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DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY FIELD MANUAL

MILITARY

LEADERSHIP

,39

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

DECEMBER 1958

AGO 1:G96C-Nov

* FM 22-100

FIELD MANUAL HEADQUARTERS,DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

No. 22-100 WASHINGTON 25, D. C., 2 December 1958

MILITARY LEADERSHIP

Paragrarhs PageCHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Section I. General _____________.-... 1, 2 3

II. Concepts of military leader- 3-8 5ship.

CHAPTER 2. HUMAN BEHAVIOR ----- 9-14 12

3. LEADERSHIP TRAITS_ -- 15-30 19

4. LEADERSHIP PRINCI- 31-42 37PLES.

5. INDICATIONS OF 43-49 54LEADERSHIP.

6. LEADERSHIP PROBLEMAREAS AND THEPROBLEM SOLVINGPROCESS.

Section I. Problem solving process____ 50, 51 62II. Problem areas … ------------ 52-57 64

III. Leadership of female groups_ 58, 59 75

CHAPTER 7. LEADERSHIP ASPECTS 60-63 77OF ORGANIZATION.

*This manual supersedes FM 22-100, 26 February 1953,including C 1, 11 February 1955; and FM 22-10, 6 March1951, including C 1,11 February 1955, and C 2,17 April 1957.

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Paraglaphs Page

CHAPTER 8. LEADERSHIP IN COM- 64-73 84BAT.

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES- .----------- 101

1. COMBAT EXAMPLES OF 102SMALL UNIT LEADER-SHIP.

INDEX …_…-___…_------ ____-_…-. …-... _ 116

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Section 1. GENERAL

1. Purpose and Scope

a. The purpose of this manual is to providemilitary leaders, actual and prospective, with apractical guide for applying the principles of lead-ership.

b. The principles and techniques presented here-in are the result of an analysis of outstandingleadership displayed by both military and civilianleaders. A thorough study of these principles andtechniques, combined with actual troop applica-tion, will develop and foster the high standard ofleadership so urgently demanded by the complexi-ties of modern warfare. In the final analysis, waris still waged by men.

c. The material presented herein is applicablewithout modification to both nuclear and nonnu-clear warfare.

2. General Concepts of Leadership

a. In the ultimate sense, leadership is not inher-ent; it depends upon traits that can be developedand upon the application of techniques that can belearned. It is an art that can be acquired, culti-vated, and practiced by anyone having the mental

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and physical ability and the moral integrity ex-pected of a commissioned or noncommissionedofficer. Developing this art is a continuing processwhich involves the recognition, acquisition, andpractice of the basic traits of leadership and theunderstanding and application of sound leadershipprinciples and techniques.

b. This manual stresses the importance of self-improvement. The principles, character traits, andprocedures set forth are offered to assist the leaderin the problem of controlling others. By examiningthese procedures with reference to his own practiceand by analyzing his own traits of character, theleader will possess a yardstick for measuring hisown success or failure. Despite this guide, it con-stantly must be borne in mind that successfulleaders of the past were not all of the same pattern;nor did they all use the same methods of attainingsuccess. All of them, however, consciously or un-consciously understood the basic concepts of leader-ship and successfully practiced many of the tech-niques presented in this manual.

c. It is essential that the student grasp this con-cept of leadership and understand its relationshipwith all that the leader does, says, and thinks. Hemust not overlook the vital ingredients of sincerityand competence, for without these any suggestedtechnique will fail. Although the material in thismanual is, for instructional purposes, divided undercertain principles, techniques and traits, the stu-dent should not allow his thinking to fall into theseconvenient compartments.

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d. Effective leadership is a totality-a totalitywhich is a resultant of everything the leader doesin every aspect of his job and in his daily living-which contributes to cementing the bonds betweenhim and his subordinates and between his sub-ordinates and the other members of his group.Everything that the leader does in his role astrainer, teacher, administrator, commander, orcounselor contributes to or detracts from the total-ity of this relationship. The simplest correctionor the sternest admonition; a momentary contactor long hours of common experience; the briefestsuggestion or the most complete and detailed order-all have within them the potential of enhancingor decreasing the leader's effective relationship andpersonal influence with his subordinates.

Section II. CONCEPTS OF MILITARY LEADERSHIP

3. The Military LeaderThe basic concept of military leadership en-

visages the leader who, aware of his responsibili-ties, capitalizes on his strong traits, guides himselfby the principles of leadership, and applies correctactions and orders to influence and direct his menfavorably and knit them into an effective unit(fig. 1). To successfully accomplish this goal, thecommander must understand men and the reas3nsfor their behavior under various influences. Hemust also learn to recognize and evaluate the indi-cations of leadership (par. 4).

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4. Definitions

a. Military Leadership. The art of influencingand directing men in such a way as to obtain theirwilling obedience, confidence, respect, and loyalcooperation in order to accomplish the mission.

b. Leadership Traits. Personal qualities that areof direct value to the commander in gaining thewilling obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal co-operation of his men.

c. Leadership Principles. Fundamental truthsthat are applied by a leader to control or guide hisactions and the actions of his subordinates.

d. Leadership Indications.(1) Morale-the state of mind of the indi-

vidual. This depends upon his attitudetoward everything that affects him.

(2) Discipline-the individual or group atti-tude that insures prompt obedience toorders and initiation of appropriate ac-tion in the absence of orders.

(3) Esprit de corps-loyalty to, pride in, andenthusiasm for a unit shown by its mem-bers.

(4) Proficiency-the technical, tactical, andphysical ability of the individual and theunit.

e. Effective Unit. One that will accomplish withthe minimum expenditure of means and time, anymission assigned or implied for which it has beenorganized, equipped, and trained.

f. Leadership Actions and Orders. Those things

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a leader does to enable him to both influence anddirect his command. The leader's action or ordershould-

(1) Accomplish or aid in the accomplishmentof one or both of the commander's basicresponsibilities.

(2) Be guided by the principles of leadership.(3) Exhibit the strong traits of the leader.

g. Leader. A person who possesses qualities nec-essary to direct others; a title used for persons incharge of units smaller than a company. See note.

h. Commander. Title of an officer in charge ofa company, battery, or larger unit.

Note. This manual makes no distinction between theterms commander and leader as the fundamentals of leader.ship are applicable at all levels of command.

