn 5 June 1944, the day before the D-Day inva-sion, with his hundreds of thousands of sol-diers, sailors and airmen poised to invadeFrance, GA Dwight D. Eisenhower took a fewminutes to draft a message he hoped he wouldnever deliver. It was a “statement he wrote outto have ready when the invasion was repulsed,his troops torn apart for nothing, his planesripped and smashed to no end, his warshipssunk, his reputation blasted.”

In his handwritten statement, GA Eisen-hower began, “Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactoryfoothold and I have withdrawn the troops.”Originally he had written, the “troops havebeen withdrawn,” a use of the passive voicethat conceals the actor. But he changed thewording to reflect his acceptance of full per-sonal accountability.

GA Eisenhower went on, “My decision toattack at this time and place was based on thebest information available.” And after recogniz-ing the courage and sacrifice of the troops heconcluded, “If any blame or fault attaches tothis attempt, it is mine alone.”

The Americans held. By the time the Alliesregained control of the area and pushed theGermans back, Hitler’s “Thousand Year Reich”had fewer than four months remaining.


about more than persevering under the worst ofconditions; it fuels the fire to fight throughthose conditions to victory no matter how longit takes, no matter how much effort is required.It’s one thing to make a snap decision to riskyour life for a brief period of time. It’s quiteanother to sustain the will to win when the situ-ation looks hopeless and doesn’t show any indi-cations of getting better, when being away fromhome and family is a profound hardship. Thesoldier who jumps on a grenade to save his com-rades is courageous, without question. Thataction requires great physical courage, but pur-suing victory over time also requires a deepmoral courage that concentrates on the mission.

2-87. The warrior ethos concerns character,shaping who you are and what you do. In thatsense, it’s clearly linked to Army values such aspersonal courage, loyalty to comrades, and ded-ication to duty. Both loyalty and duty involveputting your life on the line, even when there’slittle chance of survival, for the good of a causelarger than yourself. That’s the clearest exampleof selfless service. American soldiers never giveup on their fellow soldiers, and they never com-promise on doing their duty. Integrity underliesthe character of the Army as well. The warriorethos requires unrelenting and consistent deter-mination to do what is right and to do it withpride, both in war and military operations otherthan war. Understanding what is right requiresrespect for both your comrades and other peopleinvolved in such complex arenas as peace oper-ations and nation assistance. In such ambiguoussituations, decisions to use lethal or nonlethalforce severely test judgment and discipline. Inwhatever conditions Army leaders find them-selves, they turn the personal warrior ethos intoa collective commitment to win with honor.

2-88. The warrior ethos is crucial—and perish-able—so the Army must continually affirm,

develop, and sustain it. Its martial ethic con-nects American warriors today with thosewhose sacrifices have allowed our very exis-tence. The Army’s continuing drive to be thebest, to triumph over all adversity, and to remainfocused on mission accomplishment does morethan preserve the Army’s institutional culture; itsustains the nation.

2-89. Actions that safeguard the nation occureverywhere you find soldiers. The warrior ethosspurs the lead tank driver across a line of depar-ture into uncertainty. It drives the bone-tiredmedic continually to put others first. It pushesthe sweat-soaked gunner near muscle failure tokeep up the fire. It drives the heavily loadedinfantry soldier into an icy wind, steadily uphillto the objective. It presses the signaler throughfatigue to provide communications. And thewarrior ethos urges the truck driver acrossfrozen roads bounded by minefields becausefellow soldiers at an isolated outpost need sup-plies. Such tireless motivation comes in partfrom the comradeship that springs from the war-rior ethos. Soldiers fight for each other; theywould rather die than let their buddies down.That loyalty runs front to rear as well as left toright: mutual support marks Army cultureregardless of who you are, where you are, orwhat you are doing.

2-90. That tight fabric of loyalty to one anotherand to collective victory reflects perhaps thenoblest aspect of our American warrior ethos:the military’s subordinate relationship to civil-ian authority. That subordination began in 1775,was reconfirmed at Newburgh, New York, in1782, and continues to this day. It’s establishedin the Constitution and makes possible the free-dom all Americans enjoy. The Army sets out toachieve national objectives, not its own, for self-less service is an institutional as well as an indi-vidual value. And in the end, the Army returns


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its people back to the nation. America’s sonsand daughters return with their experience aspart of a winning team and share that spirit ascitizens. The traditions and values of the servicederive from a commitment to excellent perform-ance and operational success. They also point tothe Army’s unwavering commitment to the soci-ety we serve. Those characteristics serve Amer-ica and its citizens—both in and out of uni-form—well.

Character Development

2-91. People come to the Army with a charac-ter formed by their background, religious orphilosophical beliefs, education, and experi-ence. Your job as an Army leader would be agreat deal easier if you could check the valuesof a new DA civilian or soldier the way medicscheck teeth or run a blood test. You could figureout what values were missing by a quick glanceat Figure 1-1 and administer the right combina-tion, maybe with an injection or magic pill.

2-92. But character development is a complex,lifelong process. No scientist can point to a per-son and say, “This is when it all happens.” How-ever, there are a few things you can count on.You build character in subordinates by creatingorganizations in which Army values are not justwords in a book but precepts for what theirmembers do. You help build subordinates’ char-acter by acting the way you want them to act.You teach by example, and coach along the way.(Appendix E contains additional information oncharacter development.) When you hold your-self and your subordinates to the highest stan-dards, you reinforce the values those standardsembody. They spread throughout the team, unit,or organization—throughout the Army—likethe waves from a pebble dropped into a pond.

Character and Ethics

2-93. When you talk about character, you helpyour people answer the question, What kind ofperson should I be? You must not only embraceArmy values and leader attributes but also usethem to think, reason, and—after reflection—act. Acting in a situation that tests your characterrequires moral courage. Consider this example.

2-94. The A Company Commander made hisdecision and submitted his report withoutknowing how it would turn out. He didn’t knowthe brigade commander would back him up, buthe reported his company’s status relative to thepublished Army standard anyway. He insistedon reporting the truth—which took character—because it was the right thing to do.


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The Qualification ReportA battalion in a newly activated division hadjust spent a great deal of time and effort onweapons qualification. When the companiesreported results, the battalion commandercould not understand why B and C Companieshad reported all machine gunners fully quali-fied while A Company had not.The A CompanyCommander said that he could not report hisgunners qualified because they had only firedon the 10-meter range and the manual forqualification clearly stated that the gunnershad to fire on the transition range as well. Thebattalion commander responded that since thetransition range was not built yet, the gunnersshould be reported as qualified: “They fired onthe only range we have. And besides, that’s howwe did it at Fort Braxton.”

Some of the A Company NCOs, who had alsobeen at Fort Braxton, tried to tell their companycommander the same thing. But the captaininsisted the A Company gunners were not fully


2-95. Character is important in living a consis-tent and moral life, but character doesn’t alwaysprovide the final answer to the specific question,What should I do now? Finding that answer canbe called ethical reasoning. Chapter 4 outlines aprocess for ethical reasoning. When you read it,keep in mind that the process is much more com-plex than the steps indicate and that you mustapply your own values, critical reasoning skills,and imagination to the situation. There are noformulas that will serve every time; sometimesyou may not even come up with an answer thatcompletely satisfies you. But if you embraceArmy values and let them govern your actions, ifyou learn from your experiences and developyour skills over time, you’re as prepared as youcan be to face the tough calls.

2-96. Some people try to set different Armyvalues against one another, saying a problem isabout loyalty versus honesty or duty versusrespect. Leadership is more complicated thanthat; the world isn’t always black and white. If itwere, leadership would be easy and anybodycould do it. However, in the vast majority of

cases, Army values are perfectly compatible; infact, they reinforce each other.

Character and Orders

2-97. Making the right choice and acting on itwhen faced with an ethical question can be dif-ficult. Sometimes it means standing yourground. Sometimes it means telling your bossyou think the boss is wrong, like the financesupervisor in Chapter 1 did. Situations likethese test your character. But a situation inwhich you think you’ve received an illegal ordercan be even more difficult.

2-98. In Chapter 1 you read that a good leaderexecutes the boss’s decision with energy andenthusiasm. The only exception to this principleis your duty to disobey illegal orders. This isn’ta privilege you can conveniently claim, but aduty you must perform. If you think an order isillegal, first be sure that you understand both thedetails of the order and its original intent. Seekclarification from the person who gave theorder. This takes moral courage, but the ques-tion will be straightforward: “Did you reallymean for me to ... steal the part ... submit afalse report…shoot the prisoners?” If the ques-tion is complex or time permits, always seeklegal counsel. However, if you must decideimmediately—as may happen in the heat ofcombat make the best judgment possible basedon Army values, your experience, and your pre-vious study and reflection. You take a risk whenyou disobey what you believe to be an illegalorder. It may be the most difficult decisionyou’ll ever make, but that’s what leaders do.

2-99. While you’ll never be completely pre-pared for such a situation, spending time reflect-ing on Army values and leader attributes mayhelp. Talk to your superiors, particularly thosewho have done what you aspire to do or whatyou think you’ll be called on to do; providing


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qualified, and that’s how the report went to thebrigade commander.

The brigade commander asked for an expla-nation of the qualification scores. After hearingthe A Company Commander’s story, he agreedthat the brigade would be doing itself no favorsby reporting partially qualified gunners as fullyqualified. The incident also sent a message todivision: get that transition range built.

The A Company Commander’s choice wasnot between loyalty to his battalion com-mander and honesty; doing the right thinghere meant being loyal and honest. And thecompany commander had the moral courageto be both honest and loyal—loyal to the Army,loyal to his unit, and loyal to his soldiers.


counsel of this sort is an important part of men-toring (which Chapter 5 discusses). Obviously,you need to make time to do this before you’refaced with a tough call. When you’re in the mid-dle of a firefight, you don’t have time to reflect.

Character and Beliefs

2-100. What role do beliefs play in ethical mat-ters? Beliefs are convictions people hold as true;they are based on their upbringing, culture, her-itage, families, and traditions. As a result, differ-ent moral beliefs have been and will continue tobe shaped by diverse religious and philosophi-cal traditions. You serve a nation that takes veryseriously the notion that people are free tochoose their own beliefs and the basis for thosebeliefs. In fact, America’s strength comes fromthat diversity. The Army respects different moralbackgrounds and personal convictions—as longas they don’t conflict with Army values.

2-101. Beliefs matter because they are the waypeople make sense of what they experience.Beliefs also provide the basis for personal values;values are moral beliefs that shape a person’sbehavior. Effective leaders are careful not torequire their people to violate their beliefs byordering or encouraging any illegal or unethicalaction.

2-102. The Constitution reflects our deepestnational values. One of these values is the guar-antee of freedom of religion. While religiousbeliefs and practices are left to individual con-science, Army leaders are responsible for ensur-ing their soldiers’ right to freely practice theirreligion. Title 10 of the United States Codestates, “Each commanding officer shall furnishfacilities, including necessary transportation, toany chaplain assigned to his command, to assistthe chaplain in performing his duties.” Whatdoes this mean for Army leaders? The com-

mander delegates staff responsibility to thechaplain for programs to enhance spiritual fit-ness since many people draw moral fortitudeand inner strength from a spiritual foundation.At the same time, no leader may apply undueinfluence or coerce others in matters of reli-gion—whether to practice or not to practicespecific religious beliefs. (The first ten amend-ments to the Constitution are called the Bill ofRights. Freedom of religion is guaranteed bythe First Amendment, an indication of howimportant the Founders considered it. You canread the Bill of Rights in Appendix F.)

2-103. Army leaders also recognize the rolebeliefs play in preparing soldiers for battle. Sol-diers often fight and win over tremendous oddswhen they are convinced of the ideals (beliefs)for which they are fighting. Commitment to suchbeliefs as justice, liberty, freedom, and not lettingdown your fellow soldier can be essential ingre-dients in creating and sustaining the will to fightand prevail. A common theme expressed byAmerican PWs during the Vietnam Conflict wasthe importance of values instilled by a commonAmerican culture. Those values helped them towithstand torture and the hardships of captivity.

SECTION II. COMPETENCE: WHAT A

LEADER MUST KNOW


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The American soldier … demands professionalcompetence in his leaders. In battle, he wants toknow that the job is going to be done right, withno unnecessary casualties. The noncommis-sioned officer wearing the chevron is supposed tobe the best soldier in the platoon and he is sup-posed to know how to perform all the dutiesexpected of him. The American soldier expects hissergeant to be able to teach him how to do hisjob. And he expects even more from his officers.



2-104. Army values and leader attributes formthe foundation of the character of soldiers andDA civilians. Character, in turn, serves as thebasis of knowing (competence) and doing(leadership). The self-discipline that leads toteamwork is rooted in character. In the Army,teamwork depends on the actions of competentleaders of proven character who know theirprofession and act to improve their organiza-tions. The best Army leaders constantly striveto improve, to get better at what they do. Theirself-discipline focuses on learning more abouttheir profession and continually getting theteam to perform better. They build competence inthemselves and their subordinates. Leader skillsincrease in scope and complexity as one movesfrom direct leader positions to organizational andstrategic leader positions. Chapters 4, 6, and 7discuss in detail the different skills direct, organi-zational, and strategic leaders require.

2-105. Competence results from hard, realistictraining. That’s why Basic Training starts with

simple skills, such as drill and marksmanship.Soldiers who master these skills have a coupleof victories under their belts. The message fromthe drill sergeants—explicit or not—is, “You’velearned how to do those things; now you’reready to take on something tougher.” When youlead people through progressively more com-plex tasks this way, they develop the confidenceand will—the inner drive—to take on the next,more difficult challenge.

2-106. For you as an Army leader, competencemeans much more than being well-trained.Competence links character (knowing the rightthing to do) and leadership (doing or influenc-ing your people to do the right thing). Leadersare responsible for being personally competent,but even that isn’t enough: as a leader, you’reresponsible for your subordinates’ competenceas well.

2-107. Figure 2-3 highlights the four cate-gories containing skills an Army leader mustKNOW:

• Interpersonal skills affect how you deal withpeople. They include coaching, teaching,counseling, motivating, and empowering.

• Conceptual skills enable you to handle ideas.They require sound judgment as well as theability to think creatively and reason analyti-cally, critically, and ethically.

• Technical skills are job-related abilities. Theyinclude basic soldier skills. As an Armyleader, you must possess the expertise neces-sary to accomplish all tasks and functionsyou’re assigned.

• Tactical skills apply to solving tactical prob-lems, that is, problems concerning employ-ment of units in combat. You enhance tacticalskills when you combine them with interper-sonal, conceptual, and technical skills toaccomplish a mission.


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VA

LU

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AT

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AC

TIO

NS

“Be” “Do”




Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

Figure 2-3. Leader Skills


2-108. Leaders in combat combine interper-sonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical skillsto accomplish the mission. They use their inter-personal skills to communicate their intenteffectively and motivate their soldiers. Theyapply their conceptual skills to determine viableconcepts of operations, make the right deci-sions, and execute the tactics the operationalenvironment requires. They capitalize on theirtechnical skills to properly employ the tech-niques, procedures, fieldcraft, and equipmentthat fit the situation. Finally, combat leadersemploy tactical skill, combining skills from theother skill categories with knowledge of the artof tactics appropriate to their level of responsi-bility and unit type to accomplish the mission.When plans go wrong and leadership must turnthe tide, it is tactical skill, combined with char-acter, that enables an Army leader to seize con-trol of the situation and lead the unit to missionaccomplishment.

2-109. The Army leadership framework drawsa distinction between developing skills and per-forming actions. Army leaders who take theirunits to a combat training center (CTC) improvetheir skills by performing actions—by doingtheir jobs on the ground in the midst of intensesimulated combat. But they don’t wait until theyarrive at the CTC to develop their skills; theypractice ahead of time in command post exer-cises, in combat drills, on firing ranges, andeven on the physical training (PT) field.

2-110. Your leader skills will improve as yourexperience broadens. A platoon sergeant gainsvaluable experience on the job that will helphim be a better first sergeant. Army leaders takeadvantage of every chance to improve: theylook for new learning opportunities, ask ques-tions, seek training opportunities, and requestperformance critiques.

SECTION III. LEADERSHIP: WHAT A

LEADER MUST DO

2-111. Leaders act. They bring together every-thing they are, everything they believe, andeverything they know how to do to provide pur-pose, direction, and motivation. Army leaderswork to influence people, operate to accomplishthe mission, and act to improve their organiza-tion. This section introduces leader actions.Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss them more fully. Aswith leader skills, leader actions increase inscope and complexity as you move from directleader positions to organizational and strategicleader positions.


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He gets his men to go along with him becausethey want to do it for him and they believe in him.

General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower

VA

LU

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AT

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SK

ILL

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“Be” “Know”




Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 2-4. Leader Actions


2-112. Developing the right values, attributes,and skills is only preparation to lead. Leadershipdoesn’t begin until you act. Leaders who live upto Army values, who display leader attributes,who are competent, who act at all times as theywould have their people act, will succeed. Lead-ers who talk a good game but can’t back theirwords with actions will fail in the long run.

Influencing

2-113. Army leaders use interpersonal skills toguide others toward a goal. Direct leaders mostoften influence subordinates face to face—suchas when a team leader gives instructions, recog-nizes achievement, and encourages hard work.Organizational and strategic leaders also influ-ence their immediate subordinates and staff faceto face; however, they guide their organizationsprimarily by indirect influence. Squad leaders,for example, know what their division com-mander wants, not because the general hasbriefed each one personally, but because hisintent is passed through the chain of command.Influencing actions fall into these categories:

• Communicating involves displaying goodoral, written, and listening skills for individu-als and groups.

• Decision making involves selecting the lineof action intended to be followed as the onemost favorable to the successful accomplish-ment of the mission. This involves usingsound judgment, reasoning logically, andmanaging resources wisely.

• Motivating involves inspiring and guidingothers toward mission accomplishment.

Operating

2-114. Operating is what you do to accomplishthe immediate mission, to get the job done ontime and to standard. Operating actions fall intothese categories:

• Planning and preparing involve developingdetailed, executable plans that are feasible,acceptable, and suitable; arranging unit sup-port for the exercise or operation; and con-ducting rehearsals. During tactical operations,decision making and planning are enhanced bytwo methodologies: the military decisionmaking process (MDMP) and the troop lead-ing procedures (TLP). Battalion and higherechelons follow the MDMP. Company andlower echelons follow the TLP.

• Executing involves meeting mission stan-dards, taking care of people, and efficientlymanaging resources.

• Assessing involves evaluating the efficiencyand effectiveness of any system or plan interms of its purpose and mission.

2-115. Leaders assess, or judge, performanceso they can determine what needs to be done tosustain the strong areas and improve weak ones.This kind of forward thinking is linked to thelast leader action, improving.

Improving

2-116. Good leaders strive to leave an organi-zation better than they found it. A child strug-gling to understand why it is better to put moneyin a piggy bank is learning what leaders know:plan and sacrifice now for the sake of the future.All leaders are tempted to focus on the short-term gain that makes them and their organiza-tions look good today: “Why bother to fix itnow? By the time next year rolls around, it willbe someone else’s problem.” But that attitudedoesn’t serve either your subordinates or theArmy well. When an organization sacrificesimportant training with long-term effects—say,training that leads to true marksmanship skill—and focuses exclusively on short-term appear-ances—such as qualification scores—the orga-nization’s capabilities suffers.


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2-117. The results of shortsighted priorities maynot appear immediately, but they will appear.Loyalty to your people as well as the Army as aninstitution demands you consider the long-termeffects of your actions. Some of your people willremain in the organization after you’ve movedon. Some will still be in the Army after you’relong gone. Soldiers and DA civilians tomorrowmust live with problems leaders don’t fix today.

2-118. Army leaders set priorities and balancecompeting demands. They focus their organiza-tions’ efforts on short- and long-term goals whilecontinuing to meet requirements that may ormay not contribute directly to achieving thosegoals. In the case of weapons proficiency, quali-fication is a requirement but true marksmanshipskill is the goal. For battlefield success, soldiersneed training that leads to understanding andmastery of technical and tactical skills that holdup under the stress of combat. Throw in all theother things vying for an organization’s time andresources and your job becomes even more dif-ficult. Guidance from higher headquarters mayhelp, but you must make the tough calls. Improv-ing actions fall into these categories:

• Developing involves investing adequate timeand effort to develop individual subordinatesas leaders. It includes mentoring.

• Building involves spending time and resourcesto improve teams, groups, and units and to fos-ter an ethical climate.

• Learning involves seeking self-improvementand organizational growth. It includes envi-sioning, adapting, and leading change.

Summary

2-119. As an Army leader, leadership in com-bat is your primary and most important chal-lenge. It requires you to accept a set of valuesthat contributes to a core of motivation and will.If you fail to accept and live these Army values,your soldiers may die unnecessarily and youmay fail to accomplish your mission.

2-120. What must you, as an Army leader, BE,KNOW, and DO? You must have character, thatcombination of values and attributes that under-lie your ability to see what needs to be done,decide to do it, and influence others to followyou. You must be competent, that is, possess theknowledge and skills required to do your jobright. And you must lead, take the proper actionsto accomplish the mission based on what yourcharacter tells you is ethically right and appro-priate for the situation.

2-121. Leadership in combat, the greatest chal-lenge, requires a basis for your motivation andwill. That foundation is Army values. In themare rooted the basis for the character and self-discipline that generate the will to succeed andthe motivation to persevere. From this motiva-tion derives the lifelong work of self-develop-ment in the skills that make a successful Armyleader, one who walks the talk of BE, KNOW,DO. Chapter 3 examines the environment thatsurrounds your people and how what you do asa leader affects it. Understanding the humandimension is essential to mastering leader skillsand performing leader actions.


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3-1. Regardless of the level, keep in mind oneimportant aspect of leadership: you lead people.In the words of former Army Chief of StaffCreighton W. Abrams:

The Army is not made up of people; theArmy is people ... living, breathing, serv-ing human beings. They have needs andinterests and desires. They have spirit andwill, strengths and abilities. They haveweaknesses and faults, and they havemeans. They are the heart of our pre-paredness ... and this preparedness—as anation and as an Army—depends upon thespirit of our soldiers. It is the spirit thatgives the Army ... life. Without it we can-not succeed.

3-2. GEN Abrams could not have been moreclear about what’s important. To fully appreciatethe human dimension of leadership, you mustunderstand two key elements: leadership itselfand the people you lead. Leadership—what thismanual is about—is far from an exact science;every person and organization is different. Not

only that, the environment in which you lead isshaped first by who you are and what you know;second, by your people and what they know; andthird, by everything that goes on around you.

3-3. This chapter examines this all-importanthuman dimension. Later chapters discuss thelevels of Army leadership and the skills andactions required of leaders at each level.

People, the Team, and the Institution

3-4. Former Army Chief of Staff John A. Wick-ham Jr. described the relationship between thepeople who are the Army and the Army as aninstitution this way:

The Army is an institution, not an occupa-tion. Members take an oath of service tothe nation and the Army, rather than sim-ply accept a job ... the Army has moraland ethical obligations to those who serveand their families; they, correspondingly,have responsibilities to the Army.

Chapter 3

The Human Dimensionof Leadership

All soldiers are entitled to outstanding leadership; I will provide that leadership. I know my soldiersand I will always place their needs above my own. I will communicate consistently with my soldiersand never leave them uninformed.

Creed of the Noncommissioned Officer

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3-5. The Army has obligations to soldiers, DAcivilians, and their families that most organiza-tions don’t have; in return, soldiers and DAcivilians have responsibilities to the Army thatfar exceed those of an employee to mostemployers. This relationship, one of mutualobligation and responsibility, is at the very cen-ter of what makes the Army a team, an institu-tion rather than an occupation.

3-6. Chapter 2 discussed how the Army can’tfunction except as a team. This team identitydoesn’t come about just because people take anoath or join an organization; you can’t force ateam to come together any more than you canforce a plant to grow. Rather, the team identitycomes out of mutual respect among its membersand a trust between leaders and subordinates.That bond between leaders and subordinateslikewise springs from mutual respect as well asfrom discipline. The highest form of disciplineis the willing obedience of subordinates whotrust their leaders, understand and believe in themission’s purpose, value the team and theirplace in it, and have the will to see the missionthrough. This form of discipline produces indi-viduals and teams who—in the really toughmoments—come up with solutions themselves.

Discipline

3-7. People are our most important resource;soldiers are in fact our “credentials.” Part ofknowing how to use this most precious resourceis understanding the stresses and demands thatinfluence people.

3-8. One sergeant major has described disci-pline as “a moral, mental, and physical state inwhich all ranks respond to the will of the [leader],whether he is there or not.” Disciplined peopletake the right action, even if they don’t feel likeit. True discipline demands habitual and reasonedobedience, an obedience that preserves initiativeand works, even when the leader isn’t around.Soldiers and DA civilians who understand thepurpose of the mission, trust the leader, and shareArmy values will do the right thing becausethey’re truly committed to the organization.

3-9. Discipline doesn’t just mean barkingorders and demanding an instant response—it’smore complex than that. You build discipline bytraining to standard, using rewards and punish-ment judiciously, instilling confidence in andbuilding trust among team members, and creat-ing a knowledgeable collective will. The confi-dence, trust, and collective will of a disciplined,cohesive unit is crucial in combat.

Soldiers Are Our CredentialsIn September 1944 on the Cotentin Peninsula inFrance, the commander of a German strongholdunder siege by an American force sent word thathe wanted to discuss surrender terms. GermanMG Hermann Ramcke was in his bunker whenhis staff escorted the assistant division com-mander of the US 8th Infantry Division down theconcrete stairway to the underground head-quarters.MG Ramcke addressed BG Charles D.W.Canham through an interpreter: “I am to sur-render to you. Let me see your credentials.”Pointing to the dirty, tired, disheveled—but vic-

torious—American infantrymen who hadaccompanied him and were now crowding thedugout entrance, the American officer replied,“These are my credentials.”

I am confident that an army of strong individuals,held together by a sound discipline based onrespect for personal initiative and rights and dig-nity of the individual, will never fail this nation intime of need.

General J. Lawton Collins Former Army Chief of Staff


The Human Dimension of Leadership

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3-10. You can see the importance of these threecharacteristics in an example that occurred dur-ing the 3 October 1993 American raid in Soma-lia. One soldier kept fighting despite hiswounds. His comrades remembered that heseemed to stop caring about himself, that he hadto keep fighting because the other guys—hisbuddies—were all that mattered. When thingsgo badly, soldiers draw strength from their ownand their unit’s discipline; they know that othermembers of the team are depending on them.

3-11. Soldiers—like those of Task ForceRanger in Somalia (which you’ll read aboutlater in this chapter) and SGT Alvin York(whose story is in Chapter 5)—persevere intough situations. They fight through becausethey have confidence in themselves, their bud-dies, their leaders, their equipment, and theirtraining—and because they have discipline andwill. A young sergeant who participated inOperation Uphold Democracy in Haiti in 1994asserted this fact when interviewed by themedia. The soldier said that operations wentwell because his unit did things just the waythey did them in training and that his trainingnever let him down.

3-12. Even in the most complex operations, theperformance of the Army comes down to thetraining and disciplined performance of individ-uals and teams on the ground. One example ofthis fact occurred when a detachment of Ameri-can soldiers was sent to guard a television towerin Udrigovo, Bosnia-Herzegovina.

3-13. After the soldiers had assumed theirposts, a crowd of about 100 people gathered,grew to about 300, and began throwing rocks atthe Americans. However, the soldiers didn’toverreact. They prevented damage to the towerwithout creating an international incident. Therewas no “Boston Massacre” in Udrigovo. Thediscipline of American soldiers sent into this

and other highly volatile situations in Bosniakept the lid on that operation. The bloody guer-rilla war predicted by some didn’t materialize.This is a testament to the professionalism oftoday’s American soldiers—your soldiers—andthe quality of their leaders—you.

Morale

3-14. When military historians discuss greatarmies, they write about weapons and equip-ment, training and the national cause. They maymention sheer numbers (Voltaire said, “God isalways on the side of the heaviest battalions”)and all sorts of other things that can be analyzed,measured, and compared. However, some alsowrite about another factor equally important tosuccess in battle, something that can’t be meas-ured: the emotional element called morale.

3-15. Morale is the human dimension’s mostimportant intangible element. It’s a measure ofhow people feel about themselves, their team,and their leaders. High morale comes from goodleadership, shared hardship, and mutual respect.It’s an emotional bond that springs from com-mon values like loyalty to fellow soldiers and abelief that the organization will care for families.High morale results in a cohesive team thatenthusiastically strives to achieve commongoals. Leaders know that morale, the essentialhuman element, holds the team together andkeeps it going in the face of the terrifying anddispiriting things that occur in war.

NSDQ [Night Stalkers Don’t Quit]

Motto of the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment,“The Night Stalkers”

Message sent by Chief Warrant Officer Mike Durant, held by Somali guerrillas,

to his wife, October 1993

You have a comradeship, a rapport that you’llnever have again. . . . There’s no competitiveness,



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Taking Care of Soldiers

3-16. Sending soldiers in harm’s way, intoplaces where they may be killed or wounded,might seem to contradict all the emphasis ontaking care of soldiers. Does it? How can youtruly care for your comrades and send them onmissions that might get them killed? Considerthis important and fundamental point as youread the next few paragraphs.

3-17. Whenever the talk turns to what leadersdo, you’ll almost certainly hear someone say,“Take care of your soldiers.” And that’s goodadvice. In fact, if you add one more clause,“Accomplish the mission and take care of yoursoldiers,” you have guidance for a career. But“taking care of soldiers” is one of those slipperyphrases, like the word “honor,” that lots of peo-ple talk about but few take the trouble to explain.So what does taking care of soldiers mean?

3-18. Taking care of soldiers means creating adisciplined environment where they can learnand grow. It means holding them to high stan-dards, training them to do their jobs so they canfunction in peace and win in war. You take careof soldiers when you treat them fairly, refuse tocut corners, share their hardships, and set theexample. Taking care of soldiers encompasseseverything from making sure a soldier has timefor an annual dental exam to visiting off-posthousing to make sure it’s adequate. It also

means providing the family support that assuressoldiers their families will be taken care of,whether the soldier is home or deployed. Familysupport means ensuring there’s a support groupin place, that even the most junior soldier andmost inexperienced family members knowwhere to turn for help when their soldier isdeployed.

3-19. Taking care of soldiers also meansdemanding that soldiers do their duty, even atthe risk of their lives. It doesn’t mean coddlingthem or making training easy or comfortable. Infact, that kind of training can get soldiers killed.Training must be rigorous and as much likecombat as is possible while being safe. Hardtraining is one way of preparing soldiers for therigors of combat. Take care of soldiers by givingthem the training, equipment, and support theyneed to keep them alive in combat.

3-20. In war, soldiers’ comfort is importantbecause it affects morale and combat effective-ness, but comfort takes a back seat to the mis-sion. Consider this account of the 1944 landingson the island of Leyte in the Philippines, writtenmore than 50 years later by Richard Gerhardt.Gerhardt, who was an 18-year-old rifleman inthe 96th Infantry Division, survived twoamphibious landings and months of close com-bat with the Japanese.

Readiness is the best way of truly taking care ofsoldiers.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army Richard A. Kidd

The 96th Division on LeyteBy the time we reached the beach, the smokeand dust created by the preparation fire hadlargely dissipated and we could see the terrainsurrounding the landing area, which was flatand covered with some underbrush and palmtrees. We were fortunate in that our sector ofthe beach was not heavily defended, and ingoing ashore there were few casualties in ourplatoon. Our company was engaged by smallarms fire and a few mortar rounds, but we were

no money values. You trust the man on your leftand your right with your life.

Captain Audie Murphy Medal of Honor recipient and most

decorated American soldier of World War II



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3-21. Gerhardt learned a lifetime’s worth oflessons on physical hardship in the Pacific.Mud, tropical heat, monsoon rains, insects,malaria, Japanese snipers, and infiltrators—thedetails are still clear in his mind half a centurylater. Yet he knows—and he tells you—that sol-diers must endure physical hardship when thebest plan calls for it. In the Leyte campaign, thebest plan was extremely difficult to execute, butit was tactically sound and it saved lives.

3-22. This concept doesn’t mean that leaderssit at some safe, dry headquarters and makeplans without seeing what their soldiers are

going through, counting on them to tough outany situation. Leaders know that graphics on amap symbolize soldiers going forward to fight.Leaders get out with the soldiers to see and feelwhat they’re experiencing as well as to influ-ence the battle by their presence. (Gerhardt andnumerous other front-line writers refer to therear echelon as “anything behind my foxhole.”)Leaders who stay a safe distance from the frontjeopardize operations because they don’t knowwhat’s going on. They risk destroying their sol-diers’ trust, not to mention their unit.

3-23. This example illustrates three points:

• The importance of a leader going to where theaction is to see and feel what’s really going on.

• The importance of a first-line leader tellingthe boss something he doesn’t want to hear.

able to move forward and secure the landingarea in short order. Inland from the beach, how-ever, the terrain turned into swamps, and as wemoved ahead it was necessary to wadethrough muck and mud that was knee-deep attimes. . . . Roads in this part of the island werealmost nonexistent, with the area being servedby dirt trails around the swamps, connectingthe villages. . . . The Japanese had generallybacked off the beaches and left them lightlydefended, setting up their defense around cer-tain villages which were at the junctions of theroad system, as well as dug-in positions atpoints along the roads and trails. Our strategywas to . . . not use the roads and trails, butinstead to move through the swamps and ricepaddies and attack the enemy strong pointsfrom directions not as strongly defended. Thiswas slow, dirty, and extremely fatiguing, but bythis tactic we reduced our exposure to theenemy defensive plan, and to heavy fire fromtheir strong points. It must be recognized thatin combat the comfort of the front-line troopsisn’t part of the . . . planning process, but onlywhat they can endure and still be effective.Conditions that seriously [affect] the combatefficiency of the troops then become a factor.

The K Company Visit1LT Harold Leinbaugh, commander of K Com-pany, 333d Infantry Regiment, 84th Division,related this experience from the ETO in January1945, during the coldest winter in Europe innearly 50 years.

On a front-line visit, the battalion commandercriticized 1LT Leinbaugh and CPT Jay Prophet,the A Company Commander, for their own andtheir men’s appearance. He said it looked like noone had shaved for a week. 1LT Leinbaughreplied that there was no hot water. Sensing ateaching moment, the colonel responded:“Now if you men would save some of your morn-ing coffee it could be used for shaving.”Steppingover to a snowbank, 1LT Leinbaugh picked up afive-gallon GI [general issue] coffee can broughtup that morning, and shook it in the colonel’sface. The frozen coffee produced a thunk. 1LTLeinbaugh shook it again.

“That’s enough,” said the colonel,” . . . I canhear.”



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• The importance of a leader accepting infor-mation that doesn’t fit his preconceivednotions.

3-24. Soldiers are extremely sensitive to situa-tions where their leaders are not at risk, andthey’re not likely to forget a mistake by a leaderthey haven’t seen. Leaders who are out withtheir soldiers—in the same rain or snow, underthe same blazing sun or in the same dark night,under the same threat of enemy artillery orsmall arms fire—will not fall into the trap ofignorance. Those who lead from the front canbetter motivate their soldiers to carry on underextreme conditions.

3-25. Taking care of soldiers is every leader’sbusiness. A DA civilian engineering team chiefvolunteered to oversee the installation of sixForce Provider troop life support systems in thevicinity of Tuzla, Bosnia-Herzogovina. Usingorganizational skills, motivational techniques,and careful supervision, the team chief ensuredthat the sites were properly laid out, integrated,and installed. As a result of thorough planningand the teamwork the DA civilian leader gener-ated, the morale and quality of life of over 5,000soldiers were significantly improved.

Combat Stress

3-26. Leaders understand the human dimen-sion and anticipate soldiers’ reactions to stress,especially to the tremendous stress of combat.The answers may look simple as you sit some-where safe and read this manual, but be sureeasy answers don’t come in combat. However, if

you think about combat stress and its effects onyou and your soldiers ahead of time, you’ll beless surprised and better prepared to deal withand reduce its effects. It takes mental disciplineto imagine the unthinkable—the plan goingwrong, your soldiers wounded or dying, and theenemy coming after YOU. But in combat all ofthese things can happen, and your soldiersexpect you, their leader, to have thought througheach of them. Put yourself in the position of thesquad leader in the following example.

3-27. Consider carefully what the squadleader did. First he told his squad to calm down.Then he told them why it was important: theyhad to continue the fight if they wanted to makeit back to their base alive. In this way he jerkedhis soldiers back to a conditioned response, onethat had been drilled during training and thattook their minds off the loss. The squad leader

All men are frightened. The more intelligent theyare, the more they are frightened.The courageousman is the man who forces himself, in spite of hisfear, to carry on.

General George S. Patton, Jr.War As I Knew It

Task Force Ranger in Somalia, 1993“Sarge” was a company favorite, a big powerfulkid from New Jersey who talked with his handsand played up his “Joy-zee” accent. He lovedpractical jokes. One of his favorites was to putthose tiny charges in guys’ cigarettes, the kindthat would explode with a loud “POP!” abouthalfway through a smoke. If anyone else haddone it, it would have been annoying; Sargeusually got everyone to laugh—even the guywhose cigarette he destroyed.

During the 3 October 1993 raid inMogadishu, Sarge was manning his Humvee’s.50 cal when he was hit and killed. The driverand some of the guys in back screamed, “He’sdead! He’s dead!” They panicked and were notresponding as their squad leader tried to getsomeone else up and behind the gun. Thesquad leader had to yell at them, “Just calmdown! We’ve got to keep fighting or none of uswill get back alive.”



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demonstrated the calm, reasoned leadershipunder stress that’s critical to mission success. Inspite of the loss, the unit persevered.

Will and Winning in Battle

3-28. The Army’s ultimate responsibility is towin the nation’s wars. And what is it that carriessoldiers through the terrible challenges of com-bat? It’s the will to win, the ability to gut it outwhen things get really tough, even when thingslook hopeless. It’s the will not only to perseverebut also to find workable solutions to the tough-est problems. This drive is part of the warriorethos, the ability to forge victory out of thechaos of battle—to overcome fear, hunger, dep-rivation, and fatigue and accomplish the mis-sion. And the will to win serves you just as wellin peacetime, when it’s easy to become discour-aged, feel let down, and spend your energy com-plaining instead of using your talents to makethings better. Discipline holds a team together;the warrior ethos motivates its members—youand your people—to continue the mission.

3-29. All soldiers are warriors: all need todevelop and display the will to win—the desireto do their job well—to persevere, no matterwhat the circumstances. The Army is a team,and all members’ contributions are essential tomission accomplishment. As an Army leader,you’re responsible for developing this sense ofbelonging in your subordinates. Not only that;it’s your job to inculcate in your people the win-ning spirit—the commitment to do their part toaccomplish the mission, no matter when, nomatter where, no matter what.

3-30. Army operations often involve dangerand therefore fear. Battling the effects of fearhas nothing to do with denying it and everythingto do with recognizing fear and handling it.Leaders let their subordinates know, “You canexpect to be afraid; here’s what we’ll do about

it.” The Army standard is to continue your mis-sion to successful completion, as GEN Pattonsaid, in spite of your fears. But saying this isn’tgoing to make it happen. Army leaders expectfear to take hold when things go poorly, set-backs occur, the unit fails to complete a mis-sion, or there are casualties. The sights andsounds of the modern battlefield are terrifying.So is fear of the unknown. Soldiers who seetheir buddies killed or wounded suddenly have agreater burden: they become aware of their ownmortality. On top of all these obvious sources offear is the insecurity before battle that many vet-erans have written about: “Will I perform wellor will I let my buddies down?”

3-31. In the October 1993 fight in Somalia, onesoldier who made it back to the safety of theAmerican position was told to prepare to go backout; there were other soldiers in trouble. He hadjust run a gauntlet of fire, had just seen hisfriends killed and wounded, and was understand-ably afraid. “I can’t go back out there,” he told hissergeant. The leader reassured the soldier whilereminding him of the mission and his responsi-bility to the team: “I know you’re scared . . . I’mscared . . . I’ve never been in a situation like this,either. But we’ve got to go. It’s our job. The dif-ference between being a coward and a man isn’twhether you’re scared; it’s what you do whileyou’re scared.” That frightened soldier probablywasn’t any less afraid, but he climbed back on thevehicle and went out to rescue the other Ameri-can soldiers.

3-32. Will and a winning spirit apply in moresituations than those requiring physicalcourage; sometimes you’ll have to carry on forlong periods in very difficult situations. The dif-ficulties soldiers face may not be ones of phys-ical danger, but of great physical, emotional,and mental strain. Physical courage allowed thesoldier in the situation described above to returnto the fight; will allowed his leader to say the



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right thing, to influence his frightened subordi-nate to do the right thing. Physical couragecauses soldiers to charge a machine gun; willempowers them to fight on when they’re hope-lessly outnumbered, under appalling conditions,and without basic necessities.

Stress in Training

3-33. Leaders must inject stress into training toprepare soldiers for stress in combat. However,creating a problem for subordinates and havingthem react to it doesn’t induce the kind of stressrequired for combat training. A meaningful andproductive mission, given with detailed con-straints and limitations plus high standards ofperformance, does produce stress. Still, leadersmust add unanticipated conditions to that stressto create a real learning environment. Some-times, you don’t even have to add stress; it justhappens, as in this example.

3-34. The section chief fixed the immediateproblem by starting to shuttle the infantry sol-diers in the available trucks. During the AARwith the drivers, the leader admitted a mistakeand figured out how to prevent similar errors inthe future. The section chief also let the teamknow that sometimes, in spite of the best plans,things go wrong. A well-trained organizationdoesn’t buckle under stress but deals with anysetbacks and continues the mission.

The Stress of Change

3-35. Since the end of the Cold War, the Armyhas gone through tremendous change—dra-matic decreases in the number of soldiers andDA civilians in all components, changes inassignment policies, base closings, and a host ofother shifts that put stress on soldiers, DA civil-ians, and families. In those same years, thenumber of deployments to support missionssuch as peace operations and nation assistancehas increased. And these changes have occurred

When the bullets started flying . . . I never thoughtabout half the things I was doing. I simply reliedon my training and concentrated on the mission.

Captain Marie Bezubic Operation Just Cause, Panama

Mix-Up at the CrossroadsA young transportation section chief was lead-ing a convoy of trucks on a night move to linkup with several rifle companies. He was totransport the infantry to a new assembly area.When a sudden rainstorm dropped visibility tonear zero, the section chief was especially gladthat he had carefully briefed his drivers, issuedstrip maps, and made contingency plans. At aroad intersection, his northbound convoypassed through an artillery battery movingeast. When his convoy reached the rendezvousand the section chief got out to check his vehi-cles, he found he was missing two of his owntrucks but had picked up three others towing

howitzers. The tired and wet infantry com-mander was concerned that his unit would belate crossing the line of departure and force-fully expressed that concern to the sectionchief. The section chief now had to accomplishthe same mission with fewer resources as wellas run down his lost trucks and soldiers. Therewas certainly enough stress to go around.

After the section chief sent one of his mostreliable soldiers with the artillery vehicles tofind his missing trucks, he started shuttling theinfantrymen to their destination. Later, after themission was accomplished, the section chiefand his drivers talked about what had hap-pened. The leader admitted that he needed tosupervise a convoy more closely under difficultconditions, and his soldiers recognized theneed to follow the part of the unit SOP con-cerning reduced visibility operations.



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in peacetime Army. At the same time, Armyleaders have had to prepare their soldiers for thestresses of combat, the ultimate crucible.

3-36. The stresses of combat you read aboutearlier in this chapter are classic: they’ve beenthe same for centuries. However, there’s anaspect of the human dimension that has assumedan increasing importance: the effect of techno-logical advances on organizations and people.Military leaders have always had to deal with theeffect of technological changes. What’s differenttoday is the rate at which technology, to includewarfighting technology, is changing. Rapidadvances in new technologies are forcing theArmy to change many aspects of the way it oper-ates and are creating new leadership challenges.

Technology and Leadership

3-37. Technology’s presence challenges allArmy leaders. Technology is here to stay andyou, as an Army leader, need to continuallylearn how to manage it and make it work foryou. The challenges come from many direc-tions. Among them:

• You need to learn the strengths and vulnerabil-ities of the different technologies that supportyour team and its mission.

• You need to think through how your organiza-tion will operate with organizations that areless or more technologically complex. This sit-uation may take the form of heavy and lightArmy units working together, operating withelements of another service, or cooperatingwith elements of another nation’s armed forces.

• You need to consider the effect of technologyon the time you have to analyze problems,make a decision, and act. Events happen fastertoday, and the stress you encounter as an Armyleader is correspondingly greater.

• Technological advances have the potential topermit better and more sustainable operations.

However, as an Army leader you must remem-ber the limitations of your people. No matterwhat technology you have or how it affectsyour mission, it’s still your soldiers and DAcivilians—their minds, hearts, courage, andtalents—that will win the day.

3-38. Advances in electronic data processinglet you handle large amounts of informationeasily. Today’s desktop computer can do more,and do it faster, than the room-sized computersof only 20 years ago. Technology is a powerfultool—if you understand its potential uses andlimitations. The challenge for all Army leadersis to overcome confusion on a fast-moving bat-tlefield characterized by too much informationcoming in too fast.

3-39. Army leaders and staffs have alwaysneeded to determine mission-critical informa-tion, prioritize incoming reports, and processthem quickly. The volume of information thatcurrent technology makes available makes thisskill even more important than in the past.Sometimes something low-tech can divert theflood of technological help into channels theleader and staff can manage. For example, awell-understood commander’s intent andthought-through commander’s critical informa-tion requirements (CCIR) can help free leadersfrom nonessential information while pushingdecisions to lower levels. As an Army leader,you must work hard to overcome the attractive-ness and potential pitfalls of centralized deci-sion making that access to information willappear to make practical.

3-40. Technology is also changing the size ofthe battlefield and the speed of battle. Instantglobal communications are increasing the paceof military actions. Global positioning systemsand night vision capabilities mean the Army canfight at night and during periods of limited vis-ibility—conditions that used to slow things



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down. Continuous operations increase the men-tal and physical stress on soldiers and leaders.Nonlinear operations make it more difficult forcommanders to determine critical points on thebattlefield. Effective leaders develop techniquesto identify and manage stress well before actualconflict occurs. They also find ways to over-come the soldier’s increased sense of isolationthat comes with the greater breadth and depth ofthe modern battlefield.

3-41. Modern technology has also increased thenumber and complexity of skills the Armyrequires. Army leaders must carefully managelow-density specialties. They need to ensure thatcritical positions are filled and that their peoplemaintain perishable skills. Army leaders mustbring together leadership, personnel management,and training management to ensure their organi-zations are assigned people with the right special-ties and that the entire organization is trained andready. On top of this, the speed and lethality ofmodern battle have made mental agility and ini-tiative even more necessary for fighting and win-ning. As in the past, Army leaders must developthese attributes in their subordinates.

3-42. To some, technology suggests a blood-less battlefield that resembles a computer wargame more than the battlefields of the past. Thatisn’t true now and it won’t be true in the imme-diate future. Technology is still directed atanswering the same basic questions that CivilWar leaders tried to answer when they sent outa line of skirmishers: Where am I? Where aremy buddies? Where is the enemy? How do Idefeat him? Armed with this information, thesoldiers and DA civilians of the Army will con-tinue to accomplish the mission with character,using their technological edge to do the job bet-ter, faster, and smarter.

3-43. Modern digital technology can con-tribute a great deal to the Army leader’s under-

standing of the battlefield; good leaders stayabreast of advances that enhance their tacticalabilities. Digital technology has a lot to offer,but don’t be fooled. A video image of a place, anaction, or an organization can never substitutefor the leader’s getting down on the ground withthe soldiers to find out what’s going on. Tech-nology can provide a great deal of information,but it may not present a completely accurate pic-ture. The only way leaders can see the urgencyin the faces of their soldiers is to get out and seethem. As with any new weapon, the Army leadermust know how to use technology without beingseduced by it. Technology may be invaluable;however, effective leaders understand its limits.

3-44. Whatever their feeling regarding tech-nology, today’s leaders must contend more andmore with an increased information flow andoperational tempo (OPTEMPO). Pressures tomake a decision increase, even as the time toverify and validate information decreases.Regardless of the crunch, Army leaders areresponsible for the consequences of their deci-sions, so they gather, process, analyze, evalu-ate—and check —information. If they don’t, thecosts can be disastrous.

“Superior Technology”In the late fall of 1950, as United Nations (UN)forces pushed the North Korean People’s Armynorthward, the People’s Republic of China pre-pared to enter the conflict in support of its ally.The UN had air superiority, a marked advantagethat had contributed significantly to the UN tac-tical and operational successes of the summerand early fall. Nonetheless, daily reconnaissancemissions over the rugged North Korean interiorfailed to detect the Chinese People’s LiberationArmy’s movement of nearly a quarter of a mil-lion ground troops across the border and intoposition in the North Korean mountains.



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3-45. The Chinese counterattack undid theresults of the previous summer’s campaign anddenied UN forces the opportunity for a decisivevictory that may have ended the war. The UNforces, under US leadership, enjoyed significanttechnological advantages over the Chinese.However, failure to verify the information pro-vided by aerial photography set this advantageto zero. And this failure was one of leadership,not technology. Questioning good news pro-vided by the latest “gee-whiz” system andordering reconnaissance patrols to go out inlousy weather both require judgment and moralcourage: judgment as to when a doubt is rea-sonable and courage to order soldiers to risktheir lives in cold, miserable weather. But Armyleaders must make those judgments and givethose orders. Technology has not changed that.

3-46. Technology and making the most of it willbecome increasingly important. Today’s Armyleaders require systems understanding and moretechnical and tactical skills. Technical skill:What does this system do? What does it not do?What are its strengths? What are its weaknesses?What must I check? Tactical skill: How do thissystem’s capabilities support my organization?How should I employ it to support this mission?What must I do if it fails? There’s a fine linebetween a healthy questioning of new systems’capabilities and an unreasoning hostility thatrejects the advantages technology offers. You, asan Army leader, must stay on the right side of thatline, the side that allows you to maximize theadvantages of technology. You need to remainaware of its capabilities and shortcomings, andyou need to make sure your people do as well.

Leadership and the Changing Threat

3-47. Another factor that will have a majorimpact on Army leadership in the near future isthe changing nature of the threat. For the Army,the twenty-first century began in 1989 with thefall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent collapseof the Soviet Union. America no longer definesits security interests in terms of a single, majorthreat. Instead, it faces numerous, smallerthreats and situations, any of which can quicklymushroom into a major security challenge.

3-48. The end of the Cold War has increasedthe frequency and variety of Army missions.Since 1989, the Army has fought a large-scaleland war and been continually involved in manydifferent kinds of stability operations and sup-port operations. There has been a greaterdemand for special, joint, and multinationaloperations as well. Initiative at all levels isbecoming more and more important. In manyinstances, Army leaders on the ground have hadto invent ways of doing business for situationsthey could not have anticipated.

When the first reports of Chinese soldiers inNorth Korea arrived at Far East Command inTokyo, intelligence analysts ignored thembecause they contradicted the informationprovided by the latest technology—aerial sur-veillance. Tactical commanders failed to sendground patrols into the mountains. Theyassumed the photos gave an accurate pictureof the enemy situation when, in fact, the Chi-nese were practicing strict camouflage disci-pline. When the Chinese attacked in lateNovember, UN forces were surprised, sufferedheavy losses, and were driven from the Chineseborder back to the 38th parallel.

When GEN Matthew B. Ridgway took overthe UN forces in Korea in December, he imme-diately visited the headquarters of every regi-ment and many of the battalions on the frontline. This gave GEN Ridgway an unfiltered lookat the situation, and it sent a message to all hiscommanders: get out on the ground and findout what’s going on.



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3-49. Not only that, the importance of directleaders—NCOs and junior officers—makingthe right decisions in stressful situations hasincreased. Actions by direct-level leaders—ser-geants, warrant officers, lieutenants, and cap-tains—can have organizational- and strategic-level implications. Earlier in this chapter, youread about the disciplined soldiers and leaderswho accomplished their mission of securing atelevision tower in Udrigovo, Bosnia-Herze-gov-ina. In that case, the local population’s per-ception of how American soldiers secured thetower was just as important as securing thetower itself. Had the American detachment cre-ated an international incident by using whatcould have been interpreted as excessive force,maintaining order throughout Bosnia-Herze-govina would have become more difficult. TheArmy’s organizational and strategic leaderscount on direct leaders. It has always beenimportant to accomplish the mission the rightway the first time; today it’s more importantthan ever.