5. Characteristics of Leadership

a. Universal Nature of Leadership. The militaryprofession has no monopoly on leadership. In everywalk of life, in every industry, in every govern-ment, in every phase of human endeavor there areleaders. Progress and success are dependent uponthe quality and efficiency of leadership.

b. Elements of Leadership. Leadership involvesunderstanding, analyzing, predicting, and control-ling men's behavior. Also involved in successfulleadership is the will to lead, together with thecharacter which inspires confidence. Undoubtedly,there are certain inherent characteristics that mayaid in the development'of leadership. Yet, certainmen possessing desirable leadership traits may

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never attain the stature of great leaders; likewise,men deficient in certain of these traits may haveattained this stature. Any theory that leadershipis solely inherited must be rejected. Leadershipis intangible only to the extent that we make it so.Any reasonably intelligent man, no matter how in-experienced, can become acquainted with thethe component elements of leadership. These ele-ments may be studied, practiced, learned, andapplied, just as any other human accomplishmentmay be learned and mastered.

c. The Leader and the Small Group. A leaderactually maintains close personal contact with onlya small group, regardless of the number of menultimately controlled by him. Inevitably he mustdepend upon that small group to make his willknown and to execute his purpose. We refer to thesmall group as immediate subordinates and staff.

6. Relationship Belween Command and Leadershipa. Authoritarian and Persuasive Leadership.

Broadly, there are two kinds of leadership-authoritarian and persuasive. One who is predom-inently of the authoritarian type normally is recog-nized by the dogmatic use of authority or power.The persuasive type of leadership takes into con-sideration the human element with all its complex-ity and its differences in the physical, mental, andemotional capabilities and limitations of theindividual. To a great extent, the persuasive leaderbases his skill in leadership upon example andability, with high standards of discipline and effi-

AGO 2695C 9

ciency for himself as well as his followers. Themilitary leader is normally persuasive, but may beauthoritative, to meet the requirements of a situa-tion.

b. The Exercise of Command. Command is theauthority that a member of the military professionlawfully exerts over subordinates by virtue of hisrank and assignment. Leadership can be exercisedby any one at any time. It is recognized that in anygroup some individual will emerge as the leader,even though no command or organizational struc-ture is present. Individuals in coordinating capaci-ties exercise leadership in their dealing with theirequals-outside the immediate command structure.In general, however, we think of military leader-ship as being exercised within this structure;therefore, in one sense, leadership is the properexercise of command.

c. Accompaniments of Command. Command,with all it implies-administration, planning, exe-cuting, supervising, and coordinating-is the pri-mary reason for the military leader's existence.The leader is responsible not only for initiatingaction, but for supervising all activities within hiscommand. In this responsibility for the generaladministration of a group, it is his duty to receive,comply with, and execute instructions with exact-ness and thoroughness, regardless of his personalfeelings.

7. Objective of Military LeadershipThe objective of military leadership is the devel-

opment and maintenance of an effective organiza-

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tion. The proper application of the principles ofleadership can create a proficient, well-disciplinedorganization possessing high morale and esprit decorps.

8. Basic Responsibilities of the Commandera. The commander has two basic responsibilities;

accomplishment of his mission, and welfare of hismen. These basic responsibilities are of equal im-portance. However, in the event a conflict arisesin the mind of the commander regarding theseresponsibilities, the mission must take precedence.Normally, efficient accomplishment of the missionwill help to satisfy the responsibility of welfare ofthe men.

b. Command is accompanied by responsibilitiesinvolving special trust and confidence. The basicresponsibilities cannot be delegated by a com-mander to his subordinates. He alone must shoulderthe responsibility of the position he occupies.

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CHAPTER 2HUMAN BEHAVIOR

9. General

The ability to handle men-the art of leadership-involves understanding, predicting, and control-ling men's behavior. The commander can do a farbetter job if he makes a constant effort to betterunderstand himself and the soldiers with whom heserves. He does not need the training of a psychol-ogist, but he must have an understanding of thebasic human behavior patterns in order to obtainmaximum effectiveness from his men.

10. Individual Differences Among Men

a. All men are different. Each man's personalityis the sum total of his physical, mental, emotionalcharacteristics and environment and background.These characteristics vary from man to man.

(1) Physical and mental characteristics helpto determine types of work for which aman is best suited. They also indicate thetypes and intensity of physical work hecan be expected to perform. Some menare better at jobs requiring mechanicalability or dexterity; others are capableof performing complex mental tasks re-quiring application, reasoning and intel-lect. If a "bright" individual is given a

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dull job, he may become bored and resent-ful. If a man is given a job which callsfor more of a particular mental aptitudethan he possesses, he may become dis-couraged and resentful. At any rate, aman (malassigned) in one of these situa-tions will certainly add little to the teameffort.

(2) Emotional characteristics are particularlyimportant parts of a soldier's personality.The way he reacts to a difficult problem,to danger, to hardship-all must be un-derstood by the commander. Under pres-sure, one man may become angered andanother may quit or run away; still an-other may react very calmly.

b. Not only is each individual's personalityunique, but it is also constantly changing. A manchanges physically, mentally, and emotionally as hematures and gains more experience. Broadly speak-ing, three factors tend to shape personality.

(1) Heredity. Each person inherits manycharacteristics from his parents. A manmay, for example, inherit the mentalcapacity to become a top scientist. Or, hemay inherit the potential to grow to be6 feet tall. Whether or not he will ulti-mately attain the upper limits of his in-herited potential depends upon his envir-onment and life experiences.

(2) Environment. Those relatively unchang-ing aspects of the world as the soldier

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knows it-the family he belongs to, thechurch and schools he attends, the typesof food he eats-constitute his environ-ment. It has a pronounced effect on hispersonality. Taking the example of thesoldier who inherits the potential to be a6 footer, the type of food, the amount ofexercise, the health conditions which area part of that soldier's environment mayeither permit or prevent him from at-taining a height of 6 feet. The individ-ual's environment may accelerate or re-tard the development of inherited mentalcapacity.

(3) Experiences. Identical twins may bereared in the same environment, but theywill still develop different personalities.One will encounter different experiencesthan the other. One may reach a heightof 6 feet while another contracts polio-myelitis and grows no taller than 5 feet9 inches. The unique experiences whicheach person encounters will affect himmentally and physically. In addition,these varied experiences will play a defi-nite role in his emotional growth and inshaping his attitudes.

11. The Roots of Behavior

Certain conditions must be met if the individual'spattern of behavior is to be socially acceptable andsatisfying to himself. These conditions, or roots ofbehavior, may be described as "basic human

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needs." Some are physical, others we acquirethrough the learning process as we go through life.

a. Physical Needs. The satisfaction of a physicalneed may become a goal which motivates the in-dividual to behave in a specific manner. The physi-cal needs are those pertaining to food, drink,clothing, shelter, and the normal body functions.

b. Learned Needs. These result as a man re-lates the value of certain conditions to his continuedwell being. These conditions are security, socialapproval, and recognition. Learned needs also mo-tivate men to react in a certain manner.

(1) Security. We are able to predict the con-sequences of the course of events to thepoint where we can see that certain ac-tions on our part may result in materialor physical harm. We tend to alter ourbehavior accordingly. Many men will rungrave risks to gain greater security forthe future. No one wants to be injured,but physical security is the motive behindstatements such as "kill or be killed" and"it's either them or us."

(2) Social approval. The opinions of the groupto which we belong strongly influence ourbehavior. Few men will take a course ofaction designed to incur the disfavor ofthe group. We learn quite early in lifethat we will go much further if we co-operate with the other members of oursociety. We run the risk of incurringboth material and physical harm if we

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act counter to the ideals and expectationsof the group.

(3) Recognition. Every man feels the needfor frequent tangible proof that he is get-ting ahead. We work hard to gain somemeasure of success, and if recognition isnot forthcoming, we will eventually quitor try some other pattern of behavior.Even a single pat on the back is oftenenough to reassure a subordinate that hisperformance is appreciated.

12. Goals and Frustrationa. The struggle to satisfy the physical and

learned needs and our past experience in satisfyingthese needs, lead us to place certain values on ob-jects in life. Highly valued objects become "goals."A steak may be a goal when we are hungry. Pro-motion may be a goal if we are seeking recognition.

b. When we are blocked in our attempts: to reacha certain goal, we may become frustrated. Ourenergy is blocked and backs up like water behinda dam. To some degree we all experience frustra-tions, varying from minor irritations to major dis-turbances. The degree of frustration depends onthe value we placed on the goal in question.

c. The outward evidence of frustration may takemany forms-anger, cursing, weeping, and nerv-ousness. Serious frustrations that deny the satis-faction of a need for a long period of time cancause adverse changes in a man's behavior. Ab-sence without leave may result from a belief by

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the soldier that he has not been accepted by hisunit. The soldier whose hard work does not earnhim a promotion or even a word of thanks fromhis leaders may develop bitterness that will affect.not only him but other soldiers.

d. None of us can completely avoid frustration.Instead, the normal person plans ahead so as toavoid many frustrations and at the same time takessteps to adjust to existing frustrations. He mayalter his methods for attaining particular goals ifthe ways he has tried are blocked. He may evenpick different goals which he feels are more attain-able.

13. Adjustmenta. When a man enters the Army, he leaves an

environment in which he had made a reasonablysatisfactory adjustment and enters another filledwith frustrating circumstances. He must makemany physical, mental, and emotional adjustments,involving altered methods of attaining his goalsand the choosing of new goals. If he can do thissuccessfully, we say that the soldier has "adjusted."If the frustrations are too many and too great, thesoldier becomes maladjusted.

b. The problem of adjustment is a real problemfor the Army as well as the soldier. Some 545,000men were discharged from the service for mentaldefectiveness and mental diseases during WorldWar II. Of these, 50 percent became apparentwithin 30 days after induction; 85 percent becameapparent within six months after induction. Less

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than 15 percent of all maladjustments became ap-parent in the battle zone, and of these, the majoritywere returned to combat.

c. An analysis of the causes for this loss of man-power and the resultant loss of effectiveness in allunits revealed, in many instances, that leaders werenot cognizant of the needs of their men, and there-fore not providing assistance in the satisfaction ofthese needs; in fact, in many cases poor leaderswere actually adding to the men's adjustmentproblems.

14. Helping the Soldier to Adjust to Army Life

If the soldier comes to feel consciously or sub-consciously that he can satisfy his physical andlearned needs within the Army, adjustment comesrapidly. A good commander employs many tech-niques to bring about this adjustment. Some ofthe techniques help the soldier find new ways toreach some of his old goals. Many more of thecommander's techniques serve to demonstrate tothe young soldier how the attainment of other newgoals also results in the satisfaction of his needs.When the soldier accepts these goals as his ownand realizes that they are also the Army's goals,and struggles to achieve them, he is well on hisway to becoming the world's finest soldier.

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CHAPTER 3

LEADERSHIP TRAITS

15. General

Leadership traits are personal qualities which,if shown in your daily activities, help you earnyour men's respect, confidence, willing obedience,and loyal cooperation. By sizing up your ownstrong and weak points, you can develop the leader-ship traits in which you are weak and furtherstrengthen those in which you are strong. The atti-tudes of the men toward a commander are deter-mined by whether their needs are satisfied by theleader's personal traits. For this reason, the traitsof a commander directly affect the behavior of hismen.

16. Essential Traits

a. A study of the lives and careers of successfulcommanders reveals that many of the followingpersonal traits or qualities are common to all ofthem:

(1) Integrity.(2) Knowledge.

(3) Courage (physical and moral).(4) Decisiveness.

(5) Dependability.

(6) Initiative.

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(7) Tact.(8) Justice.(9) Enthusiasm.

(10) Bearing.(11) Endurance.(12) Unselfishness.(13) Loyalty.(14) Judgment.

b. This list is by no means all-inclusive, but itis representative of those desirable traits in a mili-tary leader. Paragraphs 17 through 30 describeeach of these traits and give suggestions that willhelp you develop them.

17. Integrity

a. Integrity, the uprightness of character andsoundness of moral principle, the quality of abso-lute truthfulness and honesty, is an indispensabletrait in a leader.

b. On the Armed Forces Team the stakes are toohigh to place the lives of its members in the handsof men with questionable integrity. For example,battle information is necessary for those respon-sible for making decisions in combat. In the flowof reports from the smallest unit to the highestheadquarters, a departure from strict truth by anyindividual can imperil the entire operation. Unlessa man can be relied upon for absolute truthfulnessand honesty, he cannot be relied upon at all. Thereis no possible compromise. The nature of the mili-

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tary profession does not permit the slightest devia-tion from the highest standards of personal integ-rity.

c. To develop your personal integrity-(1) Practice absolute honesty and truthful-

ness with yourself at all times.(2) Be accurate and truthful in all your state-

ments, both official and unofficial.(3) Stand for what you believe to be right.(4) Whenever you are tempted to compro-

mise, place honesty, sense of duty, andmoral principles above all else.

18. Knowledge

a. Nothing attracts confidence and respectmore quickly than demonstrated knowledge-ac-quired information, including professional knowl-edge and an understanding of your subordinates.The man who knows his job builds confidence inhimself as well as in others. Lack of knowledgecannot be concealed; you cannot bluff your men. Ifyou do not know the answer to a particular ques-tion, admit it; then take steps to get the informa-tion.

b. Your knowledge should not be limited tomilitary subjects. A general fund of information,particularly on national and international events,will make you a more rounded personality.

c. To increase your knowledge-(1) Keep a military file and a small library.