3-50. The Army has handled change in thepast. It will continue to do so in the future aslong as Army leaders emphasize the con-stants—Army values, teamwork, and disci-pline—and help their people anticipate changeby seeking always to improve. Army leadersexplain, to the extent of their knowledge and inclear terms, what may happen and how theorganization can effectively react if it does.Change is inevitable; trying to avoid it is futile.The disciplined, cohesive organization rides outthe tough times and will emerge even better thanit started. Leadership, in a very real sense,includes managing change and making it workfor you. To do that, you must know what tochange and what not to change.

3-51. FM 100-5 provides a doctrinal frame-work for coping with these challenges while

executing operations. It gives Army leadersclues as to what they will face and what will berequired of them, but as COL Chamberlainfound on Little Round Top, no manual can coverall possibilities. The essence of leadershipremains the same: Army leaders create a visionof what’s necessary, communicate it in a waythat makes their intent clear, and vigorouslyexecute it to achieve success.

Climate and Culture

3-52. Climate and culture describe the environ-ment in which you lead your people. Culturerefers to the environment of the Army as an insti-tution and of major elements or communitieswithin it. Strategic leaders maintain the Army’sinstitutional culture. (Chapter 7 discusses theirrole.) Climate refers to the environment of unitsand organizations. All organizational and directleaders establish their organization’s climate,whether purposefully or unwittingly. (Chapters 5and 6 discuss their responsibilities.)

Climate

3-53. Taking care of people and maximizingtheir performance also depends on the climate aleader creates in the organization. An organiza-tion’s climate is the way its members feel abouttheir organization. Climate comes from people’sshared perceptions and attitudes, what theybelieve about the day-to-day functioning of theiroutfit. These things have a great impact on theirmotivation and the trust they feel for their teamand their leaders. Climate is generally short-term: it depends on a network of the personali-ties in a small organization. As people come andgo, the climate changes. When a soldier says“My last platoon sergeant was pretty good, butthis new one is great,” the soldier is talkingabout one of the many elements that affect orga-nizational climate.



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3-54. Although such a call seems subjective,some very definite things determine climate.The members’ collective sense of the organiza-tion—its organizational climat —is directlyattributable to the leader’s values, skills, andactions. As an Army leader, you establish theclimate of your organization, no matter howsmall it is or how large. Answering the follow-ing questions can help you describe an organi-zation’s climate:

• Does the leader set clear priorities and goals? • Is there a system of recognition, rewards and

punishments? Does it work? • Do the leaders know what they’re doing? Do

they admit when they’re wrong? • Do leaders seek input from subordinates? Do

they act on the feedback they’re provided? • In the absence of orders, do junior leaders

have authority to make decisions that are con-sistent with the leader’s intent?

• Are there high levels of internal stress andnegative competition in the organization? Ifso, what’s the leader doing to change that sit-uation?

• Do the leaders behave the way they talk? Isthat behavior consistent with Army values?Are they good role models?

• Do the leaders lead from the front, sharinghardship when things get tough?

• Do leaders talk to their organizations on a reg-ular basis? Do they keep their peopleinformed?

3-55. Army leaders who do the right things forthe right reasons—even when it would be easierto do the wrong thing—create a healthy organi-zational climate. In fact, it’s the leader’s behav-ior that has the greatest effect on the organiza-tional climate. That behavior signals to everymember of the organization what the leader willand will not tolerate. Consider this example.

Changing a Unit Climate—The NewSquad Leader

SSG Withers was having a tough week. He hadjust been promoted to squad leader in a differ-ent company; he had new responsibilities, newleaders, and new soldiers. Then, on his secondday, his unit was alerted for a big inspection intwo days. A quick check of the records let himknow that the squad leader before him had letmaintenance slip; the records were sloppy anda lot of the scheduled work had not been done.On top of that, SSG Withers was sure his newplatoon sergeant didn’t like him. SFC King wasprofessional but gruff, a person of few words.The soldiers in SSG Withers’ squad seemed a lit-tle afraid of the platoon sergeant.

After receiving the company commander’sguidance about the inspection, the squad lead-ers briefed the platoon sergeant on their plansto get ready. SSG Withers had already deter-mined that he and his soldiers would have towork late. He could have complained about hispredecessor, but he thought it would be bestjust to stick to the facts and talk about what hehad found in the squad. For all he knew, the oldsquad leader might have been a favorite of SFCKing.

SFC King scowled as he asked,“You’re goingto work late?”

SSG Withers had checked his plan twice:“Yes, sergeant. I think it’s necessary.”

SFC King grunted, but the sound could havemeant “okay” or it could have meant “You’rebeing foolish.” SSG Withers wasn’t sure.

The next day SSG Withers told his soldierswhat they would have to accomplish. One ofthe soldiers said that the old squad leaderwould have just fudged the paperwork. “Nokidding,” SSG Withers thought. He wondered ifSFC King knew about it. Of course, there was a



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3-56. SFC King saw immediately that thingshad changed for the better in SSG Withers’squad. The failing grade was real; previous pass-ing grades had not been. The new squad leadertold the truth and expected his soldiers to do thesame. He was there when his people were work-ing late. He acted to improve the squad’s ethicaland performance standards (by clearly statingand enforcing them). He moved to teach his sol-diers the skills and standards associated withvehicle maintenance (by asking the inspector toshow them how to look at a vehicle). And notonce did SSG Withers whine that the failinggrade was not his fault; instead, he focused onhow to make things better. SSG Withers knewhow to motivate soldiers to perform to standardand had the strength of character to do the rightthing. In addition, he trusted the chain of com-mand to take the long-term view. Because of hisdecisive actions, based on his character andcompetence, SSG Withers was well on his wayto creating a much healthier climate in his squad.

3-57. No matter how they complain about it,soldiers and DA civilians expect to be held tostandard; in the long run they feel better aboutthemselves when they do hard work success-fully. They gain confidence in leaders who helpthem achieve standards and lose confidence inleaders who don’t know the standards or whofail to demand performance.

good chance he would fail the inspection if hedidn’t fudge the paperwork—and wouldn’tthat be a good introduction to the new com-pany? But he told his squad that they would doit right: “We’ll do the best we can. If we don’tpass, we’ll do better next time.”

SSG Withers then asked his squad for theirthoughts on how to get ready. He listened totheir ideas and offered some of his own. Onesoldier suggested that they could beat theother squads by sneaking into the motor poolat night and lowering the oil levels in their vehi-cles. “SFC King gives a half day off to whateversquad does best,” the soldier explained. SSGWithers didn’t want to badmouth the previoussquad leader; on the other hand, the squad washis responsibility now.“It’d be nice to win,” SSGWithers said, “but we’re not going to cheat.”

The squad worked past 2200 hours the nightbefore the inspection. At one point SSG Withersfound one of the soldiers sleeping under avehicle.“Don’t you want to finish and go hometo sleep?” he asked the soldier.

“I … uh … I didn’t think you’d still be here,”the soldier answered.

“Where else would I be?” replied the squadleader.

The next day, SFC King asked SSG Withers ifhe thought his squad’s vehicle was going topass the inspection.

“Not a chance,” SSG Withers said.SFC King gave another mysterious grunt.Later, when the inspector was going over his

vehicle, SSG Withers asked if his soldiers couldfollow along. “I want them to see how to do athorough inspection,” he told the inspector. Asthe soldiers followed the inspector around andlearned how to look closely at the vehicle, oneof them commented that the squad had neverbeen around for any inspection up to that point.“We were always told to stay away,” he said.

Later, when the company commander wentover the results of the inspection, he looked upat SSG Withers as he read the failing grade. SSGWithers was about to say,“We’ll try harder nexttime, sir,” but he decided that sounded lame, sohe said nothing. Then SFC King spoke up.

“First time that squad has ever failed aninspection,” the platoon sergeant said, “butthey’re already better off than they were theday before yesterday, failing grade and all.”



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Culture

3-58. Culture is a longer lasting, more com-plex set of shared expectations than climate.While climate is how people feel about theirorganization right now, culture consists of theshared attitudes, values, goals, and practicesthat characterize the larger institution. It’sdeeply rooted in long-held beliefs, customs, andpractices. For instance, the culture of the armedforces is different from that of the businessworld, and the culture of the Army is differentfrom that of the Navy. Leaders must establish aclimate consistent with the culture of the largerinstitution. They also use the culture to let theirpeople know they’re part of something biggerthan just themselves, that they have responsibil-ities not only to the people around them but alsoto those who have gone before and those whowill come after.

3-59. Soldiers draw strength from knowingthey’re part of a tradition. Most meaningful tra-ditions have their roots in the institution’s cul-ture. Many of the Army’s everyday customs andtraditions are there to remind you that you’rejust the latest addition to a long line of Ameri-can soldiers. Think of how much of your dailylife connects you to the past and to Americansoldiers not yet born: the uniforms you wear,the martial music that punctuates your day, theway you salute, your title, your organization’shistory, and Army values such as selfless serv-ice. Reminders of your place in history sur-round you.

3-60. This sense of belonging is vitally impor-tant. Visit the Vietnam Memorial in Washing-ton, DC, some Memorial Day weekend andyou’ll see dozens of veterans, many of themwearing bush hats or campaign ribbons orfatigue jackets decorated with unit patches.They’re paying tribute to their comrades in thisdivision or that company. They’re also acknowl-edging what for many of them was the mostintense experience of their lives.

3-61. Young soldiers want to belong to some-thing bigger than themselves. Look at them offduty, wearing tee shirts with names of sportsteams and famous athletes. It’s not as if an 18-year-old who puts on a jacket with a profes-sional sports team’s logo thinks anyone willmistake him for a professional player; rather,that soldier wants to be associated with a win-ner. Advertis-ing and mass media make heroesof rock stars, athletes, and actors. Unfortunately,it’s easier to let some magazine or TV show tellyou whom to admire than it is to dig up an orga-nization’s history and learn about heroes.

3-62. Soldiers want to have heroes. If theydon’t know about SGT Alvin York in World WarI, about COL Joshua Chamberlain’s 20th Maineduring the Civil War, about MSG Gary Gordonand SFC Randall Shughart in the 1993 Somaliafight, then it’s up to you, their leaders, to teachthem. (The bibliography lists works you can useto learn more about your profession, its history,and the people who made it.)

3-63. When soldiers join the Army, theybecome part of a history: the Big Red One, theKing of Battle, Sua Sponte. Teach them the his-tory behind unit crests, behind greetings, behinddecorations and badges. The Army’s cultureisn’t something that exists apart from you; it’spart of who you are, something you can use togive your soldiers pride in themselves and inwhat they’re doing with their lives.

When you’re first sergeant, you’re a role modelwhether you know it or not. You’re a role modelfor the guy that will be in your job. Not nextmonth or next year, but ten years from now. Everyday soldiers are watching you and deciding if youare the kind of first sergeant they want to be.

An Army First Sergeant, 1988



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Leadership Styles

3-64. You read in Chapter 2 that all people areshaped by what they’ve seen, what they’velearned, and whom they’ve met. Who you aredetermines the way you work with other people.Some people are happy and smiling all the time;others are serious. Some leaders can wade intoa room full of strangers and inside of five min-utes have everyone there thinking, “How have Ilived so long without meeting this person?”Other very competent leaders are uncomfort-able in social situations. Most of us are some-where in between. Although Army leadershipdoctrine describes at great length how youshould interact with your subordinates and howyou must strive to learn and improve your lead-ership skills, the Army recognizes that you mustalways be yourself; anything else comes acrossas fake and insincere.

3-65. Having said that, effective leaders areflexible enough to adjust their leadership styleand techniques to the people they lead. Somesubordinates respond best to coaxing, sugges-tions, or gentle prodding; others need, and evenwant at times, the verbal equivalent of a kick inthe pants. Treating people fairly doesn’t meantreating people as if they were clones of oneanother. In fact, if you treat everyone the sameway, you’re probably being unfair, because dif-ferent people need different things from you.

3-66. Think of it this way: say you must teachmap reading to a large group of soldiers rangingin rank from private to senior NCO. The seniorNCOs know a great deal about the subject,while the privates know very little. To meet alltheir needs, you must teach the privates morethan you teach the senior NCOs. If you train theprivates only in the advanced skills the NCOsneed, the privates will be lost. If you make theNCOs sit through training in the basic tasks the

privates need, you’ll waste the NCOs’ time. Youmust fit the training to the experience of thosebeing trained. In the same way, you must adjustyour leadership style and techniques to theexperience of your people and characteristics ofyour organization.

3-67. Obviously, you don’t lead senior NCOsthe same way you lead privates. But the easiestdistinctions to make are those of rank andexperience. You must also take into accountpersonalities, self-confidence, self-esteem—all the elements of the complex mix of charac-ter traits that makes dealing with people so dif-ficult and so rewarding. One of the manythings that makes your job tough is that, inorder to get their best performance, you mustfigure out what your subordinates need andwhat they’re able to do—even when they don’tknow themselves.

3-68. When discussing leadership styles, manypeople focus on the extremes: autocratic anddemocratic. Autocratic leaders tell people whatto do with no explanation; their message is,“I’m the boss; you’ll do it because I said so.”Democratic leaders use their personalities topersuade subordinates. There are many shadesin between; the following paragraphs discussfive of them. However, bear in mind that com-petent leaders mix elements of all these styles tomatch to the place, task, and people involved.Using different leadership styles in different sit-uations or elements of different styles in thesame situation isn’t inconsistent. The opposite istrue: if you can use only one leadership style,you’re inflexible and will have difficulty operat-ing in situations where that style doesn’t fit.

Directing Leadership Style

3-69. The directing style is leader-centered.Leaders using this style don’t solicit input fromsubordinates and give detailed instructions on



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how, when, and where they want a task per-formed. They then supervise its execution veryclosely.

3-70. The directing style may be appropriatewhen time is short and leaders don’t have achance to explain things. They may simply giveorders: Do this. Go there. Move. In fast-pacedoperations or in combat, leaders may revert tothe directing style, even with experienced sub-ordinates. This is what the motor sergeant youread about in Chapter 1 did. If the leader hascreated a climate of trust, subordinates willassume the leader has switched to the directingstyle because of the circumstances.

3-71. The directing style is also appropriatewhen leading inexperienced teams or individu-als who are not yet trained to operate on theirown. In this kind of situation, the leader willprobably remain close to the action to make surethings go smoothly.

3-72. Some people mistakenly believe thedirecting style means using abusive or demean-ing language or includes threats and intimida-tion. This is wrong. If you’re ever tempted to beabusive, whether because of pressure or stressor what seems like improper behavior by a sub-ordinate, ask yourself these questions: Would Iwant to work for someone like me? Would Iwant my boss to see and hear me treat subordi-nates this way? Would I want to be treated thisway?

Participating Leadership Style

3-73. The participating style centers on boththe leader and the team. Given a mission, lead-ers ask subordinates for input, information, andrecommendations but make the final decisionon what to do themselves. This style is espe-cially appropriate for leaders who have time forsuch consultations or who are dealing withexperienced subordinates.

3-74. The team-building approach lies behindthe participating leadership style. When subor-dinates help create a plan, it becomes—at leastin part—their plan. This ownership creates astrong incentive to invest the effort necessary tomake the plan work. Asking for this kind ofinput is a sign of a leader’s strength and self-confidence. But asking for advice doesn’t meanthe leader is obligated to follow it; the leaderalone is always responsible for the quality ofdecisions and plans.

Delegating Leadership Style

3-75. The delegating style involves giving sub-ordinates the authority to solve problems andmake decisions without clearing them throughthe leader. Leaders with mature and experiencedsubordinates or who want to create a learningexperience for subordinates often need only togive them authority to make decisions, the nec-essary resources, and a clear understanding ofthe mission’s purpose. As always, the leader isultimately responsible for what does or does nothappen, but in the delegating leadership style,the leader holds subordinate leaders account-able for their actions. This is the style mostoften used by officers dealing with senior NCOsand by organizational and strategic leaders.

Transformational and TransactionalLeadership Styles

3-76. These words of a distinguished militaryleader capture the distinction between thetransformational leadership style, whichfocuses on inspiration and change, and thetransactional leadership style, which focuses on

A man does not have himself killed for a few half-pence a day or for a petty distinction. You mustspeak to the soul in order to electrify the man.

Napoleon Bonaparte



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rewards and punishments. Of course Napoleonunderstood the importance of rewards and pun-ishments. Nonetheless, he also understood thatcarrots and sticks alone don’t inspire individu-als to excellence.

Transformational Leadership Style3-77. As the name suggests, the transforma-tional style “transforms” subordinates by chal-lenging them to rise above their immediateneeds and self-interests. The transformationalstyle is developmental: it emphasizes individ-ual growth (both professional and personal) andorganizational enhancement. Key features of thetransformational style include empowering andmentally stimulating subordinates: you con-sider and motivate them first as individuals andthen as a group. To use the transformationalstyle, you must have the courage to communi-cate your intent and then step back and let yoursubordinates work. You must also be aware thatimmediate benefits are often delayed until themission is accomplished.

3-78. The transformational style allows you totake advantage of the skills and knowledge ofexperienced subordinates who may have betterideas on how to accomplish a mission. Leaderswho use this style communicate reasons fortheir decisions or actions and, in the process,build in subordinates a broader understandingand ability to exercise initiative and operateeffectively. However, not all situations lendthemselves to the transformational leadershipstyle. The transformational style is most effec-tive during periods that call for change or pres-ent new opportunities. It also works well whenorganizations face a crisis, instability, medioc-rity, or disenchantment. It may not be effectivewhen subordinates are inexperienced, when themission allows little deviation from acceptedprocedures, or when subordinates are not moti-vated. Leaders who use only the transforma-

tional leadership style limit their ability to influ-ence individuals in these and similar situations.

Transactional Leadership Style3-79. In contrast, some leaders employ onlythe transactional leadership style. This styleincludes such techniques as:

• Motivating subordinates to work by offeringrewards or threatening punishment.

• Prescribing task assignments in writing. • Outlining all the conditions of task comple-

tion, the applicable rules and regulations, thebenefits of success, and the consequences—to include possible disciplinary actions—offailure.

• “Management-by-exception,” where leadersfocus on their subordinates’ failures, showingup only when something goes wrong.

• The leader who relies exclusively on the trans-actional style, rather than combining it with thetransformational style, evokes only short-termcommitment from his subordinates and dis-courages risk-taking and innovation.

3-80. There are situations where the transac-tional style is acceptable, if not preferred. Forexample, a leader who wants to emphasizesafety could reward the organization with athree-day pass if the organization prevents anyserious safety-related incidents over a two-month deployment. In this case, the leader’sintent appears clear: unsafe acts are not toler-ated and safe habits are rewarded.

3-81. However, using only the transactionalstyle can make the leader’s efforts appear self-serving. In this example, soldiers might inter-pret the leader’s attempt to reward safe practicesas an effort to look good by focusing on some-thing that’s unimportant but that has the boss’sattention. Such perceptions can destroy the trustsubordinates have in the leader. Using the trans-actional style alone can also deprive subordi-



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nates of opportunities to grow, because it leavesno room for honest mistakes.

3-82. The most effective leaders combine tech-niques from the transformational and transac-tional leadership styles to fit the situation. Astrong base of transactional understanding sup-plemented by charisma, inspiration and individ-ualized concern for each subordinate, producesthe most enthusiastic and genuine response.Subordinates will be more committed, creative,and innovative. They will also be more likely totake calculated risks to accomplish their mis-sion. Again referring to the safety example,leaders can avoid any misunderstanding of theirintent by combining transformational tech-niques with transactional techniques. They canexplain why safety is important (intellectualstimulation) and encourage their subordinates totake care of each other (individualized concern).

Intended and Unintended Consequences

3-83. The actions you take as a leader willmost likely have unintended as well as intendedconsequences. Like a chess player trying toanticipate an opponent’s moves three or fourturns in advance—if I do this, what will myopponent do; then what will I do next?—leadersthink through what they can expect to happen asa result of a decision. Some decisions set off achain of events; as far as possible, leaders mustanticipate the second- and third-order effects oftheir actions. Even lower-level leaders’ actionsmay have effects well beyond what they expect.

3-84. Consider the case of a sergeant whoseteam is manning a roadblock as part of a peaceoperation. The mission has received lots ofmedia attention (Haiti and Bosnia come tomind), and millions of people back home arewatching. Early one morning, a truckload ofcivilians appears, racing toward the roadblock.

In the half-light, the sergeant can’t tell if thethings in the passengers’ hands are weapons orfarm tools, and the driver seems intent onsmashing through the barricade. In the space ofa few seconds, the sergeant must decide whetheror not to order his team to fire on the truck.

3-85. If the sergeant orders his team to firebecause he feels he and his soldiers are threat-ened, that decision will have international con-sequences. If he kills any civilians, chances aregood that his chain of command from the presi-dent on down—not to mention the entire televi-sion audience of the developed world—willknow about the incident in a few short hours.But the decision is tough for another reason: ifthe sergeant doesn’t order his team to fire andthe civilians turn out to be an armed gang, theteam may take casualties that could have beenavoided. If the only factor involved was avoid-ing civilian casualties, the choice is simple:don’t shoot. But the sergeant must also considerthe requirement to protect his force and accom-plish the mission of preventing unauthorizedtraffic from passing the roadblock. So the ser-geant must act; he’s the leader, and he’s incharge. Leaders who have thought through theconsequences of possible actions, talked withtheir own leaders about the commander’s intentand mission priorities, and trust their chain ofcommand to support them are less likely to beparalyzed by this kind of pressure.

Intended Consequences

3-86. Intended consequences are the antici-pated results of a leader’s decisions and actions.When a squad leader shows a team leader a bet-ter way to lead PT, that action will have intendedconsequences: the team leader will be betterequipped to do the job. When leaders streamlineprocedures, help people work smarter, and getthe resources to the right place at the right time,the intended consequences are good.



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Unintended Consequences

3-87. Unintended consequences are the resultsof things a leader does that have an unplannedimpact on the organization or accomplishmentof the mission. Unintended consequences areoften more lasting and harder to anticipate thanintended consequences. Organizational andstrategic leaders spend a good deal of energyconsidering possible unintended consequencesof their actions. Their organizations are com-plex, so figuring out the effects today’s decisionswill have a few years in the future is difficult.

3-88. Unintended consequences are bestdescribed with an example, such as setting themorning PT formation time: Setting the forma-tion time at 0600 hours results in soldiers stand-ing in formation at 0600 hours, an intended con-sequence. To not be late, soldiers living off postmay have to depart their homes at 0500 hours, aconsequence that’s probably also anticipated.However, since most junior enlisted soldiers withfamilies probably own only one car, there willmost likely be another consequence: entire fam-ilies rising at 0430 hours. Spouses must drivetheir soldiers to post and children, who can’t beleft at home unattended, must accompany them.This is an unintended consequence.

Summary

3-89. The human dimension of leadership, howthe environment affects you and your people,affects how you lead. Stress is a major part ofthe environment, both in peace and war. Majorsources of stress include the rapid pace ofchange and the increasing complexity of tech-nology. As an Army leader, you must stay on topof both. Your character and skills—how youhandle stress—and the morale and disciplineyou develop and your team are more importantin establishing the climate in your organizationthan any external circumstances.

3-90. The organizational climate and the insti-tutional culture define the environment in whichyou and your people work. Direct, organiza-tional, and strategic leaders all have differentresponsibilities regarding climate and culture;what’s important now is to realize that you, theleader, establish the climate of your organiza-tion. By action or inaction, you determine theenvironment in which your people work.

3-91. Leadership styles are different ways ofapproaching the DO of BE, KNOW, DO—theactual work of leading people. You’ve readabout five leadership styles: directing, partici-pating, delegating, transformational, and trans-actional. But remember that you must be ableto adjust the leadership style you use to the sit-uation and the people you’re leading. Remem-ber also that you’re not limited to any one stylein a given situation: you should use techniquesfrom different styles if that will help you moti-vate your people to accomplish the mission.Your leader attributes of judgment, intelli-gence, cultural awareness, and self-control allplay major roles in helping you choose theproper style and the appropriate techniques forthe task at hand. That said, you must always beyourself.

3-92. All leader actions result in intended andunintended consequences. Two points toremember: think through your decisions and doyour duty. It might not seem that the actions ofone leader of one small unit matter in the bigpicture. But they do. In the words of Confeder-ate COL William C. Oats, who faced COLJoshua Chamberlain at Little Round Top:“Great events sometimes turn on comparativelysmall affairs.”

3-93. In spite of stress and changes, whethersocial or technological, leadership alwaysinvolves shaping human emotions and behav-iors. As they serve in more complex environ-



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ments with wider-ranging consequences, Armyleaders refine what they’ve known and done aswell as develop new styles, skills, and actions.

Parts Two and Three discuss the skills andactions required of leaders from the team toDepartment of the Army level.


C hapters 1, 2, and 3 of this manual cover the constants of leadership. They focus prima-rily on what a leader must BE. Part Two examines what a direct leader must KNOWand DO. Note the distinction between a skill, knowing something, and an action, doing

something. The reason for this distinction bears repeating: knowledge isn’t enough. You can’tbe a leader until you apply what you know, until you act and DO what you must.

Army leaders are grounded in the heritage, values, and tradition of the Army. They embodythe warrior ethos, value continuous learning, and demonstrate the ability to lead and traintheir subordinates. Army leaders lead by example, train from experience, and maintain andenforce standards. They do these things while taking care of their people and adapting to achanging world. Chapters 4 and 5 discuss these subjects in detail.

The warrior ethos is the will to win with honor. Despite a thinking enemy, despite adverseconditions, you accomplish your mission. You express your character—the BE of BE, KNOW,DO—when you and your people confront a difficult mission and persevere. The warrior ethosapplies to all soldiers and DA civilians, not just those who close with and destroy the enemy.It’s the will to meet mission demands no matter what, the drive to get the job done whateverthe cost.

Continuous learning requires dedication to improving your technical and tactical skillsthrough study and practice. It also includes learning about the world around you—masteringnew technology, studying other cultures, staying aware of current events at home and abroad.All these things affect your job as a leader.

Continuous learning also means consciously developing your character through study andreflection. It means reflecting on Army values and developing leader attributes. Broad knowl-edge and strong character underlie the right decisions in hard times. Seek to learn as much asyou can about your job, your people, and yourself. That way you’ll be prepared when the time

Part Two

Direct Leadership:For First-Line,

Face-to-Face Leaders



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comes for tough decisions. You’ll BE a leader of character, KNOW the necessary skills, andDO the right thing.

Army leaders train and lead people. Part of this responsibility is maintaining and enforcingstandards. Your subordinates expect you to show them what the standard is and train them toit: they expect you to lead by example. In addition, as an Army leader you’re required to takecare of your people. You may have to call on them to do things that seem impossible. You mayhave to ask them to make extraordinary sacrifices to accomplish the mission. If you train yourpeople to standard, inspire the warrior ethos in them, and consistently look after their inter-ests, they’ll be prepared to accomplish the mission—anytime, anywhere.



4-1. The Army’s direct leaders perform a hugearray of functions in all kinds of places andunder all kinds of conditions. Even as you readthese pages, someone is in the field in a coldplace, someone else in a hot place. There arepeople headed to a training exercise and othersheaded home. Somewhere a motor pool isbuzzing, a medical ward operating, suppliesmoving. Somewhere a duty NCO is conductinginspections and a sergeant of the guard is mak-ing the rounds. In all these places, no matterwhat the conditions or the mission, direct leadersare guided by the same principles, using thesame skills, and performing the same actions.

4-2. This chapter discusses the skills a directleader must master and develop. It addresses theKNOW of BE, KNOW, and DO for direct lead-ers. The skills are organized under the four skillgroups Chapter 1 introduced: interpersonal,conceptual, technical, and tactical. (Appendix Blists performance indicators for leader skills.)

Interpersonal Skills

4-3. A DA civilian supervisor was in a frenzybecause all the material needed for a project

wasn’t available. The branch chief took thesupervisor aside and said, “You’re worryingabout things. Things are not important; thingswill or won’t be there. Worry about workingwith the people who will get the job done.”

4-4. Since leadership is about people, it’s notsurprising to find interpersonal skills, whatsome call “people skills,” at the top of the list ofwhat an Army leader must KNOW. Figure 4-1identifies the direct leader interpersonal skills.All these skills—communicating, team build-ing, supervising, and counseling—require com-munication. They’re all closely related; you canhardly use one without using the others.

Communicating

4-5. Since leadership is about getting other peo-ple to do what you want them to do, it followsthat communicating—transmitting informationso that it’s clearly understood—is an importantskill. After all, if people can’t understand you,how will you ever let them know what youwant? The other interpersonal skills—supervis-ing, team building, and counseling—alsodepend on your ability to communicate.

Chapter 4

Direct LeadershipSkills

Never get so caught up in cutting wood that you forget to sharpen your ax.First Sergeant James J. Karolchyk, 1986

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4-6. If you take a moment to think about all thetraining you’ve received under the heading“communication,” you’ll see that it probablyfalls into four broad categories: speaking, read-ing, writing, and listening. You begin practicingspeech early; many children are using words bythe age of one. The heavy emphasis on readingand writing begins in school, if not before. Yethow many times have you been taught how tolisten? Of the four forms of communication, lis-tening is the one in which most people receivethe least amount of formal training. Yet for anArmy leader, it’s every bit as important as theothers. It often comes first because you mustlisten and understand before you can decidewhat to say.

One-Way and Two-Way Communication4-7. There are two common forms of one-waycommunication that are not necessarily the bestway to exchange information: seeing and hear-ing. The key difference between one-way and

two-way communication is that one-way com-munication—hearing or seeing something ontelevision, reading a copy of a slide presenta-tion, or even watching a training event unfold—may not give you a complete picture. You mayhave unanswered questions or even walk awaywith the wrong concept of what has occurred.That’s why two-way communication is preferredwhen time and resources permit.

Active Listening4-8. An important form of two-way communi-cation is active listening. When you practiceactive listening, you send signals to the speakerthat say, “I’m paying attention.” Nod your headevery once in a while, as if to say, “Yes, I under-stand.” When you agree with the speaker, youmight use an occasional “uh-huh.” Look thespeaker in the eye. Give the speaker your fullattention. Don’t allow yourself to be distractedby looking out the window, checking yourwatch, playing with something on your desk, ortrying to do more than one thing at a time. Avoidinterrupting the speaker; that’s the cardinal sinof active listening.

4-9. Be aware of barriers to listening. Don’tform your response while the other person isstill talking. Don’t allow yourself to become dis-tracted by the fact that you’re angry, or that youhave a problem with the speaker, or that youhave lots of other things you need to be thinkingabout. If you give in to these temptations, you’llmiss most of what’s being said.

Nonverbal Communication4-10. In face-to-face communication, even inthe simplest conversation, there’s a great dealgoing on that has almost nothing to do with thewords being used. Nonverbal communicationinvolves all the signals you send with yourfacial expressions, tone of voice, and body lan-guage. Effective leaders know that communica-


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Figure 4-1. Direct leader skills—interpersonal


tion includes both verbal and nonverbal cues.Look for them in this example.

4-11. SGT Adams performed crisis counseling, aleader action Appendix C discusses. Look for thecommunicating skills in this example. SGTAdams listened actively and controlled his non-verbal communication. He gave PVT Bell his fullattention and was careful not to signal indiffer-ence or a lack of concern. SGT Adams’ ability todo this shows the mental attribute of self-disci-pline and the emotional attribute of self-control,which you read about in Chapter 2. The leaderalso displayed empathy, that is, sensitivity to thefeelings, thoughts, and experiences of anotherperson. It’s an important quality for a counselor.

Supervising

The Checking AccountA young soldier named PVT Bell, new to the unit,approaches his team leader, SGT Adams, andsays, “I have a problem I’d like to talk to youabout.”

The team leader makes time—right then ifpossible—to listen. Stopping, looking the sol-dier in the eye, and asking, “What’s up?” sendsmany signals: I am concerned about your prob-lem. You’re part of the team, and we help eachother. What can I do to help? All these signals, bythe way, reinforce Army values.

PVT Bell sees the leader is paying attentionand continues, “Well, I have this checkingaccount, see, and it’s the first time I’ve had one.I have lots of checks left, but for some reasonthe PX [post exchange] is saying they’re nogood.”

SGT Adams has seen this problem before:PVT Bell thinks that checks are like cash and hasno idea that there must be money in the bankto cover checks written against the account.SGT Adams, no matter how tempted, doesn’tsay anything that would make PVT Bell thinkthat his difficulty was anything other than themost important problem in the world. He iscareful to make sure that PVT Bell doesn’t thinkthat he’s anyone other than the most importantsoldier in the world. Instead, SGT Adamsremembers life as a young soldier and howmany things were new and strange. What mayseem like an obvious problem to an experi-enced person isn’t so obvious to an inexperi-enced one. Although the soldier’s problem mayseem funny, SGT Adams doesn’t laugh at thesubordinate. And because nonverbal cues areimportant, SGT Adams is careful that his tone ofvoice and facial expressions don’t convey con-tempt or disregard for the subordinate.

Instead, the leader listens patiently as PVTBell explains the problem; then SGT Adamsreassures PVT Bell that it can be fixed and care-fully explains the solution. What’s more, SGTAdams follows up later to make sure the soldierhas straightened things out with the bank.

A few months later, a newly promoted PFCBell realizes that this problem must havelooked pretty silly to someone with SGTAdams’ experience. But PFC Bell will alwaysremember the example SGT Adams set. Futureleaders are groomed every day and reflect theirpast leaders. By the simple act of listening andcommunicating, SGT Adams won the loyalty ofPFC Bell. And when the next batch of new sol-diers arrives, PFC Bell, now the old-timer, willsay to them,“Yeah, in all my experience, I’ve gotto say this is one of the best units in the Army.And SGT Adams is the best team leader around.Why, I remember a time. . . . ”

If a squad leader doesn’t check, and the guy onpoint has no batteries for his night vision goggles,he has just degraded the effectiveness of theentire unit.

A Company Commander, Desert Storm

Direct Leadership Skills

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4-12. Direct leaders check and recheck things.Leaders strike a balance between checking toomuch and not checking enough. Training subor-dinates to act independently is important; that’swhy direct leaders give instructions or theirintent and then allow subordinates to work with-out constantly looking over their shoulders.Accomplishing the mission is equally impor-tant; that’s why leaders check things— espe-cially conditions critical to the mission (fuellevels), details a soldier might forget (spare bat-teries for night vision goggles), or tasks at thelimit of what a soldier has accomplished before(preparing a new version of a report).

4-13. Checking minimizes the chance of over-sights, mistakes, or other circumstances thatmight derail a mission. Checking also givesleaders a chance to see and recognize subordi-nates who are doing things right or make on-the-spot corrections when necessary. Considerthis example: a platoon sergeant delegates to theplatoon’s squad leaders the authority to get theirsquads ready for a tactical road march. The pla-toon sergeant oversees the activity but doesn’tintervene unless errors, sloppy work, or lapsesoccur. The leader is there to answer questions orresolve problems that the squad leaders can’thandle. This supervision ensures that the squadsare prepared to standard and demonstrates to thesquad leaders that the platoon sergeant caresabout them and their people.


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The Rusty Rifles IncidentWhile serving in the Republic of Vietnam, SFCJackson was transferred from platoon sergeantof one platoon to platoon leader of anotherplatoon in the same company. SFC Jacksonquickly sized up the existing standards in theplatoon. He wasn’t pleased. One problem wasthat his soldiers were not keeping theirweapons cleaned properly: rifles were dirty

and rusty. He put out the word: weapons wouldbe cleaned to standard each day, each squadleader would inspect each day, and he wouldinspect a sample of the weapons each day. Hegave this order three days before the platoonwas to go to the division rest and recuperation(R&R) area on the South China Sea.

The next day SFC Jackson checked severalweapons in each squad. Most weapons werestill unacceptable. He called the squad leaderstogether and explained the policy and his rea-sons for implementing it. SFC Jackson checkedagain the following day and still found dirtyand rusty weapons. He decided there were twocauses for the problem. First, the squad leaderswere not doing their jobs. Second, the squadleaders and troops were bucking him—testinghim to see who would really make the rules inthe platoon. He sensed that, because he wasnew, they resisted his leadership. He knew hehad a serious discipline problem he had to han-dle correctly. He called the squad leaderstogether again. Once again, he explained hisstandards clearly. He then said, “Tomorrow weare due to go on R&R for three days and I’ll beinspecting rifles.We won’t go on R&R until eachweapon in this platoon meets the standard.”

The next morning SFC Jackson inspectedand found that most weapons in each squadwere still below standard. He called the squadleaders together. With a determined look and afirm voice, he told them he would hold a formalin-ranks inspection at 1300 hours, even thoughthe platoon was scheduled to board helicop-ters for R&R then. If every weapon didn’t meetthe standard, he would conduct another in-ranks inspection for squad leaders and troopswith substandard weapons. He would continueinspections until all weapons met the standard.

At 1300 hours the platoon formed up, surlyand angry with the new platoon leader, who


Counseling

4-14. Counseling is subordinate-centered com-munication that produces a plan outliningactions necessary for subordinates to achieveindividual or organizational goals. Effectivecounseling takes time, patience, and practice.As with everything else you do, you mustdevelop your skills as a counselor. Seek feed-back on how effective you are at counseling,study various counseling techniques, and makeefforts to improve. (Appendix C discussesdevelopmental counseling techniques.)

4-15. Proper counseling leads to a specific planof action that the subordinate can use as a roadmap for improvement. Both parties, counselorand counseled, prepare this plan of action. Theleader makes certain the subordinate under-stands and takes ownership of it. The best planof action in the world does no good if the subor-dinate doesn’t understand it, follow it, andbelieve in it. And once the plan of action isagreed upon, the leader must follow up withone-on-one sessions to ensure the subordinatestays on track.

4-16. Remember the Army values of loyalty,duty, and selfless service require you to counselyour subordinates. The values of honor,integrity, and personal courage require you togive them straightforward feedback. And the

Army value of respect requires you to find thebest way to communicate that feedback so thatyour subordinates understand it. These Armyvalues all point to the requirement for you tobecome a proficient counselor. Effective coun-seling helps your subordinates develop person-ally and professionally.

4-17. One of the most important duties of alldirect, organizational, and strategic leaders is todevelop subordinates. Mentoring, which linksthe operating and improving leader actions,plays a major part in developing competent andconfident future leaders. Counseling is an inter-personal skill essential to effective mentoring.(Chapters 5, 6, and 7 discuss the direct, organi-zational, and strategic leader mentoringactions.)

Conceptual Skills

4-18. Conceptual skills include competence inhandling ideas, thoughts, and concepts. Figure4-2 lists the direct leader conceptual skills.

Critical Reasoning

4-19. Critical reasoning helps you thinkthrough problems. It’s the key to understandingsituations, finding causes, arriving at justifiableconclusions, making good judgments, andlearning from the experience—in short, solvingproblems. Critical reasoning is an essential partof effective counseling and underlies ethicalreasoning, another conceptual skill. It’s also acentral aspect of decision making, which Chap-ter 5 discusses.

4-20. The word “critical” here doesn’t meanfinding fault; it doesn’t have a negative meaningat all. It means getting past the surface of theproblem and thinking about it in depth. It meanslooking at a problem from several points ofview instead of just being satisfied with the firstanswer that comes to mind. Army leaders need


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was taking their hard-earned R&R time. The sol-diers could hardly believe it, but his messagewas starting to sink in. This leader meant whathe said. This time all weapons met the standard.

Nothing will ever replace one person lookinganother in the eyes and telling the soldier hisstrengths and weaknesses. [Counseling] charts apath to success and diverts soldiers from headingdown the wrong road.

Sergeant Major Randolph S. Hollingsworth


this ability because many of the choices theyface are complex and offer no easy solution.

4-21. Sometime during your schooling, youprobably ran across a multiple choice test, onethat required you to “choose answer a, b, c, or d”or “choose one response from column a and twofrom column b.” Your job as an Army leaderwould be a lot easier if the problems you facedwere presented that way, but leadership is a lotmore complex than that. Sometimes just figur-ing out the real problem presents a huge hurdle;at other times you have to sort through distract-ing multiple problems to get to the real diffi-culty. On some occasions you know what theproblem is but have no clue as to what an answermight be. On others you can come up with twoor three answers that all look pretty good.

Creative Thinking4-22. Sometimes you run into a problem thatyou haven’t seen before or an old problem thatrequires a new solution. Here you must applyimagination; a radical departure from the oldway of doing things may be refreshing. Armyleaders prevent complacency by finding ways tochallenge subordinates with new approaches andideas. In these cases, rely on your intuition,experience, and knowledge. Ask for input fromyour subordinates. Reinforce team building bymaking everybody responsible for, and share-holders in, the accomplishment of difficult tasks.

4-23. Creative thinking isn’t some mysteriousgift, nor does it have to be outlandish. It’s notreserved for senior officers; all leaders think cre-


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Figure 4-2. Direct leader skills—conceptualFinding the Real ProblemA platoon sergeant directs the platoon’s squadleaders to counsel their soldiers every monthand keep written records. Three months later,the leader finds the records are sloppy orincomplete; in many cases, there’s no record atall. The platoon sergeant’s first instinct is tochew out the squad leaders for ignoring hisinstructions. It even occurs to him to write acounseling annex to the platoon SOP so he canpoint to it the next time the squad leaders failto follow instructions.

But those are just knee-jerk reactions andthe platoon sergeant knows it. Instead of vent-ing his frustration, the leader does a little inves-tigating and finds that two squad leaders havenever really been taught how to do formal,written counseling. The third one has no ideawhy counseling is important. So what lookedlike a disciplinary problem—the squad leadersdisobeying instructions—turns out to be atraining shortfall. By thinking beyond the sur-face and by checking, the platoon sergeant was

able to isolate the real problem: that the squadleaders had not been trained in counseling.Thenext step is to begin training and motivatingsubordinates to do the tasks.


atively. You employ it every day to solve smallproblems. A unit that deploys from a statesidepost on a peace operation, for instance, may finditself in a small compound with limited athleticfacilities and no room to run. Its leaders mustdevise new ways for their soldiers to maintainphysical fitness. These may include sports andgames, even games the local nationals play.

Ethical Reasoning

4-24. Ethical leaders do the right things for theright reasons all the time, even when no one iswatching. But figuring out what’s the “right”thing is often, to put it mildly, a most difficulttask. To fulfill your duty, maintain yourintegrity, and serve honorably, you must be ableto reason ethically.

4-25. Occasionally, when there’s little or notime, you’ll have to make a snap decision basedon your experience and intuition about whatfeels right. For Army leaders, such decisions areguided by Army values (discussed in Chapter2), the institutional culture, and the organiza-tional climate (discussed in Chapter 3). Theseshared values then serve as a basis for the whole

team’s buying into the leader’s decision. Butcomfortable as this might be, you should notmake all decisions on intuition.

4-26. When there’s time to consider alterna-tives, ask for advice, and think things through,you can make a deliberate decision. First deter-mine what’s legally right by law and regulation.In gray areas requiring interpretation, applyArmy values to the situation. Inside thoseboundaries, determine the best possible answerfrom among competing solutions, make yourdecision, and act on it.

4-27. The distinction between snap and deliber-ate decisions is important. In many decisions,you must think critically because your intu-ition—what feels right—may lead to the wronganswer. In combat especially, the intuitiveresponse won’t always work.

4-28. The moral application of force goes to theheart of military ethics. S. L. A. Marshall, a mil-itary historian as well as a brigadier general, haswritten that the typical soldier is often at a dis-advantage in combat because he “comes from acivilization in which aggression, connected withthe taking of a human life, is prohibited andunacceptable.” Artist Jon Wolfe, an infantrymanin Vietnam, once said that the first time heaimed his weapon at another human being, a“little voice” in the back of his mind asked,“Who gave you permission to do this?” That“little voice” comes, of course, from a lifetimeof living within the law. You can determine theright thing to do in these very unusual circum-stances only when you apply ethical as well ascritical reasoning.

4-29. The right action in the situation you facemay not be in regulations or field manuals.Even the most exhaustive regulations can’t pre-dict every situation. They’re designed for theroutine, not the exceptional. One of the mostdifficult tasks facing you as an Army leader is


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Pulling Dragons’ TeethAs American forces approached the SiegfriedLine between Germany and France at the endof World War II, the armored advance wasslowed by “dragons’ teeth,” concrete obstaclesthat looked like large, tightly spaced trafficcones. Engineers predicted it would take manydays and tons of explosives to reduce theobstacles, which were heavily reinforced anddeeply rooted. Then an NCO suggested usingbulldozers to push dirt on top of the spikes, cre-ating an earthen ramp to allow tanks to driveover the obstacles. This is but one example ofthe creative thinking by American soldiers of allranks that contributed to victory in the ETO.


determining when a rule or regulation simplydoesn’t apply because the situation you’re fac-ing falls outside the set of conditions envisionedby those who wrote the regulation. RememberCOL Chamberlain on Little Round Top. Thedrill manuals he had studied didn’t contain thesolution to the tactical problem he faced; neitherthis nor any other manual contain “cookbook”solutions to ethical questions you will confront.COL Chamberlain applied the doctrine helearned from the drill manuals. So you shouldapply Army values, your knowledge, and yourexperience to any decision you make and beprepared to accept the consequences of youractions. Study, reflection, and ethical reasoningcan help you do this.

4-30. Ethical reasoning takes you through thesesteps:

• Define the problem. • Know the relevant rules. • Develop and evaluate courses of action. • Choose the course of action that best repre-

sents Army values.

4-31. These steps correspond to some of thesteps of the decision making leadership actionin Chapter 5. Thus, ethical reasoning isn’t a sep-arate process you trot out only when you thinkyou’re facing an ethical question. It should bepart of the thought process you use to make anydecision. Your subordinates count on you to domore than make tactically sound decisions.They rely on you to make decisions that are eth-ically sound as well. You should always considerethical factors and, when necessary, use Armyvalues to gauge what’s right.

4-32. That said, not every decision is an ethicalproblem. In fact, most decisions are ethicallyneutral. But that doesn’t mean you don’t have tothink about the ethical consequences of youractions. Only if you reflect on whether whatyou’re asked to do or what you ask your people

to do accords with Army values will you developthat sense of right and wrong that marks ethicalpeople and great leaders. That sense of right andwrong alerts you to the presence of ethicalaspects when you face a decision.

4-33. Ethical reasoning is an art, not a science,and sometimes the best answer is going to behard to determine. Often, the hardest decisionsare not between right and wrong, but betweenshades of right. Regulations may allow morethan one choice. There may even be more thanone good answer, or there may not be enoughtime to conduct a long review. In those cases,you must rely on your judgment.

Define the Problem4-34. Defining the problem is the first step inmaking any decision. When you think a deci-sion may have ethical aspects or effects, it’sespecially important to define it precisely.Know who said what—and what specificallywas said, ordered, or demanded. Don’t settle forsecondhand information; get the details. Prob-lems can be described in more than one way.This is the hardest step in solving any problem.It’s especially difficult for decisions in the faceof potential ethical conflicts. Too often somepeople come to rapid conclusions about thenature of a problem and end up applying solu-tions to what turn out to be only symptoms.

Know the Relevant Rules4-35. This step is part of fact gathering, the sec-ond step in problem solving. Do your home-work. Sometimes what looks like an ethicalproblem may stem from a misunderstanding ofa regulation or policy, frustration, or overenthu-siasm. Sometimes the person who gave an orderor made a demand didn’t check the regulationand a thorough reading may make the problemgo away. Other times, a difficult situation resultsfrom trying to do something right in the wrong


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way. Also, some regulations leave room forinterpretation; the problem then becomes a pol-icy matter rather than an ethical one. If you doperceive an ethical problem, explain it to theperson you think is causing it and try to come upwith a better way to do the job.

Develop and Evaluate Courses of Action4-36. Once you know the rules, lay out possiblecourses of action. As with the previous steps,you do this whenever you must make a decision.Next, consider these courses of action in view ofArmy values. Consider the consequences ofyour courses of action by asking yourself a fewpractical questions. Which course of action bestupholds Army values? Do any of the courses ofaction compromise Army values? Does anycourse of action violate a principle, rule, or reg-ulation identified in Step 2? Which course ofaction is in the best interest of the Army and ofthe nation? This part will feel like a jugglingact; but with careful ethical reflection, you canreduce the chaos, determine the essentials, andchoose the best course—even when that choiceis the least bad of a set of undesirable options.

Choose the Course of Action That BestRepresents Army Values4-37. The last step in solving any problem ismaking a decision and acting on it. Leaders arepaid to make decisions. As an Army leader,you’re expected—by your bosses and your peo-ple—to make decisions that solve problemswithout violating Army values.

4-38. As a values-based organization, the Armyuses expressed values—Army values—to pro-vide its fundamental ethical framework. Armyvalues lay out the ethical standards expected ofsoldiers and DA civilians. Taken together, Armyvalues and ethical decision making provide amoral touchstone and a workable process thatenable you to make sound ethical decisions andtake right actions confidently.

4-39. The ethical aspects of some decisions aremore obvious that those of others. This examplecontains an obvious ethical problem. The issueswill seldom be so clear-cut; however, as youread the example, focus on the steps SGT Kirkfollows as he moves toward an ethical decision.Follow the same steps when you seek to do theright thing.


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The EFMB TestSGT Kirk, who has already earned the ExpertField Medical Badge (EFMB), is assigned as agrader on the division’s EFMB course. SergeantKirk’s squad leader, SSG Michaels, passesthrough SGT Kirk’s station and fails the task.Just before SGT Kirk records the score, SSGMichaels pulls him aside.

“I need my EFMB to get promoted,” SSGMichaels says.“You can really help me out here;it’s only a couple of points anyway. No big deal.Show a little loyalty.”

SGT Kirk wants to help SSG Michaels, who’sbeen an excellent squad leader and who’s loyalto his subordinates. SSG Michaels even spenttwo Saturdays helping SGT Kirk prepare for hispromotion board. If SGT Kirk wanted to makethis easy on himself, he would say the choice isbetween honesty and loyalty. Then he couldchoose loyalty, falsify the score, and send every-one home happy. His life under SSG Michaelswould probably be much easier, too.

However, SGT Kirk would not have definedthe problem correctly. (Remember, defining theproblem is often the hardest step in ethical rea-soning.) SGT Kirk knows the choice isn’tbetween loyalty and honesty. Loyalty doesn’trequire that he lie. In fact, lying would be dis-loyal to the Army, himself, and the soldiers whomet the standard.To falsify the score would alsobe a violation of the trust and confidence theArmy placed in him when he was made an NCOand a grader. SGT Kirk knows that loyalty to the


4-40. When SGT Kirk stands his ground anddoes the right thing, it may cost him some painin the short run, but the entire Army benefits. Ifhe makes the wrong choice, he weakens theArmy. Whether or not the Army lives by its val-ues isn’t just up to generals and colonels; it’s upto each of the thousands of SGT Kirks, theArmy leaders who must make tough calls whenno one is watching, when the easy thing to do isthe wrong thing to do.

Reflective Thinking

4-41. Leader development doesn’t occur in avacuum. All leaders must be open to feedback ontheir performance from multiple perspectives—seniors, peers, and subordinates. But being opento feedback is only one part of the equation. Asa leader, you must also listen to and use the feed-back: you must be able to reflect. Reflecting isthe ability to take information, assess it, andapply it to behavior to explain why things did ordid not go well. You can then use the resultingexplanations to improve future behavior. Goodleaders are always striving to become betterleaders. This means you need consistently toassess your strengths and weaknesses and reflecton what you can do to sustain your strengths andcorrect your weaknesses. To become a betterleader, you must be willing to change.

4-42. For reasons discussed fully in Chapter 5,

the Army often places a premium on doing—onthe third element of BE, KNOW, DO. All Armyleaders are busy dealing with what’s on theirplates and investing a lot of energy in accom-plishing tasks. But how often do they take thetime to STOP and really THINK about what theyare doing? How often have you seen this sign ona leader’s door: Do Not Disturb—Busy Reflect-ing? Not often. Well, good leaders need to takethe time to think and reflect. Schedule it; startreally exercising your capacity to get feedback.Then reflect on it and use it to improve. There’snothing wrong with making mistakes, but there’splenty wrong with not learning from those mis-takes. Reflection is the means to that end.

Technical Skills

Knowing Equipment

4-43. Technical skill is skill with things—equip-ment, weapons, systems—everything from thetowing winch on the front of a vehicle to thecomputer that keeps track of corps personnelactions. Direct leaders must know their equip-ment and how to operate it. Figure 4-3 highlightsdirect leader technical skills. Technical manuals,training circulars, SOPs, and all the other publi-cations necessary for efficient, effective perform-ance explain specific skills more completely.

4-44. Direct leaders are closer to their equip-ment than organizational and strategic leaders.Thus, they have a greater need to know how itworks and how to use it. In addition, direct lead-ers are the experts who are called upon to solve


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Army and the NCO corps comes first and thatgiving SSG Michaels a passing score would begranting the squad leader an unfair advantage.SGT Kirk knows it would be wrong to be a cow-ard in the face of this ethical choice, just as itwould be wrong to be a coward in battle. And ifall that were not enough, when SGT Kirk imag-ines seeing the incident in the newspaper thenext morning—Trusted NCO Lies to HelpBoss—he knows what he must do.

The first thing the senior NCOs had to do was todetermine who wasn’t qualified with his weapon,who didn’t have his protective mask properlytested and sealed—just all the basic little things.Those things had to be determined real fast.

A Command Sergeant Major, Desert Storm


problems with the equipment, the ones who fig-ure out how to make it work better, how to applyit, how to fix it—even how to modify it.Sergeants, junior officers, warrant officers,wage grade employees, and journeymen are theArmy’s technical experts and best teachers.Subordinates expect their first-line leaders toknow their equipment and be experts in all theapplicable technical skills.

Operating Equipment

4-45. Direct leaders know how to operate theirequipment and make sure their people do as well.They set the example with a hands-on approach.When new equipment arrives, direct leaders findout how it works, learn how to use it themselves,and train their subordinates to do the same.

4-46. This company commander is talking abouttwo levels of skill. First is the individual level: sol-diers are trained with their equipment and knowhow to do their jobs. Next is the collective level:leaders take these trained individuals and formthem into teams. The result: a whole greater thanthe sum of its parts, a team that’s more than just acollection of trained individuals, an organizationthat’s capable of much more than any one of itselements.


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Figure 4-3. Direct leader skills—technical

Technical Skill into Combat PowerTechnical skill gave the Army a decided advan-tage in the 1944 battle for France. For example,

the German Army had nothing like the US Army’smaintenance battalions. Such an organizationwas a new idea, and a good one.These machine-age units were able to return almost half the bat-tle-damaged tanks to action within two days.Thejob was done by young men who had beenworking at gas stations and body shops twoyears earlier and had brought their skill into theservice of their country.Instead of fixing cars,theyreplaced damaged tank tracks, welded patcheson the armor, and repaired engines. These com-bat supporters dragged tanks that were beyondrepair to the rear and stripped them for parts.TheGermans just left theirs in place.

I felt we had to get back to the basic soldierskills.The basics of setting up a training schedulefor every soldier every day.We had to execute thestandard field disciplines, such as NCOs checkingweapons cleanliness and ensuring soldiers prac-ticed personal hygiene daily. Our job is to go outthere and kill the enemy. In order to do that, asFehrenbach writes in [his study of the KoreanConflict entitled] This Kind of War, we have tohave disciplined teams; discipline brings pride tothe unit. Discipline coupled with tough, realistictraining is the key to high morale in units. Sol-diers want to belong to good outfits, and our jobas leaders is to give them the best outfit we can.

A Company Commander, Desert Storm


Tactical Skills

Doctrine

4-47. Tactics is the art and science of employ-ing available means to win battles and engage-ments. The science of tactics encompasses capa-bilities, techniques, and procedures that can becodified. The art of tactics includes the creativeand flexible array of means to accomplishassigned missions, decision making when facedwith an intelligent enemy, and the effects ofcombat on soldiers. Together, FM 100-34, FM100-40, and branch-specific doctrinal manualscapture the tactical skills that are essential tomastering both the science and the art of tactics.Figure 4-4 highlights direct leader tactical skills.

Fieldcraft

4-48. Fieldcraft consists of the skills soldiersneed to sustain themselves in the field. Profi-ciency in fieldcraft reduces the likelihood sol-diers will become casualties. The requirement tobe able to do one’s job in a field environmentdistinguishes the soldier’s profession from mostcivilian occupations. Likewise, the requirementthat Army leaders make sure their soldiers takecare of themselves and provide them with themeans to do so is unique.

4-49. The Soldier’s Manual of Common Taskslists the individual skills all soldiers must masterto operate effectively in the field. Those skillsinclude everything from how to stay healthy, tohow to pitch a tent, to how to run a heater. Somemilitary occupational specialties (MOS) require

proficiency in additional fieldcraft skills. Sol-dier’s Manuals for these MOS list them.

4-50. Army leaders gain proficiency in fieldcraftthrough schooling, study, and practice. Oncelearned, few fieldcraft skills are difficult. How-ever, they are easy to neglect during exercises,when everyone knows that the exercise will endat a specific time, sick and injured soldiers arealways evacuated, and the adversary isn’t usingreal ammunition. During peacetime, it’s up toArmy leaders to enforce tactical discipline, tomake sure their soldiers practice the fieldcraftskills that will keep them from becoming casual-ties—battle or nonbattle—during operations.

Tactical Skills and Training

4-51. Direct leaders are the Army’s primary tac-tical trainers, both for individuals and for teams.Practicing tactical skills is often challenging.The best way to improve individual and collec-tive skills is to replicate operational conditions.


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Man is and always will be the supreme element incombat, and upon the skill, the courage andendurance, and the fighting heart of the individ-ual soldier the issue will ultimately depend.

General Matthew B. Ridgway Former Army Chief of Staff

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Figure 4-4. Direct leader skills—tactical


Unfortunately, Army leaders can’t always getthe whole unit out in the field to practicemaneuvers, so they make do with training partsof it separately. Sometimes they can’t get thepeople, the time, and the money all together atthe right time and the right place to train theentire team. There are always training dis-tracters. There will always be a hundred excusesnot to train together and one reason why suchtraining must occur: units fight as they train.(FM 25-100 and FM 25-101 discuss trainingprinciples and techniques.)

4-52. Unfortunately, the Army has been caughtunprepared for war more than once. In July1950, American troops who had been on occu-pation duty in Japan were thrown into combatwhen North Korean forces invaded SouthKorea. Ill-trained, ill-equipped, and out ofshape, they went into action and were overrun.However, that same conflict provides anotherexample of how well things can go when adirect leader has tactical skill, the ability to pullpeople and things together into a team. Near theend of November 1950, American forces werechasing the remnants of the broken NorthKorean People’s Army into the remote northerncorners of the Korean Peninsula. Two Americanunits pushed all the way to the Yalu River, whichforms the boundary between North Korea andthe People’s Republic of China. One was the17th Infantry Regiment. The other was a taskforce commanded by a 24-year-old first lieu-tenant named Joseph Kingston. 4-53. 1LT Kingston made the task force work

by applying skills at a level of responsibility farabove what was normal for a soldier of his rankand experience. He knew how to shoot, move,and communicate. He knew the fundamentals ofhis profession. He employed the weapons underhis command and controlled a rather unwieldycollection of combat assets. He understoodsmall-unit tactics and applied his reasoningskills to make decisions. He fostered a sense of


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Task Force Kingston1LT Joseph Kingston, a boyish-looking platoonleader in K Company, 3d Battalion, 32d Infantry,was the lead element for his battalion’s movenorthward. The terrain was mountainous, theweather bitterly cold—the temperature oftenbelow zero—and the cornered enemy still dan-gerous. 1LT Kingston inched his way forward,

with the battalion adding elements to his force.He had antiaircraft jeeps mounted with quad.50 caliber machine guns, a tank, a squad (latera platoon) of engineers, and an artillery forwardobserver. Some of these attachments werecommanded by lieutenants who outrankedhim, as did a captain who was the tactical aircontroller. But 1LT Kingston remained in com-mand, and battalion headquarters began refer-ring to Task Force Kingston.

Bogged down in Yongsong-ni with casual-ties mounting, Task Force Kingston receivedreinforcements that brought the number ofmen to nearly 300. Despite tough fighting, theforce continued to move northward. 1LTKingston’s battalion commander wanted himto remain in command, even though they sentseveral more officers who outranked 1LTKingston. One of the attached units was a riflecompany, commanded by a captain. But thearrangement worked, mostly because 1LTKingston himself was an able leader. Hit whileleading an assault on one enemy stronghold,he managed to toss a grenade just as a NorthKorean soldier shot him in the head. His helmet,badly grazed, saved his life. His personalcourage inspired his men and the soldiers fromthe widely varied units who were under hiscontrol. Task Force Kingston was commandedby the soldier who showed, by courage andpersonal example, that he could handle the job.


teamwork, even in this collection of units thathad never trained together. Finally, he set theexample with personal courage.

Summary

4-54. Direct leadership is face-to-face, first-lineleadership. It takes place in organizations wheresubordinates are used to seeing their leaders allthe time: teams, squads, sections, platoons,companies, and battalions. To be effective,direct leaders must master many interpersonal,conceptual, technical, and tactical skills.

4-55. Direct leaders are first-line leaders. Theyapply the conceptual skills of critical reasoningand creative thinking to determine the best wayto accomplish the mission. They use ethical rea-soning to make sure their choice is the rightthing to do, and they use reflective thinking toassess and improve team performance, theirsubordinates, and themselves. They employ the

interpersonal skills of communicating andsupervising to get the job done. They developtheir people by mentoring and counseling andmold them into cohesive teams by training themto standard.

4-56. Direct leaders are the Army’s technicalexperts and best teachers. Both their bosses andtheir people expect them to know their equip-ment and be experts in all the applicable techni-cal skills. On top of that, direct leaders combinethose skills with the tactical skills of doctrine,fieldcraft, and training to accomplish tacticalmissions.

4-57. Direct leaders use their competence tofoster discipline in their units and to developsoldiers and DA civilians of character. They usetheir mastery of equipment and doctrine to traintheir subordinates to standard. They create andsustain teams with the skill, trust, and confi-dence to succeed—in peace and war.


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5-1. Preparing to be a leader doesn’t get the jobdone; the test of your character and competencecomes when you act, when you DO those thingsrequired of a leader.

5-2. The three broad leader actions that Chap-ters 1 and 2 introduced—influencing, operating,and improving—contain other activities. Aswith the skills and attributes discussed previ-ously, none of these exist alone. Most of whatyou do as a leader is a mix of these actions. Thismanual talks about them individually to explainthem more clearly; in practice they’re often tooclosely connected to sort out.

5-3. Remember that your actions say moreabout what kind of leader you are than anythingelse. Your people watch you all the time; you’realways on duty. And if there’s a disconnectbetween what you say and how you act, they’llmake up their minds about you—and actaccordingly—based on how you act. It’s notgood enough to talk the talk; you have to walkthe walk.

Influencing Actions

5-4. Leadership is both art and science. Itrequires constant study, hard work, and frequentpractice. Since you’re dealing with people andtheir emotions, dreams, and fears, it also callsfor imagination and a positive, upbeat approach.

5-5. Effective leaders act competently and con-fidently. Your attitude sets the tone for the entireunit, and you choose your attitude—day to day,task to task, even minute to minute. Rememberthat optimism, a positive outlook, and a sense ofhumor are infectious. This is especially truewhen you must make unpopular decisions andface the challenge of bringing the team on board.

5-6. Figure 5-1 shows that influencing consistsof communicating, decision making and moti-vating. As a leader, you should be asking severalquestions. What’s happening? What should behappening but isn’t? Why are these things hap-pening? Then ask yourself: how can I get thisteam moving toward the goal? (Appendix B listsleader performance indicators.)

Chapter 5

Direct LeadershipActions

The most important influence you have on your people is the example you set.

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Communicating

5-7. Leaders keep their subordinates informedbecause doing so shows trust, because sharinginformation can relieve stress, and becauseinformation allows subordinates to determinewhat they need to do to accomplish the missionwhen circumstances change. By informingthem of a decision—and, as much as possible,the reasons for it—you show your subordinatesthey’re important members of the team. Accu-rate information also relieves unnecessary stressand helps keep rumors under control. (Withoutan explanation for what’s happening, your peo-

ple will manufacture one—or several—of theirown.) Finally, if something should happen toyou, the next leader in the chain will be betterprepared to take over and accomplish the mis-sion if everyone knows what’s going on. Subor-dinates must understand your intent. In a tacti-cal setting, leaders must understand the intent oftheir commanders two levels up.

5-8. In other situations, leaders use a variety ofmeans to keep people informed, from face-to-face talks to published memos and familynewsletters. No matter what the method, keeptwo things in mind:

• As a leader, you are responsible for makingsure your subordinates understand you.

• Communication isn’t limited to your immedi-ate superiors and subordinates.

5-9. The success or failure of any communica-tion is the responsibility of the leader. If itappears your subordinates don’t understand,check to make sure you’ve made yourself clear.In fact, even if you think your people under-stand, check anyway; ask for a back-brief.

5-10. Don’t assume that communication beginsor ends at the next level up or the next leveldown. If you’re a team leader, listen carefully towhat your supervisors, platoon sergeants, pla-toon leaders, and company commanders say. Ifyou’re a platoon sergeant, pass the word throughyour squad leaders or section chiefs, but alsowatch and listen to the troops to see if the infor-mation has made it all the way to where it needsto go. Listen carefully at least two levels up andtwo levels down.

5-11. In combat, subordinates may be out ofcontact with their leaders. Sometimes the planfalls apart because of something unexpected—weather, terrain, enemy action. Sometimes theleader may be killed or wounded. In those situ-ations, subordinates who know the overall pur-pose of the mission and the commander’s intent


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Influencing

Operating

Improving

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Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Mental

Physical

Emotional

Influencing

Operating

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Technical

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Motivating

Figure 5-1. Direct leader actions—influencing

You must talk to your soldiers . . . I don’t just meanin formation or groups, but one-on-one.Take time(at least 15 to 30 minutes a day) to really talk to asoldier, one soldier a day.

Command Sergeant Major Daniel E. Wright


have the basic information they need to carryon. And if the leader has established a climate oftrust, if the leader has trained the subordinateleaders in how and why decisions are made, oneof these subordinates is more likely to step upand take charge.

5-12. To prepare your subordinates for such cir-cumstances, create training situations wherethey must act on their own with a minimum ofguidance—or with no guidance except a clearunderstanding of the purpose. Follow up thesetraining situations with AARs so that subordi-nates learn what they did well, what they couldhave done better, and they should do differentlynext time.

5-13. Communicating also goes on from bottomto top. Leaders find out what their people arethinking, saying, and doing by using that mostimportant communication tool: listening. Bylistening carefully, you can even hear those mes-sages behind what a person is actually saying,the equivalent of reading between the lines.Practice “leadership by walking around.” Getout and coach, listen, teach, and clarify; pass onwhat you learn to your superiors. They need toknow what’s going on to make good plans.

Decision Making

5-14. A problem is an existing condition or sit-uation in which what you want to happen is dif-ferent from what actually is happening. Deci-

sion making is the process that begins to changethat situation. Thus, decision making is knowingwhether to decide, then when and what todecide. It includes understanding the conse-quences of your decisions.

5-15. Army leaders usually follow one of twodecision-making processes. Leaders at companylevel and below follow the troop leading proce-dures (TLP). The TLP are designed to supportsolving tactical problems. Leaders at battalionlevel and above follow the military decisionmaking process (MDMP). The MDMP isdesigned for organizations with staffs. Theseestablished and proven methodologies combineelements of the planning operating action to savetime and achieve parallel decision making andplanning. Both follow the problem solving stepsdiscussed below.

5-16. Every once in a while, you may comeacross a decision that’s easy to make: yes or no,right or left, on or off. As you gain experience asa leader, some of the decisions you find difficultnow will become easier. But there will alwaysbe difficult decisions that require imagination,that require rigorous thinking and analysis, orthat require you to factor in your gut reaction.Those are the tough decisions, the ones you’regetting paid to make. As an experienced firstsergeant once said to a brand new companycommander, “We get paid the big bucks to makethe hard calls.” The next several paragraphsexplain the steps you should use to solve a prob-lem; then you’ll read about other factors thataffect how you make those hard calls and theimportance of setting priorities.

Problem Solving Steps5-17. Identify the problem. Don’t be distractedby the symptoms of the problem; get at its rootcause. There may be more than one thing con-tributing to a problem, and you may run into acase where there are lots of contributing factors

Direct Leadership Actions

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A good leader must sometimes be stubborn.Armed with the courage of his convictions, hemust often fight to defend them. When he hascome to a decision after thorough analysis—andwhen he is sure he is right—he must stick to iteven to the point of stubbornness.

General of the Army, Omar N. Bradley Address to the US Army Command and

General Staff College, May 1967


but no real “smoking gun.” The issue you chooseto address as the root cause becomes the mission(or restated mission for tactical problems). Themission must include a simple statement of who,what, when, where, and why. In addition, itshould include your end state, how you wantthings to look when the mission is complete.

5-18. Identify facts and assumptions. Getwhatever facts you can in the time you have.Facts are statements of what you know about thesituation. Assumptions are statements of whatyou believe about the situation but don’t havefacts to support. Make only assumptions that arelikely to be true and essential to generate alter-natives. Some of the many sources of factsinclude regulations, policies, and doctrinal pub-lications. Your organization’s mission, goals,and objectives may also be a source. Sources ofassumptions can be personal experiences, mem-bers of the organization, subject matter experts,or written observations. Analyze the facts andassumptions you identify to determine the scopeof the problem.

5-19. Generate alternatives. Alternatives areways to solve the problem. Develop more thanone possible alternative. Don’t be satisfied withthe first thing that comes into your mind. That’slazy thinking; the third or fourth or twentiethalternative you come up with might be the bestone. If you have time and experienced subordi-nates, include them in this step.

5-20. Analyze the alternatives. Identifyintended and unintended consequences,resource or other constraints, and the advan-tages and disadvantages of each alternative. Besure to consider all your alternatives. Don’t pre-judge the situation by favoring any one alterna-tive over the others.

5-21. Compare the alternatives. Evaluate eachalternative for its probability of success and its

cost. Think past the immediate future. How willthis decision change things tomorrow? Nextweek? Next year?

5-22. Make and execute your decision. Pre-pare a leader’s plan of action, if necessary, andput it in motion. (Planning, an operating action,is covered later in this chapter. Appendix C dis-cusses plans of action as part of developmentalcounseling. Appendix D contains an example ofa leader’s plan of action.)

5-23. Assess the results. Check constantly to seehow the execution of your plan of action is going.Keep track of what happens. Adjust your plan, ifnecessary. Learn from the experience so you’ll bebetter equipped next time. Follow up on resultsand make further adjustments as required.

Factors to Consider5-24. All of this looks great on paper; and it’seasy to talk about when things are calm, whenthere’s plenty of time. But even when there isn’ta great deal of time, you’ll come up with thebest solution if you follow this process to theextent that time allows.

5-25. Even following these steps, you may findthat with some decisions you need to take intoaccount your knowledge, your intuition, andyour best judgment. Intuition tells you what feelsright; it comes from accumulated experience,often referred to as “gut feeling.” However, don’tbe fooled into relying only on intuition, even if ithas worked in the past. A leader who says “Hey,I just do what feels right” may be hiding a lackof competence or may just be too lazy to do thehomework needed to make a reasoned, thought-out decision. Don’t let that be you. Use yourexperience, listen to your instincts, but do yourresearch as well. Get the facts and generate alter-natives. Analyze and compare as many as timeallows. Then make your decision and act.


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5-26. Remember also that any decision youmake must reflect Army values. Chapter 4 dis-cusses ethical reasoning. Its steps match theproblem solving steps outlined here. Most prob-lems are not ethical problems, but many haveethical aspects. Taking leave for example, is aright soldiers and DA civilians enjoy, but leadersmust balance mission requirements with theirpeople’s desires and their own. Reconciling suchissues may require ethical reasoning. As a leader,your superiors and your people expect you totake ethical aspects into account and make deci-sions that are right as well as good.

Setting Priorities5-27. Decisions are not often narrowly defined,as in “Do I choose A or B?” Leaders make deci-sions when they establish priorities and deter-mine what’s important, when they supervise,when they choose someone for a job, when theytrain.

5-28. As a leader, you must also set priorities. Ifyou give your subordinates a list of things to doand say “They’re all important,” you may be try-ing to say something about urgency. But themessage you actually send is “I can’t decidewhich of these are most important, so I’ll justlean on you and see what happens.”

5-29. Sometimes all courses of action mayappear equally good (or equally bad) and thatany decision will be equally right (or equallywrong). Situations like that may tempt you to siton the fence, to make no decision and let thingswork themselves out. Occasionally that may beappropriate; remember that decision makinginvolves judgment, knowing whether to decide.More often, things left to themselves go frombad to worse. In such situations, the decisionyou make may be less important than simplydeciding to do something. Leaders must havethe personal courage to say which tasks aremore important than others. In the absence of a

clear priority, you must set one; not everythingcan be a top priority, and you can’t makeprogress without making decisions.


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Solving a Training ProblemA rifle platoon gets a new platoon leader and anew platoon sergeant within days of a poorshowing in the division’s military operations onurbanized terrain (MOUT) exercise. The newleaders assume the platoon’s poor showing is aproblem. Feedback from the evaluators is gen-eral and vague. The platoon’s squad and fireteam leaders are angry and not much help inassessing what went wrong, so the new leadersbegin investigating. In their fact-finding stepthey identify the following facts: (1) The soldiersare out of shape and unable to complete someof the physical tasks. (2) The fire team leadersdon’t know MOUT tactics, and some of thesquad leaders are also weak. (3) Third Squadperformed well, but didn’t help the othersquads. (4) The soldiers didn’t have the rightequipment at the training site.

Pushing a bit further to get at the root causesof these problems, the new leaders uncover thefollowing: (1) Platoon PT emphasizes preparationfor the APFT only. (2) Third Squad’s leaders knowMOUT techniques, and had even developed sim-ple drills to help their soldiers learn, but becauseof unhealthy competition encouraged by theprevious leaders, Third Squad didn’t share theknowledge.(3) The company supply sergeant hasthe equipment the soldiers needed, but becausethe platoon had lost some equipment on the lastfield exercise, the supply sergeant didn’t let theplatoon sign out the equipment.

The new platoon leader and platoon ser-geant set a goal of successfully meeting theexercise standard in two months. To generatealternatives, they meet with the squad leadersand ask for suggestions to improve training.They use all their available resources to



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5-30. The platoon leader and platoon sergeantfollowed the problem solving steps you just readabout. Given a problem (poor performance),they identified the facts surrounding it (poor PT

practices, poor property accountability, andunhealthy competition), developed a plan ofaction, and executed it. Where appropriate, theyanalyzed and compared different alternatives(Third Squad’s drills). They included their sub-ordinates in the process, but had the moralcourage to make unpopular decisions (breakingup the Third Squad clique). Will the platoon dobetter the next time out? Probably, but beforethen the new leaders will have to assess theresults of their actions to make sure they’reaccomplishing what the leaders want. Theremay be other aspects of this problem that werenot apparent at first. And following this or anyprocess doesn’t guarantee success. The processis only a framework that helps you make a planand act. Success depends on your ability toapply your attributes and skills to influencingand operating actions.

5-31. Army leaders also make decisions whenthey evaluate subordinates, whether it’s with acounseling statement, an evaluation report, oreven on-the-spot encouragement. At an in-ranksinspection, a new squad leader takes a secondlook at a soldier’s haircut—or lack of one. Thesquad leader’s first reaction may be to ask, “Didyou get your haircut lately?” But that avoids theproblem. The soldier’s haircut is either to stan-dard or not—the NCO must decide. The squadleader either says—without apologizing ordancing around the subject—“You need a hair-cut” or else says nothing. Either way, the deci-sion communicates the leader’s standard. Look-ing a subordinate in the eye and making a nec-essary correction is a direct leader hallmark.

Motivating

develop solutions. Among the things sug-gested was to shuffle some of the team leadersto break up Third Squad’s clique and spreadsome of the tactical knowledge around. Whensquad leaders complained, the platoon ser-geant emphasized that they must think as aplatoon, not just a collection of squads.

The platoon sergeant talks to the supply ser-geant, who tells him the platoon’s previousleadership had been lax about propertyaccountability. Furthermore, the previous lead-ers didn’t want to bother keeping track ofequipment, so they often left it in garrison. Theplatoon sergeant teaches his squad leadershow to keep track of equipment and says that,in the future, soldiers who lose equipment willpay for it: “We wouldn’t leave our stuff behindin war, so we’re not going to do it in training.”

Building on Third Squad’s experience, theplatoon leader works with the squad and fireteam leaders to come up with some simpledrills for the platoon’s missions. He takes theleaders to the field and practices the drills withthem so they’ll be able to train their soldiers tothe new standard.

The platoon sergeant also goes to thebrigade’s fitness trainers and, with their help,develops a PT program that emphasizes skillsthe soldiers need for their combat tasks.The newprogram includes rope climbing, running withweapons and equipment, and road marches.Finally, the leaders monitor how their plan isworking. A few weeks before going through thecourse again, they decide to eliminate one of thebattle drills because the squad leaders sug-gested that it wasn’t necessary after all.

A unit with a high esprit de corps can accomplishits mission in spite of seemingly insurmountableodds.

FM 22-10, 1951


5-32. Recall from Chapter 1 that motivationinvolves using word and example to give yoursubordinates the will to accomplish the mission.Motivation grows out of people’s confidence inthemselves, their unit, and their leaders. Thisconfidence is born in hard, realistic training; it’snurtured by constant reinforcement and throughthe kind of leadership—consistent, hard, andfair—that promotes trust. Remember that trust,like loyalty, is a gift your soldiers give you onlywhen you demonstrate that you deserve it. Moti-vation also springs from the person’s faith in thelarger mission of the organization—a sense ofbeing a part of the big picture.

Empowering People5-33. People want to be recognized for the workthey do and want to be empowered. Youempower subordinates when you train them todo a job, give them the necessary resources andauthority, get out of their way, and let themwork. Not only is this a tremendous statement ofthe trust you have in your subordinates; it’s oneof the best ways to develop them as leaders.Coach and counsel them, both when they suc-ceed and when they fail.

Positive Reinforcement5-34. Part of empowering subordinates is find-ing out their needs. Talk to your people: find outwhat’s important to them, what they want toaccomplish, what their personal goals are. Givethem feedback that lets them know how they’redoing. Listen carefully so that you know whatthey mean, not just what they say. Use theirfeedback when it makes sense, and if youchange something in the organization becauseof a subordinate’s suggestion, let everyone knowwhere the good idea came from. Remember,there’s no limit to the amount of good you cando as long as you don’t worry about who getsthe credit. Give the credit to those who deserveit and you’ll be amazed at the results.

5-35. You recognize subordinates when yougive them credit for the work they do, from a paton the back to a formal award or decoration.Don’t underestimate the power of a few choicewords of praise when a person has done a goodjob. Don’t hesitate to give out awards—com-mendations, letters, certificates—when appro-priate. (Use good judgment, however. If yougive out a medal for every little thing, prettysoon the award becomes meaningless. Give anaward for the wrong thing and you show you’reout of touch.) Napoleon marveled at the motiva-tional power of properly awarded ribbons andmedals. He once said that if he had enough rib-bon, he could rule the world.

5-36. When using rewards, you have manyoptions. Here are some things to consider:

• Consult the leadership chain for recommenda-tions.

• Choose a reward valued by the person receiv-ing it, one that appeals to the individual’s per-sonal pride. This may be a locally approvedaward that’s more respected than traditionalDA awards.

• Use the established system of awards (certifi-cates, medals, letters of commendation, driverand mechanic badges) when appropriate.These are recognized throughout the Army;when a soldier goes to a new unit, the rewardwill still be valuable.

• Present the award at an appropriate ceremony.Emphasize its importance. Let others see howhard work is rewarded.

• Give rewards promptly. • Praise only good work or honest effort. Giv-

ing praise too freely cheapens its effect. • Promote people who get the job done and who

influence others to do better work. • Recognize those who meet the standard and

improve their performance. A soldier whoworks hard and raises his score on the APFTdeserves some recognition, even if the soldier


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doesn’t achieve the maximum score. Noteveryone can be soldier of the quarter.

Negative Reinforcement5-37. Of course, not everyone is going to per-form to standard. In fact, some will require pun-ishment. Using punishment to motivate a personaway from an undesirable behavior is effective,but can be tricky. Sound judgment must guideyou when administering punishment. Considerthese guidelines:

• Before you punish a subordinate, make surethe subordinate understands the reason for thepunishment. In most—although not all—cases, you’ll want to try to change the subordi-nate’s behavior by counseling or retrainingbefore resulting to punishment.

• Consult your leader or supervisor before youpunish a subordinate. They’ll be aware ofpolicies you need to consider and may be ableto assist you in changing the subordinate’sbehavior.

• Avoid threatening a subordinate with punish-ment. Making a threat puts you in the positionof having to deliver on that threat. In such asituation you may end up punishing becauseyou said you would rather than because thebehavior merits punishment. This underminesyour standing as a leader.

• Avoid mass punishment. Correctly identifythe problem, determine if an individual orindividuals are responsible, and use an appro-priate form of correction.

• With an open mind and without prejudging,listen to the subordinate’s side of the story.

• Let the subordinate know that it’s the behav-ior—not the individual—that is the problem.“You let the team down” works; “You’re aloser” sends the wrong message.

• Since people tend to live up to their leader’sexpectations, tell them, “I know you can do

better than that. I expect you to do better thanthat.”

• Punish those who are able but unwilling toperform. Retrain a person who’s unable tocomplete a task.

• Respond immediately to undesirable behav-ior. Investigate fully. Take prompt and prudentcorrective action in accordance with estab-lished legal or regulatory procedures.

• Never humiliate a subordinate; avoid publicreprimand.

• Ensure the person knows exactly what behav-ior got the person in trouble.

• Make sure the punishment isn’t excessive orunreasonable. It’s not only the severity of pun-ishment that keeps subordinates in line; it’sthe certainty that they can’t get away withundesirable behavior.

• Control your temper and hold no grudges.Don’t let your personal feelings interfere;whether you like or dislike someone has noth-ing to do with good order and discipline.

5-38. If you were surprised to find a discussionof punishment under the section on motivation,consider this: good leaders are always on thelookout for opportunities to develop subordi-nates, even the ones who are being punished.Your people—even the ones who cause youproblems—are still the most important resourceyou have. When a vehicle is broken, you don’tthrow it out; you fix it. If one of your people isperforming poorly, don’t just get rid of the per-son; try to help fix the problem.

Operating Actions

5-39. You’re operating when you act to achievean immediate objective, when you’re working toget today’s job done. Although FM 25-100(Training the Force. 15 November 1988) is pre-dominantly a training tool, its methodology


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applies to a unit’s overall operational effective-ness. Because operating includes planning,preparing, executing, and assessing (see Figure5-2), you can use the FM 25-100 principles as amodel for operations other than training. Some-times these elements are part of a cycle; othertimes they happen simultaneously.

5-40. You’ll often find yourself influencingafter you’ve moved on to operating. In practice,the nice, neat divisions in this manual are notclear-cut; you often must handle multiple tasksrequiring different skills at the same time.(Appendix B lists operating actions and someindicators of effectiveness.)

Planning and Preparing

5-41. In peacetime training, in actual opera-tions, and especially in combat, your job is tohelp your organization function effectively—accomplish the mission—in an environmentthat can be chaotic. That begins with a well

thought-out plan and thorough preparation. Awell-trained organization with a sound plan ismuch better prepared than one without a plan.Planning ahead reduces confusion, builds sub-ordinates’ confidence in themselves and theorganization, and helps ensure success with aminimum of wasted effort—or in combat, theminimum number of casualties.

5-42. A plan is a proposal for executing a com-mand decision or project. Planning begins witha mission, specified or implied. A specifiedmission comes from your boss or from higherheadquarters. An implied mission results whenthe leader, who may be you, sees somethingwithin his area of responsibility that needs to bedone and, on his own initiative, develops aleader plan of action. (Remember that a prob-lem exists when you’re not satisfied with theway things are or the direction they’re heading.)Either type of mission contains implied andspecified tasks, actions that must be completedto accomplish the mission.

Reverse Planning5-43. When you begin with the goal in mind,you often will use the reverse planning method.Start with the question “Where do I want to endup?” and work backward from there until youreach “We are here right now.”

5-44. Along the way, determine the basics ofwhat’s required: who, what, when, where, andwhy. You may also want to consider how toaccomplish the task, although the “how” is usu-ally not included in a mission to a subordinate.As you plan, consider the amount of timeneeded to coordinate and conduct each step. Forinstance, a tank platoon sergeant whose platoonhas to spend part of a field exercise on the fir-ing range might have to arrange, among otherthings, refueling at the range. No one explicitlysaid to refuel at the range, but the platoon ser-geant knows what needs to happen. The platoon


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Figure 5-2. Direct leader actions—operating


sergeant must think through the steps from thelast to the first: (1) when the refueling must becomplete, (2) how long the refueling will take,(3) how long it takes the refueling unit to get setup, and finally (4) when the refueling vehiclesshould report to the range.

5-45. After you have figured out what musthappen on the way to the goal, put the tasks insequence, set priorities, and determine a sched-ule. Look at the steps in the order they willoccur. Make sure events are in logical order andyou have allotted enough time for each one. Asalways, a good leader asks for input from subor-dinates when time allows. Getting input notonly acts as a check on the your plan (you mayhave overlooked something), but also gets yourpeople involved; involvement builds trust, self-confidence, and the will to succeed.

Preparing5-46. While leaders plan, subordinates prepare.Leaders can develop a plan while their organiza-tion is preparing if they provide advance noticeof the task or mission and initial guidance forpreparation in a warning order. (Warning ordersare part of the TLP and MDMP; however, anyleader—uniformed or DA civilian—can applythe principle of the warning order by givingsubordinates advance notice of an impendingrequirement and how they’ll be expected to con-tribute to it.) Based on this guidance, subordi-nates can draw ammunition, rehearse keyactions, inspect equipment, conduct securitypatrols, or begin movement while the leadercompletes the plan. In the case of a nontacticalrequirement, preparation may include makingsure the necessary facilities and other resourcesare available to support it. In all cases, prepara-tion includes coordinating with people andorganizations that are involved or might beaffected by the operation or project.

5-47. Rehearsal is an important element ofpreparation. Rehearsing key combat actions letssubordinates see how things are supposed towork and builds confidence in the plan for bothsoldiers and leaders. Even a simple walk-through helps them visualize who’s supposed tobe where and do what when. Mobilization exer-cises provide a similar function for DA civiliansand reserve component soldiers: they provide achance to understand and rehearse mobilizationand deployment support functions. Executiongoes more smoothly because everyone has amental picture of what’s supposed to happen.Rehearsals help people remember their respon-sibilities. They also help leaders see how thingsmight happen, what might go wrong, how theplan needs to be changed, and what things theleader didn’t think of.


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An Implied Mission and Leader Plan of Action

Not all missions originate with higher head-quarters; sometimes the leader sees what’srequired and, exercising initiative develops aleader plan of action.

Suppose a platoon sergeant’s soldiers hadtrouble meeting minimum weapons qualifica-tion requirements. Since everyone qualified, noone has said to work on marksmanship. But theplatoon sergeant knows the platoon made itthrough range week on sheer luck. The leaderdevelops a training plan to work on basicmarksmanship, then goes to the platoon leaderand presents it.Together the two leaders figureout a way to make sure their soldiers get achance to train, even with all the other missionrequirements. After they’ve talked it over, theybring in their subordinate leaders and involvethem in the planning process. The platoon ser-geant keeps track of the progress and effective-ness of the leader plan of action, making sure it


5-48. Leader plans of action can be used toreinforce positive behavior, improve perform-ance, or even change an aspect of the organiza-tional climate. A leader plan of action may alsobe personal—as when the leader decides “I needto improve my skills in this area.”

5-49. No matter what your position is, part ofyour duty is making your boss’s job easier. Justas you loyally provide resources and authorityfor your subordinates to do their jobs, you leavethe boss free to do his. Ask only for decisionsthat fall outside your scope of authority—notthose you want to avoid. Forward only problems

you can’t fix—not those whose solutions arejust difficult. Ask for advice from others withmore experience or seek clarification when youdon’t understand what’s required. Do all thatand exercise disciplined initiative within yourboss’s intent. (Appendix A discusses delegationof authority.)

Executing

5-50. Executing means acting to accomplish themission, moving to achieve the leader’s goals asexpressed in the leader’s vision—to standardand on time—while taking care of your people.

5-51. Execution, the payoff, is based on all thework that has gone before. But planning andpreparation alone can’t guarantee success. Thingswill go wrong. Large chunks of the plan will goflying out the window. At times, it will seem as ifeverything is working against you. Then you musthave the will to fight through, keeping in mindyour higher leaders’ intent and the mission’s ulti-mate goal. You must adapt and improvise.

5-52. In a tactical setting, all leaders must knowthe intent of commanders two levels up. Duringexecution, position yourself to best lead yourpeople, initiate and control the action, get othersto follow the plan, react to changes, keep yourpeople focused, and work the team to accom-plish the goal to standard. A well-trained organ-ization accomplishes the mission, even whenthings go wrong.

5-53. Finally, leaders ensure they and their sub-ordinate leaders are doing the right jobs. Thisgoes hand in hand with empowerment. A com-pany commander doesn’t do a squad leader’s


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accomplishes the intent and changing it whennecessary. Later, the platoon leader and pla-toon sergeant meet to assess the plan’s resultsand to decide if further action is required.

Brief Solutions, Not ProblemsLeaders develop their subordinates by requiringthose subordinates to plan. A lieutenant, new tothe battalion staff, ran into a problem getting allthe resources the unit was going to need for anupcoming deployment. The officer studied theproblem, talked to the people involved, checkedhis facts, and generally did a thorough analy-sis—of which he was very proud. Then hemarched into the battalion executive officer’s(XO’s) office and laid it all out in a masterly fash-ion. The XO looked up from his desk and said,“Great.What are you going to do about it?”

The lieutenant was back in a half-hour withthree possible solutions he had worked outwith his NCOs. From that day on, the officernever presented a problem to any boss withoutoffering some solutions as well. The lieutenantlearned a useful technique from the XO. Helearned it so well he began using it with his sol-diers and became a better coach and mentorbecause of it.

Soldiers do what they are told to do. It’s leadershipthat’s the key. Young men and women join theArmy; if they’re with competent, confident, capa-ble leaders they turn into good soldiers.

Sergeant Major of the Army Robert E. Hall


job. A division chief doesn’t do a branch chief’sjob. A supervisor doesn’t do a team leader’s job.

Maintaining Standards5-54. The Army has established standards forall military activities. Standards are formal,detailed instructions that can be stated, meas-ured, and achieved. They provide a performancebaseline to evaluate how well a specific task hasbeen executed. You must know, communicateand enforce standards. Explain the ones thatapply to your organization and give your subor-dinate leaders the authority to enforce them.Then hold your subordinates responsible forachieving them.

5-55. Army leaders don’t set the minimum stan-dards as goals. However, everything can’t be anumber one priority. As an Army leader, youmust exercise judgment concerning which tasksare most important. Organizations are requiredto perform many tasks that are not mission-related. While some of these are extremelyimportant, others require only a minimum effort.Striving for excellence in every area, regardlessof how trivial, quickly works an organization todeath. On the other hand, the fact that a task isn’ta first priority doesn’t excuse a sloppy perform-ance. Professional soldiers accomplish all tasksto standard. Competent leaders make sure thestandard fits the task’s importance.

Setting Goals5-56. The leader’s ultimate goal—your ultimategoal—is to train the organization to succeed inits wartime mission. Your daily work includessetting intermediate goals to get the organiza-tion ready. Involve your subordinates in goalsetting. This kind of cooperation fosters trustand makes the best use of subordinates’ talents.When developing goals, consider these points:

• Goals must be realistic, challenging, andattainable.

• Goals should lead to improved combat readi-ness.

• Subordinates ought to be involved in the goalsetting.

• Leaders develop a plan of action to achieveeach goal.

Assessing

5-57. Setting goals and maintaining standardsare central to assessing mission accomplish-ment. Whenever you talk about accomplishingthe mission, always include the phrase “to stan-dard.” When you set goals for your subordi-nates, make sure they know what the standardsare. To use a simple example, the goal might be“All unit members will pass the APFT.” TheAPFT standard tells you, for each exercise, howmany repetitions are required in how muchtime, as well as describing a proper way to dothe exercise.

5-58. Also central to assessing is spot checking.Army leaders check things: people, perform-ance, equipment, resources. They check thingsto ensure the organization is meeting standardsand moving toward the goals the leader hasestablished. Look closely; do it early and often;do it both before and after the fact. Praise goodperformance and figure out how to fix poor per-formance. Watch good first sergeants or com-mand sergeants major as they go through themess line at the organizational dining facility.They pick up the silverware and run their fin-gers over it—almost unconsciously—checking


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Schools and their training offer better ways to dothings, but only through experience are we able tocapitalize on this learning.The process of profitingfrom mistakes becomes a milestone in learning tobecome a more efficient soldier.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army William G. Bainbridge


for cleanliness. Good leaders supervise, inspect,and correct their subordinates. They don’t wastetime; they’re always on duty.

5-59. Some assessments you make yourself. Forothers, you may want to involve subordinates.Involving subordinates in assessments andobtaining straightforward feedback from thembecome more important as your span of author-ity increases. Two techniques that involve yoursubordinates in assessing are in-process reviews(IPRs) and after-action reviews (AARs).

In-Process Reviews5-60.Successful assessment begins with forminga picture of the organization’s performance early.Anticipate which areas the organization mighthave trouble in; that way you know which areasto watch closely. Once the organization beginsthe mission, use IPRs to evaluate performanceand give feedback. Think of an IPR as a check-point on the way to mission accomplishment.

5-61. Say you tell your driver to take you todivision headquarters. If you recognize the land-marks, you decide your driver knows the wayand probably say nothing. If you don’t recognizethe landmarks, you might ask where you are.And if you determine that the driver is lost orhas made a wrong turn, you give instructions toget back to where you need to be. In more com-plex missions, IPRs give leaders and subordi-nates a chance to talk about what’s going on.They can catch problems early and take steps tocorrect or avoid them.

After-Action Reviews5-62. AARs fill a similar role at the end of themission. Army leaders use AARs as opportuni-ties to develop subordinates. During an AAR,give subordinates a chance to talk about howthey saw things. Teach them how to look past aproblem’s symptoms to its root cause. Teachthem how to give constructive, useful feedback.

(“Here’s what we did well; here’s what we cando better.”) When subordinates share in identi-fying reasons for success and failure, theybecome owners of a stake in how things getdone. AARs also give you a chance to hearwhat’s on your subordinates’ minds—and goodleaders listen closely.

5-63. Leaders base reviews on accurate obser-vations and correct recording of those observa-tions. If you’re evaluating a ten-day field exer-cise, take good notes because you won’tremember everything. Look at things in a sys-tematic way; get out and see things firsthand.Don’t neglect tasks that call for subjectivejudgment: evaluate unit cohesion, discipline,and morale.

Initial Leader Assessments5-64. Leaders often conduct an initial assess-ment before they take over a new position. Howcompetent are your new subordinates? What’sexpected of you in your new job? Watch howpeople operate; this will give you clues about theorganizational climate. (Remember SSG With-ers and the vehicle inspection in Chapter 3?)Review the organization’s SOP and any regula-tions that apply. Meet with the outgoing leaderand listen to his assessment. (But don’t take it asthe absolute truth; everyone sees things throughfilters.) Review status reports and recent inspec-tion results. Identify the key people outside theorganization whose help you’ll need to be suc-cessful. However, remember that your initialimpression may be off-base. After you’ve beenin the position for a while, take the necessarytime to make an in-depth assessment.

5-65. And in the midst of all this checking andrechecking, don’t forget to take a look at your-self. What kind of leader are you? Do you over-supervise? Undersupervise? How can youimprove? What’s your plan for working on yourweak areas? What’s the best way to make use of


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your strengths? Get feedback on yourself fromas many sources as possible: your boss, yourpeers, even your subordinates. As Chapter 1 saidin the discussion of character, make sure yourown house is in order.

Assessment of Subordinates5-66. Good leaders provide straightforwardfeedback to subordinates. Tell them where yousee their strengths; let them know where theycan improve. Have them come up with a plan ofaction for self-improvement; offer your help.Leader assessment should be a positive experi-ence that your subordinates see as a chance forthem to improve. They should see it as anopportunity to tap into your experience andknowledge for their benefit.

5-67. To assess your subordinate leaders, youmust:

• Observe and record leadership actions. Figure1-1 is a handy guide for organizing yourthoughts.

• Compare what you see to the performanceindicators in Appendix B or the appropriatereference.

• Determine if the performance meets, exceeds,or falls below standard.

• Tell your subordinates what you saw; givethem a chance to assess themselves.

• Help your subordinate develop a plan ofaction to improve performance.

Leader Assessments and Plans of Action5-68. Leader assessment won’t help anyoneimprove unless it includes a plan of actiondesigned to correct weaknesses and sustainstrengths. Not only that, you and the subordinatemust use the plan; it doesn’t do anyone any goodif you stick it in a drawer or file cabinet and neverthink about it again. Here is what you must do:

• Design the plan of action together; let yoursubordinate take the lead as much as possible.

• Agree on the actions necessary to improveleader performance; your subordinate mustbuy into this plan if it’s going to work.

• Review the plan frequently, check progress,and change the plan if necessary.

(Appendix C discusses the relationship betweena leader plan of action and developmental coun-seling.)

Improving Actions

5-69. Improving actions are things leaders do toleave their organizations better than they foundthem. Improving actions fall into the categorieshighlighted in Figure 5-3: developing, building,and learning.

5-70. Developing refers to people: you improveyour organization and the Army as an institutionwhen you develop your subordinates.

5-71. Building refers to team building: as adirect leader, you improve your organization bybuilding strong, cohesive teams that perform tostandard, even in your absence.

5-72. Learning refers to you, your subordinates,and your organization as a whole. As a leader,you must model self-development for your peo-ple; you must constantly be learning. In addi-tion, you must also encourage your subordinatesto learn and reward their self-developmentefforts. Finally, you must establish an organiza-tional climate that rewards collective learning


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How can you know if you’ve made a difference?Sometimes—rarely—the results are instant. Usu-ally it takes much longer. You may see a soldieragain as a seasoned NCO; you may get a call or aletter or see a name in the Army Times. In mostcases, you will never be sure how well you suc-ceeded, but don’t let that stop you.

Command Sergeant Major John D. Woodyard, 1993


and act to ensure your organization learns fromits experiences.

Developing

5-73. In the Army, developing means develop-ing people. Your subordinates are the leaders oftomorrow’s Army. You have a responsibility totrain them, to be the kind of leader they deserveso that they’ll see how leading is done. It’s yourduty to invest the time and energy it takes tohelp them reach their fullest potential. The driv-ing principle behind Army leader developmentis that leaders must be prepared before assum-ing leadership positions; they must be compe-tent and confident in their abilities. This princi-

ple applies to all ranks and levels, to soldiersand DA civilians, and to both the active andreserve components.

5-74. As Figure 5-4 shows, a trained and readyArmy rests on effective leader development. Inturn, leader development rests on a foundationof training and education, expectations and stan-dards, and values and ethics. This foundationsupports the three leader development pillars:institutional training (schooling), operationalassignments, and self-development.

Institutional Training5-75. The Army school system provides formaleducation and training for job-related and lead-ership skills (Figure 5-4). The American publiceducation system is progressive; that is, chil-dren attend primary school before middleschool or junior high and then go on to highschool. Likewise, the Army school system isprogressive. The main difference is that you canexpect to go out and use your skills in anassignment before being considered for thenext level of schooling. Institutional training iscritical in developing leaders and preparingthem for increased positions of responsibilitythroughout the Army.

Operational Assignments

5-76. When you take what you’ve learned inschool into the field Army, you continue to learnthrough on-the-job experience and by watchingyour leaders, peers, and subordinates. Opera-tional assignments provide opportunities tobroaden your knowledge and refine skills yougain during institutional training and previousassignments. You gain and expand your experi-ence base by performing a wide range of dutiesand tasks under a variety of frequently changingconditions and situations. Operational assign-ments provide a powerful resource for leaderdevelopment—an opportunity to learn by doing.


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Figure 5-3. Direct leader actions—improving

I’ve reminded many NCOs that they wouldn’t bewhere they are today if someone hadn’t giventhem a little extra time. I know I wouldn’t bewhere I am.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army Glenn E. Morrell


Self-Development5-77. Self-development is a process you shoulduse to enhance previously acquired skills, knowl-edge, and experience. Its goal is to increase yourreadiness and potential for positions of greaterresponsibility. Effective self-developmentfocuses on aspects of your character, knowledge,and capabilities that you believe need developingor improving. You can use the dimensions of theArmy leadership framework to help you deter-mine what areas to work on. Self-development iscontinuous: it takes place during institutionaltraining and operational assignments.

5-78. Self-development is a joint effort involv-ing you, your first-line leader, and your com-mander. Commanders establish and monitorself-development programs for their organiza-tions. You and your first-line leader togetherestablish goals to meet your individual needs andplan the actions you must take to meet them. Youdo this as part of developmental counseling,which is discussed below and in Appendix C.Finally, you must execute your plan of action. Ifyou have subordinates, you monitor how wellthey’re acting on their plans of action. You can’t

execute their plans for them, but you can givethem advice, encouragement, and—when neces-sary and mission permits—time.

5-79. Self-development for junior personnel isvery structured and generally narrow in focus.The focus broadens as individuals learn theirstrengths and weaknesses, determine their indi-vidual needs, and become more independent.Everyone’s knowledge and perspective increaseswith age, experience, institutional training, andoperational assignments. Specific, goal-orientedself-development actions can accelerate andbroaden a person’s skills and knowledge. As amember of the Army, you’re obligated to developyour abilities to the greatest extent possible. Asan Army leader, you’re responsible to assist yoursubordinates in their self-development.

5-80. Civilian and military education is part ofself-development. Army leaders never stoplearning. They seek to educate and train them-selves beyond what’s offered in formal school-ing or even in their duty assignments. Leaderslook for educational opportunities to preparethemselves for their next job and future respon-sibilities. Look for Army off-duty education thatinterests you and will give you useful skills.Seek civilian education to broaden your outlookon life. Look for things to read that will developyour mind and help you build skills. Challengeyourself and apply the same initiative here asyou do in your day-to-day duties.

5-81. Remember that Army leaders challengethemselves and take advantage of work done byothers in such fields as leadership and militaryhistory as well as in their off-duty areas of inter-est. In the leadership area, you can begin withsome of the books listed in the bibliography orgo to any bookstore or library. You’ll find hun-dreds of titles under the heading of leadership.The libraries of your post, nearby civilian com-munities, and colleges contain works on these


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VALUES & ETHICSVALUES & ETHICS

EXPECTATIONS & STANDARDSEXPECTATIONS & STANDARDS

TRAINING & EDUCATIONTRAINING & EDUCATION

TRAINED & READYTRAINED & READY

LEADER

DEVELOPMENT

LEADER

DEVELOPMENT

Figure 5-4. Leader development


topics. In addition, the Internet can also be auseful place for obtaining information on someareas. However, be careful. Some books containmore reliable and useful information than oth-ers; the same is true of Internet sites.

5-82. Figure 5-4 also shows that actions, skills,and attributes form the foundation of success inoperational assignments. This is where you, theleader, fit into Army leader development. As aleader, you help your subordinates internalizeArmy values. You also assist them in developingthe individual attributes, learning the skills, andmastering the actions required to become lead-ers of character and competence themselves.You do this through the action of mentoring.

Mentoring

5-83. Mentoring is totally inclusive, real-lifeleader development for every subordinate.Because leaders don’t know which of their sub-ordinates today will be the most significant con-tributors and leaders in the future, they strive toprovide all their subordinates with the knowl-edge and skills necessary to become the bestthey can be—for the Army and for themselves.

5-84. Mentoring begins with the leader setting

the right example. As an Army leader, you men-tor people every day in a positive or negativeway, depending on how you live Army valuesand perform leader actions. Mentoring showsyour subordinates a mature example of values,attributes, and skills in action. It encouragesthem to develop their own character and leaderattributes accordingly.

5-85. Mentoring links operating leader actionsto improving leader actions. When you mentor,you take the observing, assessing, and evaluat-ing you do when you operate and apply theseactions to developing individual subordinates.Mentoring techniques include teaching, devel-opmental counseling, and coaching.

5-86. Teaching is passing on knowledge andskills to subordinates. It’s a primary task forfirst-line leaders. Teaching focuses primarily ontechnical and tactical skills. Developmentalcounseling is better for improving interpersonaland conceptual skills. Technical competence iscritical to effective teaching. In order to developsubordinates, you must be able to demonstratethe technical and tactical skills you expect themto perform; otherwise they won’t listen to you.

5-87. To be an Army leader, you must be ateacher. You give your subordinates knowledgeand skills all the time, whether in formal, class-room settings or through your example. To be aneffective teacher, you must first be profession-ally competent; then you must create conditionsin which your subordinates can learn.