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(2) Study field manuals and other militaryliterature such as regulations, trainingdirectives, battle operations, and pastmilitary campaigns.

(3) Read the service periodicals and books onthe Department of the Army readinglist.

(4) Read the daily newspapers and weeklymagazines; try to evaluate current newsimpartially and correctly.

(5) Form the habit of developing seriousconversations on military subjects.

(6) Evaluate your experience and the experi-ence of others.

(7) Be alert; listen; observe; conduct re-search on matters you do not understand.

19. Courage (Physical and Moral)

a. Courage is a mental quality that recognizesfear of danger or criticism but enables a man toproceed in the face of it with calmness and firm-ness. It is a quality of mind that gives a mancontrol over himself, enabling him to accept respon-sibility and to act in a dangerous situation. It isvital to leadership.

b. The leader must have moral as well as physi-cal courage. Moral courage means knowing andstanding for what is right in the face of populardisfavor. A leader who has moral courage willadmit his errors, but will enforce his decisionswhen sure he is correct.

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c. To help yourself attain and demonstratecourage-

(1) Study and understand your emotion offear.

(2) Control your fear by developing self-discipline and calmness.

(3) Speak in a calm tone; keep an orderlinessin your thought process; don't exaggeratephysical danger or adversity in yourown mind.

(4) If you fear doing certain things in yourdaily life, force yourself to do thesethings until you conquer them.

(5) Stand for what is right in the face ofpopular condemnation.

(6) Look for and readily accept responsibili-ties.

(7) Accept the blame when you are at fault.

20. Decisivenessa. The leader should have the ability to reach

decisions promptly and to announce them in aclear, forceful manner.

b. Every situation offers a variety of solutions.The wise leader gets all the facts, weighs oneagainst the other, and calmly and quickly arrivesat a sound decision. Decisiveness is largely amatter of practice and experience.

c. To develop decisiveness-

(1) Learn to be positive in your actions.Don't delay; don't "beat around thebush."

AGO 2Y!15C 23

(2) Get the facts, make up your mind, andthen issue your order with confidence.

(3) Check decisions you have made to deter-mine if they were sound and timely.

(4) Check decisions made by others. If youdo not agree, think why; then determineif your reasons for disagreement aresound.

(5) Broaden your viewpoint by studying theactions of others.

(6) Take advantage of the experience ofothers to learn from their mistakes.

21. Dependabilitya. Dependability, the certainty of proper per-

formance of duty, is a quality the leader mustdevelop.

b. The dependable leader is one who can berelied upon to carry out actively, intelligently, andwith willing effort the intent of his commander.This willing and voluntary compliance with theplans and will of the superior does not mean blindand dog-like obedience. Most commanders willlisten to the suggestions of their subordinates, butonce the commander makes the final decision, thesubordinate must give it his complete and energeticsupport.

c. A military duty is an obligation to be per-formed. Thus a high sense of duty results in ahigh standard of performance, a constant and con-tinuous effort to give the best a leader has in him.Duty demands the sacrifice of personal interests in

24 AGO 2695C

favor of military demands, rules and regulations,orders and procedures, and the welfare of sub-ordinates.

d. To develop dependability-(1) Do not make excuses.(2) Do every task assigned to you to the best

of your ability, regardless of personalbeliefs.

(3) Be exact in details.(4) Form the habit of being punctual.(5) Follow orders to the letter in spirit and

fact.(6) Give adequate attention to the general

welfaie of your men.

22. Initiative

a. Initiative, seeing what has to be done andcommencing a course of action, even in the absenceof orders, is necessary in all grades. Encourageinitiative among your subordinates by giving themduties on a level with their grade and then allow-ing them to work out the details and finish thejob. This does not mean that yon can deal out thetasks and then do nothing else. You must knowthe jobs well enough to supervise properly. Fur-thermore, you must retain for yourself those func-tions that are exclusively the commander's.Soldiers unite quickly behind a commander whomeets new and unexpected situations with promptaction.

b. Closely allied with initiative is the quality ofresourcefulness, the ability to deal with a situation

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in the absence of normal means or methods. Mili-tary supply, organization, and training are de-signed to meet all normal situations, but theysometimes fail, particularly under combat condi-tions where the unexpected is normal. Inactivityor passive acceptance of an unsatisfactory situa-tion because of lack of normal means or ways ofdealing with it is never justified.

c. To develop initiative-(1) Stay mentally and physically alert.(2) Train yourself to recognize tasks that

need to be done and do them withouthaving to be told and without hesitation.

(3) Think ahead.

23. Tact

a. Tact is the ability to deal with others with-out creating offense. In the field of human rela-tions, tact is the ability to say and do the properthing at the proper time. It is an understandingof human nature and a consideration for the feel-ings of others.

b. Tact is particularly important in those con-tacts with subordinates in which the personal ele-ment is involved. Criticism has to be made in sucha way that what is meant will be clearly apparent,yet will neither cause discouragement nor detractfrom the drive and energy of the subordinate.Every commander needs tact in helping those menwho come to him with personal problems. Theseoften involve family relations and other personalmatters that are accompanied by embarrassment

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or shame. Avoid judging such situations; yourrole is that of counselor only and it calls for com-mon sense in making suggestions. Sometimes thehighest degree of tact is simply to listen withsympathetic attention and interest, finding outwhat the soldier's own solution is. You mayconfirm his solution or suggest a different one.

e. Courtesty is a part of tact that you cannotafford to neglect in your relations with sub-ordinates. To demand, yet fail to return courtesyin full measure indicates either arrogance or alack of interest. The inexperienced officer or non-commissioned officer often feels that politeness in amilitary command implies softness; or worse, thatfrom a subordinate it smacks of "bootlicking."Nothing is further from the truth. Courtesy is amatter both of words and actions. One leader maybark out his orders impersonally and abruptly.Another may give his orders in a tone tinged witha courtesy that implies the expectancy of obedi-ence. Either method may get obedience, but thesecond of the two will get more willing obedienceand cooperation. In times of emergency, abruptrapid fire orders become desirable because theysave time and there is no need to imply expectedobedience. There are other times, too, when aforceful tone can well replace a courteous tone;but even then there is no reason for outright dis-courtesy. Usually, a calm, courteous, though firmmode of address, will bring the readiest response.Thus tact and courtesy are closely tied in withmanner, language, and bearing.