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Good NCOs are not just born—they are groomedand grown through a lot of hard work and strongleadership by senior NCOs.

Former Sergeant Major of the ArmyWilliam A. Connelly

Mentoring (in the Army) is the proactive devel-opment of each subordinate through observ-ing, assessing, coaching, teaching, developmen-tal counseling, and evaluating that results inpeople being treated with fairness and equalopportunity. Mentoring is an inclusive process(not an exclusive one) for everyone under aleader’s charge.

Teaching gives knowledge or provides skills toothers, causing them to learn by example orexperience.

Soldiers learn to be good leaders from good leaders.

Former Sergeant Major of the Army Richard A. Kidd


5-88. The measure of how well you teach is howwell your people learn. In most cases, your peo-ple will learn more by performing a skill thanthey will by watching you do it or by hearingyou talk about how to do it. However, it’s up toyou to choose the teaching method that best fitsthe material. To make this choice, you need tounderstand the different ways people learn. Peo-ple learn:

• Through the example of others (observing). • By forming a picture in their minds of what

they’re trying to learn (thinking). • By absorbing information (thinking). • Through practice (hands-on experience).

5-89. Teaching is a complex art, one that youmust learn in addition to the competencies youseek to teach. Just because you can pull theengine out of a tank doesn’t mean you would beany good at teaching other people to do it. Thereare techniques and methods involved in teach-ing that have nothing to do with how good youare on the job; you must know both the skillsrelated to the subject and another set of teachingskills. As an Army leader, you must developthese teaching skills as well. A subject matterexpert who has acquired technical knowledgebut is unable to teach that knowledge to othersisn’t improving the organization or the Army.

5-90. Developmental counseling is central toleader development. It’s the means by whichyou prepare your subordinates of today to be theleaders of tomorrow. (Appendix C containsmore details on developmental counseling.)

5-91. Developmental counseling isn’t a time forwar stories or for tales of how things were doneway back when. It should focus on today’s per-

formance and problems and tomorrow’s plansand solutions. Effective developmental counsel-ing is centered on the subordinate, who isactively involved—listening, asking for morefeedback, seeking elaboration of what the coun-selor has to say.

5-92. Developmental counseling isn’t an occa-sional event that you do when you feel like it. Itneeds to be part of your program to developyour subordinates. It requires you to use all yourcounseling tools and skills. This means usingcounseling requirements such as those pre-scribed in the NCO Evaluation Reporting Sys-tem (NCOERS), Officer Evaluation ReportingSystem (OERS), and Total Army PerformanceEvaluation System (TAPES, which is used toevaluate DA civilians) as more than paper drills.It means face-to-face counseling of individualsyou rate. But more important, it means makingtime throughout the rating period to discuss per-formance objectives and provide meaningfulassessments and feedback. No evaluationreport—positive or negative—should be a sur-prise. A consistent developmental counselingprogram ensures your people know where theystand and what they should be doing to improvetheir performance and develop themselves. Yourprogram should include all your people, not justthe ones you think have the most potential. (Thebibliography lists the evaluation and supportforms prescribed by the OERS, NCOERS, andTAPES. Appendix C discusses how to use sup-port forms to assist you with developmentalcounseling.)

5-93. New direct leaders are sometimes uncom-fortable confronting a subordinate who isn’tperforming to standard. However, rememberthat counseling isn’t about how comfortable oruncomfortable you are; counseling is about cor-recting the performance or developing the char-acter of a subordinate. Therefore, be honest and


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Developmental Counseling is subordinate-centered communication that produces a planoutlining actions necessary for subordinates toachieve individual or organizational goals.


frank with your subordinates during develop-mental counseling. If you let your people getaway with substandard behavior because youwant them to like you or because you’re afraidto make a hard call, you’re sacrificing Armystandards for your personal well-being—andyou’re not developing your subordinates.

5-94. This manual has emphasized throughoutthe importance of the example that you, as anArmy leader, set for your subordinates. Your peo-ple look to you to see what kind of leader theywant to be. The example you set in counseling isespecially important. Army leaders at every levelmust ensure their subordinate leaders use coun-seling to develop their own subordinates. Settingthe example is a powerful leadership tool: if youcounsel your subordinates, your subordinateleaders will counsel theirs as well. The way youcounsel is the way they’ll counsel. Your peoplecopy your behavior. The significance of yourposition as a role model can’t be understated. It’sa powerful teaching tool, for developmentalcounseling as well as other behaviors.

5-95. Although you’re responsible for develop-ing your subordinates, no leader can be all thingsto all people. In addition, the Army is alreadyculturally diverse and is becoming increasinglytechnologically complex. In this environment,some of your subordinates may seek advice andcounsel from informal relationships in additionto their leadership chain. Such relationships canbe particularly important for women, minorities,and those in low-density specialties who haverelatively few role models nearby.

5-96. This situation in no way relieves you, theleader, of any of your responsibilities regardingcaring for and developing your people. Rather,being sensitive to your subordinates’ profes-sional development and cultural needs is part ofthe cultural awareness leader attribute. As anArmy leader, you must know your people and

take advantage of every resource available tohelp your subordinates develop as leaders. Thisincludes other leaders who have skills or attrib-utes different from your own.

5-97. You can consider coaching to be both anoperating and an improving leader action. It’sless formal than teaching. When you’re dealingwith individuals, coaching is a form of specificinstance counseling (which Appendix C dis-cusses). When you’re dealing with all or part ofa team, it’s generally associated with AARs(which you read about earlier in this chapter).

5-98. Coaching follows naturally from theassessing leader action. As you observe yoursubordinates at work, you’ll see them performsome tasks to standard and some not to stan-dard. Some of their plans will work; somewon’t. Your subordinates know when you’rewatching them. They expect you to tell themwhat they need to do to meet the standard,improve the team’s performance, or developthemselves. You provide this sort of feedbackthrough coaching. And don’t limit your coach-ing to formal sessions. Use every opportunity toteach, counsel or coach from quarterly trainingbriefings to AARs. Teaching moments andcoaching opportunities occur all the time whenyou concentrate on developing leaders.

Mentoring and Developing Tomorrow’s Army5-99. Mentoring is demanding business, but thefuture of the Army depends on the trained andeffective leaders whom you leave behind.


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Coaching involves a leader’s assessing per-formance based on observations, helping thesubordinate develop an effective plan of actionto sustain strengths and overcome weak-nesses, and supporting the subordinate andthe plan.


Sometimes it requires you to set priorities, tobalance short-term readiness with long-termleader development. The commitment to men-toring future leaders may require you to takerisks. It requires you to give subordinates theopportunity to learn and develop themselveswhile using your experience to guide them with-out micromanaging. Mentoring will lead yoursubordinates to successes that build their confi-dence and skills for the future.

5-100. Mentoring isn’t something new for theArmy. Past successes and failures can often betraced to how seriously those in charge took thechallenge of developing future leaders. As youconsider the rapid pace of change in today’sworld, it’s critical that you take the time todevelop leaders capable of responding to thatchange. The success of the next generation ofArmy leaders depends on how well you acceptthe responsibility of mentoring your subordi-nates. Competent and confident leaders trainedto meet tomorrow’s challenges and fight andwin future conflicts will be your legacy.

5-101. As you assume positions of greaterresponsibility, as the number of people forwhom you are responsible increases, you needto do even more to develop your subordinates.More, in this case, means establishing a leaderdevelopment program for your organization. Italso means encouraging your subordinates totake actions to develop themselves personallyand professionally. In addition, you may have toprovide time for them to pursue self-develop-ment. (FM 25-101 discusses leader develop-ment programs.)

Building

Building Teams5-102. You’ve heard—no doubt countlesstimes—that the Army is a team. Just how impor-tant is it that people have a sense of the team?

Very important. The national cause, the purposeof the mission, and all the larger concerns maynot be visible from the battlefield. Regardless ofother issues, soldiers perform for the other peo-ple in the squad or section, for others in theteam or crew, for the person on their right orleft. This is a fundamental truth: soldiers per-form because they don’t want to let their bud-dies down.

5-103. If the leaders of the small teams thatmake up the Army are competent, and if theirmembers trust one another, those teams and thelarger team of teams will hang together and getthe job done. People who belong to a successfulteam look at nearly everything in a positive light;their winners’ attitudes are infectious, and theysee problems as challenges rather than obstacles.Additionally, a cohesive team accomplishes themission much more efficiently than a group ofindividuals. Just as a football team practices towin on the gridiron, so must a team of soldierspractice to be effective on the battlefield.

5-104. Training together builds collective com-petence; trust is a product of that competence.Subordinates learn to trust their leaders if theleaders know how to do their jobs and act con-sistently—if they say what they mean and meanwhat they say. Trust also springs from the col-lective competence of the team. As the teambecomes more experienced and enjoys moresuccesses, it becomes more cohesive.


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Trust EarnedIn a 1976 interview, Congressman HamiltonFish of New York told of his experiences as awhite officer with the 369th Infantry Regiment,an all-black unit in the segregated Army of1917. Fish knew that his unit would functiononly if his soldiers trusted him; his soldiers, all ofwhom had volunteered for combat duty,deserved nothing less than a trustworthy


5-105. Developing teams takes hard work,patience, and quite a bit of interpersonal skill onthe part of the leader, but it’s a worthwhileinvestment. Good teams get the job done. Peo-ple who are part of a good team complete themission on time with the resources given themand a minimum of wasted effort; in combat,good teams are the most effective and take thefewest casualties.

5-106. Good teams:

• Work together to accomplish the mission. • Execute tasks thoroughly and quickly. • Meet or exceed the standard. • Thrive on demanding challenges. • Learn from their experiences and are proud of

their accomplishments.

5-107. The Army is a team that includes mem-bers who are not soldiers but whose contribu-tions are essential to mission success. Thecontributions made by almost 1,600 DA civil-ians in the Persian Gulf region were all butlost in the celebrations surrounding the mili-tary victory against Iraq and the homecomingcelebration for the soldiers that followed.However, one safety specialist noted that these

deployed DA civilians recognized the need fora team effort:

Patriotism was their drawing force forbeing there....We were part of the teamsupporting our soldiers! The focus is whereit should be—on the military. They’re hereto do the job; we’re here to help them.

5-108. People will do the most extraordinarythings for their buddies. It’s your job as an Armyleader to pull each member into the teambecause you may someday ask that person forextraordinary effort. Team building involvesapplying interpersonal leader skills that trans-form individuals into productive teams. Ifyou’ve done your work, the team member won’tlet you down.

5-109. Within a larger team, smaller teams maybe at different stages of development. Forinstance, members of First Squad may be usedto working together. They trust one another andget the job done—usually exceeding the stan-dard—with no wasted motion. Second Squad inthe same platoon just received three new sol-diers and a team leader from another company.As a team, Second Squad is less mature; it willtake them some time to get up to the level ofFirst Squad. New team members have to learnhow things work: they have to be brought onboard and made to feel members of the team;they must learn the standards and the climate oftheir new unit; they’ll have to demonstrate somecompetence before other members really acceptthem; and finally, they must practice workingtogether. Leaders, who must oversee all this, arebetter equipped if they know what to expect.Make use of the information on the next fewpages; learn what to look for—and stay flexible.

5-110. Figure 5-5 lists things you must do topull a team together, get it going in the rightdirection, and keep it moving. And that list onlyhints at the work that lies ahead as you get your


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leader. When a white regiment threatened toattack the black soldiers in training camp, Fish,his pistol drawn, alerted the leaders of that reg-iment and headed off a disaster.

“There was one thing they wanted above allfrom a white officer,” [Fish recalled in an inter-view nearly 60 years later] “and that was fairtreatment. You see, even in New York City[home of most of his soldiers] they really didnot get a square deal most of the time. But ifthey felt you were on the level with them, theywould go all out for you. And they seemed tohave a sixth sense in realizing just how you felt.I sincerely wanted to lead them as real soldiers,and they knew it.”


team to work together. Your subordinates mustknow—must truly believe—that they’re a partof the team, that their contribution is importantand valued. They must know that you’ll trainthem and listen to them. They don’t want you tolet them get away with shoddy work or half-baked efforts; there’s no pride in loafing. Youmust constantly observe, counsel, develop, lis-ten; you must be every bit the team player youwant your subordinates to be—and more.

5-111. Teams don’t come together by accident;leaders must build and guide them through aseries of developmental stages: formation,enrichment, and sustainment. This discussionmay make the process seem more orderly than itactually is; as with so many things leaders do,the reality is more complicated than the expla-nation. Each team develops differently: theboundaries between stages are not hard and fast.As a leader, you must be sensitive to the charac-teristics of the team you’re building and of itsindividual members—your people. Comparethe characteristics of your team with the teambuilding stage descriptions. The informationthat results can help you determine what toexpect of your team and what you need to do toimprove its capabilities.

Stages of Team Building5-112. Teams, like individuals, have different per-sonalities. As with individuals, the leader’s jobisn’t to make teams that are clones of one another;the job is to make best use of the peculiar talentsof the team, maximize the potential of the unit cli-mate, and motivate aggressive execution.

5-113. Formation stage. Teams work bestwhen new members are brought on boardquickly, when they’re made to feel a part of theteam. The two steps—reception and orienta-tion—are dramatically different in peace andwar. In combat, this sponsorship process can lit-

erally mean life or death to new members and tothe team.

5-114. Reception is the leader’s welcome: theorientation begins with meeting other teammembers, learning the layout of the workplace,learning the schedule and other requirements,and generally getting to know the lay of theland. In combat, leaders may not have time tospend with new members. In this case, newarrivals are often assigned a buddy who willhelp them get oriented and keep them out oftrouble until they learn their way around. What-ever technique you use, your soldiers shouldnever encounter a situation similar to the one inthe next example.


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Replacements in the ETOMost historians writing about World War IIagree that the replacement system that fednew soldiers into the line units was seriouslyflawed, especially in the ETO, and did tremen-dous harm to the soldiers and the Army.Troopsfresh from stateside posts were shuffled aboutin tent cities where they were just numbers. 1LTGeorge Wilson, an infantry company com-mander who received one hundred replace-ments on December 29, 1944, in the midst ofthe Battle of the Bulge, remembers the results:“We discovered that these men had been on arifle range only once; they had never thrown agrenade or fired a bazooka [antitank rocket],mortar or machine gun.”

PVT Morris Dunn, another soldier whoended up with the 84th Division after weeks ina replacement depot recalls how the new sol-diers felt: “We were just numbers, we didn’tknow anybody, and I’ve never felt so alone andmiserable and helpless in my entire life—we’dbeen herded around like cattle at rounduptime.…On the ride to the front it was cold andraining with the artillery fire louder every mile,


5-115. In combat, Army leaders have countlessthings to worry about; the mental state of newarrivals might seem low on the list. But if thosesoldiers can’t fight, the unit will suffer needlesscasualties and may fail to complete the mission.

5-116. Discipline and shared hardship pull peo-ple together in powerful ways. SGT Alvin C.York, who won the Medal of Honor in an actionyou’ll read about later in this chapter, talkedabout cohesion this way:

War brings out the worst in you. It turnsyou into a mad, fighting animal, but it alsobrings out something else, something I justdon’t know how to describe, a sort of ten-derness and love for the fellow fightingwith you.

5-117. However, the emotions SGT York men-tions don’t emerge automatically in combat.One way to ensure cohesion is to build it duringpeacetime. Team building begins with receivingnew members; you know how important firstimpressions are when you meet someone new.The same thing is true of teams; the new mem-ber’s reception and orientation creates that cru-cial first impression that colors the person’sopinion of the team for a long time. A goodexperience joining the organization will make iteasier for the new member to fit in and con-tribute. Even in peacetime, the way a person isreceived into an organization can have long-lasting effects—good or bad—on the individualand the team. (Appendix C discusses receptionand integration counseling.)

5-118. Enrichment stage. New teams and newteam members gradually move from questioningeverything to trusting themselves, their peers,and their leaders. Leaders earn that trust by lis-

tening, following up on what they hear, estab-lishing clear lines of authority, and setting stan-dards. By far the most important thing a leaderdoes to strengthen the team is training. Trainingtakes a group of individuals and molds them intoa team while preparing them to accomplish theirmissions. Training occurs during all three teambuilding stages, but is particularly importantduring enrichment; it’s at this point that the teamis building collective proficiency.


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Reception on Christmas EveAn assistant division commander of the 25thInfantry Division told this story as part of hisfarewell speech:

“I ran across some new soldiers and askedthem about their arrival on the island [of Oahu].They said they got in on Christmas Eve, and Ithought to myself, ‘Can’t we do a better jobwhen we ship these kids out, so they’re not sit-ting in some airport on their first big holidayaway from home?’ I mean, I really felt sorry forthem. So I said, ‘Must have been pretty lone-some sitting in a new barracks where you didn’tknow anyone.’ And one of them said,‘No, sir. Weweren’t there a half-hour before the CQ [chargeof quarters] came up and told us to get intoclass B’s and be standing out front of the com-pany in 15 minutes. Then this civilian drives up,a teenager, and the CQ orders us into the car.Turns out the kid was the first sergeant’s son;his father had sent him over to police up any-body who was hanging around the barracks.We went over to the first sergeant’s house to abig luau [party] with his family and a bunch oftheir neighbors and friends.’

“My guess is that those soldiers will not onlydo anything and everything that first sergeantwants, but they are going to tell anyone whowill listen that they belong to the best outfit inthe Army.”

and finally we were dumped out in the middleof a heavily damaged town.”



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TEAM BUILDING STAGES

SUBORDINATE CHALLENGES LEADER & UNIT/ORGANIZATION ACTIONS

GENERIC

GENERIC

GENERIC

FORMATION STAGE

ENRICHMENT STAGE

SUSTAINMENT STAGE

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

SOLDIER

CRITICAL

Figure 5-5. Team building stages


5-119. Sustainment stage. When a teamreaches this stage, its members think of the teamas “their team.” They own it, have pride in it, andwant the team to succeed. At this stage, teammembers will do what needs to be done withoutbeing told. Every new mission gives the leader achance to make the bonds even stronger, to chal-lenge the team to reach for new heights. Theleader develops his subordinates because they’retomorrow’s team leaders. He continues to trainthe team so that it maintains proficiency in thecollective and individual tasks it must perform toaccomplish its missions. Finally, the leaderworks to keep the team going in spite of thestresses and losses of combat.

Building the Ethical Climate5-120. As an Army leader, you are the ethicalstandard bearer for your organization. You’reresponsible for building an ethical climate thatdemands and rewards behavior consistent withArmy values. The primary factor affecting anorganization’s ethical climate is its leader’s eth-ical standard. Leaders can look to other organi-zational or installation personnel—for example,the chaplain, staff judge advocate, inspectorgeneral, and equal employment opportunitymanager—to assist them in building and assess-ing their organization’s ethical climate, but theultimate responsibility belongs to the leader—period.

5-121. Setting a good ethical example doesn’tnecessarily mean subordinates will follow it.Some of them may feel that circumstances jus-tify unethical behavior. (See, for example, thesituation portrayed in Appendix D.) Therefore,you must constantly seek to maintain a feel foryour organization’s current ethical climate andtake prompt action to correct any discrepanciesbetween the climate and the standard. One toolto help you is the Ethical Climate AssessmentSurvey (ECAS), which is discussed in Appen-

dix D. You can also use some of the resourceslisted above to help you get a feel for your orga-nization’s ethical climate. After analyzing theinformation gathered from the survey or othersources, a focus group may be a part of yourplan of action to improve the ethical climate.Your abilities to listen and decide are the mostimportant tools you have for this job.

5-122. It’s important for subordinates to haveconfidence in the organization’s ethical environ-ment because much of what is necessary in wargoes against the grain of the societal valuesindividuals bring into the Army. You read in thepart of Chapter 4 that discusses ethical reason-ing that a soldier’s conscience may tell him it’swrong to take human life while the mission ofthe unit calls for exactly that. Unless you’veestablished a strong ethical climate that lets thatsoldier know his duty, the conflict of values maysap the soldier’s will to fight.


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SGT YorkA conscientious objector from the Tennesseehills, Alvin C. York was drafted after America’sentry into World War I and assigned to the328th Infantry Regiment of the 82d Division,the “All Americans.” PVT York, a devout Christ-ian, told his commander, CPT E. C. B. Danforth,that he would bear arms against the enemy butdidn’t believe in killing. Recognizing PVT York asa potential leader but unable to sway him fromhis convictions, CPT Danforth consulted his bat-talion commander, MAJ George E. Buxton,about how to handle the situation.

MAJ Buxton was also deeply religious andknew the Bible as well as PVT York did. He hadCPT Danforth bring PVT York to him, and theytalked at length about the Scriptures, aboutGod’s teachings, about right and wrong, aboutjust wars.Then MAJ Buxton sent PVT York homeon leave to ponder and pray over the dilemma.The battalion commander promised to release



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him from the Army if PVT York decided he couldnot serve his country without sacrificing hisintegrity. After two weeks of reflection anddeep soul-searching, PVT York returned, havingreconciled his personal values with those of theArmy. PVT York’s decision had great conse-quences for both himself and his unit.

Alvin York performed an exploit of almostunbelievable heroism in the morning hours of8 October 1918 in France’s Argonne Forest. Hewas now a corporal (CPL), having won hisstripes during combat in the Lorraine. Thatmorning CPL York’s battalion was movingacross a valley to seize a German-held rail pointwhen a German infantry battalion, hidden on awooded ridge overlooking the valley, openedup with machine gun fire. The American battal-ion dived for cover, and the attack stalled. CPLYork’s platoon, already reduced to 16 men, wassent to flank the enemy machine guns.

As the platoon advanced through the woodsto the rear of the German outfit, it surprised agroup of about 25 German soldiers. Theshocked enemy offered only token resistance,but then more hidden machine guns swept theclearing with fire. The Germans dropped safelyto the ground, but nine Americans, includingthe platoon leader and the other two corporals,fell dead or wounded. CPL York was the onlyunwounded leader remaining.

CPL York found his platoon trapped andunder fire within 25 yards of the enemy’smachine gun pits. Nonetheless, he didn’t panic.Instead, he began firing into the nearest enemyposition, aware that the Germans would haveto expose themselves to get an aimed shot athim. An expert marksman, CPL York was able tohit every enemy soldier who popped his headover the parapet.

After he had shot more than a dozen enemy,six German soldiers charged him with fixed

bayonets. As the Germans ran toward him, CPLYork once again drew on the instincts of a Ten-nessee hunter and shot the last man first (sothe ones in front wouldn’t see the ones he shotfall), then the fifth, and so on. After he had shotall the assaulting Germans, CPL York againturned his attention to the machine gun pits. Inbetween shots, he called for the Germans togive up. It may have initially seemed ludicrousfor a lone soldier in the open to call on a well-entrenched enemy to surrender, but their situa-tion looked desperate to the German battalioncommander, who had seen over 20 of his sol-diers killed by this one American. The com-mander advanced and offered to surrender ifCPL York would stop shooting.

CPL York now faced a daunting task. His pla-toon, now numbering seven unwounded sol-diers, was isolated behind enemy lines withseveral dozen prisoners. However, when oneAmerican said their predicament was hopeless,CPL York told him to be quiet and began organ-izing the prisoners for a movement. CPL Yorkmoved his unit and prisoners toward Americanlines, encountering other German positionsand forcing their surrender. By the time the pla-toon reached the edge of the valley they hadleft just a few hours before, the hill was clear ofGerman machine guns. The fire on the Ameri-cans in the valley was substantially reducedand their advance began again.

CPL York returned to American lines, havingtaken a total of 132 prisoners and putting 35machine guns out of action. He left the prison-ers and headed back to his own outfit. Intelli-gence officers questioned the prisoners andlearned from their testimony the incrediblestory of how a fighting battalion was destroyedby one determined soldier armed only with arifle and pistol. Alvin C. York was promoted tosergeant and awarded the Medal of Honor for


5-123. CPT Danforth and MAJ Buxton couldhave ordered SGT York to go to war, or theymight have shipped him out to a job that wouldtake him away from the fight. Instead, theseleaders carefully addressed the soldier’s ethicalconcerns. MAJ Buxton, in particular, estab-lished the ethical climate by showing that he,too, had wrestled with the very questions thattroubled SGT York. The climate these leaderscreated held that every person’s beliefs areimportant and should be considered. MAJ Bux-ton demonstrated that a soldier’s duties could beconsistent with the ethical framework estab-lished by his religious beliefs. Leaders who cre-ate a healthy ethical environment inspire confi-dence in their subordinates; that confidence andthe trust it engenders builds the unit’s will. Theycreate an environment where soldiers can truly“be all they can be.”

Learning

5-124. The Army is a learning organization, onethat harnesses the experience of its people andorganizations to improve the way it does busi-ness. Based on their experiences, learning

organizations adopt new techniques and proce-dures that get the job done more efficiently oreffectively. Likewise, they discard techniquesand procedures that have outlived their purpose.However, you must remain flexible when tryingto make sense of your experiences. The leader

who works day after day after day and neverstops to ask “How can I do this better?” is nevergoing to learn and won’t improve the team.

5-125. Leaders who learn look at their experi-ence and find better ways of doing things. Don’tbe afraid to challenge how you and your subordi-nates operate. When you ask “Why do we do itthat way?” and the only answer you get is“Because we’ve always done it that way,” it’s timefor a closer look. Teams that have found a waythat works still may not be doing things the bestway. Unless leaders are willing to question howthings are, no one will ever know what can be.

“Zero Defects” and Learning5-126. There’s no room for the “zero-defects”mentality in a learning organization. Leaderswilling to learn welcome new ways of lookingat things, examine what’s going well, and arenot afraid to look at what’s going poorly. Whendirect leaders stop receiving feedback from sub-ordinates, it’s a good indication that somethingis wrong. If the message you hammer home is“There will be no mistakes,” or if you lose yourtemper and “shoot the messenger” every timethere’s bad news, eventually your people willjust stop telling you when things go wrong orsuggesting how to make things go right. Thenthere will be some unpleasant surprises in store.Any time you have human beings in a complexorganization doing difficult jobs, often underpressure, there are going to be problems. Effec-tive leaders use those mistakes to figure out howto do things better and share what they havelearned with other leaders in the organization,both peers and superiors.

5-127. That being said, all environments arenot learning environments; a standard of“zero-defects” is acceptable, if not mandatory,in some circumstances. A parachute rigger ischarged with a “zero-defect” standard. If a rig-ger makes a mistake, a parachutist will die.


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For most men, the matter of learning is one of per-sonal preference. But for Army [leaders], the obli-gation to learn, to grow in their profession, isclearly a public duty.


this action. His character, physical courage,technical competence, and leadership enabledhim to destroy the morale and effectiveness ofan entire enemy infantry battalion.


Helicopter repairers live in a “zero-defect”environment as well. They can’t allow aircraftto be mechanically unstable during flight. Inthese and similar work environments, safetyconcerns mandate a “zero-defects” mentality.Of course, organizations and people make mis-takes; mistakes are part of training and may bethe price of taking action. Leaders must maketheir intent clear and ensure their peopleunderstand the sorts of mistakes that areacceptable and those that are not.

5-128. Leaders can create a “zero-defects”environment without realizing it. Good leaderswant their organizations to excel. But an organi-zational “standard” of excellence can quicklyslide into “zero defects” if the leader isn’t care-ful. For example, the published minimum stan-dard for passing the APFT is 180 points—60points per event. However, in units that are rou-tinely assigned missions requiring highly stren-uous physical activities, leaders need to traintheir people to a higher-than-average level ofphysical fitness. If leaders use APFT scores asthe primary means of gauging physical fitness,their soldiers will focus on the test rather thanthe need for physical fitness. A better coursewould be for leaders to train their people onmission-related skills that require the higherlevel of physical readiness while at the sametime motivating them to strive for their personalbest on the APFT.

Barriers to Learning5-129. Fear of mistakes isn’t the only thing thatcan get in the way of learning; so can rigid,lockstep thinking and plain mental laziness.These habits can become learning barriers lead-ers are so used to that they don’t even noticethem. Fight this tendency. Challenge yourself.Use your imagination. Ask how other people dothings. Listen to subordinates.

Helping People Learn5-130. Certain conditions help people learn.First, you must motivate the person to learn.Explain to the subordinate why the subject isimportant or show how it will help the individ-ual perform better. Second, involve the subordi-nate in the learning process; make it active. Forinstance, you would never try to teach someonehow to drive a vehicle with classroom instruc-tion alone; you have to get the person behind thewheel. That same approach applies to muchmore complex tasks; keep the lecture to a mini-mum and maximize the hands-on time.

5-131. Learning from experience isn’t enough;you can’t have every kind of experience. But ifyou take advantage of what others havelearned, you get the benefit without having theexperience. An obvious example is when com-bat veterans in a unit share their experienceswith soldiers who haven’t been to war. A lessobvious, but no less important, example iswhen leaders share their experience with sub-ordinates during developmental counseling.

After-Action Reviews and Learning5-132. Individuals benefit when the grouplearns together. The AAR is one tool goodleaders use to help their organizations learn asa group. Properly conducted, an AAR is a pro-fessional discussion of an event, focused onperformance standards, that enables people todiscover for themselves what happened, why ithappened, and how to sustain strengths andimprove on weaknesses. Like warning ordersand rehearsals, the AAR is a technique that allleaders—military or DA civilian—can use ingarrison as well as field environments. Whenyour team sits down for an AAR, make sureeveryone participates and all understand what’sbeing said. With input from the whole team,your people will learn more than if they justthink about the experience by themselves.


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Organizational Climate and Learning5-133. It takes courage to create a learningenvironment. When you try new things or trythings in different ways, you’re bound tomake mistakes. Learn from your mistakes andthe mistakes of others. Pick your team andyourself up, determine what went right andwrong, and continue the mission. Be confi-dent in your abilities. Theodore Roosevelt, acolonel during the Spanish-American Warand twenty-sixth President of the UnitedStates, put it this way:

Whenever you are asked if you can do ajob, tell ’em, Certainly I can!—and getbusy and find out how to do it.

5-134. Your actions as a direct leader move theArmy forward. How you influence your subor-dinates and the people you work for, how youoperate to get the job done, how you improvethe organization for a better future, all deter-mine the Army’s success or failure.

Summary

5-135. Direct leaders influence their subordi-nates face-to-face as they operate to accomplish

the mission and improve the organization.Because their leadership is face-to-face, directleaders see the outcomes of their actions almostimmediately. This is partly because they receiveimmediate feedback on the results of theiractions.

5-136. Direct leaders influence by determiningtheir purpose and direction from the boss’sintent and concept of the operation. They moti-vate subordinates by completing tasks that rein-force this intent and concept. They continuallyacquire and assess outcomes and motivate theirsubordinates through face-to-face contact andpersonal example.

5-137. Direct leaders operate by focusing theirsubordinates’ activities toward the organiza-tion’s objective and achieving it. Direct leadersplan, prepare, execute, and assess as they oper-ate. These functions sometimes occur simulta-neously.

5-138. Direct leaders improve by living Armyvalues and providing the proper role model forsubordinates. Leaders must develop all subordi-nates as they build strong, cohesive teams andestablish an effective learning environment.


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A s they mature and assume greater responsibilities, Army leaders must also learn newskills, develop new abilities, and act in more complex environments. Organizationaland strategic leaders maintain their own personalities and propensities, but they also

expand what they know and refine what they do.

Chapters 6 and 7 describe (rather than prescribe or mandate) skills and actions required oforganizational and strategic leaders. The chapters discuss much of what developing leadersoften sense and explore some concepts that may seem foreign to them. Neither chapter out-lines exhaustively what leaders know and do at higher levels; they simply introduce what’sdifferent.

The audience for Chapters 6 and 7 is only in part organizational and strategic leaders, whohave prepared to serve in those positions by career-long experience and study. Primarily, thesechapters offer staffs and subordinates who work for those leaders insight into the additionalconcerns and activities of organizational and strategic leadership.

Part Three

Organizational andStrategic Leadership



6-1. During the Battle of the Bulge, with theGermans bearing down on retreating US forces,PFC Vernon L. Haught dug in and told a ser-geant in a tank destroyer, “Just pull your vehiclebehind me.... I’m the 82d Airborne, and this isas far as the bastards are going.” He knew hisdivision commander’s intent. Despite desperateodds, he had confidence in himself and his unitand knew they would make the difference. Facedwith a fluid situation, he knew where the linehad to be drawn; he had the will to act and hedidn’t hesitate to do what he thought was right.

6-2. Whether for key terrain in combat or forresults in peacetime training, leaders in unitsand organizations translate strategy into policyand practice. They develop programs, plans, andsystems that allow soldiers in teams, like theinfantryman in the All-American Division, toturn plans and orders into fire and maneuverthat seize victory at the least possible cost insweat and blood. By force of will and applica-tion of their leadership skills, organizationalleaders build teams with discipline, cohesion,trust, and proficiency. They clarify missionsthroughout the ranks by producing an intent,concept, and systematic approach to execution.

6-3. Organizational leadership builds on directleader actions. Organizational leaders applydirect leader skills in their daily work with theircommand and staff teams and, with soldiers andsubordinate leaders, they influence during theircontacts with units. But to lead complex organ-izations like brigades, divisions, and corps attoday’s OPTEMPO and under the stresses oftraining, contingency operations, and combat,organizational leaders must add a whole new setof skills and actions to their leadership arsenal.They must practice direct and organizationalleadership simultaneously.

6-4. Communicating to NCOs, like the airbornesoldier at the Battle of the Bulge, occursthrough individual subordinates, the staff, andthe chain of command. Organizational leadersdivide their attention between the concerns ofthe larger organization and their staffs and thoseof their subordinate leaders, units, and individu-als. This tradeoff requires them to apply inter-personal and conceptual skills differently whenexercising organizational leadership than whenexercising direct leadership.

6-5. Organizational leaders rely heavily onmentoring subordinates and empowering them

Chapter 6

OrganizationalLeadership

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to execute their assigned responsibilities andmissions. They stay mentally and emotionallydetached from their immediate surroundings sothey can visualize the larger impact on theorganization and mission. Soldiers and subordi-nate leaders look to their organizational leadersto establish standards for mission accomplish-ment and provide resources (conditions) toachieve that goal. Organizational leaders pro-vide direction and programs for training andexecution that focus efforts on mission success.

6-6. Due to the indirect nature of their influence,organizational leaders assess interrelated sys-tems and design long-term plans to accomplishthe mission. They must sharpen their abilities toassess their environments, their organization,and their subordinates. Organizational leadersdetermine the cause and effect of shortcomings,translate these new understandings into plansand programs, and allow their subordinate lead-ers latitude to execute and get the job done.

6-7. Organizational demands also differ as lead-ers develop a systems perspective. At the strate-gic level, the Army has identified six impera-tives: quality people, training, force mix, doc-trine, modern equipment, and leader develop-ment. In organizations these imperatives trans-late into doctrine, training, leader development,organization, materiel, and soldiers—com-monly called DTLOMS. Together with Armyvalues, these systems provide the framework forinfluencing people and organizations at all lev-els, conducting a wide variety of operations, andcontinually improving the force. Doctrineincludes techniques to drive the functional sys-tems in Army organizations. FMs 25-100, 25-101, and 101-5 (see Bibliography) lay out pro-cedures for training management and militarydecision making that enable and focus execu-tion. The training management and militarydecision-making processes provide a ready-

made, systemic approach to planning, prepar-ing, executing, and assessing.

SECTION I. WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD

ORGANIZATIONS—SKILLS

6-8. Organizational leaders continue to use thedirect leader skills discussed in Chapter 4. How-ever their larger organizations and spans ofauthority require them to master additionalskills. As with direct leader skills, these spanfour areas: interpersonal, conceptual, technical,and tactical.



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To get the best out of your men, they must feelthat you are their real leader and must know thatthey can depend upon you.

General of the Armies John J. Pershing

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Figure 6-1. Organizational leader skills—interpersonal


Understanding Soldiers

6-9. Good organizational leaders understand thehuman dimension, which Chapter 3 discussed.They use that understanding to motivate subor-dinates and to encourage initiative. Chapter 5explained that motivation means much morethan an individual willingness to do what’sdirected. It imparts a desire on the part of indi-viduals and organizations to do what’s neededwithout being directed. This collective desire toaccomplish the mission underlies good organi-zational discipline: good soldiers and competentDA civilians adhere to standards because theyunderstand that doing so, even when it’s a nui-sance or hardship, leads to success.

6-10. This understanding, along with Army val-ues, forms the foundation of great units. Unitsthat have solid discipline can take tremendousstress and friction yet persevere, fight through,and win. Fostering initiative builds on motiva-tion and discipline. It requires subordinates’confidence that in an uncertain situation, whenthey know the commander’s intent and developa competent solution, the commander willunderwrite the risk they take. While this princi-ple applies to both direct and organizationalleaders, the stakes are usually higher in larger,more complex organizations. Additionally,organizational leaders may be more remote intime and distance and subordinates’ ability tocheck back with them is diminished. Therefore,organizational leaders’ understanding mustdevelop beyond what they can immediately andpersonally observe.

Communicating

6-11. Persuasion is a communication skillimportant to organizational leaders. Well-developed skills of persuasion and openness toworking through controversy in a positive wayhelp organizational leaders overcome resist-

ance and build support. These characteristicsare particularly important in dealing with otherorganizational leaders. By reducing groundsfor misunderstanding, persuasion reduces timewasted in overcoming unimportant issues. Italso ensures involvement of others, opens com-munication with them, and places value ontheir opinions—all team-building actions.Openness to discussing one’s position and apositive attitude toward a dissenting view oftendiffuses tension and saves time and resistancein the long run. By demonstrating these traits,organizational leaders also provide an examplethat subordinates can use in self-development.

6-12. In some circumstances, persuasion may beinappropriate. In combat, all leaders make deci-sions quickly, modifying the decision-makingprocess to fit the circumstances. But this prac-tice of using the directing leadership styles asopposed to more participatory ones should occurwhen situations are in doubt, risks are high, andtime is short—circumstances that often appearin combat. No exact blueprints exist for successin every context; leadership and the ability toadapt to the situation will carry the day. Appro-priate style, seasoned instinct, and the realities ofthe situation must prevail.

Supervising

6-13. Organizations pay attention to thingsleaders check. Feedback and coaching enhancemotivation and improve performance by show-ing subordinates how to succeed. But how muchshould you check and how much is too much?When are statistics and reports adequate indica-tors and when must you visit your front-lineorganizations, talk to your soldiers and DAcivilians and see what’s going on yourself?

6-14. Overcentralized authority and oversuper-vising undermine trust and empowerment.Undersupervising can lead to failure, especially


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in cases where the leader’s intent wasn’t fullyunderstood or where subordinate organizationslack the training for the task. Different subordi-nate commanders need different levels of super-vision: some need a great deal of coaching andencouragement, though most would just as soonbe left alone. As always, a good leader knowshis subordinates and has the skill to supervise atthe appropriate level.

Conceptual Skills

6-15. The complexity of the organizationalleader’s environment requires patience, the will-ingness to think before acting. Furthermore, theimportance of conceptual and analytical skillsincreases as an organizational leader moves intopositions of greater responsibility. Organiza-tional environments with multiple dimensionsoffer problems that become more abstract, com-plex, and uncertain.

6-16. Figure 6-2 identifies the conceptual skillsrequired of organizational leaders. For organiza-tional leaders, reasoning skills are crucial fordeveloping intent and direction toward commongoals. Critical thinking at the organizational


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Knowing Your PeopleThis General said,“Each of our three regimentalcommanders must be handled differently.Colonel ‘A’ does not want an order. He wants todo everything himself and always does well.Colonel ‘B’ executes every order, but has no ini-tiative. Colonel ‘C’ opposes everything he is toldto do and wants to do the contrary.”

A few days later the troops confronted awell-entrenched enemy whose position wouldhave to be attacked.The General issued the fol-lowing orders:

To Colonel “A” (who wants to do everythinghimself ): ”My dear Colonel ‘A’, I think we willattack.Your regiment will have to carry the bur-den of the attack. I have, however, selected youfor this reason. The boundaries of your regi-ment are so-and-so. Attack at X-hour. I don’thave to tell you anything more.”

To Colonel “C” (who opposes everything):”We have met a very strong enemy. I am afraidwe will not be able to attack with the forces atour disposal.” “Oh, General, certainly we willattack. Just give my regiment the time of attackand you will see that we are successful,” repliedColonel “C.” “Go then, we will try it,” said theGeneral, giving him the order for the attack,which he had prepared some time previously.

To Colonel “B” (who always must havedetailed orders) the attack order was merelysent with additional details.

All three regiments attacked splendidly.Adolph von Schell,

German liaison to the Infantry School between the World Wars

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Figure 6-2. Organizational leader skills—conceptual


level requires understanding systems and anincreased ability to filter information, that is, toidentify quickly information that applies to thetask at hand and separate the important fromthe unimportant. Organizational leaders usethis analytical ability to assess ambiguous envi-ronments and to calculate and manage risk.Their experience may allow them to see anddefine problems more easily—but not neces-sarily fix them quickly. Therefore, they alsodedicate time to think and generate alternativeways of organizing their organizations andresources for maximum effect. It’s importantfor organizational leaders to encourage criticalthinking in subordinates because subordinatesalso assess organizational challenges, analyzeindicators, and recommend courses of action.It’s also important, time and mission permitting,to allow subordinates’ solutions to bear fruit.

Establishing Intent

6-17. Intent is the leader’s personal expressionof a mission’s end state and the key tasks theorganization must accomplish to achieve it.During operations and field training, it’s aclear, concise statement of what the force mustdo to succeed with respect to the enemy and theterrain and to the desired end state. It providesthe link between the mission and the concept ofoperations. By describing their intent, organi-zational leaders highlight the key tasks that,along with the mission, are the basis for subor-

dinates to exercise initiative when unantici-pated opportunities arise or when the originalconcept of operations no longer applies. Clearand concise, the leader’s intent includes a mis-sion’s overall purpose and expected results. Itprovides purpose, motivation, and direction,whether the leader is commanding a division orrunning a staff directorate. An organizationalleader visualizes the sequence of activities thatwill move the organization from its currentstate to the desired end state and expresses it assimply and clearly as possible.

6-18. After establishing a clear and valid intent,the art of organizational leadership lies in hav-ing subordinates take actions on their own totransform that intent into reality. Since organi-zational leaders are likely to be farther awayfrom the point of execution in time and space,they must describe the collective goal ratherthan list tasks for individual subordinates. Withclearly communicated purpose and direction,subordinates can then determine what theymust do and why. Within that broad framework,leaders empower subordinates, delegatingauthority to act within the intent: “Here’s wherewe’re headed, why we’re going there, and howwe’re going to get there.” Purpose and directionalign the efforts of subordinates workingtoward common goals.

6-19. A former division commander has said,“You must be seen to be heard.” There’s a greattemptation for organizational leaders to relyexclusively on indirect leadership, to spreadintent by passing orders through subordinates orcommunicating electronically with troops scat-tered far and wide. However, nothing can takethe place of face-to-face contact. Organizationalleaders make every effort to get out among thetroops. There they can spot-check intent to seethat it’s disseminated and understood amongthose who must execute it.


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In an organization like ours, you have to thinkthrough what it is that you are becoming. Like amarathon runner, you have to get out in front,mentally, and pull the organization to you. Youhave to visualize the finish line—to see yourselfthere—and pull yourself along—not push—pullyourself to the future.

General Gordon R. Sullivan Former Army Chief of Staff


6-20. Having established an azimuth, organiza-tional leaders assist their subordinates’ efforts tobuild and train their organizations on those tasksnecessary for success. Finally, they act to moti-vate subordinate leaders and organizations tomeet the operational standards upon which dis-cipline depends.

Filtering Information

6-21. Organizational leaders deal with a tremen-dous amount of information. Some informationwill make sense only to someone with a broadperspective and an understanding of the entiresituation. Organizational leaders communicateclearly to their staffs what information they needand then hold the staff accountable for providingit. Then, they judge—based on their education,training, and experience—what’s important andmake well-informed, timely decisions.


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GEN Grant and the End of the Civil WarI propose to fight it out on this line if it takes allsummer.

General Ulysses S. GrantDispatch, May 11, 1864

GEN Ulysses S. Grant penned those words atSpotsylvania, Virginia, after being appointedgeneral in chief of the Union Army and station-ing himself forward with the Army of thePotomac. After fighting a bloody draw at theWilderness, the Army of the Potomac hadmoved aggressively to outflank GEN Robert E.Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia but once morefaced a dug-in Confederate Army. However,where previous Union commanders had turnedaway, GEN Grant would not relent. His intentwas clear. It was reinforced in the sentiment ofhis army, which wanted to finish the war.

In a series of determined attacks, the newUnion commander broke GEN Lee’s defenseand used a turning movement to force hisopponent out of position. Again they met atCold Harbor, where GEN Grant attackedfrontally and failed. Prior to his attack, Unionsoldiers, literally days from the end of theirenlistment, were seen writing notes to theirfamilies and pinning them on the backs oftheir shirts so one last message would gethome if they were killed. Their resolutiondemonstrates the power of their commitmentto a shared intent.

After his bloody repulse at Cold Harbor, GENGrant again moved south, maintaining the ini-tiative, always pressing, always threatening toturn the Confederate flank and expose Rich-mond, the capital of Virginia. GEN Lee, in turn,was forced to block and defend Petersburg,Richmond’s railroad hub. Uncovering it wouldhave isolated Richmond as well as his army’srail-based lines of communication. GEN Granthad his opponent pinned to a critical strategic

resource. Doing this denied the Army of North-ern Virginia its greatest asset, its excellent abil-ity to maneuver. It would not escape.

GEN Grant was unstinting in his resolve tototally defeat GEN Lee. He was a familiar figureto his soldiers, riding among them with hisslouch hat in his private’s uniform with gen-eral’s rank. He drove his subordinates, whothemselves wanted to finish off their old foe;despite casualties, he unflinchingly resistedpressure to back away from his intent.

Leaders at all levels, but particularly those athigher levels who lack recent personal observa-tions, can only make decisions based on the infor-mation given to them. What sets senior leadersapart is their ability to sort through great amountsof information, key in on what is significant, andthen make decisions. But, these decisions are onlyas good as the information provided.

A Former Battalion Commander


6-22. Analysis and synthesis are essential toeffective decision-making and program devel-opment. Analysis breaks a problem into its com-ponent parts. Synthesis assembles complex anddisorganized data into a solution. Often, datamust be processed before it fits into place.

6-23. Commander’s critical information require-ments (CCIR) are the commander’s most impor-tant information filters. Commanders mustknow the environment, the situation, their organ-izations, and themselves well enough to articu-late what they need to know to control theirorganizations and accomplish their missions.They must also ensure they have thoughtthrough the feedback systems necessary tosupervise execution. Organizational-level com-manders must not only establish CCIR but alsotrain their staffs to battle drill proficiency ininformation filtering.

Understanding Systems

6-24. Organizational leaders think about sys-tems in their organization: how they worktogether, how using one affects the others, andhow to get the best performance from the whole.They think beyond their own organizations tohow what their organization does affects otherorganizations and the team as a whole. Whethercoordinating fires among different units orimproving sponsorship of new personnel, orga-nizational leaders use a systems perspective.While direct leaders think about tasks, organiza-tional leaders integrate, synchronize, and fine-tune systems and monitor outcomes. If organi-zational leaders can’t get something done, theflaw or failure is more likely systemic thanhuman. Being able to understand and leveragesystems increases a leader’s ability to achieveorganizational goals and objectives.

6-25. Organizational leaders also know howeffectively apply all available systems to

achieve mission success. They constantly makesure that the systems for personnel, administra-tion, logistical support, resourcing, and trainingwork effectively. They know where to look tosee if the critical parts of the system are func-tioning properly.


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DA Civilian Support to Desert ShieldDuring Operation Desert Shield, a contingentof DA civilians deployed to a depot in the com-bat theater to provide warfighting supplies andoperational equipment to the Third (US) Army.These DA civilians were under the supervisionof DA civilian supervisors, who motivated theiremployees in spite of the harsh conditions inthe region: hot weather, a dismal environment,and the constant threat of Iraqi missile andchemical attacks. It turned out that the uplift-ing organizational climate these leaders pro-vided overcame the physical deprivation.

Two senior DA civilian leaders, the depot’sdeputy director of maintenance and the chiefof the vehicle branch, developed a plan toreplace arriving units’ M1 tanks with M1A1s,which boasted greater firepower, better armor,and a more advanced nuclear, biological, andchemical protective system. They also devel-oped systems for performing semiannual andannual maintenance checks, quickly resolvingproblems, applying modifications such as addi-tional armor, and repainting the tanks in thedesert camouflage pattern.

Although similar programs normally take 18to 24 months to complete,the two leaders set anambitious objective of six months. Many expertsthought the goal could not be met,but the tena-cious leaders never wavered in their resolve.After 24-hour-a-day, seven-day-a-week opera-tions, their inspired team of teams completedthe project in two months. These DA civilianleaders with clear intent, firm objectives, and


6-26. Organizational leaders analyze systemsand results to determine why things happenedthe way they did. Performance indicators andstandards for systems assist them in their analy-sis. Equipment failure rates, unit status reports(USR) Standard Installation/Division PersonnelSystem (SIDPERS), Defense Civilian Person-nel Data System (DCPDS) data, and evaluationreport timeliness all show the health of sys-tems. Once an assessment is complete andcauses of a problem known, organizationalleaders develop appropriate solutions thataddress the problem’s root cause.

6-27. Isolating why things go wrong and wheresystems break down usually requires givingsubordinates time and encouragement to ferretout what’s really happening. The dilemma fororganizational leaders occurs when circum-stances and mission pressures require immedi-ate remedial action and preclude gathering moredata. It’s then that they must fall back on theirexperience and that of their subordinates, makea judgment, and act.

Technical Skills

6-28. The external responsibilities of organiza-tional leaders are greater than those of directleaders, both vertically and horizontally. Theirorganizations have more levels than direct-levelorganizations and, depending on the organiza-tion’s role, command interest may reach to theCINC or national command authority. There aremore requirements to coordinate with otherorganizations, which may include agencies out-side the Department of Defense (DOD). Tomake full use of their organizations’ capabili-ties, organizational leaders must continue tomaster technical skills outside their originalarea of expertise.


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unrelenting will motivated their team and pro-vided modern, lethal weapons to the soldierswho needed them when they were needed.

Innovative ReorganizationFacing a long-term downsizing of his organiza-tion, a DA civilian director didn’t simply shrinkits size. Instead, the director creatively flattenedthe organization by reducing the number ofdeputy executives, managers, and supervisors.The director increased responsibilities of thosein leadership positions and returned to a tech-nical focus those managers and supervisorswith dominant mission skills. The result was abetter leader-to-led ratio, a reduced number ofadministrative and clerical positions, and a

smoother transition to multi-disciplined teamoperations. The director’s systems understand-ing led him to tailor inputs that maintainedhealthy systems and improved outputs.

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Figure 6-3. Organizational leader skills—technical


Maintaining Critical Skills

6-29. Organizational leaders have fewer opportu-nities to practice many of the technical skills theymastered as direct leaders. However, that doesn’tmean they can forget about them. In every organ-ization there are certain skills in which all mem-bers must be proficient. Soldiers know what theyare and expect their leaders to be able to performthem. This doesn’t mean that organizational lead-ers must be able to perform every specialty-related skill as well as an individual holding thatspecialty. The Army is too complex for that. Itdoes, however, mean that organizational leadersmust identify and be proficient in those critical,direct-leader skills they need to assess tacticaltraining and set the example.

6-30. One organizational leader who set the exam-ple by drawing on deeply embedded technicalskills was COL Marian Tierney. In her final mili-tary assignment, COL Tierney was responsible fornursing operations at 38 hospitals with 2500nurses in the Republic of Vietnam. In 1966 she hadto call on the basic medical skills and personalcharacter she had honed throughout a career inplaces like Omaha Beach during the Normandyinvasion. That day, 22 years after D-Day, the air-craft on which she was a passenger crashed, leav-ing many injured and panicked survivors. Ignoringher own injuries COL Tierney treated her com-rades and took charge of evacuating the scene. Forher heroism she received the Soldier’s Medal. Heractions demonstrate that courageous leaders ofcharacter and competence serve at all levels.

Resourcing

6-31. In addition to using the technical skillsthey learned as direct leaders, organizationalleaders must also master the skill of resourcing.Resources—which include time, equipment,facilities, budgets, and people—are required toachieve organizational goals. Organizational

leaders must aggressively manage the resourcesat their disposal to ensure their organizations’readiness. The leader’s job grows more difficultwhen unprogrammed costs—such as an emer-gency deployment—shift priorities.

6-32. Organizational leaders are stewards oftheir people’s time and energy and their ownwill and tenacity. They don’t waste theseresources but skillfully evaluate objectives,anticipate resource requirements, and effi-ciently allocate what’s available. They balanceavailable resources with organizational require-ments and distribute them in a way that bestachieves organizational goals—in combat aswell as peacetime. For instance, when a cavalrysquadron acting as the division flank guardmakes contact, its commander asks for priorityof fires. The division commander considers theneeds of the squadron but must weigh it againstthe overall requirements of the current andfuture missions.

Predicting Second- and Third-Order Effects

6-33. Because the decisions of organizationalleaders have wider-ranging effects than those ofdirect leaders, organizational leaders must bemore sensitive to how their own actions affectthe organization’s climate. These actions maybe conscious, as in the case of orders and poli-cies, or unconscious, such as requirements forroutine or unscheduled reports and meetings.The ability to discern and predict second- andthird-order effects helps organizational leadersassess the health of the organizational climateand provide constructive feedback to subordi-nates. It can also result in identifying resourcerequirements and changes to organizations andprocedures. (The ECAS process illustrated inAppendix D or a similar one can be applied byorganizational as well as direct leaders.)


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6-34. For instance, when the Army Chief ofStaff approved a separate military occupationalspecialty code for mechanized infantry soldiers,the consequences were wide-ranging. Second-order effects included more specialized school-ing for infantry NCOs, a revised promotion sys-tem to accommodate different infantry NCOcareer patterns, and more doctrinal and trainingmaterial to support the new specialty. Third-order effects included resource requirements fordeveloping the training material and addingadditional instructor positions at the InfantryCenter and School. Organizational leaders areresponsible for anticipating the consequences ofany action they take or direct. Requiring thor-ough staff work can help. However, properanticipation also requires imagination andvision as well as an appreciation for other peo-ple and organizations.

Tactical Skills

6-35. Organizational leaders must master thetactical skills of synchronization and orchestra-tion. Synchronization applies at the tacticallevel of war; orchestration is an operational-level term. Synchronization arranges activitiesin time, space, and purpose to focus maximumrelative military power at a decisive point inspace and time. Organizational leaders synchro-nize battles, each of which may comprise sev-eral synchronized engagements.

6-36. Organizational leaders at corps and higherlevels orchestrate by applying the complemen-tary and reinforcing effects of all military andnonmilitary assets to overwhelm opponents atone or more decisive points. Both synchroniza-

tion and orchestration require leaders to puttogether technical, interpersonal, and conceptualskills and apply them to warfighting tasks.

6-37. Tactical skill for direct leaders involvesemploying individuals and teams of companysize and smaller. In contrast, tactical skill fororganizational leaders entails employing unitsof battalion size and larger. Organizational lead-ers get divisions, brigades, and battalions to theright place, at the right time, and in the rightcombination to fight and win battles andengagements. They project the effects of theirdecisions further out—in time and distance—than do direct leaders.

6-38. The operational skill of orchestrating aseries of tactical events is also more demandingand far-reaching. Time horizons are longer.Effects take more time to unfold. Decision setsare more intricate. GEN Grant’s Vicksburg cam-paign in the spring of 1863, which split the Con-federacy and opened the Mississippi River toUnion use, is a classic example of an organiza-


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Soldiers need leaders who know how to fight andhow to make the right decisions.

General Carl F. Vuono Former Army Chief of Staff

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Figure 6-4. Organization leader skills—tactical


tional leader orchestrating the efforts of subor-dinate forces.

6-39. Organizational leaders know doctrine,tactics, techniques, and procedures. Theirrefined tactical skills allow them to understand,integrate, and synchronize the activities of sys-tems, bringing all resources and systems to bearon warfighting tasks.

SECTION II. WHAT IT TAKES TO LEAD

ORGANIZATIONS—ACTIONS

6-40. Actions by organizational leaders have fargreater consequences for more people over alonger time than those of direct leaders.Because the connections between action andeffect are sometimes more remote and difficultto see, organizational leaders spend more timethinking about what they’re doing and howthey’re doing it than direct leaders do. Whenorganizational leaders act, they must translatetheir intent into action through the larger num-ber of people working for them.

6-41. Knowledge of subordinates is crucial tosuccess. To maximize and focus the energy oftheir staffs, organizational leaders ensure thatsubordinates know what must be done and why.In addition, they ensure that work being done ismoving the organization in the right direction.They develop concepts for operations and poli-cies and procedures to control and monitor theirexecution. Since the challenges they face arevaried and complicated, no manual can possiblyaddress them all. However, the following sectionprovides a framework for examining, explaining,and reflecting on organizational leader actions.


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GEN Grant at VicksburgAfter failing to capture Vicksburg by attackingfrom the north, GEN Ulysses S. Grant movedalong the west bank of the Mississippi River toa point south of the city. He masked his move-ment and intentions by sending COL BenjaminGrierson’s cavalry deep into Mississippi to con-duct a series of raids. The Union commanderalso synchronized the daring dispatch of USNavy gunboats through Confederate shorebatteries to link up with his army south ofVicksburg. Using Admiral (ADM) David D.Porter’s gunboats, the Union Army crossed tothe east bank of the Mississippi while MGWilliam T. Sherman conducted a diversionaryattack on the northern approaches to Vicks-burg.

Once across the Mississippi, GEN Grantbypassed Vicksburg, used the Big Black River toprotect his flank, and maneuvered east towardJackson, Mississippi. By threatening both Jack-son and Vicksburg, GEN Grant prevented Con-federate forces from uniting against him. After arapid series of engagements, the Union Armyforced the enemy out of Jackson, blocking Vicks-burg’s main line of supply. It then turned west foran assault of Vicksburg, the key to control of theMississippi.With supply lines severed and Unionforces surrounding the city, Confederate forcesat Vicksburg capitulated on 4 July 1863.

GEN Grant’s Vicksburg campaign demon-strates the orchestration of a series of subordi-nate unit actions. In a succession of calculatedmoves, he defeated the Confederate forcesunder the command of Generals Joseph E.Johnston and John C. Pemberton, gained con-trol of the Mississippi River, and divided theConfederacy.

Making decisions, exercising command, manag-ing, administering—those are the dynamics ofour calling. Responsibility is its core.

General Harold K. Johnson Former Army Chief of Staff


Influencing Actions

6-42. As Figure 6-5 shows, influencing isachieved through communicating, decisionmaking, and motivating. At the organizationallevel, influencing means not only getting theorder or concept out; it means marshaling theactivities of the staff and subordinate leaders tomove towards the organization’s objective.Influencing involves continuing to reinforce theintent and concept, continually acquiring andassessing available feedback, and inspiring sub-ordinates with the leader’s own presence andencouragement.

6-43. The chain of command provides the ini-tial tool for getting the word out from, andreturning feedback to, the commander. Intraining, commanders must constantly improveits functioning. They must stress it in trainingsituations, pushing it to the point of failure.Combat training centers (CTCs) offer tremen-dous opportunities to exercise and assess thechain of command in their communicating andmonitoring tasks. Programs for officer andNCO professional development based oneither terrain walks or seminars can reinforcechain of command functioning. Checkingorganizational functions daily (“leading bywalking around”) can reveal whether the com-mander’s intent is getting to the lowest level.

6-44. Communication becomes more complexfor organizational leaders because of theirincreased span of control and separation fromelements actually executing the mission. What-ever organizational leaders ask for, explicitly orimplicitly, causes ripples throughout the organi-zation. Therefore, they must consider how sub-ordinates might interpret their wishes. Directives

and actions must be clear and issued in a mannerthat discourages overreaction. The installationcommander who remarks out loud about blandwalls may cause an entire organization’s soldiersto paint all weekend (it has happened).

6-45. Organizational leaders also lose the rightto complain in public; for example, their opin-ion of a support agency affects the attitude ofhundreds or thousands of people. Where theleader is, how the leader looks, and what theleader does and says influence routine leader-ship actions throughout the organization. Likedirect leaders, organizational leaders are alwayson display, and their demeanor and presence setthe tone and climate for subordinate organiza-tions. However, the position of organizationalleaders makes them more prominent, and theymust remain aware of how their behavioraffects their organization. A bad day for theleader should not have to be a bad day foreveryone else.


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A soldier may not always believe what you say,but he will never doubt what you do.

The Battalion Commander’s Handbook

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Influencing

Operating

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Figure 6-5. Organization leader actions—influencing


Communicating

6-46. Ironically, organizational leaders’ face-to-face communication must be more powerful,more focused, and more unequivocal than directleaders’ communication. Because organizationalleaders move quickly from one project toanother and one part of the organization to theother, they must be careful that the right messagegoes out the first time. Poor communication canhave tremendously negative consequences.

Know Yourself6-47. Even before assuming an organizational,leadership position, leaders must assess them-selves, understand their strengths and weak-nesses, and commit to an appropriate leadershipphilosophy. Organizational leaders must realizethat some techniques that worked in direct-levelpositions may no longer work at the organiza-tional level. They must resist the temptation torevert to their old role and thus preempt theirsubordinates by making decisions for them.

6-48. That said, personal qualities that con-tributed to their previous success are stillimportant for organizational leaders. They mustbe themselves. They must know their biases,frustrations, and desires and try to keep thesefactors from negatively influencing their com-munication. It’s not enough to be careful aboutwhat they say. Nonverbal communication is sopowerful that organizational leaders need to beaware of personal mannerisms, behavioralquirks, and demeanor that reinforce or contra-dict a spoken message.

Know the Purpose6-49. Organizational leaders know themselves,the mission, and the message. They owe it to theirorganization and their people to share as much aspossible. People have to know what to do andwhy. At the most basic level, communication pro-vides the primary way that organizational leadersshow they care. If subordinates are to succeedand the organization is to move forward, then theorganizational leader must work hard at main-taining positive communication. Encouragingopen dialogue, actively listening to all perspec-tives, and ensuring that subordinate leaders andstaffs can have a forthright, open, and honestvoice in the organization without fear of negativeconsequences greatly fosters communication atall levels. Organizational leaders who communi-cate openly and genuinely reinforce team values,send a message of trust to subordinates, and ben-efit from subordinates’ good ideas.


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Too often we place the burden of comprehensionon [those at a different level from] us, assumingboth the existence of a common language andmotivation.

General Edward C. Meyer Former Army Chief of Staff

The Commander’s NotebookA brigade commander met with his subordinateleaders and outlined his goals for an upcomingtraining exercise. In the days following, while thebrigade staff worked on the formal orders andrequirements, the commander spent time visit-ing subordinate units as they trained.As a part ofeach visit, he asked his subordinate leaders forspecific feedback on his intent. Was it clear?Could they repeat the three main points he hadtried to make? What would they add to the unit’sgoals for the training? He listened, asked his ownquestions, and allowed them to question him. Itturned out that most of the people he spoke tomissed one of his three main points, which ledthe commander to believe that he hadn’t madehimself clear the first time. Eventually, he startedthe conversation by saying, “There are a coupleof points I tried to make in my talk; apparently, Idropped the ball on at least one of them. Let me


Know the Environment6-50. Before organizational leaders can effec-tively communicate, they must assess the envi-ronment—people, events, and systems—andtailor their message to the target audience.Organizational leaders constantly communicateby persuading and conveying intent, standards,goals, and priorities at four levels within theArmy: their people, their own and higher staffs,their subordinate leaders and commanders, andtheir superiors. There may also be occasionsthat require organizational leaders to speak toaudiences outside the Army such as the media

or community groups. They may have to repeatthe message to different audiences and retune itfor different echelons, but only leaders can rein-force their true intent.

Know the Boss6-51. Working to communicate consistentlywith the boss is especially important for organi-zational leaders. Organizational leaders have tofigure out how to reach the boss. They mustassess how the boss communicates and how theboss receives information. For some leaders,direct and personal contact is best; others maybe more comfortable with weekly meetings, e-mail, or letters. Knowing the boss’s intent, prior-ities, and thought processes greatly enhancesorganizational success. An organizational leaderwho communicates well with the boss mini-mizes friction between the organization and thehigher headquarters and improves the overallorganizational climate.

Know the Subordinates

6-52. The mere presence of an organizationalleader somewhere communicates the leader’scharacter and what the leader values. The orga-nizational leader who hurries through a talkabout caring for subordinates, then passes up anopportunity to speak face-to-face with somesoldiers, does more than negate the message; heundercuts whatever trust his subordinates mayhave had.

6-53. Because organizational leaders knowthemselves, they also know that others bring thesum total of their experience to their duties.They analyze interpersonal contact to gathermeaning; they look for the message behind thewords. In this way, they gain a greater under-


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take another shot at it.” Then he explained thepoint again.

Whenever subordinate leaders offered sug-gestions about the upcoming exercise, thebrigade commander took out a pocket note-book and wrote some notes. Even when sug-gestions sounded lame, he wrote them down.That way, he signaled to the speaker, “Yes, youropinion counts, too.” Secondly, by writing downthe ideas, the commander guaranteed himself achance to look at the comments later. He knewfrom experience that sometimes the ones thatdon’t seem to make sense at first turn out to bequite useful later. Many of the direct leadersremarked that they had never seen a brigadecommander do anything like that before. Theywere even more astonished when they got feed-back on the suggestion. The brigade adjutanteven explained to one company commanderwhy his suggestion wasn’t implemented. On aSaturday morning the brigade commander wasstanding in line at the PX when a platoon ser-geant engaged him in conversation. “I wasn’taround the day you visited my company lastweek, sir,” the NCO said, “but I heard the otherfolks had a few suggestions for you. I wonder if Icould add something?”

If it’s dumb it’s not our policy.Lieutenant General Walter F. Ulmer, Jr.

Former Commanding General, III Corps


standing of peers, subordinates, and superiors.Improving communication skills becomes amajor self-development challenge for them. Bystating their intent openly, organizational lead-ers give subordinates an open door for feedbackon unintended consequences or just bad policy:“Hey sir, did you really mean it when you said,‘If it’s dumb it’s not our policy?’ OK, well whatabout. . .?” Leaders must be seen to be heard.

Know the Staff6-54. Organizational leaders must understandwhat’s going on within their own and the next-higher echelon staff. Networking allows them toimprove communication and mission accom-plishment by giving them a better understandingof the overall environment. Networking requiresleaders to constantly interact and share thoughts,ideas, and priorities. Informed staffs can thenturn policies, plans, and programs into realities.

6-55. Organizational leaders must also knowthe focus of the next-higher staff and com-mander. Through taking time to interact with thenext-higher staff, organizational leaders gain agreater understanding of the boss’s prioritiesand also help set the conditions for their ownrequirements. Constantly sensing—observing,talking, questioning, and actively listening to—what’s going on helps organizational leadersbetter identify and solve potential problems andallows them to anticipate decisions and put theiroutfit in the best possible position to execute.

Know the Best Method6-56. To disseminate information accuratelyand rapidly, organizational leaders must alsodevelop an effective communications network.Some of these networks—such as the chain ofcommand, the family support network, the NCOsupport channel, and staff relationships—sim-ply need to be recognized and exploited. Otherinformal chains must be developed. Different

actions may require different networks.

6-57. The more adept organizational leadersbecome in recognizing, establishing, and usingthese networks, the more successful the out-come, especially as they become comfortableusing a wider range of communications forums.Memorandums, notes, and e-mail as well as for-mal and informal meetings, interactions, andpublications are tools of an effective communi-cator. Organizational leaders must know theaudiences these methods reach and use themaccordingly.

Decision Making

6-58. Organizational leaders are far more likelythan direct leaders to be required to make deci-sions with incomplete information. They deter-mine whether they have to decide at all, whichdecisions to make themselves, and which onesto push down to lower levels. To determine theright course of action, they consider possiblesecond- and third-order effects and think fartherinto the future—months, or even years, out inthe case of some directorates.

6-59. Organizational leaders identify the prob-lem, collect input from all levels, synthesizethat input into solutions, and then choose andexecute the best solution in time to make a dif-ference. To maximize the use of resources andhave the greatest effect on developing an effec-tive organization, organizational leaders movebeyond a reacting, problem-solving approach toan anticipating, problem-preemption method.While there will always be emergencies andunforeseen circumstances, organizational lead-ers focus on anticipating future events and


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The key is not to make quick decisions, but tomake timely decisions.

General Colin Powell Former Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff


making decisions about the systems and peoplenecessary to minimize crises. Vision is essen-tial for organizational leaders.

6-60. During operations, the pace and stressof action increase over those of training. Orga-nizational leaders use the MDMP to make tac-tical decisions; however, they must add theirconceptual skill of systems understanding totheir knowledge of tactics when consideringcourses of action. Organizational leaders maybe tempted—because of pressure, the threat,fear, or fatigue—to abandon sound decisionmaking by reacting to short-term demands.The same impulses may result in focusing toonarrowly on specific events and losing theirsense of time and timing. But there’s no reasonfor organizational leaders to abandon provendecision-making processes in crises, althoughthey shouldn’t hesitate to modify a process tofit the situation. In combat, success comesfrom creative, flexible decision making byleaders who quickly analyze a problem, antic-ipate enemy actions, and rapidly execute theirdecisions. (Remember GEN Grant’s actions atVicksburg.) Leaders who delay or attempt toavoid a decision may cause unnecessary casu-alties and even mission failure.

6-61. Effective and timely decision making—both the commander’s and subordinates’—iscrucial to success. As part of decision making,organizational leaders establish responsibilityand accountability among their subordinates.They delegate decision making authority as faras it will go, empowering and encouraging sub-ordinates to make decisions that affect theirareas of responsibility or to further delegate thatauthority to their own subordinates.

6-62. Effective organizational leaders encour-age initiative and risk-taking. They rememberthat they are training leaders and soldiers; thegoal is a better-trained team, not some ideal out-

come. When necessary, they support subordi-nates’ bad decisions, but only those madeattempting to follow the commander’s intent.Failing through want of experience or luck isforgivable. Negligence, indecision, or attemptsto take an easy route should never be tolerated.

6-63. As GEN Powell’s comment makes clear,a decision’s timeliness is as important as thespeed at which it is made. Just as for directleaders, a good decision now is better than aperfect one too late. Leaders who are good athandling the decision-making process will per-form better when the OPTEMPO speeds up.Leaders who don’t deliver timely decisionsleave their subordinates scrambling and tryingto make up for lost time. Better to launch theoperation with a good concept and let empow-ered subordinates develop subsequent changesto the plan than to court failure by waiting toolong for the perfect plan.

6-64. In tough moments, organizational leadersmay need the support of key subordinates toclose an issue. Consider MG George G.Meade’s position at Gettysburg. In command ofthe Army of the Potomac for only a few days,MG Meade met with his subordinates on thenight of 2 July 1863 after two days of toughfighting. Uncertainty hung heavy in the air. MGMeade’s decision to stand and fight, made withthe support of his corps commanders, influ-enced the outcome of the battle and became aturning point of the Civil War.

6-65. Coping with uncertainty is normal for allleaders, increasingly so for organizational lead-ers. Given today’s information technology, thedangerous temptation to wait for all availableinformation before making a decision will per-sist. Even though this same technology may alsobring the unwanted attention of a superior, lead-ers should not allow it to unduly influence theirdecisions. Organizational leaders are where they


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are because of their experience, intuition, initia-tive, and judgment. Events move quickly, andit’s more important for decisive organizationalleaders to recognize and seize opportunities,thereby creating success, than to wait for all thefacts and risk failure.

6-66. In the end, leaders bear ultimate respon-sibility for their organizations’ success or fail-ure. If the mission fails, they can’t lay theblame elsewhere but must take full responsibil-ity. If the mission succeeds, good leaders givecredit to their subordinates. While organiza-tional leaders can’t ensure success by being all-knowing or present everywhere, they can assertthemselves throughout the organization bybeing decisive in times of crisis and quick toseize opportunities. In combat, leaders takeadvantage of fleeting windows of opportunity:they see challenges rather than obstacles; theyseek solutions rather than excuses; they fightthrough uncertainty to victory.

Motivating

6-67. Interpersonal skills involved in creatingand sustaining ethical and supportive climatesare required at the organizational as well as thedirect leadership level. As Chapter 3 explains,the organizational, unit, or command climatedescribes the environment in which subordi-nates work. Chapter 5 discusses how directleaders focus their motivational skills on indi-viduals or small groups of subordinates. Whiledirect leaders are responsible for their organiza-tions’ climate, their efforts are constrained (orreinforced) by the larger organization’s climate.Organizational leaders shape that larger envi-

ronment. Their primary motivational responsi-bility is to establish and maintain the climate oftheir entire organization.

6-68. Disciplined organizations evolve within apositive organizational climate. An organiza-tion’s climate springs from its leader’s attitudes,actions, and priorities. Organizational leadersset the tone most powerfully through a personalexample that brings Army values to life. Uponassuming an organizational leadership position,a leader determines the organizational climateby assessing the organization from the bottomup. Once this assessment is complete, the leadercan provide the guidance and focus (purpose,direction, and motivation) required to move theorganizational climate to the desired end state.

6-69. A climate that promotes Army values andfosters the warrior ethos encourages learningand promotes creative performance. The foun-dation for a positive organizational climate is ahealthy ethical climate, but that alone is insuffi-cient. Characteristics of successful organiza-tional climates include a clear, widely knownintent; well-trained and confident soldiers; dis-ciplined, cohesive teams; and trusted, competentleadership.

6-70. To create such a climate, organizationalleaders recognize mistakes as opportunities tolearn, create cohesive teams, and reward leadersof character and competence. Organizationalleaders value honest feedback and constantlyuse all available means to maintain a feel for theenvironment. Staff members who may be goodsources for straightforward feedback mayinclude equal opportunity advisors and chap-lains. Methods may include town hall meetings,surveys, and councils. And of course, personalobservation—getting out and talking to DAcivilians, soldiers, and family members—bringsorganizational leaders face-to-face with thepeople affected by their decisions and policies.


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It is not enough to fight. It is the spirit which webring to the fight that decides the issue. It ismorale that wins the victory.

General of the Army George C. Marshall


Organizational leaders’ consistent, sincereeffort to see what’s really going on and fixthings that are not working right can result inmutual respect throughout their organizations.They must know the intricacies of the job, trusttheir people, develop trust among them, andsupport their subordinates.

6-71. Organizational leaders who are positive,fair, and honest in their dealings and who arenot afraid of constructive criticism encourage anatmosphere of openness and trust. Their peoplewillingly share ideas and take risks to get thejob done well because their leaders strive formore than compliance; they seek to developsubordinates with good judgment.

6-72. Good judgment doesn’t mean lockstepthinking. Thinking “outside the box” isn’t thesame as indiscipline. In fact, a disciplinedorganization systematically encourages creativ-ity and taking prudent risks. The leader con-vinces subordinates that anything they breakcan be fixed, except life or limb. Effective orga-nizational leaders actively listen to, support, andreward subordinates who show disciplined ini-tiative. All these things create opportunities forsubordinates to succeed and thereby build theirconfidence and motivation.

6-73. However, it’s not enough that individualscan perform. When people are part of a disci-plined and cohesive team, they gain proficiency,are motivated, and willingly subordinate them-selves to organizational needs. People who sensethey’re part of a competent, well-trained team acton what the team needs; they’re confident inthemselves and feel a part of something importantand compelling. These team members know thatwhat they do matters and discipline themselves.

Operating Actions

6-74. Organizational leaders see, decide, andact as they perform the operating actionsshown in Figure 6-6. They emphasize team-work and cooperation over competition. Theyprovide their intent so subordinates can accom-


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The 505th Parachute InfantryRegiment at Normandy

On 7 June 1944, the day after D-Day, nearly 600paratroopers of the 505th Parachute InfantryRegiment were in position in the town of Ste.Mère Église in Normandy to block any Germancounterattack of the Allied invasion force.Although outnumbered by an enemy force ofover 6,000 soldiers, the paratroopers attackedthe German flank and prevented the enemy’sassault. The paratroopers were motivated andwell-trained, and they all understood theabsolute necessity of preventing the Germancounterattack. Even in the fog of war, they didwhat needed to be done to achieve victory.Their feat is especially noteworthy since manylanded outside their planned drop zones andhad to find their units on their own.They did soquickly and efficiently in the face of the enemy.

The 505th combined shared purpose, a pos-itive and ethical climate, and cohesive, disci-plined teams to build the confidence andmotivation necessary to fight and win in theface of uncertainty and adversity. Both leadersand soldiers understood that no plan remainsintact after a unit crosses the line of departure.The leaders’ initiative allowed the disciplinedunits to execute the mission by following thecommander’s intent, even when the condi-tions on the battlefield changed.


plish the mission, no matter what happens tothe original plan. Because organizational lead-ers primarily work through subordinates,empowerment and delegation are indispensa-ble. As a result of communicating with subor-dinates, listening to their responses, andobtaining feedback from their assessments,organizational leaders are better equipped tomake decisions.

6-75. Organizational-level commanders usuallyuse the MDMP for tactical decision making andplanning. However, those who command in thejoint environment must use the Joint OperationPlanning and Execution System (JOPES)methodology. Both the MDMP and JOPESallow organizational commanders to apply thefactors discussed in this chapter.

Systems Planning and Preparing

6-76. GEN Patton wasn’t belittling the impor-tance of planning; he was emphasizing thebalance necessary for successful operations.Planning, getting ready for the future by lay-ing out how leaders aim to turn their intentinto reality, is something leaders do every dayand something the Army does very well. How-ever, organizational leaders plan for the sys-tems that support training and operations aswell as for the actual training event or opera-tion. Systems planning involves seven steps:

• Establish intent. • Set goals. • Determine objectives. • Determine tasks. • Establish priorities. • Follow up.

Establish Intent6-77. The first step in systems planning is forthe organizational leader to have a clear intentfor what he wants the organization to be. Whatwill it look like at some future point? Spendingextra time visualizing the end state up front ismore important than quickly jumping into themechanics of planning. Obviously, the actualmission is critical in determining this end state.The organizational leader’s intent should beannounced at the earliest practicable time afterit has been formulated so the staff and subordi-nate commanders can have maximum time toplan. For a division, the intent might be:

• The best infantry division in the world. • Supported by the finest installation in the Army. • Trained and ready to deploy anywhere in the

world to fight and win. • But flexible enough to accomplish any other

mission the nation asks us to perform. • A values-based organization that takes care of

its soldiers, DA civilians, and families.


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Figure 6-6. Organizational leader actions—operating

[A] good plan violently executed now is betterthan a perfect plan next week.



6-78. Organizational leaders must determinehow this intent affects the various systems forwhich they are responsible. By their actions andthose of their subordinates and by using theirpresence to be heard, organizational leaders bringmeaning for their intent to their people.

Set Goals6-79. Once they have established their intent,organizational leaders, with the help of theirteam of subordinate leaders and staffs, set spe-cific goals for their organizations. Goals framethe organizational leader’s intent. For instance,the goal “Improve fire control and killingpower” could support that part of the intent thatstates the division will be “trained and ready todeploy anywhere in the world to fight and win.”Organizational leaders are personally involvedin setting goals and priorities to execute theirintent and are aware that unrealistic goals pun-ish subordinates.

Determine Objectives6-80. In the third step, organizational leadersestablish objectives that are specific and meas-urable. For example, an objective that supportsthe goal of improving fire control and killingpower could be “Fifty percent of the force mustfire expert on their personal weapons.” Estab-lishing objectives is difficult because theprocess requires making precise calls from awide variety of options. Since time andresources are limited, organizational leadersmake choices about what can and cannot beaccomplished. They check key system nodes tomonitor subsystem functions.

Determine Tasks6-81. The fourth step involves determining themeasurable, concrete steps that must be takenon the way to the objective. For example, thecommander of a forward-stationed division

might ensure family readiness by ordering thatany newly arriving soldier with a family maynot be deployed without having a vehicle incountry and household goods delivered.

Establish Priorities6-82. The fifth step is to establish a priority forthe tasks. This crucial step lets subordinatesknow how to spend one of their most criticalresources: time.

6-83. This system of establishing priorities isimportant for the organization; organizationalleaders must also practice it personally. In fact,a highly developed system of time managementmay be the only way for organizational leadersto handle all the demands upon them. There’srarely enough time to do everything, yet theymust make the time to assess and synthesizeinformation and make timely decisions. Leaderswho recognize distractions are better equippedto handle their time well.

Prepare6-84. Though organizational leaders have morecomplex missions than direct leaders, they alsohave more assets: a staff and additional subordi-nate leaders, specialists, and equipment allowtheir preparation to be diverse and complete.Direct leaders prepare by getting individualsmoving in the right direction; organizationalleaders take a step back and check to make surethe systems necessary to support the mission arein place and functioning correctly.

Follow Up6-85. The final step in systems planning is to fol-low up. Does the team understand the tasks? Is theteam taking the necessary actions to completethem? Check the chain of command again: doeseveryone have the word? Organizational leaderinvolvement in this follow up validates the priori-ties and demonstrates that the leader is serious


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about seeing the mission completed. Organiza-tional leaders who fail to follow up send a messagethat the priorities are not really that important andthat their orders are not really binding.

6-86. Keeping their intent in mind, organiza-tional leaders fight distracters, make time toreflect, and seek to work more efficiently.Despite the pressure of too much to do in too lit-tle time, they keep their sense of humor and helpthose around them do the same.

The Creative Staff Process

6-87. The size and complexity of the organiza-tions led by organizational leaders requireswell-trained, competent staffs. Training thesestaffs is a major responsibility of organizationalleaders. The chief of staff or executive officer isthe organizational leader’s right hand in thateffort.

6-88. In the 100 days leading to the Battle ofWaterloo, Napoleon had to campaign withouthis intensely loyal and untiring chief of staff,Berthier. In all his other campaigns, Berthierhad transformed Napoleon’s orders into instruc-tions to the marshals, usually in quadruplicatewith different riders carrying four copies to the


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The “Paperwork Purge”The division’s new chief of staff was surprised athow much time subordinates spent at meet-ings; it seemed they had time for little else.After observing the way things worked for twoweeks, the chief did away with most of thescheduled meetings, telling the staff, “We’llmeet when we need to meet, and not justbecause it’s Friday morning.” What’s more, thechief required an agenda for each meetingahead of time: ”That way, people can do theirhomework and see who needs to be there andwho doesn’t.” The chief was always on time formeetings and started at the time specified onthe agenda. There were no interruptions ofwhomever had the floor, and the long, mean-dering speeches that had marked previousmeetings were cut short.

The chief put a one-page limit on briefingpapers for the boss. This meant subordinateslearned to write concisely. Each staff section dida top-to-bottom review of procedures that hadbeen in place as long as anyone could remem-ber. Anything that couldn’t be justified wasthrown out. The chief handled most of the cor-respondence that came across his desk with aquick note written on the original and told thestaff to do the same.

The chief made the staff justify requirementsthey sent to subordinate organizations, withthe comment, “If you can’t tell them why it’simportant, then maybe it’s not important.” Theexplanation also helped subordinate elementsdetermine their own priorities: ”You can’t keepsending stuff down saying, ‘This is critical!’ Itgets to be like the boy who cried wolf.”

Of course, the staff didn’t take the new chief

quite seriously at first, and after a week ofreviewing old policy letters, some staff sectionslet the requirement slide. Then the chiefshowed up one day and had them give him arundown on all the policies left after whateveryone was calling “the big paperworkpurge.” A few more outdated requirements fellby the wayside that afternoon. More important,the staff got the message that the chief fol-lowed through on decisions.

Finally, and most startling, the chief told staffmembers that now and then they should sitquietly and stare into space: ”You’re gettingpaid to think, and every once in a while you’vegot to stop moving to do that well.”

None of us is as smart as all of us.A Former Brigade Commander


same marshal over different routes. Berthier’sgenius for translating Napoleon’s intent intotasks for each corps underlay the French Army’sversatile, fluid maneuver style. Without Ber-thier and with an increasingly rigid Napoleondisdaining advice from any source, Napoleon’sformations lost a good deal of their flexibilityand speed.

6-89. Great staffs work in concert with theleader to turn intent into reality. A single leaderin isolation has no doubt done great things andmade good decisions. However, the organiza-tional leader alone can’t consistently make theright decisions in an environment where opera-tional momentum never stops.

6-90. Building a creative, thinking staffrequires the commander’s time, maturity, wis-dom, and patience. Although managing infor-mation is important, the organizational leaderneeds to invest in both quality people and intraining them to think rather than just processinformation. Several factors contribute to build-ing a creative, thinking staff.

The Right People6-91. A high-performing staff starts with put-ting the right people in the right places. Orga-nizational leaders are limited to their organiza-tion’s resources, but have many choices abouthow to use them. They assemble, from through-out their organizations, people who think cre-atively, possess a vast array of technical skills,are trained to solve problems, and can worktogether. They take the time to evaluate the staffand implement a training program to improve itas a whole. They avoid micromanaging thestaff, instead trusting and empowering it tothink creatively and provide answers.

The Chief of Staff

6-92. The staff needs its own leader to takecharge—someone who can focus it, work with

it, inspire it, and move it to decisive action in theabsence of the commander. The sections of thestaff work as equals, yet without superb leader-ship they won’t perform exceptionally. To makea staff a true team, an empowered deputy mustbe worthy of the staff and have its respect. Thechief of staff must have the courage to antici-pate and demand the best possible quality. Onthe other hand, the chief must take care of thehardworking people who make up the staff andcreate an environment that fosters individualinitiative and develops potential.

Challenging Problems6-93. A staff constantly needs challenging prob-lems to solve if it’s to build the attitude that itcan overcome any obstacle. Tackling problemswith restricted time and resources improves thestaff members’ confidence and proficiency, aslong as they get an opportunity to celebrate suc-cesses and to recharge their batteries. Great con-fidence comes from training under conditionsmore strenuous than they would likely face oth-erwise.

Clear Guidance6-94. The commander constantly shares thoughtsand guidance with the staff. Well-trained staffscan then synthesize data according to thoseguidelines. Computers, because of their ability tohandle large amounts of data, are useful analyti-cal tools, but they can do only limited, low-ordersynthesis. There’s no substitute for a clear com-mander’s intent, clearly understood by everymember of the staff.

Executing


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The American soldier demonstrated that, properlyequipped, trained, and led, he has no superioramong all the armies of the world.

General Lucian K. Truscott Former Commanding General, 5th Army


6-95. Planning and preparation for branchesand sequels of a plan and contingencies forfuture operations may continue, even duringexecution. However, execution is the purposefor which the other operating actions occur; atsome point, the organizational leader commitsto action, spurs his organization forward, andsees the job through to the end.

6-96. In combat, organizational leaders integrateand synchronize all available elements of thecombined arms team, empower subordinates,and assign tasks to accomplish the mission. Butthe essence of warfighting for organizationalleaders is their will. They must persevere despitelimitations, setbacks, physical exhaustion, anddeclining mental and emotional reserves. Theythen directly and indirectly energize theirunits—commanders and soldiers—to pushthrough confusion and hardship to victory.

6-97. Whether they’re officers, NCOs, or DAcivilians, the ultimate responsibility of organiza-tional-level leaders is to accomplish the mission.To this end, they must mass the effects of avail-able forces on the battlefield, to include support-ing assets from other services. The process startsbefore the fight as leaders align forces, resources,training, and other supporting systems.

Combined Arms and Joint Warfighting6-98. Brigades and battalions usually conductsingle-service operations supported by assetsfrom other services. In contrast, the large areasof responsibility in which divisions and corpsoperate make division and corps fights joint bynature. Joint task forces (JTFs) are also organi-zational-level formations. Therefore, organiza-tional leaders and their staffs at division-leveland higher must understand joint proceduresand concerns at least as well as they understandArmy procedures and concerns. In addition, it’snot unusual for a corps to control forces ofanother nation; divisions do also, but not as fre-

quently. This means that corps and divisionheadquarters include liaison officers from othernations. In some cases, these staffs may havemembers of other nations permanentlyassigned: such a staff is truly multinational.

6-99. Today’s operations present all Army lead-ers—but particularly organizational leaders—with a nonlinear, dynamic environment rangingthe full spectrum of continuous operations.These dispersed conditions create an informa-tion-intense environment that challenges leadersto synchronize their efforts with nonmilitaryand often nongovernmental agencies.

Empowering

6-100. To increase the effects of their will, orga-nizational leaders must encourage initiative intheir subordinates. Although unity of commandis a principle of war, at some level a single leaderalone can no longer control all elements of anorganization and personally direct the accom-plishment of every aspect of its mission. As lead-ers approach the brigade or directorate level,hard work and force of personality alone cannotcarry the organization. Effective organizationalleaders delegate authority and support their sub-ordinates’ decisions, while holding subordinatesaccountable for their actions.

6-101. Delegating successfully involves con-vincing subordinates that they’re empowered,that they indeed have the freedom to act inde-pendently. Empowered subordinates have, andknow they have, more than the responsibility toget the job done. They have the authority tooperate in the way they see fit and are limitedonly by the leader’s intent.


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Never tell people how to do things. Tell themwhat to do and they will surprise you with theiringenuity.



6-102. To do that, the organizational leadergives subordinates the mission, motivates them,and lets them go. Subordinates know that theboss trusts them to make the right things hap-pen; this security motivates them, in turn, tolead their people with determination. Theyknow the boss will underwrite honest mistakes,well intentioned mistakes—not stupid, careless,or repeated ones. So for the boss, empoweringsubordinates means building the systems andestablishing the climate that gives subordinatesthe rein to do the job within the bounds ofacceptable risk. It means setting organizationalobjectives and delegating tasks to ensure paral-lel, synchronized progress.

6-103. Delegation is a critical task. Which sub-ordinates can be trusted with independentaction? Which need a short rein? In fluid situa-tions—especially in combat, where circum-stances can change rapidly or where leaders maybe out of touch or become casualties—empow-ered subordinates will pursue the commander’sintent as the situation develops and react cor-rectly to changes that previous orders failed toanticipate. However, as important as delegationis to the success of organizations, it does notimply in any way a reduction of the comman-der’s responsibility for the outcome. Only thecommander is accountable for the overall out-come, the success or failure, of the mission.

Assessing6-104. The ability to assess a situation accuratelyand reliably—a critical tool in the leader’s arse-nal—requires instinct and intuition based onexperience and learning. It also requires a feel forthe reliability and validity of information and itssources. Organizational assessment is necessaryto determine organizational weaknesses and pre-empt mishaps. Accurately determining causes isessential to training management, developingsubordinate leadership, and process improvement.

6-105. There are several different ways togather information: asking subordinates ques-tions to find out if the word is getting to them,meeting people, and checking for synchronizedplans are a few. Assessing may also involvedelving into the electronic databases uponwhich situational understanding depends.Assessment techniques are more than measure-ment tools; in fact, the way a leader assessessomething can influence the process beingassessed. The techniques used may producehigh quality, useful feedback; however, in a dys-functional command climate, they can backfireand send the wrong message about priorities.

6-106. Staff and subordinates manage andprocess information for a leader, but this doesn’trelieve the leader from the responsibility ofanalyzing information as part of the decision-making process. Leaders obtain informationfrom various sources so they can compare andmake judgments about the accuracy of sources.

6-107. As Third Army commander during WorldWar II, GEN George Patton did this continuously.Third Army staff officers visited front-line unitsdaily to gather the latest available information. Inaddition, the 6th Cavalry Group, the so-called“Household Cavalry” monitored subordinate unitreconnaissance nets and sent liaison patrols tovisit command and observation posts of units incontact. These liaison patrols would exchangeinformation with subordinate unit G2s and G3sand report tactical and operational informationdirectly to the Third Army forward headquarters(after clearing it with the operations section ofthe unit they were visiting).

6-108. In addition to providing timely combatinformation, the Household Cavalry and staffvisits reduced the number of reports Third Armyheadquarters required and created a sense ofcohesiveness and understanding not found inother field armies. Other organizational leaders


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have accomplished the same thing using liaisonofficers grounded in their commander’s intent.Whatever the method they choose, organizationalleaders must be aware of the second- and third-order effects of having “another set of eyes.”

6-109. In the world of digital command and con-trol, commanders may set screens on variouscommand and control systems to monitor the sta-tus of key units, selected enemy parameters, andcritical planning and execution timelines. Theymay establish prompts in the command and con-trol terminal that warn of imminent selectedevents, such as low fuel levels in maneuver units,tight fighter management timelines among avia-tion crews, or massing enemy artillery.

6-110. A leader’s preconceived notions andopinions (such as “technology undermines basicskills” or “technology is the answer”) can inter-fere with objective analysis. It’s also possible tobe too analytical, especially with limitedamounts of information and time. Therefore,when analyzing information, organizationalleaders guard against dogmatism, impatience, oroverconfidence that may bias their analysis.

6-111. The first step in designing an assessmentsystem is to determine the purpose of theassessment. While purposes vary, most fall intoone of the following categories:

• Evaluate progress toward organizational goals(using an emergency deployment readinessexercise to check unit readiness or monitoringprogress of units through stages of reception,staging, onward movement, and integration).

• Evaluate the efficiency of a system, that is,the ratio of the resources expended to theresults gained (comparing the amount of timespent performing maintenance to the organi-zation’s readiness rate).

• Evaluate the effectiveness of a system, that is,the quality of the results it produces (analyzingthe variation in Bradley gunnery scores).

• Compare the relative efficiency or effective-ness against standards.

• Compare the behavior of individuals in agroup with the prescribed standards (APFT orgunnery scores).

• Evaluate systems supporting the organization(following up “no pay dues” to see what theNCO support channel did about them).

6-112. Organizational leaders consider thedirect and indirect costs of assessing. Objectivecosts include the manpower required to designand administer the system and to collect, ana-lyze, and report the data. Costs may also includemachine-processing times and expenses relatedto communicating the data. Subjective costsinclude possible confusion regarding organiza-tional priorities and philosophies, mispercep-tions regarding trust and decentralization, fearsover unfair use of collected data, and the energyexpended to collect and refine the data.

6-113. Organizational leaders ask themselvesthese questions: What’s the standard? Does thestandard make sense to all concerned? Did wemeet it? What system measures it? Who’sresponsible for the system? How do we rein-force or correct our findings? One of the great-est contributions organizational leaders canmake to their organizations is to assess theirown leadership actions. Are you doing thingsthe way you would to support the nation at war?Will your current systems serve equally wellunder the stress and strain of continuous fight-ing? If not, why not?

6-114. It follows that organizational leaderswho make those evaluations every day will alsohold their organizations to the highest stan-dards. When asked, their closest subordinateswill give them informal AARs of their leader-ship behaviors in the critical situations. Whenthey arrange to be part of official AARs, theycan invite subordinates to comment on how they


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could have made things go better. Organiza-tional leader errors are very visible; their resultsare probably observed and felt by many subor-dinates. Thus, there’s no sense in not admitting,analyzing, and learning from these errors. A bitof reflection in peacetime may lead to greatereffectiveness in war.

6-115. The 1991 ground war in the Iraqi desertlasted only 100 hours, but it was won throughhard work over a period of years, in countlessfield exercises on ranges and at the combattraining centers. The continual assessmentprocess allowed organizational leaders to tradelong hours of hard work in peacetime for oper-ations in war.

6-116. Organizational leaders are personallydedicated to providing tough, battle-focusedtraining so that the scrimmage is always harderthan the game. They must ensure that in train-ing, to the extent that resources and risks allow,nothing is simulated. Constant assessmentsrefine training challenges, forge confidence,and foster the quiet, calculating, and deadlywarrior ethos that wins battles and campaigns.

Improving Actions

6-117. Improving actions are what all leadersdo today to make their organization and subor-dinates better tomorrow, next month, next year,five years from now. The responsibility for howthe Army fights the next war lies with today’sleaders; the work to improve the organization inthe long term never ends. Leaders teaching sub-ordinates to do the leader’s job in combat is thehallmark of the profession of arms.

6-118. The payoff for improving actions mightnot be evident for years. In fact, leaders at alllevels may never see the benefit of developingsubordinates, since those subordinates go on towork for someone else. But this doesn’t stopthem from taking pride in their subordinates’development and performance; a subordinate’ssuccess is a great measure of a leader’s success.Further, it’s often difficult to draw a cause-and-effect line from what leaders do today to how itpays off tomorrow. Precisely because of thesedifficulties, organizational leaders ensure thegoals they establish include improving peopleand organizations. They also make sure theycommunicate this to their subordinates.

6-119. The developing, building, and learningactions may be more difficult at the organiza-tional level because the leaders themselves mustrely more on indirect leadership methods. Thechallenge is greater because of the size of theorganization, but the rewards increase as well:


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The creative leader is one who will rewrite doc-trine, employ new weapons systems, develop newtactics and who pushes the state of the art.

John O. Marsh, Jr.Former Secretary of the Army

VA

LU

ES

AT

TR

IBU

TE

S

SK

ILL

S

“Be” “Know”




Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 6-7. Organizational leader actions—improving


organizational leaders can influence large num-bers of people and improve large segments ofthe Army.

Developing

6-120. Just as leadership begins at the top, sodoes developing. Organizational leaders keep afocus on where the organization needs to go andwhat all leaders must be capable of accomplish-ing. They continually develop themselves andmentor their subordinate leaders. As discussed inChapter 3, leaders search for and take advantageof opportunities to mentor their subordinates. Atthe organizational level, commanders ensure thatsystems and conditions are in place for the men-toring of all organizational members.

6-121. Effective organizational leaders growleaders at all levels of their organization. Just asthey prepare their units for in-stride breaches, forexample, they combine existing opportunities intoa coherent plan for leadership development.Leaders get much of their development when theypractice what they’ve learned and receive straight-forward feedback in rigorously honest AARs.Feedback also comes from self-assessments aswell as from peers, subordinates, and supervisors.

6-122. Organizational leaders design and inte-grate leader development programs into every-day training. They aim to capture learning incommon duties, ensure timely feedback, andallow reflection and analysis. As Frederick theGreat said, “What good is experience if you donot reflect?” Simply scheduling officer andNCO professional development sessions isn’t

enough for genuine, lasting leader development.Letting “operating” overwhelm “improving”threatens the future.

6-123. Leadership development is purposeful,not accidental. Everyday mission requirementsare opportunities to grow leaders. Based onassessment of their subordinate leaders, organi-zational leaders describe how they intend todeliberately influence leader developmentthrough a comprehensive leadership develop-ment program that captures and harnesseswhat’s already occurring in the organization. Aleadership development program must providefor learning skills, practicing actions, andreceiving feedback.

6-124. Organizational leaders assess theirorganizations to determine organization-spe-cific developmental needs. They analyze theirmission, equipment, and long-term schedule aswell as the experience and competence of theirsubordinate leaders to determine leadershiprequirements. In addition to preparing theirimmediate subordinates to take their place,organizational leaders must also prepare subor-dinate leaders selected for specific duties toactually execute them.

6-125. Based on their assessment, organiza-tional leaders define and clearly articulate theirgoals and objectives for leadership developmentwithin the organization. They create programgoals and objectives to support their focus aswell as to communicate specific responsibilitiesfor subordinate leaders. These subordinate lead-ers help bring leadership development to lifethrough constant mentoring and experientiallearning opportunities. Leadership developmentis an important responsibility shared by leadersat every level. It becomes their greatest contri-bution—their legacy.

6-126. The development technique useddepends on the leaders involved. Learning by


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Let us set for ourselves a standard so high that itwill be a glory to live up to it, and then let us liveup to it and add a new laurel to the crown ofAmerica.

Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States


making mistakes is possible, but having subor-dinates develop habits of succeeding is betterfor instilling self-confidence and initiative.Newly assigned assistant operations officersmay need time to visit remote sites over whichthey have day-to-day control. They may needtime to visit higher headquarters to establishrapport with those action officers they will haveto deal with under the pressure of a tense oper-ational situation. They may have to see the tac-tical operations center set up in the field and geta chance to review its SOPs before a big exer-cise. These activities can only happen if theorganizational leader supports the leader devel-opment program and demands it take place inspite of the pressures of daily (routine) business.

6-127. There are many ways to tackle leaderdevelopment. For example, instead of pursuinglong-term training programs for his career civil-ians, one DA civilian leader enrolled both hisDA civilian managers and military officers ingraduate programs while they continued to workfull-time. This approach allowed the directorateto provide development opportunities to fourtimes as many personnel at one-third the cost oflong-term training. In addition, the students wereable to apply what they were learning directly totheir jobs, thus providing immediate benefit tothe organization.

6-128. In addition to educational programs,innovative interagency exchange assignmentscan cross-level the knowledge, skills, and experi-ence of DA civilian leaders. Whether taking onnew interns or expanding the perspectives of sea-soned managers, the DA civilian component mir-rors the uniformed components in its approach tobroad-based leadership opportunities.

6-129. Often developmental programs involvehistorical events similar to current operationalchallenges. Such situations allow all to share asense of what works and what does not from

what worked before and what did not. Thisanalysis can also be applied to recent organiza-tional experiences. For example, in preparationfor a CTC rotation, leaders review their own aswell as others’ experiences to determine valuablelessons learned. They master the individual andcollective tasks through a training program thatsets up soldiers and leaders for success. Basedon internal AARs, they continue to learn, prac-tice, and assess. CTCs also provide individualleaders with invaluable experience in operatingunder harsh conditions. Organizations executemissions, receive candid feedback and coachingto facilitate lessons learned, then execute again.

6-130. Commanders must take the time toensure they do developmental counseling.Nothing can replace the face-to-face contribu-tion made by a commander mentoring a subor-dinate. Developing the most talented and (often)those with the greatest challenges requires agreat amount of time and energy, but it’s anessential investment for the future.

Building

Building Combat Power6-131. Emphasis on winning can’t waver duringtraining, deploying, and fighting. By developingthe right systems and formulating appropriatecontingency plans, organizational leaders ensurethat the organization is prepared for a variety ofconditions and uncertainties. In wartime, build-ing combat power derives from task organiza-tion, resourcing, and preparing for executionwhile still meeting the human needs of theorganization. Commanders must preserve andrecycle organizational energy throughout thecampaign. In peacetime, the main component ofpotential combat power is embedded collectiveskill and organizational readiness stemmingfrom hard, continuous, and challenging trainingto standard.


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Building Teams

6-132. Organizational leaders rely on others tofollow and execute their intent. Turning a battle-field vision or training goals into reality takes thecombined efforts of many teams inside and out-side of the leader’s organization. Organizationalleaders build solid, effective teams by developingand training them and sustain those teams by cre-ating healthy organizational climates.

6-133. Organizational leaders work consis-tently to create individual and team ownershipof organizational goals. By knowing their sub-ordinates—their aspirations, fears, and con-cerns—organizational leaders can ensure theirsubordinate organizations and leaders worktogether. Taking time to allow subordinates todevelop ways to meet organizational missionsfosters ownership of a plan. The FM 25-100training management process, in which subordi-nate organizations define supporting tasks andsuggest the training required to gain and main-tain proficiency, is an example of a process thatencourages collective investment in training.That investment leads to a commitment that notonly supports execution but also reduces thechances of internal conflict.

6-134. Subordinates work hard and fight tena-ciously when they’re well-trained and feelthey’re part of a good team. Collective confi-dence comes from winning under challengingand stressful conditions. People’s sense ofbelonging comes from technical and tactical

proficiency—as individuals and then collec-tively as a team—and the confidence they havein their peers and their leaders. As cohesiveteams combine into a network, a team of teams,organizations work in harness with those on theleft and right to fight as a whole. The balanceamong three good battalions is more importantthan having a single outstanding one. Followingthat philosophy necessarily affects resourceallocation and task assignment.

6-135. Organizational leaders build cohesiveorganizations. They overcome, and even capital-ize on, diversity of background and experienceto create the energy necessary to achieve orga-nizational goals. They resolve conflicts amongsubordinate leaders as well as any conflictsbetween their own organization and others.

6-136. For example, subordinate leaders maycompete for limited resources while pursuing theirindividual organization’s goals. Two battalioncommanders may both want and need a certainmaneuver training area to prepare for deployment,so they both present the issue professionally andcreatively to their commander. The brigade com-mander must then weigh and decide between thedifferent unit requirements, balancing their com-peting demands with the greater good of the entireorganization and the Army. An even better situa-tion would be if the organizational climate facili-tates teamwork and cooperation that results in thesubordinate commanders themselves producing asatisfactory solution.

6-137. Similarly, the brigade commander’s owninterests may at times conflict with that of otherorganizations. He must maintain a broad per-spective and develop sensible solutions for pos-itive resolution with his contemporaries. In boththese cases, subordinates observe the actions ofleaders and pattern their attitudes and actionsafter them. Everyone, even experienced leaders,looks up the chain of command for the example


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All United States military doctrine is based uponreliance on the ingenuity of the individual work-ing on his own initiative as a member of a teamand using the most modern weapons and equip-ment which can be provided him.