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d. To develop tact-(1) Be courteous and cheerful.(2) Be considerate of others.(3) Study the actions of successful officers

who enjoys a reputation for being skilledin human relations.

(4) Study different types of personalities;gain a knowledge of human nature.

(5) Develop the habit of cooperating in spiritas well as in fact.

(6) Check yourself for tolerance; if at fault,correct this deficiency.

(7) Treat others as you desire to be treated.

24. Justicea. Justice is the quality of being impartial and

consistent in exercising command. Justice involvesthe rendering of reward and the meting out ofpunishment in accordance with the merits of thecase. Anger and other emotions must not enter intoa situation. Prejudice of race or creed must beavoided. Few things will disrupt the morale of anorganization more quickly than unfairness orpartiality of a leader toward a certain man orgroup of men.

b. As a leader you are called upon to renderjustice in such matters as promotions and punish-ment. Your decisions are a test of your fairness.It takes a long time to build up a reputation amongyour men for being fair. One thoughtless error orone injustice can destroy a good reputation thattook months to establish.

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c. To render justice, you must understand hu-man behavior. Study people with the idea oflearning why certain types behave the way theydo under certain conditions and others behavedifferently under the same conditions. Analyze thecases that have been decided and determine whatyou would have done had you been the one to makethe decision. This, of course, is a private processand should never be used as an occasion to criticizethe decision of another leader.

d. To develop this trait of justice-(1) Be impersonal and impartial when im-

posing punishment.(2) Consider every offense referred to you on

its own merits.(3) Search your mental attitudes to determine

if you hold any prejudices and, if so, ridyour mind of them.

(4) Analyze cases acted upon by officers whohave a reputation for being just.

(5) Be impartial. Play no favorites.(6) Be honest with yourself.(7) Recognize juniors worthy of commenda-

tion or award. Don't be known as one whodispenses only punishment.

25. Enthusiasm

a. Enthusiasm is the display of sincere interestand exuberance in the performance of duties. Itimplies that you approach your work with a cheer-ful and optimistic attitude, determined to do a

AGO Z696C 29

good job. This attitude is necessary because yourexample will be copied by those you lead.

b. An important part of enthusiasm is your per-formance of tasks with vigor, because of willingnessand gratification in accomplishment, rather thandoing them half-heartedly merely because you mustdo them. Enthusiasm is particularly important ininstructing and training, where, through example,your interest and enthusiasm are reflected byyour men.

c. To develop enthusiasm-(1) Understand and believe in your mission.(2) Be cheerful and optimistic.(3) Explain to your men the "why" of unin-

teresting and distasteful jobs.(4) Capitalize on success. Enthusiasm is

contagious and nothing will develop itmore than the success of the unit orindividual.

(5) Don't get stale. Set aside a period everyday to free your mind of official mattersand relax.

26. Bearinga. Bearing, creating a favorable impression in

carriage, appearance, and personal conduct at alltimes, deserves the attention of all leaders. Yourcarriage should be upright, your general appear-ance and the condition of your clothing and equip-ment should establish the standard for the rest ofyour unit, and you should show life and energy inyour actions and movements.

30 AGO 2495C

b. By your appearance and manner, you mustexpress competence and confidence, often to a de-gree beyond what you actually feel. By exercisingcontrol over your voice and gestures, you can exerta firm and steadying influence, especially in com-bat. All good leaders know that their apparentconfidence in themselves, in their troops, and in thesituation is reflected in their men. Few things canbetter maintain the morale of troops than therealization that their leader, with full knowledgeof the difficulties of a situation, neither looks noracts worried as perhaps he has a right to do. Toomuch severity, austerity, and strictness of mannerbalk the sympathy and confidence you must havefrom your men. Frequent irritation and uncon-trolled displays of temper indicate that you do nothave even yourself in hand.

c. Language is another of the outward marks bywhich you will be judged and through which youhave an ever present influence on your men. Speakplainly and simply. Make your sentences short,simple, positive, and direct. If you must use termsthat may not be clearly understood, explain theirmeaning. At the same time, avoid talking downto your men.

d. Immoderate language almost always producesunfavorable results both in the individual and inthe unit. To use profane or obscene language andto permit its use by subordinate leaders, especiallyin giving orders, is to risk friction, resentment,quarreling, and even insubordination. Men resentbeing sworn at by their superiors. They feel, and

AGO 2695C 31

rightly so, that the superior has taken unfair ad-vantage of his authority. The same applies to anyimmoderate language. A "bawling out" is com-monly resented as a personal attack. It is, in fact,more often an expression of anger than a propercorrection. The more or less impersonal point atissue is lost, and the matter becomes a mental clashbetween individuals. Likewise, the use of im-moderate language, or of any language, in whole-sale criticism and condemnation of a group shouldbe particularly avoided. It is not likely that youwill ever have a unit that will deserve a wholesalereprimand. Nothing creates resentment so readilyin a subordinate as to be included unfairly withothers who may deserve disciplinary action. Thisis true not only of your language but of all generalpunishments. If violent language ever has anybasis for use, reserve it for an extreme emergencyon the battlefield. A tongue-lashing at that timemay have a stimulating and steadying effect, but itis lost if such speech is habitual.

e. Sarcasm and irony seldom bring good results.Many men do not understand sarcasm and ironyand are never quite sure what their leader means.Even a bantering tone should not be used often.This does not mean that a joke can never be used,but too much wisecracking by the leader inevitablyresults in wisecrack replies from his troops. TheAmerican soldier is too accustomed to this kind oftalk to resist cracking back if he thinks he can getaway with it. He will have reason to think he canget away with it if he is always on the receiving

32 AGO 2695C

end of such remarks. At the same time, any wiseleader will know that in some circumstances a cer-tain amount of joking is helpful. When there isdiscouragement in the air or when exhausted troopsmust be called upon for another effort, a flash ofhumor helps greatly. It tends to give confidencein time of stress, even in the midst of the mcstconfused and strenuous combat. Indeed it is oftenthe American way of implying sympathy andunderstanding-even cooperation-in the midst ofdifficulty.

f. A leader should be dignified. Dignity impliesa state of being worthy or honorable. It requiresthe control of one's actions and emotions. A leaderwho makes a spectacle of himself through loudness,drink, or lack of emotional control quickly losesthe respect of his men.

g. To develop the manner, language, and bearingof a leader-

(1) Require of yourself the highest standardsin appearance and conduct.

(2) Know and adhere to regulations concern-ing dress and conduct.

(3) Avoid use of vulgar speech.(4) If you drink liquor, drink moderately.(5) Avoid coarse behavior.