General Manton S. Eddy Commanding General, XII Corps, World War II


of “how we do it here,” how to do it right. Orga-nizational leaders empower their subordinateswith a powerful personal example.

6-138. Like direct leaders, organizational lead-ers build teams by keeping team membersinformed. They share information, solicit input,and consider suggestions. This give-and-takealso allows subordinates a glimpse into themind of their leaders, which helps them preparefor the day when they fill that job. The leaderwho sends these messages—“I value your opin-ion; I’m preparing you for greater responsibili-ties; you’re part of the team”—strengthens thebonds that hold the team together.

6-139. Team building produces trust. Trust beginswith action, when leaders demonstrate disciplineand competence. Over time, subordinates learnthat leaders do what they say they’ll do. Likewiseleaders learn to trust their subordinates. That con-nection, that mutual assurance, is the link thathelps organizations accomplish the most difficulttasks.

Learning

6-140. Organizational leaders create an environ-ment that supports people within their organiza-tions learning from their own experiences andthe experiences of others. How leaders react tofailure and encourage success now is critical toreaching excellence in the future. Subordinateswho feel they need to hide mistakes deprive oth-ers of valuable lessons. Organizational leadersset the tone for this honest sharing of experi-ences by acknowledging that not all experiences(even their own) are successful. They encouragesubordinates to examine their experiences, andmake it easy for them to share what they learn.

6-141. Learning is continuous and occursthroughout an organization: someone is alwaysexperiencing something from which a lesson canbe drawn. For this reason, organizational leaders

ensure continual teaching at all levels; the organ-ization as a whole shares knowledge and appliesrelevant lessons. They have systems in place tocollect and disseminate those lessons so thatindividual mistakes become organizational tools.This commitment improves organizational pro-grams, processes, and performances.

SECTION III. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP—GENERAL RIDGWAY IN KOREA

6-142. Few leaders have better exemplifiedeffective organizational leadership in combatthan GEN Matthew B. Ridgway. GEN Ridgwaysuccessfully led the 82d Airborne Division andXVIII Airborne Corps in the ETO during WorldWar II and Eighth (US) Army during the KoreanWar. His actions during four months in commandof Eighth Army prior to his appointment as UNSupreme Commander bring to life the skills andactions described throughout this chapter.

6-143. At the outbreak of the Korean War inJune 1950, GEN Ridgway was assigned as theArmy Deputy Chief of Staff, Operations. In anagreement between the Army Chief of Staff,GEN J. Lawton Collins, and the UN SupremeCommander, GA Douglas MacArthur, GENRidgway was identified early as the replace-ment for the Eighth Army commander, GENWalton H. Walker, in the event GEN Walker waskilled in combat.

6-144. That year, on 23 December, GEN Walkerdied in a jeep accident. Following approval bySecretary of Defense George C. Marshall andPresident Truman, GEN Ridgway was orderedto take command of Eighth Army. At that time,Eighth Army was defending near the 38th paral-lel, having completed a 300-mile retreat afterthe Chinese intervention and stunning victoryon the Chongchin River.


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6-145. The UN defeat had left its forces in seri-ous disarray. One of Eighth Army’s four Americandivisions, the 2d, needed extensive replacementsand reorganization. Two other divisions, the 25thand 1st Cavalry, were seriously battered. Of theRepublic of Korea divisions, only the 1st was ingood fighting shape. A British brigade was com-bat ready, but it too had suffered substantial lossesin helping cover the retreat.

6-146. Within 24 hours of GEN Walker’s death,GEN Ridgway was bound for Korea. During thelong flight from Washington, DC, to GAMacArthur’s headquarters in Japan, GEN Ridg-way had an opportunity to reflect on what layahead. He felt this problem was like so manyothers he had experienced: “Here’s the situa-tion—what’s your solution?” He began to for-mulate his plan of action. He determined eachstep based on his assessment of the enemy’sstrengths and capabilities as well as his owncommand’s strengths and capabilities.

6-147. The necessary steps seemed clear: gainan appreciation for the immediate situationfrom GA MacArthur’s staff, establish his pres-ence as Eighth Army commander by sending astatement of his confidence in them, and thenmeet with his own staff to establish his priori-ties. His first message to his new command wasstraight to the point: “You will have my utmost.I shall expect yours.”

6-148. During the flight from Japan to his forwardcommand post, GEN Ridgway carefully looked atthe terrain upon which he was to fight. The bat-tered Eighth Army had to cover a rugged, 100-mile-long front that restricted both maneuver andresupply. Poor morale presented a further problem.Many military observers felt that Eighth Armylacked spirit and possessed little stomach for con-tinuing the bruising battle with the Chinese.

6-149. For three days GEN Ridgway traveledthe army area by jeep, talking with commanders

who had faced the enemy beyond the Han River.GEN Ridgway wrote later,

I held to the old-fashioned idea that ithelped the spirits of the men to see the OldMan up there, in the snow and the sleetand the mud, sharing the same cold, mis-erable existence they had to endure.

6-150. GEN Ridgway believed a commandershould publicly show a personal interest in thewell-being of his soldiers. He needed to do some-thing to attract notice and display his concern forthe front-line fighters. Finding that one of hisunits was still short of some winter equipment,GEN Ridgway dramatically ordered that theequipment be delivered within 24 hours. Inresponse, the logistical command made a mas-sive effort to comply, flying equipment fromPusan to the front lines. Everyone noticed. Healso ordered—and made sure the order wasknown—that the troops be served hot meals, withany failures to comply reported directly to him.

6-151. GEN Ridgway was candid, criticizingthe spirit of both the commanders and soldiersof Eighth Army. He talked with riflemen andgenerals, from front-line foxholes to corps com-mand posts. He was appalled at Americaninfantrymen who didn’t patrol, who had noknowledge of the terrain in which they fought,and who failed to know the whereabouts of theirenemy. Moreover, this army was road-boundand failed to occupy commanding terrain over-looking its positions and supply lines. GENRidgway also sensed that Eighth Army—partic-ularly the commanders and their staffs—keptlooking over their shoulders for the best route tothe rear and planned only for retreat. In short, hefound his army immobilized and demoralized.

6-152. An important part of GEN Ridgway’seffort to instill fighting spirit in Eighth Armywas to order units to close up their flanks and tiein with other units. He said he wanted no units


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cut off and abandoned, as had happened to the3d Battalion, 8th Cavalry at Unsan, Task ForceFaith at Chosin Reservoir, and the 2d Divisionat Kuni-ri. GEN Ridgway felt that it was essen-tial for soldiers to know they would not be leftto fend for themselves if cut off. He believedthat soldiers would be persuaded to stand andfight only if they realized help would come.Without that confidence in the command andtheir fellow soldiers, they would pull out, fear-ing to be left behind.

6-153. As he visited their headquarters, GENRidgway spoke to commanders and their staffs.These talks contained many of his ideas aboutproper combat leadership. He told his com-manders to get out of their command posts andup to the front. When commanders reported onterrain, GEN Ridgway demanded that they basetheir information on personal knowledge andthat it be correct.

6-154. Furthermore, he urged commanders toconduct intensive training in night fighting andmake full use of their firepower. He alsorequired commanders to personally check thattheir men had adequate winter clothing, warm-ing tents, and writing materials. In addition, heencouraged commanders to locate woundedwho had been evacuated and make every effortto return them to their old units. Finally, thearmy commander ordered his officers to stopwasting resources, calling for punishment ofthose who lost government equipment.

6-155. During its first battle under GEN Ridg-way’s command in early January 1951, EighthArmy fell back another 70 miles and lost Seoul,South Korea’s capital. Major commanders didn’tcarry out orders to fall back in an orderly fashion,use field artillery to inflict the heaviest possibleenemy casualties, and counterattack in force dur-ing daylight hours. Eighth Army’s morale andsense of purpose reached their lowest point ever.

6-156. Eighth Army had only two choices: sub-stantially improve its fighting spirit or get out ofKorea. GEN Ridgway began to restore his men’sfighting spirit by ordering aggressive patrollinginto areas just lost. When patrols found theenemy few in number and not aggressive, thearmy commander increased the number and sizeof patrols. His army discovered it could driveback the Chinese without suffering overwhelm-ing casualties. Buoyed by these successes, GENRidgway ordered a general advance alongKorea’s west coast, where the terrain was moreopen and his forces could take advantage of itstanks, artillery, and aircraft.

6-157. During this advance, GEN Ridgway alsoattempted to tell the men of Eighth Army whythey were fighting in Korea. He sought to builda fighting spirit in his men based on unit andsoldier pride. In addition, he called on them todefend Western Civilization from Communistdegradation, saying:

In the final analysis, the issue now joinedright here in Korea is whether Commu-nism or individual freedom shall prevail;whether the flight of the fear-driven peoplewe have witnessed here shall be checked,or shall at some future time, however dis-tant, engulf our own loved ones in all itsmisery and despair.

6-158. In mid-February of 1951, the Chineseand North Koreans launched yet another offen-sive in the central area of Korea, where US tankscould not maneuver as readily and artillery couldbe trapped on narrow roads in mountainous ter-rain. In heavy fights at Chipyon-ni and Wonju,Eighth Army, for the first time, repulsed theCommunist attacks. Eighth Army’s offensivespirit soared as GEN Ridgway quickly followedup with a renewed attack that took Seoul andregained roughly the same positions Eighth


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Army had held when he first took command. Inlate March, Eighth Army pushed the Communistforces north of the 38th parallel.

6-159. GEN Ridgway’s actions superbly exem-plify those expected of organizational leaders.His knowledge of American soldiers, units, andthe Korean situation led him to certain expecta-tions. Those expectations gave him a baselinefrom which to assess his command once hearrived. He continually visited units throughoutthe army area, talked with soldiers and theircommanders, assessed command climate, andtook action to mold attitudes with clear intent,supreme confidence, and unyielding tacticaldiscipline.

6-160. He sought to develop subordinate com-manders and their staffs by sharing his thoughtsand expectations of combat leadership. He feltthe pulse of the men on the front, shared theirhardships, and demanded they be taken care of.He pushed the logistical systems to providecreature comforts as well as the supplies of war.He eliminated the skepticism of purpose, gavesoldiers cause to fight, and helped them gainconfidence by winning small victories. Most ofall, he led by example.

6-161. In April GEN Ridgway turned EighthArmy over to GEN James A. Van Fleet. In underfour months, a dynamic, aggressive commanderhad revitalized and transformed a traumatizedand desperate army into a proud, determinedfighting force. GA Omar N. Bradley, Chairmanof the Joint Chiefs of Staff, summed up GENRidgway’s contributions:

It is not often that a single battlefield com-mander can make a decisive difference.But in Korea Ridgway would prove to bethat exception. His brilliant, driving,uncompromising leadership would turn

the tide of battle like no other general’s inour military history.

Summary

6-162. This chapter has covered how organiza-tional leaders train and lead staffs, subordinateleaders, and entire organizations. The influenceof organizational leaders is primarily indirect:they communicate and motivate through staffsand subordinate commanders. Because theirleadership is much more indirect, the eventualoutcomes of their actions are often difficult toforesee. Nor do organizational leaders receivethe immediate feedback that direct leaders do.

6-163. Still, as demonstrated by GEN Ridgway inKorea, the presence of commanders at the criticaltime and place boosts confidence and perform-ance. Regardless of the type of organization theyhead, organizational leaders direct operations bysetting the example, empowering their subordi-nates and organizations and supervising themappropriately. Organizational leaders concernthemselves with combat power—how to build,maintain, and recover it. That includes developingsystems that will provide the organization and theArmy with its next generation of leaders. Theyalso improve conditions by sustaining an ethicaland supportive climate, building strong cohesiveteams and organizations, and improving theprocesses that work within the organization.

6-164. Strategic leaders provide leadership atthe highest levels of the Army. Their influence iseven more indirect and the consequences oftheir actions more delayed than those of organi-zational leaders. Because of this, strategic lead-ers must develop additional skills based onthose they’ve mastered as direct and organiza-tional leaders. Chapter 7 discusses these andother aspects of strategic leadership.


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7-1. Strategic leaders are the Army’s highest-level thinkers, warfighters, and political-mili-tary experts. Some work in an institutionalsetting within the United States; others workin strategic regions around the world. Theysimultaneously sustain the Army’s culture,envision the future, convey that vision to awide audience, and personally lead change.Strategic leaders look at the environment out-side the Army today to understand the contextfor the institution’s future role. They also usetheir knowledge of the current force to anchortheir vision in reality. This chapter outlinesstrategic leadership for audiences other thanthe general officers and Senior Executive Ser-vice DA civilians who actually lead there.Those who support strategic leaders need tounderstand the distinct environment in whichthese leaders work and the special considera-tions it requires.

7-2. Strategic leadership requires significantlydifferent techniques in both scope and skill from

direct and organizational leadership. In an envi-ronment of extreme uncertainty, complexity,ambiguity, and volatility, strategic leaders thinkin multiple time domains and operate flexibly tomanage change. Moreover, strategic leadersoften interact with other leaders over whom theyhave minimal authority.

7-3. Strategic leaders are not only experts intheir own domain—warfighting and leadinglarge military organizations—but also are astutein the departmental and political environmentsof the nation’s decision-making process. They’reexpected to deal competently with the publicsector, the executive branch, and the legislature.The complex national security environmentrequires an in-depth knowledge of the political,economic, informational, and military elementsof national power as well as the interrelationshipamong them. In short, strategic leaders not onlyknow themselves and their own organizationsbut also understand a host of different players,rules, and conditions.

Chapter 7

StrategicLeadership

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It became clear to me that at the age of 58, I would have to learn new tricks that were not taught inthe military manuals or on the battlefield. In this position I am a political soldier and will have to putmy training in rapping-out orders and making snap decisions on the back burner, and have to learnthe arts of persuasion and guile. I must become an expert in a whole new set of skills.

General of the Army George C. Marshall




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7-4. Because strategic leaders implement theNational Military Strategy, they deal with theelements that shape that strategy. The mostimportant of these are Presidential DecisionMemorandums, Department of State Policies,the will of the American people, US nationalsecurity interests, and the collective strategies—theater and functional—of the combatant com-manders (CINCs). Strategic leaders operate inintricate networks of competing constituenciesand cooperate in endeavors extending beyondtheir establishments. As institutional leaders,they represent their organizations to soldiers,DA civilians, citizens, statesmen, and themedia, as well as to other services and nations.Communicating effectively with these differentaudiences is vital to the organization’s success.

7-5. Strategic leaders are keenly aware of thecomplexities of the national security environ-ment. Their decisions take into account factorssuch as congressional hearings, Army budgetconstraints, reserve component issues, new sys-tems acquisition, DA civilian programs,research, development, and interservice cooper-ation. Strategic leaders process informationfrom these areas quickly, assess alternativesbased on incomplete data, make decisions, andgarner support. Often, highly developed inter-personal skills are essential to building consen-sus among civilian and military policy makers.Limited interpersonal skills can limit the effectof other skills.

7-6. While direct and organizational leadershave a short-term focus, strategic leaders havea “future focus.” Strategic leaders spend muchof their time looking toward the mid-term andpositioning their establishments for long-termsuccess, even as they contend with immediateissues. With that perspective, strategic leadersseldom see the whole life span of their ideas;initiatives at this level may take years to come

to fruition. Strategic leaders think, therefore, interms of strategic systems that will operateover extended time periods. They ensure thesesystems are built in accord with the six imper-atives mentioned in Chapter 6—quality peo-ple, training, force mix, doctrine, modernequipment, and leader development—and theyensure that programs and resources are inplace to sustain them. This systems approachsharpens strategic leaders’ “future focus” andhelps align separate actions, reduce conflict,and improve cooperation.

SECTION I. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

SKILLS

7-7. The values and attributes demanded ofArmy leaders are the same at all leadership lev-els. Strategic leaders live by Army values andset the example just as much as direct and orga-nizational leaders, but they face additional chal-lenges. Strategic leaders affect the culture of theentire Army and may find themselves involvedin political decision making at the highestnational or even global levels. Therefore, nearlyany task strategic leaders set out to accomplishrequires more coordination, takes longer, has awider impact, and produces longer-term effectsthan a similar organizational-level task.

7-8. Strategic leaders understand, embody, andexecute values-based leadership. The politicaland long-term nature of their decisions doesn’trelease strategic leaders from the currentdemands of training, readiness, and unforeseencrises; they are responsible to continue to worktoward the ultimate goals of the force, despitethe burden of those events. Army values providethe constant reference for actions in the stress-ful environment of strategic leaders. Strategicleaders understand, embody, and execute leader-ship based on Army values.



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7-9. Strategic leaders continue to use interper-sonal skills developed as direct and organiza-tional leaders, but the scope, responsibilities,and authority of strategic positions require lead-ers with unusually sophisticated interpersonalskills. Internally, there are more levels of peopleto deal with; externally, there are more interac-tions with outside agencies, with the media,even with foreign governments. Knowing theArmy’s needs and goals, strategic leaderspatiently but tenaciously labor to convince theproper people about what the Army must haveand become. Figure 7-1 lists strategic leaderinterpersonal skills.

7-10. Strategic leaders and their staffs developnetworks of knowledgeable individuals in organ-izations and agencies that influence their ownorganizations. Through penetrating assessments,

these leaders seek to understand the personalstrengths and weaknesses of all the main playerson a particular issue. Strategic leaders are adeptat reading other people, and they work to com-pletely control their own actions and reactions.Armed with improved knowledge of others,self-control, and established networks, strategicleaders influence external events by providingleadership, timely and relevant information, andaccess to the right people and agencies.

Communicating

7-11. Communication at the strategic level iscomplicated by the wide array of staff, func-tional, and operational components interactingwith each other and with external agencies.These complex relationships require strategicleaders to employ comprehensive communica-tions skills as they represent their organizations.One of the most prominent differences betweenstrategic leaders and leaders at other levels is thegreater importance of symbolic communication.The example strategic leaders set, their deci-sions, and their actions have meaning beyondtheir immediate consequences to a much greaterextent than those of direct and organizationalleaders.

7-12. Thus, strategic leaders identify thoseactions that send messages. Then they use theirpositions to send the desired messages to theirorganizations and ensure that the right audi-ences hear them. The messages strategic leaderssend set the example in the largest sense. Forinstance, messages that support traditions,Army values, or a particular program indicatethe strategic leader’s priorities.

7-13. Thus, strategic leaders communicate notonly to the organization but also to a largeexternal audience that includes the politicalleadership, media, and the American people. Toinfluence those audiences, strategic leaders

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Figure 7-1. Strategic leader skills—interpersonal



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seek to convey integrity and win trust. As GAMarshall noted, they become expert in “the artof persuasion.”

7-14. Strategic leaders commit to a few com-mon, powerful, and consistent messages andrepeat them over and over in different forms andsettings. They devise a communications cam-paign plan, written or conceptual, that outlineshow to deal with each target group. Whenpreparing to address a specific audience, theydetermine its composition and agenda so theyknow how best to reach its members. Findingsome apparent success with the medium, fre-quency, and words of the message, strategicleaders determine the best way to measure themessage’s effectiveness and continually scanand assess the environment to make sure thatthe message is going to all the right groups.

Using Dialogue

7-15. One of the forms of communication thatstrategic leaders use to persuade individuals,rather than groups, is dialogue. Dialogue is a con-versation between two or more people. It requiresnot only active listening, but carefully consider-ing what’s said (and not said), logically assessingit without personal bias, and specifying issuesthat are not understood or don’t make sensewithin the strategic leader’s frame of reference.By using dialogue to thoroughly exchange pointsof view, assumptions, and concepts, strategicleaders gather information, clarify issues, andenlist support of subordinates and peers.

Negotiating

7-16. Many relationships between strategic-level organizations are lateral and without clearsubordination. Often, strategic leaders relyheavily on negotiating skills to obtain the coop-eration and support necessary to accomplish amission or meet the command’s needs. For

example, commanders of the national contin-gents that made up the North Atlantic TreatyOrganization (NATO) implementation force(IFOR) sent to Bosnia to support the 1995 Day-ton peace accords all had limitations imposedon the extent of their participation. In addition,they all had direct lines to their home govern-ments, which they used when they believedIFOR commanders exceeded those limits.NATO strategic leaders had to negotiate someactions that ordinarily would have required onlyissuing orders. They often had to interpret arequirement to the satisfaction of one or moreforeign governments.

7-17. Successful negotiation requires a range ofinterpersonal skills. Good negotiators are alsoable to visualize several possible end states whilemaintaining a clear idea of the best end state fromthe command’s perspective. One of the mostimportant skills is the ability to stand firm onnonnegotiable points while simultaneously com-municating respect for other participants andtheir negotiating limits. In international forums,firmness and respect demonstrate that the nego-tiator knows and understands US interests. Thatunderstanding can help the negotiator persuadeothers of the validity of US interests and con-vince others that the United States understandsand respects the interests of other states.

7-18. A good negotiator is particularly skilledin active listening. Other essential personalcharacteristics include perceptiveness andobjectivity. Negotiators must be able to diag-nose unspoken agendas and detach themselvesfrom the negotiation process. Successful negoti-ating involves communicating a clear positionon all issues while still conveying willingness tobargain on negotiable issues, recognizing what’sacceptable to all concerned, and achieving acompromise that meets the needs of all partici-pants to the greatest extent possible.



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7-19. Sometimes strategic leaders to put out aproposal early so the interchange and ultimatesolution revolve around factors important to theArmy. However, they are confident enough toresist the impulse to leave their thumbprints onfinal products. Strategic leaders don’t have toclaim every good idea because they know theywill have more. Their understanding of selflessservice allows them to subordinate personalrecognition to negotiated settlements that pro-duce the greatest good for their establishment,the Army, and the nation or coalition.

Achieving Consensus

7-20. Strategic leaders are skilled at reachingconsensus and building and sustaining coali-tions. They may apply these skills to tasks asdiverse as designing combatant commands,JTFs, and policy working groups or determiningthe direction of a major command or the Armyas an institution. Strategic leaders routinelyweld people together for missions lasting frommonths to years. Using peer leadership ratherthan strict positional authority, strategic leadersoversee progress toward their visualized endstate and monitor the health of the relationshipsnecessary to achieve it. Interpersonal contactsets the tone for professional relations: strategicleaders are tactful and discreet.

7-21. GA Eisenhower’s creation of SHAEF dur-ing World War II (which was mentioned inChapter 2) is an outstanding example of coali-tion building and sustainment. GA Eisenhowerinsisted on unity of command over the forcesassigned to him. He received this authority fromboth the British and US governments but exer-cised it through an integrated command andstaff structure that related influence roughly tothe contribution of the nations involved. Thesections within SHAEF all had chiefs of onenationality and deputies of another.

7-22. GA Eisenhower also insisted that military,rather than political, criteria would predominatein his operational and strategic decisions asSupreme Allied Commander. His most contro-versial decisions, adoption of the so-calledbroad-front strategy and the refusal to race theSoviet forces to Berlin, rested on his belief thatmaintaining the Anglo-American alliance was anational interest and his personal responsibility.Many historians argue that this feat of gettingthe Allies to work together was his most impor-tant contribution to the war.

Allied Command During the Battle of the Bulge

A pivotal moment in the history of the WesternAlliance arrived on 16 December 1944, whenthe German Army launched a massive offensivein a lightly held sector of the American line inthe Ardennes Forest. This offensive, whichbecame known as the Battle of the Bulge, splitGEN Omar Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group. Northof the salient, British GEN Bernard Montgomerycommanded most of the Allied forces, so GAEisenhower shifted command of the US forcesthere to GEN Montgomery rather than have oneUS command straddle the gap. GEN Bradley, theSupreme Allied Commander reasoned, couldnot effectively control forces both north andsouth of the penetration. It made more sensefor GEN Montgomery to command all Alliedforces on the northern shoulder and GENBradley all those on its southern shoulder. GAEisenhower personally telephoned GEN Bradleyto tell his old comrade of the decision. With theSHAEF staff still present, GA Eisenhower passedthe order to his reluctant subordinate, listenedto GEN Bradley’s protests, and then said sharply,“Well, Brad, those are my orders.”

According to historian J.D. Morelock, thisshort conversation, more than any other action



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7-23. Across the Atlantic Ocean, GA George C.Marshall, the Army Chief of Staff, also had toseek consensus with demanding peers, nonemore so than ADM Ernest J. King, Commanderin Chief, US Fleet and Chief of Naval Opera-tions. GA Marshall expended great personalenergy to ensure that interservice feuding at thetop didn’t mar the US war effort. ADM King, aforceful leader with strong and often differingviews, responded in kind. Because of the abilityof these two strategic leaders to work in har-mony, President Franklin D. Roosevelt had fewissues of major consequence to resolve once hehad issued a decision and guidance.

7-24. Opportunities for strategic leadershipmay come at surprising moments. For instance,Joshua Chamberlain’s greatest contribution toour nation may have been not at Gettysburg orPetersburg, but at Appomattox. By that time amajor general, Chamberlain was chosen to com-mand the parade at which GEN Lee’s Army ofNorthern Virginia laid down its arms and colors.GEN Grant had directed a simple ceremony thatrecognized the Union victory without humiliat-ing the Confederates.

7-25. However, MG Chamberlain sensed theneed for something even greater. Instead ofgloating as the vanquished army passed, hedirected his bugler to sound the commands forattention and present arms. His units came toattention and rendered a salute, following hisorder out of respect for their commander, cer-

tainly not out of sudden warmth for recent ene-mies. That act set the tone for reconciliation andreconstruction and marks a brilliant leader,brave in battle and respectful in peace, whoknew when, where, and how to lead.

Building Staffs

7-26. Until Army leaders reach the highest lev-els, they cannot staff positions and projects asthey prefer. Strategic leaders have not only theauthority but also the responsibility to pick thebest people for their staffs. They seek to put theright people in the right places, balancingstrengths and weaknesses for the good of thenation. They mold staffs able to package con-cise, unbiased information and build networksacross organizational lines. Strategic leadersmake so many wide-ranging, interrelated deci-sions that they must have imaginative staffmembers who know the environment, foreseeconsequences of various courses of action, andidentify crucial information accordingly.

7-27. With their understanding of the strategicenvironment and vision for the future, strategicleaders seek to build staffs that compensate fortheir weaknesses, reinforce their vision, andensure institutional success. Strategic leaderscan’t afford to be surrounded by staffs that blindlyagree with everything they say. Not only do theyavoid surrounding themselves with “yes-men,”they also reward staff members for speaking thetruth. Strategic leaders encourage their staffs toparticipate in dialogue with them, discuss alterna-tive points of view, and explore all facts, assump-

taken by GA Eisenhower and the SHAEF staffduring the battle, “discredited the Germanassumption that nationalistic fears and rivalrieswould inhibit prompt and effective steps tomeet the German challenge.” It demonstratedGA Eisenhower’s “firm grasp of the true natureof an allied command”and it meant that Hitler’sgamble to win the war had failed. The best executive is the one who has sense

enough to pick good men to do what he wantsdone, and self-restraint enough to keep frommeddling with them while they do it.

Theodore Roosevelt 26th President of the United States



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tions, and implications. Such dialogue assistsstrategic leaders to fully assess all aspects of anissue and helps clarify their intent and guidance.

7-28. As strategic leaders build and use theirstaffs, they continually seek honesty and compe-tence. Strategic-level staffs must be able to dis-cern what the “truth” is. During World War II,GA Marshall’s ability to fill his staff and com-mands with excellent officers made a differencein how quickly the Army could create a wartimeforce able to mobilize, deploy, fight, and win.Today’s strategic leaders face an environmentmore complex than the one GA Marshall faced.They often have less time than GA Marshall hadto assess situations, make plans, prepare anappropriate response, and execute. The impor-tance of building courageous, honest, and com-petent staffs has correspondingly increased.

Conceptual Skills

7-29. Strategic leaders, more than direct andorganizational leaders, draw on their conceptualskills to comprehend national, national security,and theater strategies, operate in the strategicand theater contexts, and improve their vast,complex organizations. The variety and scope oftheir concerns demand the application of moresophisticated concepts.

7-30. Strategic leaders need wisdom—and wis-dom isn’t just knowledge. They routinely dealwith diversity, complexity, ambiguity, change,uncertainty, and conflicting policies. They areresponsible for developing well-reasoned posi-tions and providing their views and advice toour nation’s highest leaders. For the good of theArmy and the nation, strategic leaders seek todetermine what’s important now and what willbe important in the future. They develop thenecessary wisdom by freeing themselves to stayin touch with the force and spending time think-ing, simply thinking.

Envisioning

From an intellectual standpoint, Princeton was aworld-shaking experience. It fundamentallychanged my approach to life. The basic thrust ofthe curriculum was to give students an apprecia-tion of how complex and diverse various politicalsystems and issues are. . . . The bottom line was thatanswers had to be sought in terms of the shiftingrelationships of groups and individuals, that poli-tics pervades all human activity, a truth not to becondemned but appreciated and put to use.

Admiral William Crowe Former Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff

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Figure 7-2. Strategic leader skills—conceptual

It is in the minds of the commanders that theissue of battle is really decided.

Sir Basil H. Liddell Hart



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7-31. Strategic leaders design compellingvisions for their organizations and inspire a col-laborative effort to articulate the vision in detail.They then communicate that vision clearly anduse it to create a plan, gain support, and focussubordinates’ work. Strategic leaders have thefurther responsibility of defining for theirdiverse organizations what counts as success inachieving the vision. They monitor theirprogress by drawing on personal observations,review and analysis, strategic managementplans, and informal discussions with soldiersand DA civilians.

7-32. Strategic leaders look realistically atwhat the future may hold. They consider thingsthey know and things they can anticipate. Theyincorporate new ideas, new technologies, andnew capabilities. The National Security Strat-egy and National Military Strategy guidestrategic leaders as they develop visions fortheir organizations. From a complicated mix-ture of ideas, facts, conjecture, and personalexperience they create an image of what theirorganizations need to be.

7-33. Once strategic leaders have developed avision, they create a plan to reach that end state.They consider objectives, courses of action totake the organization there, and resourcesneeded to do the job. The word “vision” impliesthat strategic leaders create a conceptual modelof what they want. Subordinates will be moreinvolved in moving the organization forward ifthey can “see” what the leader has in mind. Andbecause moving a large organization is often along haul, subordinates need some sign thatthey’re making progress. Strategic leaders there-fore provide intermediate objectives that act asmilestones for their subordinates in checkingtheir direction and measuring their progress.

7-34. The strategic leader’s vision provides theultimate sense of purpose, direction, and motiva-

tion for everyone in the organization. It is at oncethe starting point for developing specific goalsand plans, a yardstick for measuring what theorganization accomplishes, and a check on orga-nizational values. Ordinarily, a strategic leader’svision for the organization may have a time hori-zon of years, or even decades. In combat, thehorizon is much closer, but strategic leaders stillfocus far beyond the immediate actions.

7-35. The strategic leader’s vision is a goal,something the organization strives for (eventhough some goals may always be just out ofreach). When members understand the vision,they can see it as clearly as the strategic leadercan. When they see it as worthwhile and acceptit, the vision creates energy, inspiration, com-mitment, and a sense of belonging.

7-36. Strategic leaders set the vision for theirentire organization. They seek to keep the visionconsistent with the external environment, allianceor coalition goals, the National Security Strategy,and the National Military Strategy. Subordinateleaders align their visions and intent with theirstrategic leader’s vision. A strategic leader’s visionmay be expressed in everything from small acts toformal, written policy statements.

7-37. Joint Vision 2010 and Army Vision 2010,which is derived from it, are not based on for-mal organizations; rather they array future tech-nologies and force structure against emergingthreats. While no one can yet see exactly whatthat force will look like, the concepts them-selves provide an azimuth and a point on thehorizon. Achieving well-publicized milepostinitiatives shows that the Army as an institutionis progressing toward the end state visualized byits strategic leaders.

Developing Frames of Reference

7-38. All Army leaders build a personal frameof reference from schooling, experience, self-



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study, and reflection on current events and his-tory. Strategic leaders create a comprehensiveframe of reference that encompasses theirorganization and places it in the strategic envi-ronment. To construct a useful frame, strategicleaders are open to new experiences and to com-ments from others, including subordinates.Strategic leaders are reflective, thoughtful, andunafraid to rethink past experiences and to learnfrom them. They are comfortable with theabstractions and concepts common in the strate-gic environment. Moreover, they understand thecircumstances surrounding them, their organi-zation, and the nation.

7-39. Much like intelligence analysts, strategicleaders look at events and see patterns that oth-ers often miss. These leaders are likely to iden-tify and understand a strategic situation and,more important, infer the outcome of interven-tions or the absence of interventions. A strategicleader’s frame of reference helps identify theinformation most relevant to a strategic situa-tion so that the leader can go to the heart of amatter without being distracted. In the newinformation environment, that talent is moreimportant than ever. Cosmopolitan strategicleaders, those with comprehensive frames ofreference and the wisdom that comes fromthought and reflection, are well equipped to dealwith events having complex causes and to envi-sion creative solutions.

7-40. A well-developed frame of reference alsogives strategic leaders a thorough understandingof organizational subsystems and their interact-ing processes. Cognizant of the relationshipsamong systems, strategic leaders foresee thepossible effects on one system of actions in oth-ers. Their vision helps them anticipate and avoidproblems.

Dealing with Uncertainty and Ambiguity

7-41. Strategic leaders operate in an environ-ment of increased volatility, uncertainty, com-plexity, and ambiguity. Change at this level mayarrive suddenly and unannounced. As they planfor contingencies, strategic leaders prepareintellectually for a range of uncertain threatsand scenarios. Since even great planning andforesight can’t predict or influence all futureevents, strategic leaders work to shape the futureon terms they can control, using diplomatic,informational, military, and economic instru-ments of national power.

7-42. Strategic leaders fight complexity byencompassing it. They must be more complexthan the situations they face. This means they’reable to expand their frame of reference to fit asituation rather than reducing a situation to fittheir preconceptions. They don’t lose sight ofArmy values and force capabilities as they focuson national policy. Because of their maturityand wisdom, they tolerate ambiguity, knowingthey will never have all the information theywant. Instead, they carefully analyze events anddecide when to make a decision, realizing thatthey must innovate and accept some risk. Oncethey make decisions, strategic leaders thenexplain them to the Army and the nation, in theprocess imposing order on the uncertainty andambiguity of the situation. Strategic leaders notonly understand the environment themselves;they also translate their understanding to others.

True genius resides in the capacity for evaluationof uncertain, hazardous, and conflicting informa-tion.

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7-43. In addition to demonstrating the flexibil-ity required to handle competing demands,strategic leaders understand complex cause-and-effect relationships and anticipate the sec-ond- and third-order effects of their decisionsthroughout the organization. The highly volatilenature of the strategic environment may temptthem to concentrate on the short term, butstrategic leaders don’t allow the crisis of themoment absorb them completely. They remain

focused on their responsibility to shape anorganization or policies that will perform suc-cessfully over the next 10 to 20 years. Somesecond- and third-order effects are desirable;leaders can design and pursue actions toachieve them. For example, strategic leaderswho continually send—through their actions—messages of trust to subordinates inspire trustin themselves. The third-order effect may be toenhance subordinates’ initiative.

Technical Skills

7-44. Strategic leaders create their work on abroad canvas that requires broad technical skillsof the sort named in Figure 7-3.

Strategic Art

7-45. The strategic art, broadly defined, is theskillful formulation, coordination, and applica-tion of ends, ways, and means to promote anddefend the national interest. Masters of thestrategic art competently integrate the threeroles performed by the complete strategist:strategic leader, strategic practitioner, andstrategic theorist.

7-46. Using their understanding of the systemswithin their own organizations, strategic leaderswork through the complexity and uncertainty ofthe strategic environment and translate abstractconcepts into concrete actions. Proficiency inthe science of leadership—programs, schedules,and systems, for example—can bring direct ororganizational leaders success. For strategic

Strategic Flexibility in HaitiOperation Uphold Democracy, the 1994 USintervention in Haiti conducted under UN aus-pices, provides an example of strategic leadersachieving success in spite of extreme uncer-tainty and ambiguity. Prior to the order to enterHaiti, strategic leaders didn’t know either D-dayor the available forces. Neither did they knowwhether the operation would be an invitation(permissive entry), an invasion (forced entry), orsomething in between. To complicate theactual military execution, former PresidentJimmy Carter, retired GEN Colin Powell, andSenator Sam Nunn were negotiating with LTGRaoul Cedras, commander in chief of the Hait-ian armed forces, in the Haitian capital even asparatroopers, ready for a combat jump, wereinbound.

When LTG Cedras agreed to hand overpower, the mission of the inbound JTF changedfrom a forced to a permissive entry. The basisfor the operation wound up being an operationplan based on an “in-between” course of actioninferred by the JTF staff during planning. Theability of the strategic leaders involved tochange their focus so dramatically and quicklyprovides an outstanding example of strategicflexibility during a crisis. The ability of the sol-diers, sailors, airmen, and Marines of the JTF toexecute the new mission on short notice is acredit to them and their leaders at all levels.

The crucial difference (apart from levels of innateability) between Washington and the command-ers who opposed him was they were sure theyknew all the answers, while Washington triedevery day and every hour to learn.

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leaders, however, the intangible qualities ofleadership draw on their long and varied experi-ence to produce a rare art.

7-47. Strategic leaders do more than imagineand accurately predict the future; they shape itby moving out of the conceptual realm intopractical execution. Although strategic leadersnever lose touch with soldiers and their techni-cal skills, some practical activities are unique tothis level.

7-48. By reconciling political and economicconstraints with the Army’s needs, strategicleaders navigate to move the force forwardusing the strategy and budget processes. Theyspend a great deal of time obtaining and allocat-ing resources and determining conceptual direc-tions, especially those judged critical for futurestrategic positioning and necessary to preventreadiness shortfalls. They’re also charged withoverseeing of the Army’s responsibilities underTitle 10 of the United States Code.

7-49. Strategic leaders focus not so much oninternal processes as on how the organizationfits into the DOD and the international arena:What are the relationships among externalorganizations? What are the broad political andsocial systems in which the organization and theArmy must operate? Because of the complexreporting and coordinating relationships, strate-gic leaders fully understand their roles, theboundaries of these roles, and the expectationsof other departments and agencies. Understand-ing those interdependencies outside the Armyhelps strategic leaders do the right thing for theprograms, systems, and people within the Armyas well as for the nation.

7-50. Theater CINCs, with their service com-ponent commanders, seek to shape their envi-ronments and accomplish long-term nationalsecurity policy goals within their theaters. Theyoperate through congressional testimony, cre-ative use of assigned and attached militaryforces, imaginative bilateral and multilateralprograms, treaty obligations, person-to-personcontacts with regional leaders, and various jointprocesses. These actions require strategic lead-ers to apply the strategic art just as much asdoes designing and employing force packagesto achieve military end states.

7-51. GA Douglas MacArthur, a theater CINCduring World War II, became military governorof occupied Japan after the Japanese surrender.His former enemies became his responsibility;he had to deal diplomatically with the defeatednation as well as the directives of American civilauthorities and the interests of the former Allies.GA MacArthur understood the differencebetween preliminary (often called military) endstate conditions and the broader set of end stateconditions that are necessary for the transitionfrom war to peace. Once a war has ended, mili-tary force can no longer be the principal means

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of achieving strategic aims. Thus, a strategicleader’s end state vision must include diplo-matic, economic, and informational—as well asmilitary—aspects. GA MacArthur’s vision, andthe actions he took to achieve it, helped estab-lish the framework that preserved peace in thePacific Ocean and rebuilt a nation that wouldbecome a trusted ally.

7-52. A similar institutional example occurredin the summer of 1990. Then, while the Armywas in the midst of the most precisely plannedforce “build-down” in history, Army Chief ofStaff Carl Vuono had to halt the process to meeta crisis in the Persian Gulf. GEN Vuono wasrequired to call up, mobilize and deploy forcesnecessary to meet the immediate crisis whileretaining adequate capabilities in other theaters.The following year he redeployed Third (US)Army, demobilized the activated reserves, andresumed downsizing toward the smallest activeforce since the 1930s. GEN Vuono demon-strated the technical skill of the strategic art andproved himself a leader of character and compe-tence motivated by Army values.

Leveraging Technology

7-53. Leveraging technology—that is, applyingtechnological capabilities to obtain a decisivemilitary advantage—has given strategic leadersadvantages in force projection, in command andcontrol, and in the generation of overwhelmingcombat power. Leveraging technology has alsoincreased the tempo of operations, the speed ofmaneuver, the precision of firepower, and thepace at which information is processed. Ideally,information technology, in particular, enhancesnot only communications, but also situationalunderstanding. With all these advantages, ofcourse, comes increasing complexity: it’s harderto control large organizations that are movingquickly. Strategic leaders seek to understand

emerging military technologies and apply thatunderstanding to resourcing, allocating, andexploiting the many systems under their control.

7-54. Emerging combat, combat support, andcombat service support technologies bring morethan changes to doctrine. Technological changeallows organizations to do the things they donow better and faster, but it also enables them todo things that were not possible before. So apart of leveraging technology is envisioning thefuture capability that could be exploited bydeveloping a technology. Another aspect isrethinking the form the organization ought totake in order to exploit new processes that pre-viously were not available. This is why strategicleaders take time to think “out of the box.”

Translating Political Goals into Military Objectives

7-55. Leveraging technology takes more thanunderstanding; it takes money. Strategic leaderscall on their understanding and their knowledgeof the budgetary process to determine whichcombat, combat support, and combat servicesupport technologies will provide the leap-ahead capability commensurate with the cost.Wise Army leaders in the 1970s and 1980s real-ized that superior night systems and greaterstandoff ranges could expose fewer Americansto danger yet kill more of the enemy. Thoseleaders committed money to developing andprocuring appropriate weapons systems andequipment. Operation Desert Storm validatedthese decisions when, for example, M1 tanksdestroyed Soviet-style equipment before itcould close within its maximum effective range.However strategic leaders are always in theposition of balancing budget constraints, tech-nological improvements, and current forcereadiness against potential threats as they shapethe force for the future.



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7-56. Strategic leaders identify military condi-tions necessary to satisfy political ends desiredby America’s civilian leadership. They mustsynchronize the efforts of the Army with thoseof the other services and government agenciesto attain those conditions and achieve the endstate envisioned by America’s political leaders.To operate on the world stage, often in conjunc-tion with allies, strategic leaders call on theirinternational perspective and relationships withpolicy makers in other countries.

7-57. Since the end of the Cold War, the inter-national stage has become more confused.Threats to US national security may come froma number of quarters: regional instability, insur-gencies, terrorism, and proliferation of weaponsof mass destruction to name a few. Internationaldrug traffickers and other transnational groupsare also potential adversaries. To counter suchdiverse threats, the nation needs a force flexibleenough to execute a wide array of missions,from warfighting to peace operations to human-itarian assistance. And of course, the nationneeds strategic leaders with the sound perspec-tive that allows them to understand the nation’spolitical goals in the complex internationalenvironment and to shape military objectivesappropriate to the various threats.

Show of Force in the PhilippinesAt the end of November 1989, 1,000 rebelsseized two Filipino air bases in an attempt tooverthrow the government of the Philippines.There had been rumors that someone was plot-ting a coup to end Philippine President CorazonAquino’s rule. Now rebel aircraft from the cap-tured airfields had bombed and strafed thepresidential palace. President Aquino requestedthat the United States help suppress the coupattempt by destroying the captured airfields.Vice President Dan Quayle and Deputy Secre-tary of State Lawrence Eagleburger favored USintervention to support the Philippine govern-ment. As the principal military advisor to thepresident, Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman ColinPowell was asked to recommend a response toPresident Aquino’s request.

GEN Powell applied critical reasoning to thisrequest for US military power in support of aforeign government. He first asked the purposeof the proposed intervention. The State Depart-ment and White House answered that theUnited States needed to demonstrate supportfor President Aquino and keep her in power.GEN Powell then asked the purpose of bombingthe airfields.To prevent aircraft from supportingthe coup, was the reply. Once GEN Powell

understood the political goal, he recom-mended a military response to support it.

The chairman recommended to the WhiteHouse that American jets fly menacing runsover the captured airfields. The goal would beto prevent takeoffs from the airfields by intimi-dating the rebel pilots rather than destroyingrebel aircraft and facilities.This course of actionwas approved by President George Bush andachieved the desired political goal: it deterredthe rebel pilots from supporting the coupattempt. By understanding the political goaland properly defining the military objective,GEN Powell was able to recommend a course ofaction that applied a measured militaryresponse to what was, from the United States’perspective, a diplomatic problem. By electingto conduct a show of force rather than anattack, the United States avoided unnecessarycasualties and damage to the Philippine infra-structure.



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SECTION II. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP

ACTIONS

7-58. Operating at the highest levels of theArmy, the DOD, and the national security estab-lishment, military and DA civilian strategicleaders face highly complex demands frominside and outside the Army. Constantly chang-ing global conditions challenge their decision-making abilities. Strategic leaders tell the Armystory, make long-range decisions, and shape theArmy culture to influence the force and its part-ners inside and outside the United States. Theyplan for contingencies across the range of mili-tary operations and allocate resources to preparefor them, all the while assessing the threat andthe force’s readiness. Steadily improving theArmy, strategic leaders develop their succes-sors, lead changes in the force, and optimizesystems and operations. This section addressesthe influencing, operating, and improvingactions they use.

Influencing Actions

7-59. Strategic leaders act to influence boththeir organization and its outside environment.Like direct and organizational leaders, strategicleaders influence through personal example aswell as by communicating, making decisions,and motivating.

7-60. Because the external environment isdiverse and complex, it’s sometimes difficult forstrategic leaders to identify and influence the

origins of factors affecting the organization.This difficulty applies particularly to fast-pacedsituations like theater campaigns. Strategicleaders meet this challenge by becoming mas-ters of information, influence, and vision.

7-61. Strategic leaders also seek to control theinformation environment, consistent with USlaw and Army values. Action in this area canrange from psychological operations campaignsto managing media relationships. Strategic lead-ers who know what’s happening with presentand future requirements, both inside and outsidethe organization, are in a position to influenceevents, take advantage of opportunities, andmove the organization toward its goals.

7-62. As noted earlier, strategic leaders developthe wisdom and frames of reference necessaryto identify the information relevant to the situa-tion at hand. In addition, they use interpersonalskills to develop a network of knowledgeable

Leadership is understanding people and involv-ing them to help you do a job.That takes all of thegood characteristics, like integrity, dedication ofpurpose, selflessness, knowledge, skill, implacabil-ity, as well as determination not to accept failure.

Admiral Arleigh A. Burke Naval Leadership: Voices of Experience

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people, especially in those organizations thatcan influence their own. They encourage staffmembers to develop similar networks. Throughthese networks, strategic leaders actively seekinformation relevant to their organizations andsubject matter experts they can call on to assistthemselves and their staffs. Strategic leaders canoften call on the nation’s best minds and infor-mation sources and may face situations wherenothing less will do.

Communicating

Communicating a Vision7-63. The skill of envisioning is vital to thestrategic leader. But forming a vision is pointlessunless the leader shares it with a broad audience,gains widespread support, and uses it as a com-pass to guide the organization. For the vision toprovide purpose, direction, and motivation, thestrategic leader must personally commit to it,gain commitment from the organization as awhole, and persistently pursue the goals andobjectives that will spread the vision throughoutthe organization and make it a reality.

7-64. Strategic leaders identify trends, opportu-nities, and threats that could affect the Army’sfuture and move vigorously to mobilize the tal-ent that will help create strategic vision. In 1991Army Chief of Staff Gordon R. Sullivan formeda study group of two dozen people to help crafthis vision for the Army. In this process, GENSullivan considered authorship less importantthan shared vision:

Once a vision has been articulated and theprocess of buy-in has begun, the vision must

be continually interpreted. In some cases,the vision may be immediately understand-able at every level. In other cases, it must betranslated—put into more appropriate lan-guage—for each part of the organization. Instill other cases, it may be possible to findsymbols that come to represent the vision.

7-65. Strategic leaders are open to ideas from avariety of sources, not just their own organiza-tions. Some ideas will work; some won’t. Somewill have few, if any, long-lasting effects; others,like the one in this example, will have effectsfew will foresee.

Telling the Army Story

Moving our Army into the next century is a jour-ney, not a destination; we know where we aregoing and we are moving out.


Combat Power from a Good IdeaIn 1941, as the American military was preparingfor war, Congresswoman Edith Nourse Rogerscorrectly anticipated manpower shortages inindustry and in the armed forces as the militarygrew. To meet this need, she proposed creationof a Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) of25,000 women to fill administrative jobs andfree men for service with combat units. Afterthe United States entered the war, when thesize of the effort needed became clearer, Con-gresswoman Rogers introduced another bill fora WAAC of some 150,000 women. Although thebill met stiff opposition in some quarters, a ver-sion passed and eventually the Women’s ArmyCorps was born. Congresswoman Rogers’visionof how to best get the job done in the face ofvast demands on manpower contributed agreat deal to the war effort.

If you have an important point to make, don’t tryto be subtle or clever. Use a pile-driver. Hit thepoint once. Then come back and hit it a secondtime—a tremendous whack!

Sir Winston Churchill Prime Minister of Great Britain, World War II



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7-66. Whether by nuance or overt presentation,strategic leaders vigorously and constantly rep-resent who Army is, what it’s doing, and whereit’s going. The audience is the Army itself aswell as the rest of the world. There’s an espe-cially powerful responsibility to explain thingsto the American people, who support their Armywith money and lives. Whether working withother branches of government, federal agencies,the media, other militaries, the other services, ortheir own organizations, strategic leaders relyincreasingly on writing and public speaking(conferences and press briefings) to reinforcethe Army’s central messages. Because so muchof this communication is directed at outsideagencies, strategic leaders avoid parochial lan-guage and remain sensitive to the Army’s image.

7-67. Strategic leaders of all times have deter-mined and reinforced the message that speaks tothe soul of the nation and unifies the force. In1973 Army leaders at all levels knew about “TheBig Five,” the weapons systems that would trans-form the Army (a new tank, an infantry fightingvehicle, an advanced attack helicopter, a newutility helicopter, and an air defense system).Those programs yielded the M1 Abrams, theM2/M3 Bradley, the AH-64 Apache, the UH-60Blackhawk, and the Patriot. But those initiativeswere more than sales pitches for newer hardware;they were linked to concepts about how to fightand win against a massive Soviet-style force. Asa result, fielding the new equipment gave physi-cal form to the new ideas being adopted at thesame time. Soldiers could see improvements aswell as read about them. The synergism of newequipment, new ideas, and good leadershipresulted in the Army of Excellence.

7-68. Today, given the rapid growth of technol-ogy, unpredictable threats, and newly emergingroles, Army leaders can’t cling to new hardwareas the key to the Army’s vision. Instead, today’s

strategic leaders emphasize the Army’s corestrength: Army values and the timeless charac-ter of the American soldier. The Army— trained,ready, and led by leaders of character and com-petence at all levels—has met and will continueto meet the nation’s security needs. That’s themessage of today’s Army to the nation it serves.

7-69. A recent example of successfully tellingthe Army story occurred during OperationDesert Shield. During the deployment phase,strategic leaders decided to get local reporters tothe theater of war to report on mobilized reservecomponent units from their communities. Thatdecision had several effects. The first-ordereffect was to get the Army story to the citizens ofhometown America. That publicity resulted in anunintended second-order effect: a flood of mailthat the nation sent to its deployed soldiers. Thatmail, in turn, produced a third-order effect feltby American soldiers: a new pride in themselves.

Strategic Decision Making

7-70. Strategic leaders have great conceptualresources; they have a collegial network to sharethoughts and plan for the institution’s continuedsuccess and well being. Even when there’s con-sensual decision making, however, everyoneknows who the boss is. Decisions made bystrategic leaders—whether CINCs deployingforces or service chiefs initiating budget pro-

When I am faced with a decision—picking some-body for a post, or choosing a course of action—Idredge up every scrap of knowledge I can. I call inpeople. I telephone them. I read whatever I can getmy hands on. I use my intellect to inform myinstinct. I then use my instinct to test all this data.“Hey, instinct, does this sound right? Does it smellright, feel right, fit right?”

General Colin Powell Former Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff



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grams—often result in a major commitment ofresources. They’re expensive and tough toreverse. Therefore, strategic leaders rely ontimely feedback throughout the decision-mak-ing process in order to avoid making a decisionbased on inadequate or faulty information.Their purpose, direction, and motivation flowdown; information and recommendations sur-face from below.