(6) Habitually maintain a dignified demeanor.(7) Avoid making a spectacle of yourself.(8) Know when to be seen, both officially and

socially. Anticipate when your presenceor absence may embarrass yourself andothers.

AGO 2695C 33

539933 o0 60-3

27. Endurance

a. Endurance, the mental and physical staminameasured by the ability to stand pain, fatigue,distress, and hardship, is akin to courage. It is oneof the most important qualities in determiningleadership ability. You must have it if you are tocommand the proper respect from subordinates. Alack of endurance may be confused with lack ofcourage and brand the leader who is in poor physi-cal condition as a coward. Endurance implies theability to stick to a job and see it through.

b. To develop physical and mental stamina-(1) Avoid nonessential activities that will

lower stamina.(2) Cultivate 'physical training habits that

will strengthen your body; learn to standpunishment by undertaking difficult phys-ical tasks.

(3) Test your endurance by frequently sub-jecting yourself to unusual physical andmental exercises.

(4) Force yourself to continue on occasionswhen you are tired and your mind issluggish.

(5) Form the habit of finishing every task tothe best of your abilities.

28. Unselfishness

a. The unselfish leader is one who avoids provid-ing for his own comfort and personal advancementat the expense of others. Put the comfort,pleasures, and recreation of subordinates before

34 AGO 2695C

your own. If the unit is commended for some out-standing work, pass along the credit for theachievement to the subordinates who made it pos-sible. No subordinate can respect a superior whotakes the credit for the good work and ideas, andwho makes sure that his subordinates get the blamefor the unsatisfactory work. To be a true leader,you must share the same dangers, hardships, anddiscomforts as your men.

b. To become an unselfish leader-(1) Avoid using your position and rank to

enhance your personal gain, safety, orpleasure at the expense of others.

(2) Be considerate of the problems, militaryor personal, of your men and assist themwhere appropriate.

(3) Give credit to your subordinates for workwell done.

29. Loyaltya. This is the quality of faithfulness to country,

the Army, your unit, and to your senior and sub-ordinates. This quality alone can do much to earnfor you the confidence and respect of your seniorand subordinate associates. Your every action mustreflect loyalty to your command. Be careful not tobetray the command by discussing its problemsoutside of your organization.

b. To demonstrate the quality of loyalty-(1) Be quick to defend your subordinates

from abuse.

AGO 2695C 33

(2) Never give the slightest hint of disagree-ment with orders from your senior whenrelating instructions to subordinates.

(3) Practice doing every task to the best ofyour ability and wholeheartedly support-ing your commander's decisions.

(4) Never discuss the personal problems ofyour associates with others.

(5) Stand up for your country, your Army,your unit, and your associates when theyare unjustly accused.

(6) Never criticize your seniors in thepresence of subordinates nor permit suchdiscussions among subordinates.

30. Judgmenta. Judgment is the quality of weighing facts and

possible solutions on which to base sound decisions.Enhance your judgment by being as technicallyqualified as possible.

b. To improve your judgment-(1) Practice making estimates of the situa-

tion.(2) Anticipate those situations of the military

profession that require decisions, so thatyou are prepared when the need arises.

(3) Be careful to avoid making rash decisions.

34 AGO 29S5C

CHAPTER 4

LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

31. Leadership Principles

Certain fundamentals are habitually followed bysuccessful leaders in making decisions and takingaction. The fundamentals used for the properexercise of command are known as leadershipprinciples. These are listed and explained in para-graphs 32 through 42.

32. Principle I-Be Technicol'y and Tactically Proficient

a. To know your job thoroughly, you mustpossess a wide field of knowledge. You should betactically able in the field of combat operations andunderstand all of the technical aspects of yourcommand.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Seek a well-rounded military education

through attendance at service schools andthrough independent reading, research,and study.

(2) Keep abreast of latest techniques in thefield of communication to facilitate con-trol of your unit and to disseminateinformation.

(3) Seek out and foster association withcapable leaders. Observe and study their

AGO 2695C 37

actions and application of leadershiptechniques.

(4) Broaden your field of knowledge throughassociation with officers and men of otherarms and services.

(5) Seek opportunity to apply knowledgethrough the exercises of command. Realleadership is acquired only through con-stant practice.

(6) Avoid overspecialization.(7) Keep abreast of current military develop-

ments.(8) By study and through frequent visits to

subordinates, familiarize yourself withthe capabilities and limitations of all ele-ments of your command.

(9) Develop techniques for measuring per-formance of the unit.

(10) Develop skill as an instructor.(11) Take every opportunity to prepare your-

self for command at the next higherechelon.

33. Principle II-Know Yourself and Seek Self-improvementa. It is your duty to evaluate yourself and

recognize your own strengths and weaknesses. Noone can become a successful leader until he knowshis own capabilities and limitations and is, in fact,the master of himself. Strive to develop desirabletraits of leadership as discussed in chapter 3.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Analyze yourself objectively to determine

38 AGO 2695C

the strong and weak points of your char-acter. Make an effort to overcome theweak ones.

(2) Solicit, when appropriate, the candidopinions of others as to how you can makethe most of your desirable qualities andeliminate the undesirable ones.

(3) Profit by studying the causes for thesuccess or failure of other leaders pastand present.

(4) Develop a genuine interest in people;acquire the human touch.

(5) Treat others as you desire to be treated.(6) Master the art of good writing and

speaking.(7) Cultivate cordial relations with members

of the other arms and services and withcivilians.

(8) Develop a philosophy of life and of work.Have a definite goal and plan to attainit.

34. Principle Ill-Know Your Men and Look Out for TheirWelfare

a. You will have a better understanding of howyour subordinates react and function under variousconditions when you make a conscientious effort toobserve them, become personally acquainted withthem, and recognize their individual differences.You should anticipate and make provisions for theneeds of your men. By doing so you win their

AGO 2696C 39

willing obedience, confidence, respect, and loyalcooperation.

b. Techniques for application.(1) See the members of your command and

let them see you; be friendly andapproachable.

(2) Develop an intimate knowledge and un-derstanding of your subordinates throughpersonal contact and available records.In small commands, it is imperative notonly that the leader know and addresshis subordinates by name, but also thathe be familiar with their characteristics.

(3) Interest yourself in the living conditionsof the members of your command, includ-ing their family environment, food, cloth-ing, and billeting.

(4) Make ample provision for, and give per-sonal and visible attention to, the variouspersonnel services including recreation,particularly those concerned with thepersonal problems of individuals.

(5) Provide for the spiritual welfare of yourcommand by supporting religious activi-ties.

(6) Protect the health of your command byactive supervision of hygiene and sanita-tion.

(7) Support actively a safety program.(8) Determine the mental attitude of mem-

bers of your command by frequent in-

40 AGO 2695C

formal visits and by using fully all avail-able sources of information.

(9) Administer justice impartially to allwithout fear or favor. When punishmentis necessary, you should-

(a) Be fair, consistent, prompt, and imper-sonal.

(b) Punish in private, with dignity, andwith human understanding.

(c) Never impose degrading punishment.(d) Avoid punishing a group for the faults

of an individual.(e) Always make the individual feel that

the punishment is temporary and thatimprovement is expected.

(10) Insure fair and equitable distribution ofpasses, leaves, rotation, and other privi-leges.

(11) Encourage educational development byproviding educational opportunities formembers of your command.

(12) Provide sufficient athletic and recreationalfacilities within the organization, andinsure that your command is receiving itsshare of quotas for recreation areas andentertainment benefits.

(13) Share the problems of your men so thatyou may better understand them.

35. Principle IV--Keep Your Men Informeda. All men want to know how well they have

done and what will further be expcted of them.

AGO 2695C 41

The individual who is well informed, commensur-ate with security requirements, as to the situationand his mission is more effective than one who isuninformed. Keeping a man informed promotesinitiative and improves morale. This includes pass-ing information down as well as up.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Explain to your principal subordinates

why any particular task must be accom-plished and how you propose to do it.

(2) Assure yourself by frequent inspectionsand visits that subordinates are trans-mitting necessary information to themen.

(3) Keep your principal subordinates in-formed of plans for future operations,subject only to security restrictions.

(4) Disseminate information concerning thecapabilities of our weapons compared tothose of an active or potential enemy.Where an enemy has an initial advantage,show how this can be overcome.

(5) Be sure the troops are informed of thecapabilities and limitations of supportingunits, arms, and services.

(6) Be alert to detect the spread of falserumors. Stop rumors by replacing themwith truth.

(7) Build confidence and esprit de corps byexploiting all information concerningsuccesses of the command.

(8) Keep your unit informed about current

42 AG;o 2,;95C

legislation affecting their pay, promotion,privileges, etc.

36. Principle V-Set the Examplea. Men instinctively look to you for examples

that they may follow or use as an excuse for theirown shortcomings. Your individual appearance andconduct must evoke from your subordinates praise,pride, and a desire to emulate you. Set the standardfor your entire command by outstanding perform-ance of duty. The commander who appears in anunfavorable light before his men destroys themutual respect that must exist between a leader andhis men.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Be at all times physically fit, mentally

alert, well groomed, and correctlydressed.

(2) Master your emotions. The commanderwho is subject to intemperate bursts ofanger or to periods of depression willhave difficulty in gaining and holding therespect and loyalty of his subordinates.

(3) Maintain an optimistic outlook. The willto win is infectious. Foster it bycapitalizing on your unit's capabilitiesand successes, not on its limitations orfailures. Maintain an air of outwardcalmness. The more difficult the situa-tion, the more important this becomes.

(4) Conduct yourself so that your personalhabits are not open to censure. Coarse

AGO 295es 43

behavior and vulgarity are the marks ofan essentially weak and unstable charac-ter; these, together with a failure to bepunctual and a tendency toward selfish-ness and self-indulgence in luxuries notavailable to the command in general, areinevitably resented by all ranks.

(5) Cooperate in spirit as well as in fact.Cooperation must work in two directions.It arises from a wholehearted desire byall members to further the effective opera-tions of the team.

(6) Exercise initiative and promote the spiritof initiative in your subordinates.

(7) Be conspicuously loyal to those below youas well as to those above you. Supportthose under you as long as they dischargetheir duties conscientiously. The com-mander who seeks to protect an incom-petent subordinate from correction by ahigher commander is, however, himselfdisloyal. Loyalty is a primary trait ofleadership and demands unqualified sup-port of the policies of superior officers,whether the individual concerned person-ally favors them or not.

(8) Avoid the development of a clique offavorites. While it is difficult to avoidbeing partial to subordinates who haverendered loyal and superior service overa period of time, the temptation to showpartiality should be vigorously resisted.

44 AGO 2695C

(9) Be morally courageous. The commanderwho fails to stand by his principles wherethe welfare of his command is concerned,or who attempts to avoid the respon-sibility for mistakes of his command, willfail to gain or hold the respect of hisassociates or subordinates.

(10) Share danger and hardship. A leaderwho has elements of his command subjectto danger or to hardship of any kindshould visit them as often as possible todemonstrate without ostentation his will-ingness to assume his share of thedifficulties.

37. Principle VI-Insure That the Task is Understood, Super-vised, and Accomplished

a. Give clear, concise orders that cannot be mis-understood. Then supervise to make sure that theorder is properly executed. This is the most diffi-cult part to carry out. The able leader makes wiseuse of his subordinates to carry out his orderseffectively. Any commander who fails to makeproper and adequate use of his staff and sub-ordinates demonstrates a fundamental weakness inleadership ability.

b. Techniques for applicatiorn:(1) Through study and practice, develop the

ability to think clearly and to issue clear,concise, positive orders.

(2) Encourage subordinates to seek immedi-ate clarification about any point in your

AGO 2695C 45

orders or directives that they do notunderstand.

(3) Question your subordinates and assist-ants to determine if there is any doubtor misunderstanding as to the task to beperformed.

(4) Supervise the execution of your orders.Your supervision must be firm and youmust be insistent that your desires becarried out.

(5) Make every means possible available toyour subordinates to assist them in ac-complishing their mission. Instruct yourstaff to be as helpful and loyal to yoursubordinates as your staff is helpful andloyal to you.

(6) Supervise the execution of your orders bypersonal visits. When appropriate, re-,luire your staff officers to do the same.

(7) Insure that the need for an order exists.(8) Utilize the established chain of command.(9) Vary your supervisory routine and the

points which you emphasize during in-spections.

(10) Exercise thought and care in supervision.Over-supervision stifles initiative andcreates resentment; under-supervisionwill not get the job done.

38. Principle Vi--Train Your Men as a Teama. It is your duty to develop teamwork: through

training of your command. Teamwork is the key

46 AGO 2695C

to successful operations; it starts in the smallestunit and carries through to the largest organiza-tion. (Teamwork concerns all aspects of militaryoperations.) The military organization involvesmany different arms and services, all workingtogether as a team toward a common goal. Eachmember of the team must understand where hefits into the effort. The commander who fostersteamwork while training his command will obtainthe desired degree of unit proficiency. Good team-work requires good discipline, morale, and espritde corps.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Insure by inspections and training tests

that your command is being trained inaccordance with training programs anddoctrine prescribed by higher authority.