7-71. Strategic leaders use the processes of theDOD, Joint Staff, and Army strategic planningsystems to provide purpose and direction to sub-ordinate leaders. These systems include the JointStrategic Planning System (JSPS), the Joint Oper-ation Planning and Execution System (JOPES),and the Planning, Programming and BudgetingSystem (PPBS). However, no matter how manysystems are involved and no matter how complexthey are, providing motivation remains theprovince of the individual strategic leader.

7-72. Because strategic leaders are constantlyinvolved in this sort of planning and becausedecisions at this level are so complex anddepend on so many variables, there’s a tempta-tion to analyze things endlessly. There’s alwaysnew information; there’s always a reason to waitfor the next batch of reports or the next dis-patch. Strategic leaders’ perspective, wisdom,courage, and sense of timing help them knowwhen to decide. In peacetime the products ofthose decisions may not see completion for 10to 20 years and may require leaders to con-stantly adjust them along the way. By contrast, astrategic leader’s decision at a critical momentin combat can rapidly alter the course of thewar, as did the one in this example.

The D-Day DecisionOn 4 June 1944 the largest invasion armada everassembled was poised to strike the Normandyregion of France. Weather delays had already

caused a 24-hour postponement and anotherfront of bad weather was heading for the area. Ifthe Allies didn’t make the landings on 6 June,they would miss the combination of favorabletides, clear flying weather, and moonlightneeded for the assault. In addition to his con-cerns about the weather, GA Dwight D. Eisen-hower, the Supreme Allied Commander, worriedabout his soldiers. Every hour they spentjammed aboard crowded ships, tossed aboutand seasick, degraded their fighting ability.

The next possible invasion date was 19 June;however the optimal tide and visibility condi-tions would not recur until mid-July. GA Eisen-hower was ever mindful that the longer hedelayed, the greater chance German intelli-gence had to discover the Allied plan. The Ger-mans would use any additional time to improvethe already formidable coastal defenses.

On the evening of 4 June GA Eisenhowerand his staff received word that there would bea window of clear weather on the next night,the night of 5-6 June. If the meteorologistswere wrong, GA Eisenhower would be sendingseasick men ashore with no air cover or accu-rate naval gunfire. GA Eisenhower was con-cerned for his soldiers.

“Don’t forget,” GA Eisenhower said in aninterview 20 years later, “some hundreds ofthousands of men were down here aroundPortsmouth, and many of them had alreadybeen loaded for some time, particularly thosewho were going to make the initial assault.Those people in the ships and ready to go werein cages, you might say. You couldn’t call themanything else. They were fenced in. They werecrowded up, and everybody was unhappy.”

GA Eisenhower continued, “Goodnessknows, those fellows meant a lot to me. Butthese are the decisions that have to be madewhen you’re in a war. You say to yourself, I’mgoing to do something that will be to my coun-



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Motivating

Shaping Culture7-73. Strategic leaders inspire great effort. Tomold morale and motivate the entire Army,strategic leaders cultivate a challenging, sup-portive, and respectful environment for soldiersand DA civilians to operate in. An institutionwith a history has a mature, well-establishedculture—a shared set of values and assumptionsthat members hold about it. At the same time,large and complex institutions like the Army arediverse; they have many subcultures, such asthose that exist in the civilian and reserve com-ponents, heavy and light forces, and specialoperations forces. Gender, ethnic, religious,occupational, and regional differences alsodefine groups within the force.

Culture and Values7-74. The challenge for strategic leaders is toensure that all these subcultures are part of thelarger Army culture and that they all share Armyvalues. Strategic leaders do this by working withthe best that each subculture has to offer and

ensuring that subcultures don’t foster unhealthycompetition with each other, outside agencies, orthe rest of the Army. Rather, these various sub-cultures must complement each other and theArmy’s institutional culture. Strategic leadersappreciate the differences that characterize thesesubcultures and treat all members of all compo-nents with dignity and respect. They’re responsi-ble for creating an environment that fostersmutual understanding so that soldiers and DAcivilians treat one another as they should.

7-75. Army values form the foundation onwhich the Army’s institutional culture stands.Army values also form the basis for Army poli-cies and procedures. But written values are oflittle use unless they are practiced. Strategicleaders help subordinates adopt these values bymaking sure that their experience validatesthem. In this, strategic leaders support theefforts all Army leaders make to develop thetheir subordinates’ character. This characterdevelopment effort (discussed in Appendix E)strives to have all soldiers and DA civiliansadopt Army values, incorporate them into a per-sonal code, and act according to them.

7-76. Like organizational and direct leaders,strategic leaders model character by theiractions. Only experience can validate Army val-ues: subordinates will hear of Army values, thenlook to see if they are being lived around them.If they are, the Army’s institutional culture isstrengthened; if they are not, the Army’s institu-tional culture begins to weaken. Strategic lead-ers ensure Army values remain fundamental tothe Army’s institutional culture.

7-77. Over time, an institution’s culturebecomes so embedded in its members that theymay not even notice how it affects their atti-tudes. The institutional culture becomes secondnature and influences the way people think, theway they act in relation to each other and out-

try’s advantage for the least cost. You can’t saywithout any cost.You know you’re going to losesome of them, and it’s very difficult.”

A failed invasion would delay the end of awar that had already dragged on for nearly fiveyears. GA Eisenhower paced back and forth as astorm rattled the windows.There were no guar-antees, but the time had come to act.

He stopped pacing and, facing his subordi-nates, said quietly but clearly,“OK, let’s go.”

It is the morale of armies, as well as of nations,more than anything else, which makes victoriesand their results decisive.

Baron Antoine-Henri de Jomini Precis de l’Art de Guerre, 1838



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side agencies, and the way they approach themission. Institutional culture helps define theboundaries of acceptable behavior, rangingfrom how to wear the uniform to how to inter-act with foreign nationals. It helps determinehow people approach problems, make judg-ments, determine right from wrong, and estab-lish priorities. Culture shapes Army customsand traditions through doctrine, policies andregulations, and the philosophy that guides theinstitution. Professional journals, historicalworks, ceremonies—even the folklore of theorganization—all contain evidence of theArmy’s institutional culture.

Culture and Leadership7-78. A healthy culture is a powerful leadershiptool strategic leaders use to help them guidetheir large diverse organizations. Strategic lead-ers seek to shape the culture to support theirvision, accomplish the mission, and improve theorganization. A cohesive culture molds theorganization’s morale, reinforcing an ethical cli-mate built on Army values, especially respect.As leaders initiate changes for long-rangeimprovements, soldiers and DA civilians mustfeel that they’re valued as persons, not just asworkers or program supporters.

7-79. One way the Army’s institutional cultureaffirms the importance of individuals is throughits commitment to leader development: inessence, this commitment declares that peopleare the Army’s future. By committing to broad-based leader development, the Army has rede-fined what it means to be a soldier. In fact,Army leaders have even changed the appear-ance of American soldiers and the way they per-form. Introducing height and weight standards,raising PT standards, emphasizing training andeducation, and deglamorizing alcohol have allfundamentally changed the Army’s institutionalculture.

Operating Actions

7-80. Operating at the strategic level caninvolve both short-term and long-term actions.The most agile organizations have standing pro-cedures and policies to take the guesswork outof routine actions and allow leaders to concen-trate their imagination and energy on the mostdifficult tasks. Strategic leaders coordinate theirorganizations’ actions to accomplish near-termmissions, often without the benefit of directguidance. Strategic leaders receive generalguidance—frequently from several sources,including the national command authority.

7-81. Although they perform many of the sameoperating actions as organizational and directleaders, strategic leaders also manage joint,multinational, and interagency relationships.For strategic leaders, planning, preparing, exe-cuting, and assessing are nearly continuous,more so than at the other leadership levels,because the larger organizations they lead have

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continuing missions. In addition, the preparingaction takes on a more comprehensive meaningat the strategic leadership level. Leaders at alllevels keep one eye on tomorrow. Strategic lead-ers, to a greater extent than leaders at other lev-els, must coordinate their organizations’ actions,positioning them to accomplish the current mis-sion in a way that will feed seamlessly into thenext one. The Army doesn’t stop at the end of afield exercise—or even after recovering from amajor deployment; there’s always another mis-sion about to start and still another one on thedrawing board.

Strategic Planning

7-82. Strategic-level plans must balance com-peting demands across the vast structure of theDOD, but the fundamental requirements forstrategic-level planning are the same as fordirect- and organizational-level planning. At alllevels, leaders establish priorities and communi-cate decisions; however, at the strategic level,the sheer number of players who can influencethe organization means that strategic leadersmust stay on top of multiple demands. To plancoherently and comprehensively, they look atthe mission from other players’ points of view.Strategic planning depends heavily on wiselyapplying interpersonal and conceptual skills.Strategic leaders ask: What will these peoplewant? How will they see things? Have I justifiedthe mission? The interaction among strategicleaders’ interpersonal and conceptual skills andtheir operating actions is highly complex.

7-83. Interpersonal and conceptual understand-ing helped the Army during Operation UpholdDemocracy, the US intervention in Haiti. Thesuccess of the plan to collect and disarm formerHaitian police and military officials, investigatethem, remove them (if required), or retrain themowed much to recognizing the special demands

of the Haitian psyche. The population needed asecure and stable environment and a way toknow when that condition was in place. TheHaitians feared the resurgence of governmentterror, and any long-term solution had toaddress their concerns. Strategic plannersmaintained a focus on the desired end state: USdisengagement and a return to a peaceful, self-governing Haiti. In the end, the United Statesforced Haitian leaders to cooperate, restoredthe elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide,and made provisions for returning control ofaffairs to the Haitians themselves.

Executing

Allocating Resources7-84. Because lives are precious and materiel isscarce, strategic leaders make tough decisionsabout priorities. Their goal is a capable, pre-pared, and victorious force. In peacetime, strate-gic leaders decide which programs get fundedand consider the implications of those choices.Allocating resources isn’t simply a matter ofchoosing helicopters, tanks, and missiles for thefuture Army. Strategic resourcing affects howthe Army will operate and fight tomorrow. Forexample, strategic leaders determine how muchequipment can be pre-positioned for contingen-cies without degrading current operationalcapabilities.

Managing Joint, Interagency, and Multinational Relationships7-85. Strategic leaders oversee the relationshipbetween their organizations, as part of thenation’s total defense force, and the nationalpolicy apparatus. They use their knowledge ofhow things work at the national and interna-

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tional levels to influence opinion and build con-sensus for the organization’s missions, gather-ing support of diverse players to achieve theirvision. Among their duties, strategic leaders:

• Provide military counsel in national policyforums.

• Interpret national policy guidelines and direc-tions.

• Plan for and maintain the military capabilityrequired to implement national policy.

• Present the organization’s resource require-ments.

• Develop strategies to support national objec-tives.

• Bridge the gap between political decisionsmade as part of national strategy and the indi-viduals and organizations that must carry outthose decisions.

7-86. As part of this last requirement, strategicleaders clarify national policy for subordinatesand explain the perspectives that contribute tothat national policy. They develop policiesreflecting national security objectives and pre-pare their organizations to respond to missionsacross the spectrum of military actions.

7-87. Just as direct and organizational leadersconsider their sister units and agencies, strategicleaders consider and work with other armedservices and government agencies. How impor-tant is this joint perspective? Most of the Army’sfour-star billets are joint or multinational.Almost half of the lieutenant generals hold sim-ilar positions on the Joint Staff, with the DOD,or in combatant commands. While the remain-ing strategic leaders are assigned to organiza-tions that are nominally single service (ForcesCommand, Training and Doctrine Command,Army Materiel Command), they frequentlywork outside Army channels. In addition, manyDA civilian strategic leaders hold positions thatrequire a joint perspective.

7-88. The complexity of the work created byjoint and multinational requirements is twofold.First, communication is more complicatedbecause of the different interests, cultures, andlanguages of the participants. Even the culturesand jargon of the various US armed services dif-fer dramatically. Second, subordinates may notbe subordinate in the same sense as they are ina purely Army organization. Strategic leadersand their forces may fall under internationaloperational control but retain their allegiances

Multinational Resource AllocationFollowing the breakout and pursuit after theNormandy landings, Allied logistics systemsbecame seriously overstretched. GA Eisen-hower, the Supreme Allied Commander, had tomake a number of decisions on resource alloca-tion among his three army groups. These deci-sions had serious implications for the conductof the war in the ETO. Both GEN George Patton,Commander of the Third (US) Army in GENOmar Bradley’s Twelfth Army Group, and BritishGEN Bernard Montgomery, the Twenty-firstArmy Group Commander, argued that sole pri-ority for their single thrusts into the Germanhomeland could win the war. GA Eisenhower,dedicated to preserving the alliance with anAllied success in the West, gave GEN Mont-gomery only a limited priority for a riskyattempt to gain a Rhine bridgehead, and at thesame time, slowed GEN Patton’s effort to whatwas logistically feasible under the circum-stances. The Supreme Allied Commander’s

decision was undoubtedly unpopular with hislongtime colleague, GEN Patton, but it con-tributed to alliance solidarity, sent a message tothe Soviets, and ensured a final success that didnot rely on the still highly uncertain collapse ofGerman defenses.



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and lines of authority to their own national com-manders. UN and NATO commands, such as theIFOR, discussed earlier are examples of thiskind of arrangement.

7-89. To operate effectively in a joint or multina-tional environment, strategic leaders exercise aheightened multiservice and international sensi-tivity developed over their years of experience. Ajoint perspective results from shared experiencesand interactions with leaders of other services,complemented by the leader’s habitual introspec-tion. Similar elements in the international arenainform an international perspective. Combingthose perspectives with their own Army andnational perspectives, strategic leaders:

• Influence the opinions of those outside theArmy and help them understand Army needs.

• Interpret the outside environment for peopleon the inside, especially in the formulation ofplans and policies.

Most Army leaders will have several opportuni-ties to serve abroad, sometimes with forces ofother nations. Perceptive leaders turn such serv-ice into opportunities for self-development andpersonal broadening.

7-90. Chapter 2 describes building a “third cul-ture,” that is, a hybrid culture that bridges thegap between partners in multinational opera-tions. Strategic leaders take the time to learnabout their partners’ cultures—including politi-cal, social and economic aspects—so that theyunderstand how and why the partners think andact as they do. Strategic leaders are also awarethat the successful conduct of multinationaloperations requires a particular sensitivity to theeffect that deploying US forces may have on thelaws, traditions, and customs of a third country.

7-91. Strategic leaders understand Americanand Army culture. This allows them to see theirown culturally-based actions from the viewpoint

of another culture—civilian, military, or for-eign. Effective testimony before Congressrequires an understanding of how Congressworks and how its members think. The same istrue concerning dealings with other federal andstate agencies, non-governmental organizations,local political leaders, the media, and other peo-ple who shape public opinion and national atti-tudes toward the military. Awareness of theaudience helps strategic leaders represent theirorganizations to outside agencies. Understand-ing societal values—those values people bringinto the Army—helps strategic leaders motivatesubordinates to live Army values.

7-92. When the Army’s immediate needs con-flict with the objectives of other agencies, strate-gic leaders work to reconcile the differences.Reconciliation begins with a clear understandingof the other agency’s position. Understanding theother side’s position is the first step in identify-ing shared interests, which may permit a newoutcome better for both parties. There will betimes when strategic leaders decide to stick totheir course; there will be other times whenArmy leaders bend to accommodate other organ-izations. Continued disagreement can impair theArmy’s ability to serve the nation; therefore,strategic leaders must work to devise Armycourses of action that reflect national policyobjectives and take into account the interests ofother organizations and agencies.

7-93. Joint and multinational task force com-manders may be strategic leaders. In certainoperations they will work for a CINC but receiveguidance directly from the Chairman of the JointChiefs of Staff, the Secretary of Defense, theState Department, or the UN. Besides establish-ing professional relationships within the DODand US government, such strategic leaders mustbuild personal rapport with officials from othercountries and military establishments.



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Military Actions Across the Spectrum7-94. Since the character of the next war has notbeen clearly defined for them, today’s strategicleaders rely on hints in the international environ-ment to provide information on what sort of forceto prepare. Questions they consider includethese: Where is the next threat? Will we haveallies or contend alone? What will our nationaland military goals be? What will the exit strategybe? Strategic leaders address the technological,leadership, and moral considerations associatedwith fighting on an asymmetrical battlefield.They’re at the center of the tension between tra-ditional warfare and the newer kinds of multi-party conflict emerging outside the industrializedworld. Recent actions like those in Bosnia,Somalia, Haiti, Grenada, and the Persian Gulfsuggest the range of possible military contingen-cies. Strategic leaders struggle with the ramifica-tions of switching repeatedly among the differenttypes of military actions required under a strat-egy of engagement.

7-95. The variety of potential missions calls forthe ability to quickly build temporary organiza-tions able to perform specific tasks. As theydesign future joint organizations, strategic lead-ers must also determine how to engineer bothcohesion and proficiency in modular units thatare constantly forming and reforming.

Strategic Assessing

7-96. There are many elements of their environ-ment that strategic leaders must assess. Likeleaders at other levels, they must first assessthemselves: their leadership style, strengths andweaknesses, and their fields of excellence. Theymust also understand the present operationalenvironment—to include the will of the Ameri-can people, expressed in part through law, pol-icy, and their leaders. Finally, strategic leadersmust survey the political landscape and the

international environment, for these affect theorganization and shape the future strategicrequirements.

7-97. Strategic leaders also cast a wide net toassess their own organizations. They developperformance indicators to signal how wellthey’re communicating to all levels of theircommands and how well established systemsand processes are balancing the six imperatives.Assessment starts early in each mission andcontinues through its end. It may include moni-toring such diverse areas as resource use, devel-opment of subordinates, efficiency, effects ofstress and fatigue, morale, and mission accom-plishment. Such assessments generate hugeamounts of data; strategic leaders must makeclear what they’re looking for so their staffs canfilter information for them. They must alsoguard against misuse of assessment data.

World War II Strategic AssessmentPursuing a “Germany first”strategy in World War IIwas a deliberate decision based on a strategicand political assessment of the global situation.Military planners, particularly Army Chief of StaffGeorge C. Marshall,worried that US troops mightbe dispersed and used piecemeal. Strategic lead-ers heeded Frederick the Great’s adage,“He whodefends everywhere defends nowhere.” Thegreatest threat to US interests was a total Ger-man success in Europe: a defeated Russia andneutralized Great Britain. Still, the Japaneseattacks on Pearl Harbor and the Philippines andthe threat to the line of communications withAustralia tugged forces toward the oppositehemisphere. Indeed, throughout the first monthsof 1942, more forces headed for the Pacific The-ater than across the Atlantic.

However, before the US was at war with any-one, President Franklin Roosevelt had agreedwith British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to



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Improving Actions

7-98. Improving is institutional investment forthe long haul, refining the things we do todayfor a better organization tomorrow. A funda-mental goal of strategic leaders is to leave theArmy better than they found it. Improving atthis level calls for experimentation and innova-tion; however, because strategic-level organiza-tions are so complex, quantifying the results ofchanges may be difficult.

7-99. Improving the institution and organiza-tions involves an ongoing tradeoff betweentoday and tomorrow. Wisdom and a refinedframe of reference are tools to understand whatimprovement is and what change is needed.Knowing when and what to change is a constantchallenge: what traditions should remain stable,and which long-standing methods need toevolve? Strategic leaders set the conditions forlong-term success of the organization by devel-oping subordinates, leading change, buildingthe culture and teams, and creating a learningenvironment.

7-100. One technique for the Army as a learn-ing institution is to decentralize the learning andother improving actions to some extent. Thattechnique raises the questions of how to sharegood ideas across the entire institution and howto incorporate the best ideas into doctrine (thusestablishing an Army-wide standard) withoutdiscouraging the decentralized learning processthat generated the ideas in the first place. Thoseand other questions face the strategic leaders ofthe learning organization the Army seeks tobecome.

Developing

Mentoring7-101. Strategic leaders develop subordinatesby sharing the benefit of their perspective andexperience. People arriving at the Pentagon

VA

LU

ES

AT

TR

IBU

TE

S

SK

ILL

S

“Be” “Know”




Influencing

Operating

Improving

Figure 7-6. Strategic leader actions—improving

George C. Marshall learned leadership from JohnJ. Pershing, and Marshall’s followers becamegreat captains themselves: Dwight D. Eisen-hower, Omar N. Bradley . . . among them. Pershingand Marshall each taught their subordinatestheir profession; and, more importantly, theygave them room to grow.


a “Germany first” strategy. The 1942 invasion ofNorth Africa restored this focus. While the USmilitary buildup took hold and forces flowedinto Great Britain for the Normandy invasion in1944, operations in secondary theaters couldand did continue.However, they were resourcedonly after measuring their impact on theplanned cross-channel attack.



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know how the Army works in the field, butregardless of what they may have read, theydon’t really know how the institutional Armyworks. Strategic leaders act as a kind of sponsorby introducing them to the important playersand pointing out the important places and activ-ities. But strategic leaders actually becomementors as they, in effect, underwrite the learn-ing, efforts, projects, and ideas of rising leaders.The moral responsibility associated with men-toring is compelling for all leaders; for strategicleaders, the potential significance is enormous.

7-102. More than a matter of required formsand sessions, mentoring by strategic leadersmeans giving the right people an intellectualboost so that they make the leap to operationsand thinking at the highest levels. Because thosebeing groomed for strategic leadership positionsare among the most talented Army leaders, themanner in which leaders and subordinates inter-act also changes. Strategic leaders aim not onlyto pass on knowledge but also to grow wisdomin those they mentor.

7-103. Since few formal leader developmentprograms exist beyond the senior service col-leges, strategic leaders pay special attention totheir subordinates’ self-development, showingthem what to study, where to focus, whom towatch, and how to proceed. They speak to audi-ences at service schools about what goes on “atthe top” and spend time sharing their perspec-tives with those who haven’t yet reached thehighest levels of Army leadership. Today’s sub-ordinates will, after all, become the next genera-tion of strategic leaders. Strategic leaders arecontinually concerned that the Army institu-tional culture and the climates in subordinateorganizations encourage mentoring by others sothat growth opportunities are available from theearliest days of a soldier or DA civilian’s careers.

Developing Intellectual Capital7-104. What strategic leaders do for individualsthey personally mentor, they also seek to pro-vide to the force at large. They invest in thefuture of the force in several ways. Committingmoney to programs and projects and investingmore time and resources in some actions thanothers are obvious ways strategic leaders choosewhat’s important. They also value people andideas as investments in the future. The conceptsthat shape the thinking of strategic leadersbecome the intellectual currency of the comingera; the soldiers and DA civilians who developthose ideas become trusted assets themselves.Strategic leaders must choose wisely the ideasthat bridge the gap between today and tomorrowand skillfully determine how best to resourceimportant ideas and people.

7-105. Strategic leaders make difficult decisionsabout how much institutional development isenough. They calculate how much time it willtake to plant and grow the seeds required for theArmy’s great leaders and ideas in the future.They balance today’s operational requirementswith tomorrow’s leadership needs to produceprograms that develop a core of Army leaderswith the required skills and knowledge.

7-106. Programs like training with industry,advanced civil schooling, and foreign area offi-cer education complement the training and edu-cation available in Army schools and contributeto shaping the people who will shape the Army’sfuture. Strategic leaders develop the institutionusing Army resources when they are availableand those of other services or the public sectorwhen they are not.

7-107. After Vietnam the Army’s leadershipthought investing in officer development soimportant that new courses were instituted to



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revitalize professional education for the force.The establishment of the Training and DoctrineCommand revived Army doctrine as a centralintellectual pillar of the entire service. TheGoldwater-Nichols Act of 1986 provided simi-lar attention and invigoration to professionaljoint education and joint doctrine.

7-108. Likewise, there has been a huge invest-ment in and payoff from developing the NCOcorps. The Army has the world’s finest noncom-missioned officers, in part because they get theworld’s best professional development. Thestrategic decision to resource a robust NCOeducation system signaled the Army’s invest-ment in developing the whole person—not justthe technical skills—of its first-line leaders.

7-109. The Army Civilian Training and Educa-tion Development System is the Army’s pro-gram for developing DA civilian leaders. Likethe NCO education system, it continuesthroughout an individual’s career. The firstcourse integrates interns into the Army byexplaining Army values, culture, customs, andpolicies. The Leadership Education andDevelopment Course helps prepare leaders forsupervisory demands with training in commu-nication, counseling, team building, problemsolving, and group development. For organiza-tional managers, the Organizational Leadershipfor Executives course adds higher-order studyon topics such as strategic planning, changemanagement, climate, and culture. DA civiliansin the Senior Executive Service have a variety ofleadership education options that deal withleadership in both the military and civilian con-texts. Together, these programs highlight waysthat leadership development of DA civiliansparallels that of soldiers.

Building

Building Amid Change7-110. The Army has no choice but to facechange. It’s in a nearly constant state of flux,with new people, new missions, new technolo-gies, new equipment, and new information. Atthe same time, the Army, inspired by strategicleaders, must innovate and create change. TheArmy’s customs, procedures, hierarchical struc-ture, and sheer size make change especiallydaunting and stressful. Nonetheless, the Armymust be flexible enough to produce and respondto change, even as it preserves the core of tradi-tions that tie it to the nation, its heritage and itsvalues.

7-111. Strategic leaders deal with change bybeing proactive, not reactive. They anticipatechange even as they shield their organizationsfrom unimportant and bothersome influences;they use the “change-drivers” of technology,education, doctrine, equipment, and organiza-tion to control the direction and pace of change.Many agencies and corporations have “futures”groups charged with thinking about tomorrow;strategic leaders and their advisory teams arethe Army’s “futures people.”

Leading Change7-112. Strategic leaders lead change by:

• Identifying the force capabilities necessary toaccomplish the National Military Strategy.

The higher up the chain of command, the greateris the need for boldness to be supported by areflective mind, so that boldness does not degen-erate into purposeless bursts of blind passion.

Carl von Clausewitz


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• Assigning strategic and operational missions,including priorities for allocating resources.

• Preparing plans for using military forcesacross the spectrum of operations.

• Creating, resourcing, and sustaining organiza-tional systems, including: – Force modernization programs. – Requisite personnel and equipment. – Essential command, control, communica-

tions, computers, and intelligence systems.• Developing and improving doctrine and the

training methods to support it. • Planning for the second- and third-order

effects of change. • Maintaining an effective leader development

program and other human resource initiatives.

7-113. Strategic leaders must guide their organ-izations through eight stages if their initiativesfor change are to make lasting progress. Skip-ping a step or moving forward prematurely sub-verts the process and compromises success.Strategic leaders (1) demonstrate a sense ofurgency by showing not only the benefits of butthe necessity for change. They (2) form guidingcoalitions to work the process all the way fromconcept through implementation. With thosegroups they (3) develop a vision of the futureand strategy for achieving it. Because change ismost effective when members embrace it,strategic leaders (4) communicate the visionthroughout the institution or organization, andthen (5) empower subordinates at all levels forwidespread, parallel efforts. They (6) plan forshort-term successes to validate the programsand keep the vision credible and (7) consolidatethose wins and produce further change. Finally,the leader (8) preserves the change culturally.The result is an institution that constantly pre-pares for and even shapes the future environ-ment. Strategic leaders seek to sustain the Armyas that kind of institution.

Learning

7-114. The nation expects military professionalsas individuals and the Army as an institution tolearn from the experience of others and applythat learning to understanding the present andpreparing for the future. Such learning requires

Change After VietnamThe history of the post-Vietnam Army providesan example of how strategic leaders’ commit-ment can shape the environment and harnesschange to improve the institution while contin-uing to operate.

The Army began seeking only volunteers inthe early 1970s. With the all-volunteer forcecame a tremendous emphasis on doctrinal,personnel, and training initiatives that tookyears to mature. The Army tackled problems indrug abuse, racial tensions, and education withambitious, long-range plans and aggressiveleader actions. Strategic leaders overhauleddoctrine and created an environment thatimproved training at all levels; the CTC programprovided a uniform, rock-solid foundation of asingle, well-understood warfighting doctrineupon which to build a trained and ready Army.Simultaneously, new equipment, weapons,vehicles, and uniforms were introduced. Theresult was the Army of Desert Storm, which dif-fered greatly from the force of 15 years earlier.

None of these changes happened by chanceor through evolution. Change depended on the

A good soldier, whether he leads a platoon or anarmy, is expected to look backward as well as for-ward; but he must think only forward.

General of the Army Douglas MacArthur

hard work of direct and organizational leaderswho developed systematically in an environ-ment directed, engineered, and led by strategicleaders.



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both individual and institutional commitments.Each military professional must be committed toself-development, part of which is studying mil-itary history and other disciplines related to mil-itary operations. The Army as an institution mustbe committed to conducting technical research,monitoring emerging threats, and developingleaders for the next generation. Strategic leaders,by their example and resourcing decisions, sus-tain the culture and policies that encourage boththe individual and the Army to learn.

7-115. Strategic leaders promote learning byemplacing systems for studying the force and thefuture. Strategic leaders must resource a struc-ture that constantly reflects on how the Armyfights and what victory may cost. All that meansconstantly assessing the culture and deliberatelyencouraging creativity and learning.

7-116. The notion of the Army as a “learningorganization” is epitomized by the AAR con-cept, which was developed as part of the REAL-TRAIN project, the first version of engagementsimulation. Since then, it has been part of a cul-tural change, in which realistic “hot washes,”such as following tough engagements at CTCs,are now embedded in all training. Twenty yearsago, anything like today’s AARs would havebeen rare.

7-117. Efficient and effective operations requirealigning various initiatives so that different fac-tions are not working at cross-purposes. Strate-gic leaders focus research and developmentefforts on achieving combined arms success.They deal with questions such as: Can these newsystems from various sources communicate withone another? What happens during digitizationlapses—what’s our residual combat capability?Strategic leaders coordinate time lines and budg-ets so that compatible systems are fieldedtogether. However, they are also concerned thatthe force have optimal capability across time;

therefore, they prepare plans that integrate newequipment and concepts into the force as they’redeveloped, rather than waiting for all elements ofa system to be ready before fielding it. Finally,learning what the force should be means devel-oping the structure, training, and leaders thosefuture systems will support and studying thevariety of threats they may face.

7-118. The Louisiana Maneuvers in 1941taught the Army what mechanized warfarewould look like and what was needed to preparefor it. The study of the same name 50 years laterhelped produce the conceptual Force XXI andthe first digitized division. Strategic leaderscommissioned these projects because the Armyis dedicated to learning about operations in newenvironments, against different threats. Theprojects were strategic counterparts to therehearsals that direct and organizational leadersconduct to prepare for upcoming missions.

SECTION III. A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP—GENERAL

OF THE ARMY MARSHALL DURING

WORLD WAR II

7-119. GA George C. Marshall was one of thegreatest strategic leaders of World War II, of thiscentury, of our nation’s history. His exampleover many years demonstrates the skills andactions this chapter has identified as the hall-marks of strategic leadership.

7-120. Chosen over 34 officers senior to him,GA Marshall became Army Chief of Staff in1939, a time of great uncertainty about the futureof the free world. Part of his appeal for PresidentRoosevelt was his strength of character and per-sonal integrity. The honesty and candor that GAMarshall displayed early in their relationshipwere qualities the president knew he and thenation would need in the difficult times ahead.



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7-121. The new Army Chief of Staff knew hehad to wake the Army from its interwar slumberand grow it beyond its 174,000 soldiers—a sizethat ranked it seventeenth internationally,behind Bulgaria and Portugal. By 1941 he hadbegun to move the Army toward his vision ofwhat it needed to become: a world-changingforce of 8,795,000 soldiers and airmen. Hisvision was remarkably accurate: by the end ofthe war, 89 divisions and over 8,200,000 sol-diers in Army uniforms had made history.

7-122. GA Marshall reached deep within theArmy for leaders capable of the conceptualleaps necessary to fight the impending war. Hedemanded leaders ready for the huge tasksahead, and he accepted no excuses. As he foundcolonels, lieutenant colonels, and even majorswho seemed ready for the biggest challenge oftheir lives, he promoted them ahead of thosemore senior but less capable and made many ofthem generals. He knew firsthand that suchjumps could be productive. As a lieutenant inthe Philippines, he had commanded 5,000 sol-diers during an exercise. For generals who couldnot adjust to the sweeping changes in the Army,he made career shifts as well: he retired them.His loyalty to the institution and the nationcame before any personal relationships.

7-123. Merely assembling the required numberof soldiers would not be enough. The massArmy that was forming required a new structureto manage the forces and resources the nationwas mobilizing for the war effort. Realizingthis, GA Marshall reorganized the Army into theArmy Ground Forces, Army Air Forces, andArmy Service Forces. His foresight organizedthe Army for the evolving nature of warfare.

7-124. Preparing for combat required more thanmanning the force. GA Marshall understoodthat World War I had presented confusing les-sons about the future of warfare. His in-theater

experience during that war and later reflectiondistilled a vision of the future. He believed thatmaneuver of motorized formations spearheadedby tanks and supported logistically by trucks(instead of horse-drawn wagons) would replacethe almost siege-like battles of World War I. Sowhile the French trusted the Maginot Line, GAMarshall emphasized the new technologies thatwould heighten the speed and complexity of thecoming conflict.

7-125. Further, GA Marshall championed thecommon sense training to prepare soldiers to gooverseas ready to fight and win. By having newunits spend sufficient time on marksmanship, fit-ness, drill, and fieldcraft, GA Marshall ensuredthat soldiers and leaders had the requisite compe-tence and confidence to face an experiencedenemy.

7-126. Before and during the war, GA Marshallshowed a gift for communicating with theAmerican public. He worked closely with thepress, frequently confiding in senior newsmenso they would know about the Army’s activitiesand the progress of the war. They responded tohis trust by not printing damaging or prematurestories. His relaxed manner and complete com-mand of pertinent facts reassured the press, andthrough it the nation, that America’s youth wereentrusted to the right person.

7-127. He was equally successful with Con-gress. GA Marshall understood that gettingwhat he wanted meant asking, not demanding.His humble and respectful approach with law-makers won his troops what they needed; arro-gant demands would have never worked.Because he never sought anything for himself(his five-star rank was awarded over his objec-tions), his credibility soared.

7-128. However, GA Marshall knew how toshift his approach depending on the audience,the environment, and the situation. He refused



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to be intimidated by leaders such as Prime Min-ister Winston Churchill, Secretary of War HenryStimson, or even the president. Though he wasalways respectful, his integrity demanded thathe stand up for his deeply held convictions—and he did, without exception.

7-129. The US role in Europe was to open amajor second front to relieve pressure on theSoviet Union and ensure the Allied victory overGermany. GA Marshall had spent years prepar-ing the Army for Operation Overlord, the D-Dayinvasion that would become the main effort bythe Western Allies and the one expected to leadto final victory over Nazi Germany. Manyassumed GA Marshall would command it. Pres-ident Roosevelt might have felt obligated toreward the general’s faithful and towering serv-ice, but GA Marshall never raised the subject.Ultimately, the president told GA Marshall thatit was more important that he lead globalresourcing than command a theater of war. GAEisenhower got the command, while GA Mar-shall continued to serve on staff.

7-130. GA Marshall didn’t request the com-mand that would have placed him alongsideimmortal combat commanders like Washington,Grant, and Lee. His decision reflects the value ofselfless service that kept him laboring fordecades without the recognition that came tosome of his associates. GA Marshall neverattempted to be anyplace but where his countryneeded him. And there, finally as Army Chief ofStaff, GA Marshall served with unsurpassedvision and brilliance, engineering the greatest vic-tory in our nation’s history and setting an extraor-dinary example for those who came after him.

Summary

7-131. Just as GA Marshall prepared for thecoming war, strategic leaders today ready theArmy for the next conflict. They may not have

years before the next D-Day; it could be justhours away. Strategic leaders operate betweenextremes, balancing a constant awareness of thecurrent national and global situation with asteady focus on the Army’s long-term missionand goals.

7-132. Since the nature of future military oper-ations is so unclear, the vision of the Army’sstrategic leaders is especially crucial. Identify-ing what’s important among the concerns ofmission, soldiers, weapons, logistics, and tech-nology produces decisions that determine thestructure and capability of tomorrow’s Army.

7-133. Within the institution, strategic leadersbuild support for the end state they desire. Thatmeans building a staff that can take broad guid-ance and turn it into initiatives that move theArmy forward. To obtain the required support,strategic leaders also seek to achieve consensusbeyond the Army, working with Congress andthe other services on budget, force structure,and strategy issues and working with othercountries and militaries on shared interests. Theway strategic leaders communicate direction tosoldiers, DA civilians, and citizens determinesthe understanding and support for the newideas.

7-134. Like GA Marshall, today’s strategic lead-ers are deciding how to transform today’s forceinto tomorrow’s. These leaders have little guid-ance. Still, they know that they work to developthe next generation of Army leaders, build theorganizations of the future, and resource the sys-tems that will help gain the next success. Theway strategic leaders communicate direction tosoldiers, DA civilians, and citizens determinesthe understanding and support for the new ideas.To communicate with these diverse audiences,strategic leaders work through multiple media,adjust the message when necessary, and con-stantly reinforce Army themes.



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7-135. To lead change personally and movethe Army establishment toward their conceptof the future, strategic leaders transform polit-ical and conceptual programs into practicaland concrete initiatives. That process increas-ingly involves leveraging technology and shap-ing the culture. By knowing themselves, thestrategic players, the operational requirements,the geopolitical situation, and the Americanpublic, strategic leaders position the force andthe nation for success. Because there may beno time for a World War II or Desert Storm sortof buildup, success for Army strategic leadersmeans being ready to win a variety of conflicts

now and remaining ready in the uncertainyears ahead.

7-136. Strategic leaders prepare the Army forthe future through their leadership. That meansinfluencing people—members of the Army,members of other government agencies, andthe people of the nation the Army serves—byproviding purpose, direction, and motivation. Itmeans operating to accomplish today’s mis-sions, foreign and domestic. And it meansimproving the institution—making sure itspeople are trained and that its equipment andorganizations are ready for tomorrow’s mis-sions, anytime, anywhere.


A-1. Appendix A is organized around the leader-ship dimensions that Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and7 discuss and that Figure A-1 shows. This appen-dix lists indicators for you to use to assess theleadership of yourself and others based on theseleadership dimensions. Use it as an assessmentand counseling tool, not as a source of phrasesfor evaluation reports. When you prepare an eval-uation, make comments that apply specifically tothe individual you are evaluating. Do not limityourself to the general indicators listed here. Bespecific; be precise; be objective; be fair.

Values

Loyalty

A-2. Leaders who demonstrate loyalty:

• Bear true faith and allegiance in the correctorder to the Constitution, the Army, and theorganization.

• Observe higher headquarters’ priorities. • Work within the system without manipulating

it for personal gain.

DutyA-3. Leaders who demonstrate devotion to duty:

• Fulfill obligations—professional, legal, andmoral.

• Carry out mission requirements. • Meet professional standards. • Set the example. • Comply with policies and directives. • Continually pursue excellence.

Respect

A-4. Leaders who demonstrate respect:

• Treat people as they should be treated. • Create a climate of fairness and equal oppor-

tunity. • Are discreet and tactful when correcting or

questioning others. • Show concern for and make an effort to check

on the safety and well-being of others. • Are courteous. • Don’t take advantage of positions of authority.

Selfless Service

A-5. Leaders who demonstrate selfless service:

• Put the welfare of the nation, the Army, andsubordinates before their own.

• Sustain team morale. • Share subordinates’ hardships.

Appendix A

Performance Indicators

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ArmyAppARev.qxd 12/17/2003 1:57 PM Page 185


• Give credit for success to others and acceptresponsibility for failure themselves.

Honor

A-6. Leaders who demonstrate honor:

• Live up to Army values. • Don’t lie, cheat, steal, or tolerate those actions

by others.

Integrity

A-7. Leaders who demonstrate integrity:

• Do what is right legally and morally. • Possess high personal moral standards. • Are honest in word and deed. • Show consistently good moral judgment and

behavior. • Put being right ahead of being popular.

Personal Courage

A-8. Leaders who demonstrate personal courage:

• Show physical and moral bravery. • Take responsibility for decisions and actions.


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Values

"Be”

Attributes

"Be”

Mental

Physical

Emotional

1

2

3

Skills4

Actions5

"Know”

Interpersonal

Conceptual

Technical

Tactical

"Do”

Communicating

Decision Making

Motivating

Developing

Building

Learning

Influencing Operating Improving

Leaders of character and competence . . . act to achieve excellence by providing purpose,direction and motivation.

Loyalty

Duty

Respect

Selfless Service

Honor

Integrity

Personal Courage

Planning/

Executing

Assessing

Preparing

1. The mental attributes of an Army leader are will, self-discipline, initiative, judgment, self-confidence, intelligence, and cultural awareness.

2. The physical attributes of an Army leader are health fitness, physical fitness, and militaryand professional bearing.

3. The emotional attributes of an Army leader are self-control, balance, and stability.

4. The interpersonal, conceptual, technical, and tactical skills are different for direct, organi-zational, and strategic leaders.

5. The influencing, operating, and improving actions are different for direct, organizational,and strategic leaders.

Figure A-1. Leadership dimensions


• Accept responsibility for mistakes and short-comings.

AttributesMental Attributes

A-9. Leaders who demonstrate desirable mentalattributes:

• Possess and display will, self-discipline, initia-tive, judgment, self-confidence, intelligence,common sense, and cultural awareness.

• Think and act quickly and logically, evenwhen there are no clear instructions or theplan falls apart.

• Analyze situations. • Combine complex ideas to generate feasible

courses of action. • Balance resolve and flexibility. • Show a desire to succeed; do not quit in the

face of adversity. • Do their fair share. • Balance competing demands. • Embrace and use the talents of all members to

build team cohesion.

Physical Attributes

A-10. Leaders who demonstrate desirable phys-ical attributes:

• Maintain an appropriate level of physical fit-ness and military bearing.

• Present a neat and professional appearance. • Meet established norms of personal hygiene,

grooming, and cleanliness. • Maintain Army height and weight standards

(not applicable to DA civilians). • Render appropriate military and civilian cour-

tesies. • Demonstrate nonverbal expressions and ges-

tures appropriate to the situation. • Are personally energetic.

• Cope with hardship. • Complete physically demanding endeavors. • Continue to function under adverse conditions. • Lead by example in performance, fitness, and

appearance.

Emotional Attributes

A-11. Leaders who demonstrate appropriateemotional attributes:

• Show self-confidence. • Remain calm during conditions of stress,

chaos, and rapid change. • Exercise self-control, balance, and stability. • Maintain a positive attitude. • Demonstrate mature, responsible behavior

that inspires trust and earns respect.

SkillsInterpersonal Skills

A-12. Leaders who demonstrate interpersonalskills:

• Coach, teach, counsel, motivate, and empowersubordinates.

• Readily interact with others. • Earn trust and respect. • Actively contribute to problem solving and

decision making. • Are sought out by peers for expertise and

counsel.

Conceptual Skills

A-13. Leaders who demonstrate conceptualskills:

• Reason critically and ethically. • Think creatively. • Anticipate requirements and contingencies. • Improvise within the commander’s intent. • Use appropriate reference materials. • Pay attention to details.

Appendix A. Performance Indicators

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Technical Skills

A-14. Leaders who demonstrate technicalskills:

• Possess or develop the expertise necessary toaccomplish all assigned tasks and functions.

• Know standards for task accomplishment. • Know the small unit tactics, techniques, and

procedures that support the organization’smission.

• Know the drills that support the organization’smission.

• Prepare clear, concise operation orders. • Understand how to apply the factors of mis-

sion, enemy, terrain and weather, troops, timeavailable, and civil considerations (METT-TC) to mission analysis.

• Master basic soldier skills. • Know how to use and maintain equipment. • Know how and what to inspect or check. • Use technology, especially information tech-

nology, to enhance communication.

Tactical Skills

A-15. Leaders who demonstrate tactical skills:

• Know how to apply warfighting doctrinewithin the commander’s intent.

• Apply their professional knowledge, judg-ment, and warfighting skill at the appropriateleadership level.

• Combine and apply skill with people, ideas,and things to accomplish short-term missions.

• Apply skill with people, ideas, and things totrain for, plan, prepare, execute and assessoffensive, defensive, stability, and supportactions.

ActionsInfluencing

A-16. Leaders who influence:

• Use appropriate methods to reach goals while

operating and improving. • Motivate subordinates to accomplish assigned

tasks and missions. • Set the example by demonstrating enthusiasm

for—and, if necessary, methods of—accom-plishing assigned tasks.

• Make themselves available to assist peers andsubordinates.

• Share information with subordinates. • Encourage subordinates and peers to express

candid opinions. • Actively listen to feedback and act appropri-

ately based on it. • Mediate peer conflicts and disagreements. • Tactfully confront and correct others when

necessary. • Earn respect and obtain willing cooperation

of peers, subordinates, and superiors. • Challenge others to match their example. • Take care of subordinates and their families,

providing for their health, welfare, morale,and training.

• Are persuasive in peer discussions and pru-dently rally peer pressure against peers whenrequired.

• Provide a team vision for the future. • Shape the organizational climate by setting,

sustaining, and ensuring a values-based envi-ronment.

CommunicatingA-17. Leaders who communicate effectively:

• Display good oral, written, and listening skills. • Persuade others. • Express thoughts and ideas clearly to individ-

uals and groups.

A-18. Oral Communication. Leaders who effec-tively communicate orally:

• Speak clearly and concisely. • Speak enthusiastically and maintain listeners’

interest and involvement.


188


• Make appropriate eye contact when speaking. • Use gestures that are appropriate but not dis-

tracting. • Convey ideas, feelings, sincerity, and convic-

tion. • Express well-thought-out and well-organized

ideas. • Use grammatically and doctrinally correct

terms and phrases. • Use appropriate visual aids. • Act to determine, recognize and resolve mis-

understandings. • Listen and watch attentively; make appropri-

ate notes; convey the essence of what was saidor done to others.

• React appropriately to verbal and nonverbalfeedback.

• Keep conversations on track.

A-19. Written Communication. Leaders whoeffectively communicate in writing:

• Are understood in a single rapid reading by theintended audience.

• Use correct grammar, spelling, and punctua-tion.

• Have legible handwriting. • Put the “bottom line up front.” • Use the active voice. • Use an appropriate format, a clear organiza-

tion, and a reasonably simple style. • Use only essential acronyms and spell out

those used. • Stay on topic. • Correctly use facts and data.

(DA Pam 600-67 discusses techniques for writ-ing effectively.)

Decision MakingA-20. Leaders who make effective, timely deci-sions:

• Employ sound judgment and logical reasoning. • Gather and analyze relevant information

about changing situations to recognize and

define emerging problems. • Make logical assumptions in the absence of

facts. • Uncover critical issues to use as a guide in

both making decisions and taking advantageof opportunities.

• Keep informed about developments and pol-icy changes inside and outside the organiza-tion.

• Recognize and generate innovative solutions. • Develop alternative courses of action and

choose the best course of action based onanalysis of their relative costs and benefits.

• Anticipate needs for action. • Relate and compare information from differ-

ent sources to identify possible cause-and-effect relationships.

• Consider the impact and implications of deci-sions on others and on situations.

• Involve others in decisions and keep theminformed of consequences that affect them.

• Take charge when in charge. • Define intent. • Consider contingencies and their conse-

quences. • Remain decisive after discovering a mistake. • Act in the absence of guidance. • Improvise within commander’s intent; handle

a fluid environment.

MotivatingA-21. Leaders who effectively motivate:

• Inspire, encourage, and guide others towardmission accomplishment.

• Don’t show discouragement when facing set-backs.

• Attempt to satisfy subordinates’ needs. • Give subordinates the reason for tasks. • Provide accurate, timely, and (where appro-

priate) positive feedback. • Actively listen for feedback from subordinates. • Use feedback to modify duties, tasks, require-


189


ments, and goals when appropriate. • Recognize individual and team accomplish-

ments and reward them appropriately. • Recognize poor performance and address it

appropriately. • Justly apply disciplinary measures. • Keep subordinates informed. • Clearly articulate expectations. • Consider duty positions, capabilities, and

developmental needs when assigning tasks. • Provide early warning to subordinate leaders

of tasks they will be responsible for. • Define requirements by issuing clear and con-

cise orders or guidance. • Allocate as much time as possible for task

completion. • Accept responsibility for organizational per-

formance. Credit subordinates for good per-formance. Take responsibility for and correctpoor performance.

Operating

A-22. Leaders who effectively operate:

• Accomplish short-term missions. • Demonstrate tactical and technical compe-

tency appropriate to their rank and position. • Complete individual and unit tasks to standard,

on time, and within the commander’s intent.

Planning and PreparingA-23. Leaders who effectively plan:

• Develop feasible and acceptable plans for them-selves and others that accomplish the missionwhile expending minimum resources and pos-turing the organization for future missions.

• Use forward planning to ensure each courseof action achieves the desired outcome.

• Use reverse planning to ensure that all taskscan be executed in the time available and thattasks depending on other tasks are executed inthe correct sequence.

• Determine specified and implied tasks and

restate the higher headquarters’ mission interms appropriate to the organization.

• Incorporate adequate controls such as timephasing; ensure others understand whenactions should begin or end.

• Adhere to the “1/3–2/3 Rule”; give subordi-nates time to plan.

• Allocate time to prepare and conductrehearsals.

• Ensure all courses of action accomplish themission within the commander’s intent.

• Allocate available resources to competingdemands by setting task priorities based onthe relative importance of each task.

• Address likely contingencies. • Remain flexible. • Consider SOPs, the factors of METT-TC, and

the military aspects of terrain (OCOKA). • Coordinate plans with higher, lower, adjacent,

and affected organizations. • Personally arrive on time and meet deadlines;

require subordinates and their organizationsto accomplish tasks on time.

• Delegate all tasks except those they arerequired to do personally.

• Schedule activities so the organization meetsall commitments in critical performanceareas.

• Recognize and resolve scheduling conflicts. • Notify peers and subordinates as far in advance

as possible when their support is required. • Use some form of a personal planning calen-

dar to organize requirements.

ExecutingA-24. Leaders who effectively execute:

• Use technical and tactical skills to meet missionstandards, take care of people, and accomplishthe mission with available resources.

• Perform individual and collective tasks tostandard.

• Execute plans, adjusting when necessary, to


190


accomplish the mission. • Encourage initiative. • Keep higher and lower headquarters, superi-

ors, and subordinates informed. • Keep track of people and equipment. • Make necessary on-the-spot corrections. • Adapt to and handle fluid environments. • Fight through obstacles, difficulties, and

hardships to accomplish the mission. • Keep track of task assignments and sus-

penses; adjust assignments, if necessary; fol-low up.

AssessingA-25. Leaders who effectively assess:

• Use assessment techniques and evaluationtools (especially AARs) to identify lessonslearned and facilitate consistent improvement.

• Establish and employ procedures for monitor-ing, coordinating, and regulating subordi-nates’ actions and activities.

• Conduct initial assessments when beginning anew task or assuming a new position.

• Conduct IPRs. • Analyze activities to determine how desired

end states are achieved or affected. • Seek sustainment in areas when the organiza-

tion meets the standard. • Observe and assess actions in progress with-

out oversupervising. • Judge results based on standards. • Sort out important actual and potential prob-

lems. • Conduct and facilitate AARs; identify lessons. • Determine causes, effects, and contributing

factors for problems. • Analyze activities to determine how desired

end states can be achieved ethically.

Improving

B-26. Leaders who effectively improve the organ-ization:

• Sustain skills and actions that benefit them-selves and each of their people for the future.

• Sustain and renew the organization for thefuture by managing change and exploiting indi-vidual and institutional learning capabilities.

• Create and sustain an environment where allleaders, subordinates, and organizations canreach their full potential.

DevelopingA-27. Leaders who effectively develop:

• Strive to improve themselves, subordinates,and the organization.

• Mentor by investing adequate time and effort incounseling, coaching, and teaching their indi-vidual subordinates and subordinate leaders.

• Set the example by displaying high standardsof duty performance, personal appearance,military and professional bearing, and ethics.

• Create a climate that expects good perform-ance, recognizes superior performance, anddoesn’t accept poor performance.

• Design tasks to provide practice in areas ofsubordinate leaders’ weaknesses.

• Clearly articulate tasks and expectations andset realistic standards.

• Guide subordinate leaders in thinking throughproblems for themselves.

• Anticipate mistakes and freely offer assis-tance without being overbearing.

• Observe, assess, counsel, coach, and evaluatesubordinate leaders.

• Motivate subordinates to develop themselves. • Arrange training opportunities that help sub-

ordinates achieve insight, self-awareness,self-esteem, and effectiveness.

• Balance the organization’s tasks, goals, andobjectives with subordinates’ personal andprofessional needs.

• Develop subordinate leaders who demonstraterespect for natural resources and the environ-ment.


191


• Act to expand and enhance subordinates’competence and self-confidence.

• Encourage initiative. • Create and contribute to a positive organiza-

tional climate. • Build on successes. • Improve weaknesses.

BuildingA-28. Leaders who effectively build:

• Spend time and resources improving theorganization.

• Foster a healthy ethical climate. • Act to improve the organization’s collective

performance. • Comply with and support organizational

goals. • Encourage people to work effectively with

each other. • Promote teamwork and team achievement. • Are examples of team players. • Offer suggestions, but properly execute deci-

sions of the chain of command and NCO sup-port channel—even unpopular ones—as ifthey were their own.

• Accept and act on assigned tasks. • Volunteer in useful ways. • Remain positive when the situation becomes

confused or changes. • Use the chain of command and NCO support

channel to solve problems. • Support equal opportunity.

• Prevent sexual harassment. • Participate in organizational activities and

functions. • Participate in team tasks and missions without

being requested to do so. • Establish an organizational climate that

demonstrates respect for the environment andstewards natural resources.

LearningA-29. Leaders who effectively learn:

• Seek self-improvement in weak areas. • Encourage organizational growth. • Envision, adapt, and lead change. • Act to expand and enhance personal and orga-

nizational knowledge and capabilities. • Apply lessons learned. • Ask incisive questions. • Envision ways to improve. • Design ways to practice. • Endeavor to broaden their understanding. • Transform experience into knowledge and use

it to improve future performance. • Make knowledge accessible to the entire

organization. • Exhibit reasonable self-awareness. • Take time off to grow and recreate. • Embrace and manage change; adopt a future

orientation. • Use experience to improve themselves and the

organization.


192


Appendix B

B-1. Everyone who becomes part of America’sArmy, soldier or DA civilian, has character. Onthe day a person joins the Army, leaders beginbuilding on that character. Army values empha-size the relationship between character andcompetence. Although competence is a funda-mental attribute of Army leaders, character iseven more critical. This appendix discusses theactions Army leaders take to develop their sub-ordinates’ character.

B-2. Army leaders are responsible for refiningthe character of soldiers and DA civilians. Howdoes the Army as an institution ensure propercharacter development? What should leaders doto inculcate Army values in their subordinates?

B-3. Leaders teach Army values to every newmember of the Army. Together with the leaderattributes described in Chapter 2, Army valuesestablish the foundation of leaders of character.Once members learn these values, their leadersensure adherence. Adhering to the principlesArmy values embody is essential, for the Armycannot tolerate unethical behavior. Unethicalbehavior destroys morale and cohesion; itundermines the trust and confidence essential toteamwork and mission accomplishment.

B-4. Ethical conduct must reflect beliefs andconvictions, not just fear of punishment. Overtime, soldiers and DA civilians adhere to Armyvalues because they want to live ethically andprofess the values because they know it’s rightto do so. Once people believe and demonstrateArmy values, they are persons of character.Ultimately, Army leaders are charged with thewith the essential role of developing characterin others. Figure E-1 shows the leader actionsthat support character development.

Leaders Teach Values; Subordi-nates Learn the Culture

B-5. Army leaders must teach their subordinatesmoral principles, ethical theory, Army values,and leadership attributes. Through their leaders’programs, soldiers and DA civilians developcharacter through education, experience, andreflection. By educating their subordinates andsetting the example, Army leaders enable theirsubordinates to make ethical decisions that inturn contribute to excellence. Subordinates gaindeeper understanding from experiencing, observ-ing, and reflecting on the aspects of Army leader-ship under the guidance of their leaders.

CharacterDevelopment

193

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194

B-6. Inculcating Army values doesn’t endwith basic training. All Army leaders shouldseek to deepen subordinates’ understanding ofthe ethical aspects of character throughclasses, informal discussions, one-on-onecoaching, and formal developmental counsel-ing. Army leaders can also improve their ownunderstanding through study, reflection, anddiscussions with peers and superiors.

Leaders Reinforce Values; Subor-dinates Comply

B-7. Leaders reinforce and discipline behaviorto guide subordinates’ development. To helpsubordinates live according to Army values,leaders enforce rules, policies, and regulations.Still, soldiers and DA civilians of character domore than merely comply with established insti-tutional rules. Acting correctly but withoutcomplete understanding or sound motivation isnot good enough in America’s values-basedArmy. People of character behave correctlythrough correct understanding and personaldesire. Understanding comes from training and

self-development. Personal desire comes from aperson’s realization that Army values are worthadopting and living by and from that person’sdecision to do just that.

B-8. Character stems from a thorough under-standing of Army values; however, this under-standing must go beyond knowing the one-linedefinitions. Individuals must also know whyArmy values are important and how to applythem to everyday Army life. Leaders can pro-mote Army values by setting the example them-selves and pointing out other examples of Armyvalues in both normal and exceptional activities.Army leaders can use unit histories and tradi-tions, prominent individuals, and recent eventsto bring Army values to life and explain whyadhering to them is important.

Leaders Shape the Ethical Cli-mate; Subordinates InternalizeArmy Values

B-9. Doing the right thing is good. Doing theright thing for the right reason and with the rightintention is better. People of character must pos-

Believe

Comply

Learn

Subordinates

Leaders DevelopCharacter by . . .

Shaping the organization’sethical climate

Reinforcing Army Values andLeader Attributes

Teaching Army Valuesand Demonstrating Attributes

Internalization

Reinforcement

Education

Figure B-1. Character development


Appendix B. Character Development

195

sess the desire to act ethically in all situations.One of the Army leader’s primary responsibili-ties is to maintain an ethical climate that sup-ports development of such a character. When anorganization’s ethical climate nurtures ethicalbehavior, over time, people think, feel, and actethically—they internalize the aspects of soundcharacter.

B-10. Leaders should influence others’ charac-ter development and foster correct actionsthrough role modeling, teaching, and coaching.Army leaders seek to build a climate in whichsubordinates and organizations can reach theirfull potential. Together, these actions promoteorganizational excellence.

B-11. Army leaders can use the ECAS toassess ethical aspects of their own character and

actions, the workplace, and the external envi-ronment. Once they have done their assessment,leaders prepare and carry out a plan of action.The plan of action focuses on solving ethicalproblems within the leaders’ span of influence;leaders pass ethical problems they cannotchange to higher headquarters.

B-12. Becoming a person of character and aleader of character is a career-long processinvolving both self-development and develop-mental counseling. While individuals areresponsible for their own character develop-ment, leaders are responsible for encouraging,supporting, and assessing the efforts of theirsubordinates. Leaders of character can developonly through continual study, reflection, experi-ence, and feedback.


Part One. The Leader, Leadership, and the Human DimensionChapter 1. The Army Leadership Framework

1 Douglas MacArthur: A Soldier Speaks: Public Papers and Speeches of General ofthe Army Douglas MacArthur, ed. Vorin E. Whan, Jr. (New York: Frederick A.Praeger, Publishers, 1965), 354, 356.

2 J. Lawton Collins: in The Infantry School Quarterly (April 1953): 30.

3 Edward C. Meyer: in The Chiefs of Staff, United States Army: On Leadership andthe Profession of Arms (Pentagon, Washington, D.C.: The Information Manage-ment Support Center, 24 March 1997), 10 (hereafter referred to as Chiefs of Staff).

3 1-3, “The Creed of the Noncommissioned Officer”: TC 22-6, The Army Noncom-missioned Officer Guide, (23 November 1990), inside front cover (hereafter citedas TC 22-6).

9 Douglas E. Murray: in ARMY Magazine 39, no. 12 (December 1989): 39.

12 “More than anything else...”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, Leadership and Com-mand on the Battlefield: Battalion and Company (Fort Monroe, Va., 10 June1993), 43 (hereafter cited as TRADOC Pam 525-100-2).

14 George C. Marshall: in Selected Speeches and Statements of General of the ArmyGeorge C. Marshall, ed. H.A. DeWeerd (Washington, D.C.: The Infantry Journal,1945), 176.

16 Small Unit Leaders’ Initiative in Normandy: Stephen Ambrose, D-Day June 6,1944: The Climactic Battle of World War II (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994),235-36 (hereafter cited as Ambrose, D-Day); “This certainly wasn’t the way ...”:Sam Gibbons memoir (New Orleans: Eisenhower Center, University of NewOrleans (hereafter cited as Eisenhower Center)).

Source Notes

196

This section lists sources by page number. Where material appears in a paragraph, both thepage number and paragraph number are listed. Quotations are identified by the quoted per-son’s name. Boldface indicates titles of examples.

ArmySourceNotesRev.qxd 12/17/2003 1:58 PM Page 196


Source Notes

197

17 1-69, “When I became Chief of Staff…”: Edward C. Meyer, “A Return to Basics,”Military Review 60, no. 4 (July 1980): 4.

18 George Bush: in Quotes for the Military Writer/Speaker (Department of the Army:Chief of Public Affairs, 1989), 6 (hereafter cited as Military Quotes 1989).

Chapter 2. The Leader and Leadership: What a Leader Must Be, Know, and Do

21 Oath of Enlistment: AR 601-280 (29 Sep 1995), 72; 10 USC 502.

21 Oath of Office: DA Form 71, December 1988; Standard Form 61, June 1986; 5USC 3331. The oath administered to DA civilians omits the words “having beenappointed a [rank] in the United States Army.”

21 Julius W. Gates, “The Thunder of a Mighty Fighting Force,” ARMY Magazine 38,no. 10 (October 1988): 41.

23 S. L. A. Marshall, Men Against Fire: The Problem of Battle Command in FutureWar (Peter Smith: Gloucester, Mass., 1978), 200 (hereafter cited as S. L. A. Mar-shall).

24 John A. Wickham, Jr.: Collected Works of the Thirtieth Chief of Staff, UnitedStates Army (Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army, 1988), 191 (hereaftercited as Wickham).

24 Duty in Korea: Highlights in the History of the Army Nurse Corps (Washington,D.C.: US Army Center for Military History, 1996), 23.

25 John M. Schofield: in Manual for Noncommissioned Officers and Privates ofInfantry of the Army of the United States (West Point, N.Y.: US Military AcademyLibrary Special Collections, 1917), 12.

26 Omar N. Bradley: in Military Review 28, no. 2 (May 1948): 62.

27 GA Marshall Continues to Serve: David McCullough, Truman (New York:Simon & Schuster, 1992), 475, 532-35.

27 Thomas J. Jackson: in Robert Debs Heinl, Dictionary of Military and Naval Quo-tations (Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press, 1988), 151 (hereafter cited as Heinl).

28 MSG Gordon and SFC Shugart in Somalia: Mark Bowden, “BlackhawkDown,” Philadelphia Inquirer [hereafter cited as Bowden], Chapter 8 (November23, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/ packages/somalia/nov 23/default23.asp] andofficial sources.

29 J. Lawton Collins, Lightning Joe: An Autobiography (Baton Rouge: LouisianaState University Press, 1979), 444.

29 2-31, “Integrity has three parts…”: Stephen L. Carter, Integrity (New York: BasicBooks, 1996), 7.

30 William Connelly, “NCOs: It’s Time to Get Tough,” ARMY Magazine 31, no. 10(October 1981): 31.



198

30 WO1 Thompson at My Lai: James S. Olson and Randy Roberts, My Lai: A BriefHistory with Documents (Boston: Bedford Books, 1998), 159, 909-92. See alsoW.R. Peters, The My Lai Inquiry (New York: W.W. Norton, 1979), 66-76.

31 Dandridge M. Malone, Small Unit Leadership: A Commonsense Approach(Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1983), 29.

33 William G. Bainbridge, “First, and Getting Firster: The NCO and Moral Disci-pline,” ARMY Magazine 25, no. 10 (October 1975): 24.

33 John T. Nelson, II: “Auftragstatik: A Case for Decentralized Combat Leadership,”in The Challenge of Military Leadership, ed. Lloyd J. Matthews and Dale E.Brown (Washington, D.C.: Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers,Inc., 1989), 33.

34 The Quick Reaction Platoon: interview with LTC J. Baughman, School for Com-mand Preparation, US Army Command and General Staff College, Fort Leaven-worth, Kans., 1998.

35 2-56: “It is not genius…”: Napoleon Bonaparte, in Heinl, 239.

35 2-58: “see though the forests…”: Pullen, 111.

37 Geoffrey C. Ward, The Civil War: An Illustrated History (New York: Knopf, 1990),220 (hereafter cited as Ward).

37 George S. Patton, Jr., War as I Knew It (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Co., 1947), 402(hereafter cited as Patton).

37 George C. Marshall: in Forrest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Ordeal and Hope1939-1942 (New York: Viking Press, 1966), 97.

38 Julius W. Gates, “From the Top,” Army Trainer 9, no. 1 (Fall 1989): 5.

38 Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, trans. Martin Ostwald (New York: Macmillan Pub-lishing Co., 1962), 100.

39 2-75: The division of emotional attributes into self-control, balance, and stabilityis based on Daniel Goleman, Emotional Intelligence (New York: Bantam Books,1995).

39 Theresa Kristek: in Donna Miles, “The Women of Just Cause,” Soldiers (March1990), 21 (hereafter cited as “Just Cause”).

39 Noncommissioned Officer’s Manual: James E. Mose, Noncommissioned Officer’sManual (Menasha, Wis.: George Banta Publishing Co., 1917), 23.

40 BG Thomas Jackson at First Bull Run: quotations from William C. Davis, Bat-tle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War (BatonRouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977), 196-97.

40 Margaret Chase Smith: speech to graduating women naval officers at Naval Sta-tion, Newport, Rhode Island, 1952 (Skowhegan, Maine: Margaret Chase SmithLibrary).


Source Notes

199

41 Character and Prisoners: TRADOC Pam 525-100-4, Leadership and Commandon the Battlefield: Noncommissioned Officer Corps (Fort Monroe, Va., 1994), 26(hereafter cited as TRADOC Pam 525-100-4).

42 GA Eisenhower’s Message: GA Eisenhower’s handwritten statement from theHarry Butcher diary, 6/20/44 (Eisenhower Center).

44 The Qualification Report: This vignette is based on an actual incident.

46 Omar N. Bradley, “American Military Leadership,” Army Information Digest 8,no. 2 (February 1953): 5.

Chapter 3. The Human Dimension

51 “The Creed of the Noncommissioned Officer”: TC 22-6, inside front cover.

51 3-4: Wickham, 310-11.

53 “NSDQ”: Bowden, Chapter 29 (December 14, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/pack-ages/somalia/dec14/ default14.asp].

53 Audie Murphy: in Harold B. Simpson, Audie Murphy: American Soldier (Dallas,Tex.: Alcor Publishing Co., 1982), 271.

54 Richard A. Kidd, “NCOs Make It Happen,” ARMY Magazine 44, no. 10 (October1994): 31-36.

54 The 96th Division on Leyte: Richard Gerhardt, interview by Ed Ruggero, 1998.

55 The K Company Visit: Harold P. Leinbaugh and John D. Campbell, The Men ofCompany K: The Autobiography of a World War II Rifle Company (New York:William Morrow, 1985), 167-68 (hereafter cited as Leinbaugh & Campbell).

56 George S. Patton, Jr.: Patton, 340.

56 Task Force Ranger in Somalia: Bowden, Chapter 1 (November 16, 1997)[http://phillynews.com/ packages/somalia/nov16/default16.asp].

57 3-31: Bowden, Chapter 10 (November 25, 1997) [http://phillynews.com/pack-ages/somalia/nov25/ default25.asp].

58 Marie Bezubic: in “Just Cause,” 23.

65 “When you’re first sergeant…”: Michelle McCormick, Polishing Up the Brass:Honest Observations on Modern Military Life (Harrisburg, Pa.: Stackpole, 1988),102.

70 3-92: “Great events sometimes turn…”: Pullen, 128.

Part Two. Direct LeadershipChapter 4. Direct Leadership Skills

75 James J. Karolchyk, “Leading by Example,” EurArmy (January 1986): 25-26.



200

77 “If a squad leader…”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, 35.

79 Randolph S. Hollingsworth: in The Noncommissioned Officer Corps on Leader-ship, the Army and America: Quotes for Winners, 2d ed. (Washington D.C.: TheInformation Management Support Center, January 1998), 18 (hereafter cited asQuotes for Winners).

81 4-28: “comes from a civilization…” and “Artist John Wolfe…”: S. L. A. Marshall,78.

84 “The first thing …”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-4, 5.

85 Technical Skill into Combat Power: Stephen Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers: The USArmy from the Normandy Beaches to the Bulge to the Surrender of Germany, June7, 1944–May 7, 1945 (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 64 (hereafter cited asAmbrose, Citizen Soldiers).

85 “I felt we had to…”: TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, 47.

87 Task Force Kingston: Martin Blumenson, “Task Force Kingston,” ARMY Maga-zine (April 1964): 50-60.

Chapter 5. Direct Leadership Actions

90 Daniel E. Wright: in Quotes for Winners, 18.

100 William G. Bainbridge, “Quality, Training and Motivation,” ARMY Magazine,(October 1976): 28.

102 John D. Woodyard, “Are You a Whetstone?” NCO Journal (Summer 1993): 18.

104 Glen E. Morrell, “Looking to the Future” Sergeants’ Business (March 1986): 7.

105 William A. Connelly, “Keep Up with Change in the ’80s” ARMY Magazine (Octo-ber 1982): 29.

106 Richard A. Kidd, “NCOs Make It Happen,” ARMY Magazine, 44, no. 10 (October1994): 34.

108 Trust Earned: Henry Berry, Make the Kaiser Dance: Living Memories of theDoughboy (New York: Arbor House, 1978), 416–419.

110 Replacements in the ETO: Ambrose, Citizen Soldiers, 276; “We discovered…”George Wilson, If You Survive (New York: Ivy Books, 1987), 214; “We were justnumbers…”: Leinbaugh & Campbell, 91.

113 SGT York: David D. Lee, Sergeant York: An American Hero (Lexington: Univer-sity Press of Kentucky, 1985), 33-38.

115 Omar N. Bradley: in Quotes for the Military Writer (Washington, D.C.: Depart-ment of the Army, Office of the Chief of Information, August, 1972), 19-1 (here-after referred to as Military Quotes 1972).

117 5-133: Theodore Roosevelt: in John C. Maxwell, Leadership 101–InspirationalQuotes and Insights for Leaders (Tulsa, Okla.: Honor Books, 1994), 52 (hereaftercited as Maxwell).


Source Notes

201

Part Three. Organizational and Strategic LeadershipChapter 6. Organizational Leadership

124 Knowing Your People: Adolf von Schell, Battle Leadership (1933; reprint, Quan-tico, Va.: The Marine Corps Association, 1988), 11-12.

129 6-30: General Order No. 1664, HQ, US Army Vietnam, APO, San Francisco09307, 13 April 1967 (Washington, D.C.: Army Nurse Corps Archives, US ArmyCenter for Military History).

130 Carl F. Vuono: in Military Quotes 1989, 13.

131 GEN Grant at Vicksburg: Joint Military Operations Collection (15 July 1997),Chapter I.

131 Edward C. Meyer: in Chiefs of Staff, 7.

137 George C. Marshall: in Military Quotes 1972, 13-1.


142 Lucian K. Truscott, Command Missions: A Personal Story (New York: Dutton,1954), 556.


144 6-107–6-108: Gary B. Griffin, “The Directed Telescope: A Traditional Element ofEffective Command” (Fort Leavenworth, Kans.: US Army Command and GeneralStaff College, Combat Studies Institute, 1991), 26-32.

146 John O. Marsh, Jr.: in Military Quotes 1989, 38.

147 Woodrow Wilson: in Quotes for the Military Writer/Speaker (Department of theArmy: Chief of Public Affairs, 1982), 64.

149 Manton S. Eddy: in Military Review (March 1948): 44.

150 The discussion of GEN Ridgway is condensed from Jack J. Gifford, “InvokingForce of Will to Move the Force,” in Studies in Battle Command by the CombatStudies Institute (Fort Leavenworth: Kans.: US Army Command and General StaffCollege, 1995), 143-46.

Chapter 7. Strategic Leadership

158 Allied Command During the Battle of the Bulge: J.D. Morelock Generals of theArdennes: American Leadership in the Battle of the Bulge (Washington, D.C.:National Defense University Press, 1994), 65.

159 7-24–7-25, “But MG Chamberlain sensed ...”: Pullen, 272-73.

160 William J. Crowe, Jr.: William J. Crowe, Jr. with David Chanoff, The Line of Fire:From Washington to the Gulf, the Politics and Battles of the New Military (NewYork: Simon & Shuster, 1993), 54.

163 Strategic Flexibility in Haiti: Joint Military Operations Collection (15 July1997), Chapter VII.



202

163 James Thomas Flexner, George Washington in the American Revolution (1775-1783) (Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1968), 535.

166 Show of Force in the Philippines: Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York:Pocket Books, 1991), 120-25.

167 Arleigh A. Burke: in Karel Montor and others, Naval Leadership: Voices of Expe-rience (Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press, 1987), 16.

168 7-64: Gordon R. Sullivan and Michael V. Harper, Hope is Not A Method (NewYork: Times Business, 1996), 90-91.

170 The D-Day Decision: Ambrose, D-Day, 189; quotations from interview by WalterCronkite for CBS TV (Eisenhower Center).

171 Antoine-Henri de Jomini, The Art of War, trans. G.H. Mendell and W.P. Craighill(1862; reprint, Westport Conn.: Greenwood Press, Publishers, n.d.)162-63.

173 Dwight D. Eisenhower: in Maxwell, 52.

180 7-113: John P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press,1996), 20-26.

180 Douglas MacArthur: in Military Quotes 1972, 18-3.


Aachieving consensus (influencing), actions, 7-20– 7-25,

7-92active listening, 4-8–4-9, 4-11

dialogue and, 7-15, 7-18after-action review(s) (AARs), 1-19, 3-34

assessing and, 5-62–5-63defined, 5-132developing and, 1-59, 6-121, 6-129improving and, 1-19–1-20learning and, 1-59, 5-12, 5-132, 7-116

Army values, 2-4–2-39, fig.1-1character/character development and, 2-121,

2-80, 2-92, 7-75–7-76, B-1–B-12combat leadership and, 1-85, 2-119–2-121institutional culture and, 2-4, 2-61, 7-75, 7-76leader attributes and, 1-85, 7-91personal values and, 2-32–2-33positive reinforcement and, B-7–B-8, fig. B-1self-development and, 1-21, 1-24setting the example and, 1-23, 1-24, 2-7, 2-32, B-8strategic leaders and, 7-7, 7-8warrior ethos and, 2-85, 2-87

assessing/assessment (operating action)defined, 2-114in combat, 6-107–6-108, 6-153direct leader, 5-31, 5-57–5-68improving and, 2-115, 6-104learning and, 6-104, 7-115liaison officers and, 6-107–6-108organizational leader, 6-5, 6-104–6-116performance indicators of, A-25plans of action and, 5-66standards and, 5-57, 6-113–6-114strategic leader, 7-96–7-97 systems understanding and, 6-26, 7-97training and, 5-63, 6-115–6-116

training management and, 6-104vision and, 7-31, 7-33–7-34

assumptions, defined, 5-18autocratic leadership style, defined, 3-68

Bbalance (emotional attribute), 2-78, 6-48

defined, 2-78beliefs, 2-18–2-19, 2-100–2-103.

See also valuesdefined, 2-100

building (improving action), 5-102–5-123, 6-131–6-141, 7-110–7-113. See also staff buildingdefined, 2-118

building combat power, 6-131, 7-53, 7-94–7-95building staffs (interpersonal skill), 7-26–7-28building teams, 5-102–5-119, 6-11, 6-132–6-139,

fig. 5-5. See also cohesion

Ccandor, 6-150, 7-120

defined, 2-38caring, 3-16–3-25

Army as an institution and, 3-4–3-5Army values and, 2-10, 3-19defined, 3-18

change, 3-35–3-51, 7-1, 7-2, 7-110–7-113character, 2-80–2-103

Army values and, 1-22, 2-83, 2-93, 2-121, 2-26, 2-31, B-1, B-3, B-4

behavior and, 1-23, B-3, B-7, B-9defined, 1-22ethical reasoning and, 2-82, 2-95ethics and, 2-93–2-96illegal orders and, 2-97–2-99leader attributes and, 1-88, 2-81, 2-3organizational climate, effect on, 3-56, 3-89, 6-70values and, 2-3warrior ethos and, 2-85–2-90

Index

203

Entries are by paragraph number unless stated otherwise.

ArmyIndexRev.qxd 12/17/2003 3:01 PM Page 203


Index

204

character development, 2-91–2-92, B-1–B-12, fig. B-1Army values and, 2-80, 2-92, 7-75–7-76, B-1–B-12leader attributes and, 2-80, fig. B-1

checking, 3-45. See also supervisingorganizational leaders and, 6-18personal courage and, 1-54–1-55, 3-45technology and, 3-45

climate, 3-53–3-57. See also environmentcoaching, 5-97–5-98

character development and, 2-92Code of Conduct, warrior ethos and the, 2-85defined, p. 109

cohesion. See also building teamsbuilding combat power and, 7-95change and, 3-50discipline and, 3-9, 3-28ethical behavior and, B-3morale and, 3-15organizational climate and, 6-70reception and integration and, 5-117

combat leadership, 1-1Army values and, 1-68, 1-85, 2-11, 2-24, 2-119–

2-121illegal orders and, 2-98leader attributes and, 2-43, 2-46, 2-55, 2-77, 2-79self-development and, 2-119–2-121

command, 1-60–1-61relationships, 7-88presence, 6-45, 6-52, 6-153, 6-163responsibilities of, 1-61, 6-103

commander’s critical information requirements(CCIR), 3-39, 6-23

commander’s intent, 3-39, 5-11, 5-12. See also estab-lishing intent; intentinitiative and, 2-49, 6-10

communicate a vision, 7-31, 7-33–7-34, 7-63–7-65communicating/communication (interpersonal skill

and influencing action). See also nonverbal communication

building teams and, 5-7, 6-49, 6-138defined as an influencing action, 2-113defined as an interpersonal skill, 4-5direct leader, 4-4–4-11, 5-7–5-13direct leader and organizational leader contrasted,

6-44, 6-46envisioning and, 7-31, 7-33–7-34, 7-63–7-65examples of, 1-75–1-77, 4-11, 6-147, 6-153, 6-157,

7-69, 7-126

organizational leader, 6-4, 6-11–6-12, 6-46–6-57performance indicators of, A-17–A-19strategic leaders, 7-1, 7-4, 7-11–7-14, 7-63–7-69trust and, 5-7, 6-49, 6-52, 7-126

competence, 2-104–2-110, 7-52building teams and, 5-103–5-104character and, 2-104, 2-106, B-3leader attributes and, 2-43, 2-54, 2-73, 2-105organizational climate, effect on, 3-56, 6-70

conceptual skills, 4-18–4-41, 6-4, 6-15–6-27, 7-29–7-43, 7-82–7-83defined, 1-25performance indicators of, A-13

confidence, 3-9, B-3. See also self-confidencecollective, 3-10–3-11, 6-134freedom of religion and, 2-102, p. 243oath of enlistment or office and, p. 23subordination to civilian authority and, 2-90values and, 2-101

counseling (interpersonal skill), 4-14–4-17critical reasoning and, 4-19defined, 4-14empowering and, 5-33mentoring and, 4-17motivating and, 1-14,plans of action and, 4-15standards and, 5-93

courage. See moral courage; personal courage; physi-cal courage

creative thinking (conceptual skill), 4-22–4-23critical reasoning (conceptual skill), 4-19–4-21

decision making and, 2-57, 2-113, 4-19defined, 4-19–4-20ethical reasoning and, 2-95, 4-19

cultural awareness (leader attribute), 2-100, 2-59–2-66, 7-128, 6-135Army values and, 2-18, 2-21, 7-91building teams and, 6-135motivating and, 7-91multinational environment and, 7-90role models and, 5-95–5-96self-awareness and, 7-91shaping culture and, 7-74third countries and, 7-90

culture, 3-58–3-63. See also institutional culture; envi-ronmentadversaries and, 2-64–2-65Army values and, 3-59, 7-78


Index

205

beliefs and, 2-100defined, 2-59ethical climate and, 7-78factors affecting, 2-60morale and, 7-78multinational operations and, 2-65–2-66shaping, 7-73–7-79stereotypes and, 2-60talents and, 2-62values and, 2-103, 7-74

DDA civilians, 5-107dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity (conceptual

skill), 7-41–7-43, 7-46, 7-49decentralization/delegating, 1-54–1-55, 1-56

commander’s intent and, 3-39empowering and, 1-54, 5-53, 6-14, 6-18, 6-100– 6-

103organizational leader decision making and, 6-58–6-

61, 6-74decision making (influencing action), 5-14–5-26,

6-58–6-66. See also military decision-makingprocess; strategic decision makingachieving consensus and, 7-22Army values and, 1-66, 1-79, 5-30critical reasoning and, 2-57, 2-113, 4-19defined, 5-14leader attributes and, 1-79, 5-49, 2-52, 2-113,

6-62, 6-65MDMP and, 2-114, 5-15, 6-60performance indicators of, A-20

delegating leadership style, 3-75democratic leadership style, 3-68developing (improving action), 5-72–5-100, 6-120– 6-

130, 7-101–7-109AARs and, 6-121building teams and, 5-110, 6-132conceptual skills, 5-86defined, 2-118feedback and, 6-121frames of reference (conceptual skill), 7-38–7-40initiative and, 2-50institutional training and, 5-75interpersonal skills, 5-86intellectual capital (improving action), 7-104–7-109mentoring and, 2-118, 4-17, 6-120, 6-130motivating and, 5-38

organizational level, 6-120–6-130self-development and, 6-121, 5-76–5-78skills, 5-86subordinates, 1-23, 1-24, 1-52–1-59, 2-53, 5-68,

5-92, 5-119, 6-71–6-72, 6-104developmental counseling, 5-90–5-96. See also

counseling; event-oriented counseling; per-formance counseling; professional growth counseling

AARs and, 1-19assessing and, 5-92character development and, B-12contrasted with teaching, 5-86defined, p. 106developing subordinates and, 5-92mentoring and, 6-130organizational leaders and, 6-130purpose of, 1-19self-development and, 5-78setting the example and, 5-94skills and, 5-86

dialogue, using (interpersonal skill), 7-15, 7-27direct leader/leadership, 1-3–1-41, 2-113. See also

leader actions; leader skillsdefined, 1-39

directing leadership style, 1-10, 3-69–3-72, 6-12discipline, 3-6, 3-7–3-13

Army values and, 1-71, 2-21building teams and, 3-6, 3-28change and, 3-50climate and, 3-89cohesion and, 3-9, 3-28defined, 3-8–3-9leader attributes and, 3-6, 6-10motivation and, 6-9organizational climate and, 6-68, 6-70problem solving and, 3-6trust and, 6-139units and, 6-10warrior ethos and, 2-85

discrimination, 2-21doctrine (tactical skill), 4-47, 7-77, 7-100, 7-112duty (Army value), 2-13–2-16

caring and, 3-19counseling and, 4-16defined, p. 26ethical climate and, 5-122illegal orders and, 1-67, 2-16


Index

206

performance indicators of, A-3respect and, 2-21warrior ethos and, 2-87

Eeducation, 5-75–5-76, 5-80, 6-127, 7-106,emotional attributes, 2-71, 2-74–2-79

performance indicators of, A-11empowering/empowerment, 6-5, 6-61, 6-74, 6-100–6-103

decentralization/delegating and, 1-54, 5-53, 6-14,6-18, 6-100–6-103

defined, 5-33intent and, 1-54–1-55, 6-18, 6-101personal courage and, 1-54–1-55, 1-56

environment. See also climate; culturecommunicating and, 6-50, 6-54factors affecting, 3-2organizational leaders and, 6-5strategic leaders and, 7-1–7-6, 7-26, 7-36, 7-49, 7-

50, 7-57, 7-59, 7-96envisioning (conceptual skill), 7-31–7-37. See also

visionestablishing intent (conceptual skill), 6-17–6-20. See

also commander’s intent; intentethical behavior: importance of, B-3, B-7

character and, 2-82ethical climate, 5-120–5-123

building and, 2-118character development and, fig. B-1

Ethical Climate Assessment Survey (ECAS), 5-121, 6-33, B-11

ethical reasoning (conceptual skill), 2-95, 2-96, 4-10,4-19, 4-24–4-40, 5-26

example, setting the, 1-16, 6-11. See also role modelsAARs and, 1-20, 4-53Army values and, 1-23, 2-7, 2-10, 2-19, 2-32, B-8leader attributes and, 1-24, 2-79learning and, 5-88, 6-140, 7-114

executing (operating action)defined, 2-114direct leader, 5-50–5-55organizational leader, 6-95–6-103performance indicators of, A-24strategic leader, 7-84–7-95

Ffacts, defined, 5-18family support, 2-22, 2-25, 3-18, 6-56

fieldcraft (tactical skill), 4-48–4-50filtering information (conceptual skill), 6-21–6-23

strategic assessing and, 7-97follow up. See also checking; supervising

plans of action and, 4-15frames of reference, developing, (conceptual skill),

7-38–7-40

Ggoals: commitment and developing, 6-134

intent and, 6-79leadership development programs and, 6-125nonmission requirements and, 2-118self-development and, 5-78systems planning and, 6-79vision and, 7-35

goal setting, 5-56, 5-57

Hhands-on training, 6-121–6-122

leadership development programs and, 6-125learning and, 5-88, 5-130

health fitness (physical attribute), 2-68honor (Army value), 1-74, 2-26–2-30

defined, p. 29moral courage and, 2-37performance indicators of, A-6warrior ethos and, 2-87

Iillegal orders, 1-67, 2-16, 2-97–2-99implied mission, defined, 5-42improving actions, 1-18–1-20, 2-116–2-118

assessing and, 2-115, 5-66, 6-104defined, 1-28direct leader, 5-69–5-134, 5-137, fig. 5-3learning and, 5-124–5-125, 6-141mentoring and, 4-17, 5-85organizational climate, effect on, 3-56organizational leader, 6-117–6-141, 6-159– 6-160,

fig. 6-7reflective thinking and, 2-57, 4-41strategic leader, 7-98–7-118

indirect influence, 2-113, 6-19, 6-119, 6-163individual responsibility, 2-84influencing actions, 1-7–1-16, 5-4–5-68

defined, 1-28direct leader, 1-40, 2-113, 5-4–5-38, 5-136, 6-42,

figs. 5-1, 6-5


Index

207

organizational leader, 1-43, 2-113, 6-42–6-73, fig. 6-5

performance indicators of, A-16sense of humor and, 5-5strategic leader, 2-113, 7-10, 7-13, 7-59–7-79

information management, technology and, 3-38–3-39, 6-104

improving, performance indicators of, A-26–A-29initial leader assessment, 5-64–5-65, 6-68, 6-148–

6-149initiative (mental attribute), 2-14, 2-48–2-50, 3-6

building teams and, 3-6commander’s intent and, 6-10decentralization/delegation and, 1-52development of subordinates and, 6-72decision making and, 5-49, 6-65disciplined, defined, 2-48judgment and, 2-48, 2-53

in-process review (IPR), 5-60–5-61institutional culture, 2-61–2-63, 7-77. See also

culture change and, 7-113authority and, 2-90creative thinking and, 7-115honor and, 2-28–29leader development and, 7-79learning and, 7-115mentoring and, 7-103reflective thinking and, 7-115strategic leaders and, 3-52, 7-1, 7-7subcultures and, 7-73–7-74subordination to civilian authority and, 2-90warrior ethos and, 2-87–2-89

institutional training, 5-75–5-76. See also educationintegrity (Army value), 2-31–2-33, 7-120, 7-128

counseling and, 4-16defined, p. 2-8effect on organizational climate, 3-56moral courage and, 2-37performance indicators of, A-7warrior ethos and, 2-87

intelligence (mental attribute), 3-91, 2-56–2-58defined, 2-56

intended consequences, 5-20intent, 6-17–6-20. See also commander’s intent;

establishing intentdecision making and, 5-49defined, 6-17

empowering and, 1-54–1-55, 6-18, 6-101organizational climate and, 6-70organizational leader actions and, 1-45, 6-20supervising and, 4-12–4-13, 6-14

interpersonal skills, 1-25, 2-107combat leadership and, 2-108defined, 1-25developing, 5-86direct leader, 4-3–4-17, 5-105, fig. 4-2. See also

building teams; communicating; counseling;supervising

organizational leader, 6-4, 6-9–6-14, fig. 6-1performance indicators of, A-12strategic leader, 7-5, 7-9–7-28, fig. 7-1strategic planning and, 7-82–7-83

intuition: defined, 2-58assessing and, 6-104decision making and, 6-65problem solving and, 5-25

Jjoint perspective, 7-87, 7-89judgment (mental attribute), 2-51–2-53

decision making and, 2-52, 2-113, 6-65defined, 2-52developing in subordinates, 2-53, 6-71–6-72initiative and, 2-48, 2-53leadership style and, 3-91, 6-12problem solving and, 2-52, 5-25standards and, 5-55systems understanding and, 6-27technology and, 3-45warrior ethos and, 2-87

Kknowledge: character and, 1-22

judgment and, 2-51leader skills and, 1-25operational assignments and, 5-76self-development and, 5-77

Lleader actions: character and, 1-22, 2-93

direct leader, example of, 3-27, 3-34, 3-49direct leader, organizational- and strategic-level

consequences of, 3-12–3-13, 3-49, 3-84–3-85list, 1-28, 2-113, figs. 1-1, 2-4

organizational climate and, 3-52, 3-54, 3-55organizational leader, 6-40–6-141


Index

208

self-confidence and, 2-54, 2-55strategic leader, 7-58–7-118

leader attributes, 2-40–2-79, A-9–A-11defined, 2-41

leader development, 6-126, 6-129, 7-79. See also edu-cation

leader development pillars, 5-74, fig. 5-4. See alsoinstitutional training; self-development

leader development programs, 6-122–6-129, 5-101leader skills: combat leadership and, 2-108

competence and, 1-25decision making and, 2-57direct leader, organizational leaders and, 6-3empowering, 1-54experience and, 2-110improving and, 1-26increasing responsibility and, 1-35knowledge and, 1-25leadership levels and, 2-104list, 1-25, 2-107, figs. 1-1, 2-3organizational, compared to direct, 1-43organizational climate and, 3-54self-development and, 1-21, 1-26strategic leader, 1-47, 7-7–7-57

leadership environment. See climateleadership levels, 1-36–1-38, 1-86, fig. 1-2leadership styles, 2-50, 3-64–3-82, 3-91, 6-12. See

also directing; delegating; participating; transac-tional; transformational

leading change, 7-112–7-113learning (improving action)

AARs and, 5-12, 5-132, 7-116assessing and, 6-104, 7-115defined, 2-118direct leader, 5-124–5-134hands-on training and, 5-88, 5-130improving and, 5-124–5-125institutional culture and, 7-115leadership development programs and, 6-122–

6-123organizational leader, 6-140–6-141, 7-115performance indicators of, A-29strategic leader, 7-114–7-118

leveraging technology (technical skill), 7-53–7-55defined, 7-53

listening. See also active listeningbarriers to, 4-9building teams and, 5-110

ethical climate and, 5-121trust and, 5-118

low-density specialties, 3-41, 5-95–5-96loyalty (Army value), 2-8–2-12

chain of command, to the, 1-66, 2-9, 2-11civil authority to, 2-8, 2-90commitment and, 2-11Constitution, to the, 2-8counseling and, 4-16defined, p. 2-3performance indicators of, A-2subordinates to, 1-63–1-68, 2-9–2-11warrior ethos and, 2-87, 2-89–2-90

Mmaintaining critical skills (technical skill), 6-29–6-30management by exception, 3-79managing change, 3-50managing joint, interagency, and multinational

relationships, 7-85–7-93mental attributes, 2-42, 2-71

performance indicators of, A-9mentoring, 4-17, 5-83–5-101. See also coaching;

counseling; teachingclimate and, 7-103defined, p. 107developing and, 2-118, 4-17, 6-120developmental counseling and, 4-17, 6-130leader development programs and, 5-101, 6-125organizational leaders and, 6-5, 6-130

military and professional bearing (physical attribute),2-73

military decision-making process (MDMP), 2-114, 5-15, 6-7, 6-60

moral courage, 2-36–2-39Army values and, 1-65character and, 2-93checking and, 3-45decision making and, 5-30defined, 2-36illegal orders and, 2-98technology and, 3-45warrior ethos and, 2-86

morale, 3-14–3-15, 6-152, 6-156, 6-157climate and, 3-89culture and, 7-78defined, 3-15


Index

209

motivating (influencing action), 1-13–1-16, 1-85, 5-32–5-38defined, 2-113leadership attributes and, 1-13, 2-73, 5-32, 6-10, 7-

91negative reinforcement and, 5-37–5-38organizational climate and, 3-56, 6-72organizational leader, 6-67–6-73performance indicators of, A-21warrior ethos and, 3-28

multinational operations, 2-65–2-66, 3-48, 6-98, 7-85–7-86, 7-93

Nnegative reinforcement, 3-9, 3-79, 5-37–5-38negotiating (interpersonal skill), 1-76, 7-16–7-19networking/networks, 6-54–6-55, 6-56–6-57, 7-26, 7-

62, 7-70nonmission requirements, 2-118nonverbal communication, 4-11

defined, 4-10negotiating and, 7-18organizational leaders and, 6-48

Ooath of enlistment/office, 2-28officers. See commissioned officers; noncommis-

sioned officers; warrant officersoperating actions, 1-17, 1-28, 2-114, 5-39, 6-159–

6-160defined, 1-28direct leader, 5-39–5-67list, 1-17, 2-114, 5-39, 7-80, figs. 1-1, 5-2, 6-6mentoring and, 4-17, 5-85organizational leader, 6-74–6-116performance indicators of, A-22–A-25strategic leader, 7-80–7-97

operational assignments, 5-76, 5-77, 7-89orchestration, defined, 6-36organizational climate, 3-52–3-57

Army values and, 2-19, 2-21, 2-28building teams and, 6-73, 6-132character and, 3-89, 6-70culture and, 3-52–3-63defined, 3-52direct leaders and, 3-52, 3-56discipline and, 3-89, 6-68, 6-70improving and, 3-56initial leader assessment and, 5-64, 6-68

initiative and, 1-56intent and, 6-70leader actions and, 3-54, 3-55, 3-56leader responsibilities concerning, 3-58, 3-90learning and, 5-133, 6-140mentoring and, 7-103motivating and, 3-56organizational leadership, 1-41–1-45, 2-83, 6-1–6-7

Pparticipating leadership style, 3-73–3-74performance indicators, A-1–A-29

actions and, A-16–A-29attributes and, A-9–A-13skills and, A-12–A-15values and, A-1–A-8

personal courage (Army value), 2-34–2-39, 4-53. Seealso moral courage; physical courage defined, p. 32performance indicators of, A-8

personal responsibility, 2-84personal values: Army values and, 2-32–33

beliefs and, 2-101physical attributes, 2-67–2-73

performance indicators of, A-10physical courage, 2-35, 2-37, 2-39, 3-32

defined, 2-35warrior ethos and, 2-86, 3-32

physical fitness (physical attribute), 2-69–2-72 APFT and, 2-72, 5-127combat readiness and, 2-69, 2-71, 2-72, 5-127

planning (operating action), 1-17, 2-114, 6-76. Seealso systems planningdefined, 2-114direct leader, 5-41–5-49MDMP and, 2-114, 5-15operational leader, 6-76–6-85performance indicators of, A-23strategic leader, 7-82–7-83systems, strategic, 7-71TLP and, 2-114, 5-15

plans of action, 6-146. See also leader plan of actionassessing and, 5-66, 5-68, 6-146counseling and, 4-15ECAS and, 5-121, B-11follow up and, 4-15self-development and, 5-78


positive reinforcement, 5-34–5-36Army values and, B-7–B-8, fig. B-1plans of action and, 5-48

predicting second-and third-order effects (technicalskill). See second-order effects

preparing (operating action), 1-17, 2-114, 5-46–5-47,7-81building combat power and, 6-131defined, 2-114systems planning and, 6-84warning orders and, 5-46

priorities: Army values and, 2-117, 5-27decision making and, 5-27–5-29 developing intellectual capital and, 7-104–7-109long-term versus short-term, 2-116–2-118mentoring and, 5-99nonmission requirements and, 2-118organizational leadership and, 1-45strategic art and, 7-48symbolic communication and, 7-12systems planning and, 6-82–6-83time management and, 6-83

problem, defined, 5-14problem solving, 3-34, 5-17–5-26

ethical reasoning and, 4-34, B-11institutional culture and, 7-77organizational-level, 6-59staff training and, 6-93

punishment, 3-9, 3-79, 5-37–5-38

R reception, 5-113–5-114, 5-117reflective thinking (conceptual skill), 2-57, 2-58,

4-41–4-42, 6-140assessing and, 6-113–6-114character development and, B-12defined, 4-41ethical reasoning and, 4-32, 4-36frames of reference and, 7-38illegal orders and, 2-98–2-99organizational leaders and, 6-113–6-114, 6-86

resourcing (technical skill), 6-31–6-62, 7-19, 7-84building combat power and, 7-55, 6-131decision making and, 2-113–2-114developing intellectual capital and, 7-104–7-109leveraging technology and, 7-53, 7-55organizational leader, 6-31–6-32strategic art and, 7-48

systems understanding and, 7-55respect (Army value), 2-17–2-21

building teams and, 2-21, 3-6counseling and, 2-18, 4-16defined, p. 27examples of, 1-76, 7-24–7-25, 7-128performance indicators of, A-4

retraining, 5-37reverse planning, 5-43–5-45rewards: discipline and, 3-9

transactional leadership style and, 3-79risk management, 6-16role models, 5-95–5-96. See also example, setting the

science of leadership, 7-46

Sscience of leadership, 7-46second-order effects, 6-33–6-34

assessing and, 6-108dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity and, 7-43example of, 3-12–3-13, 3-49, 6-34, 7-69leading change and, 7-112organizational leader decision making and, 6-58

self-assessing: communicating and, 6-47developing and, 6-121organizational leaders and, 6-113–6-114 strategic assessing and, 7-96

self-awareness, 7-91self-confidence (mental attribute), 2-54–2-55

defined, 2-54organizational climate and, 6-70–6-72training and, 6-115–6-116

self-control (emotional attribute), 2-77, 4-11self-development, 5-77–5-82

Army values and, 1-21, 1-24combat leadership and, 2-119–2-121defined, 5-77frames of reference and, 7-38joint perspective and, 7-89leader attributes and, 1-21, 1-24, 2-119–2-121leader skills and, 1-21, 1-26learning and, 1-27, 7-114mentoring and, 7-103plans of action and, 5-48, 5-78, 5-66

self-discipline (mental attribute), 2-46–2-47, 4-11defined, 2-46warrior ethos and, 2-87

selfless service (Army value), 2-22–2-25, 7-128, 7-129, 7-130

Index

210


DA civilians and, 2-23defined, p. 28performance indicators of, A-5strategic leaders and, 7-19warrior ethos and, 2-87

sending a message. See symbolic communicationsense of humor, 5-5sensing, 6-55, 6-70

defined, 6-55setting the example. See exampleskills. See also leader skills

actions and, 2-109climate and, 3-89collective, building combat power and, 6-131conceptual, performance indicators of, A-13defined, 1-4developing on the job, 1-27experience and, 1-individual and team building, 4-46institutional training and, 5-75interpersonal, performance indicators of, A-12operational assignments and, 5-76practice and, 2-109self-development and, 1-27, 5-77tactical, performance indicators of, A-15teaching, 5-89technical, performance indicators of, A-14technology and, 3-41

specified mission, defined, 5-42spiritual fitness, 2-102stability (emotional attribute), 2-79staff building (interpersonal skill), 6-87–6-94, 7-26–

7-28staffs, 6-54–6-55, 6-90, 6-91, 7-26

filtering information and, 6-23multinational, 6-98

standards: defined, 5-54Army values and, 2-13, 2-15, 2-19, 2-28, 2-31assessing and, 5-57, 5-66, 6-113–6-114awards and, 5-36building teams and, 5-110candor and, 2-38, 2-92character development and, coaching and, 5-98discipline and, 3-9enforcing, 3-57ethical climate and, 5-120evaluations and, 5-31executing and, 2-114, 5-54–5-55

goal setting and, 5-57institutional culture and, 7-77judgment and, 5-55organizational climate, effect on, 3-56organizational leaders and, 6-5

strategic art (technical skill), 7-44–7-52defined, 7-45

strategic assessing (operating action), 7-96–7-97 strategic decision making (influencing action),

1-76, 7-3, 7-5, 7-70–7-72strategic leaders/leadership, 1-46–1-50, 7-58–7-118

characteristics of, 7-38examples of, 2-84, 7-119–7-130

strategic planning (operating action), 7-71, 7-82–7-83stress: change and, 3-35–3-51

combat, 3-26–3-34decision making and, 3-84–3-85

subcultures, institutional culture and, 7-73–7-74 subordinates: Army values and, 2-9–2-11, 2-14

developing. See developing, subordinatessubordination to civil authority, 2-8, 2-9, 2-90supervising (interpersonal skill), 4-12–4-13, 6-13–6-

14. See also checking; follow up symbolic communication, 6-150

assessing and, 6-105strategic leaders and, 7-11–7-12

synchronization: defined, 6-35translating political goals into military objectives

and, 7-56synthesis: defined, 6-22

computers and, 6-94systems approach, 7-6systems planning, 6-76–6-86. See also planningsystems understanding (conceptual skill), 6-24–

6-27, 7-123

Ttactical skills, 4-47–4-51

defined, 2-107direct leader, list, fig. 4-4organizational leader, 6-35–6-39, 7-56, fig. 6-4performance indicators of, A-14

taking care of people. See caringtaking charge, 2-15

when to take direct control, 1-29, 1-53teaching, 5-85–5-88

AARs and, 5-62Army values and, 2-7

Index

211


character development and, fig. B-1defined, p. 5-16E-contrasted with coaching, 5-97improving and, 6-117organizational leader responsibilities concerning, 6-

141organizational climate, effect on, 3-56

team building/teamwork. See also building teams change and, 3-50combat leadership and, 4-53ethical behavior and, B-3multinational operations and, 2-65–2-66selfless service and, 2-24

technical skills, 1-25, 2-107, 4-43, 6-28–6-34defined, 2-107direct leader, 4-43–4-46, fig. 4-3organizational leader, fig. 6-3performance indicators of, A-14strategic leader, 7-44–7-58, fig. 7-3

telling the Army story, 7-66–7-69third culture: defined, 7-90

multinational operations and, 2-66third-order effects, 6-33–6-34time management, 6-83training: AARs and, 1-19, 5-12

Army values and, 2-10, 2-19, 2-20, 3-19assessing and, 5-63, 6-115–6-116building teams and, 5-104, 5-118, 5-119, 6-132institutional, 5-75. See also educationleader attributes and, 2-43, 2-47, 5-128, 6-115– 6-

116stress in, 3-33warrior ethos and, 6-115–6-116in values, 2-19

training management, 6-7, 6-133, 6-104transactional leadership style, 3-79–3-82transformational leadership style, 3-77–3-78translating political goals into military objectives

(technical skill), 7-56–7-57troop leading procedures, 2-114, 5-15. See also deci-

sion making

trust: Army values and, 1-68, 2-5, 2-21, 2-29building teams and, 5-104, 5-118, 6-139communicating and, 6-49, 6-52, 7-126example of, 3-10–3-11initiative and, 1-56, 6-10organizational climate, effect on, 3-56

Uunderstanding soldiers (interpersonal skill), 6-9–6-10unintended consequences, 1-43, 5-20

Vvalues. See also Army values

beliefs and, 2-101character and, 1-4communicating and, 6-49, 6-52culture and, 2-103, 7-74defined, 2-101ethical climate, 5-122–5-123expressed, 4-38leader attributes and, 2-52, 2-103, 7-91moral courage and, 2-36organizational climate and, 3-54personal, defined, 2-reflective thinking and, 2-33training in, respect and, 2-19vision and, 7-34

vision, 7-1, 7-31, 7-63, 7-64, 7-113. See also envi-sioning

W warning orders, preparing and, 5-46warrior ethos, 2-85–2-90, 3-28, 3-32, 6-69, 6-115–6-

116will (leader attribute), 2-43–2-45, 3-11

Army values and, 1-85, 2-29, 3-32collective, 3-9, 3-10–3-11defined, 2-43warrior ethos and, 3-28winning in battle and, 3-28–3-32

wisdom, reflective thinking and, 7-30, 7-39, 7-71

Z“zero defects,” 1-83, 2-50, 5-126–5-128

Index

212