(2) Make sure that the best available facili-ties for team training are provided andthat maximum use is made of such de-vices as communication drills, battledrills, and realistic field exercises.

(3) Insure that all training is purposeful andthat the reasons for it are stressed.

(4) Insure that each element of the commandis acquainted with the capabilities andlimitations of all other elements, therebydeveloping mutual trust and understand-ing.

(5) Insure that each subordinate leader un-derstands the mechanics of tactical con-trol for his own echelon of command.

AGO 2695C 47

(6)Predicate team training on modern real-istic conditions.

(7) Insist that each officer and enlisted manknow the functions of each other officerand enlisted man with whom he habituallyoperates. Insist that each of these knowand understand each other, their traits,peculiarities, strengths, and weaknesses.

(8) Demand the highest standard of team-work in all training.

(9) Seize opportunities to train with otherunits, both combat and service.

(10) Show each man his responsibilities andthe importance of his role to the overalleffectiveness of the unit.

39. Principle Vfl--Make Sound and Timely Decis'onsa. You must have the ability to make a rapid

estimate of the situation and arrive at a sounddecision. You must be able to reason logicallyunder the most trying conditions and decide quicklywhat action is necessary to take- advantage of op-portunities as they occur. The vacillating com-mander not only is unable to employ his commandeffectively but also creates hesitancy, loss of confi-dence, and indecision within his command. Whencircumstances dictate a change in plans, actpromptly and without fear that the command mayconsider such action indecisive. Proper planningahead will lay the ground work for sound andtimely decisions. Acquire the ability to make soundand timely decisions through constant study andtraining.

48 AGO 2695C

b. Techniques for application.(1) Develop a logical and orderly thought

process by constant practice in makingobjective estimates of the situation.Making an estimate is not restricted tothe military. It is employed in the every-day life of all persons.

(2) So far as time and occasion permit, planfor every contingency that can reasonablybe foreseen.

(3) Consider the advice and suggestions ofyour subordinates before making yourown decisions.

(4) Announce decisions in time to allow sub-ordinates to make necessary plans.

(5) Encourage concurrent estimates andplanning in the various echelons of yourcommand.

(6) Always make sure that your staff isfamiliar with your current policies andplans.

(7) Consider the effects of your selection onsubordinates and supporting elements.

40. Principle IX-Develop a Sense of Responsibility AmongSubordinates

a. Proper delegation of authority accompaniedby proper supervision engenders trust, faith, andconfidence. It develops initiative and wholeheartedcooperation. Reluctance to delegate authority oftenis a mark of retarded development in leadership.

AGO 2U95C 49

539933 0 -60 -4

b. Techniques for application.(1) Utilize the chain of command at every

feasible opportunity.(2) Tell your subordinates what to do, not

how to do it; hold them responsible forresults. Delegate and supervise, but donot intervene except when necessary.Avoid usurping the prerogatives of yoursubordinates.

(3) Provide all possible personnel with fre-quent opportunities to perform duties ofthe next higher echelon.

(4) Be quick to recognize accomplishments ofyour subordinates when they demon-strate initiative and resourcefulness.

(5) Correct errors in the use of judgment andinitiative in such a way as to encouragethe individual. Avoid public criticism orcondemnation. Be liberal in openly givingpraise which is deserved.

(6) Give unstintingly of help and advice whenit is requested by those under your com-mand.

(7) Insure that your personnel are assignedpositions commensurate with demon-strated or potential ability.

(8) Be prompt and fair in backing subordi-nates to the limit. Until convinced other-wise, have faith in each subordinate.

(9) Demonstrate to your command that youare ready and willing to accept respon-sibility.

50 AGO 2695C

41. Principle X-Employ Your Command in AccordanceWith Its Capabilities

a. You must have a thorough knowledge ofcapabilities and limitations of your command ifyou are to employ it properly. Individuals in yourcommand must be assigned duties commensuratewith their capabilities. You must use sound judg-ment in the employment of your unit. Failure toaccomplish the mission causes a loss of confidence,which in turn destroys efficiency and brings aboutthe collapse of morale and esprit de corps.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Know, understand, and apply the princi-

ples of war.(2) Keep yourself informed as to the relative

operational effctiveness of various ele-ments of your command.

(3) Be sure that the accomplishment of tasksassigned to subordinates is reasonablypossible, but do not hesitate to demandtheir utmost effort in order to achieve aquick victory or to avoid defeat.

(4) Analyze any task assigned. If means atyour disposal appear' inadequate, informyour immediate commander and requestadditional means.

(5) Make every effort to equalize tasks pro-portionately, over appropriate periods oftime, among the several elements of yourcommand.

(6) Utilize the full capabilities of your unitbefore requesting assistance.

AGO ,5Cse 51

42. Principle XI-Seek Responsibility and Take Responsi-bility for Your Actions

a. You must seize the initiative in the absence oforders. By seeking responsibility, you developyourself professionally and increase your ability.Accept responsibility for all your unit does or failsto do.

b. Techniques for application.(1) Learn the duties and responsibilities of

your immediate supervisor.(2) Seek diversified assignments that will

give you responsibility and commandexperience.

(3) Take advantage of any opportunity thatoffers increased responsibility.

(4) Perform every task, large or small, to thebest of your ability. Your reward willconsist of inicreased opportunity to dem-onstrate your itness to perform biggerand more important tasks.

(5) Remember that you are responsible forall your command does or fails to do.

(6) Accept justified criticism and admitmistakes.

(7) Adhere to what you think is right; havethe courage of your convictions.

(8) Insure that a subordinate leader's failurewas not due to some error on your partbefore considering his relief. Get to thebasic cause of his failure-manpower is

52 AGO 2696C

valuable-and his replacement may beworse.

(9) Seize the initiative when a decision mustbe made and specific orders from higherheadquarters are not forthcoming. Dowhat you think your superior would orderif he were present.

AGO u24 53

CHAPTER 5

INDICATIONS OF LEADERSHIP

43. Generala. There are four characteristics of a command

that are indications of success or failure in theexercise of leadership-morale, discipline, espritde corps, and proficiency. This manual treats thesecharacteristics as the indications of leadership.You are obligated to continuously evaluate yourunit using these indications of leadership as agage. This is the only sound way for you to knowwhether your unit is effective and able to performits mission.

b. As you evaluate your unit you will discoverproblems that are having an adverse effect on oneor more of the indications of leadership and areundermining the effectiveness of your unit. Thefollowing paragraphs define each of the indicationsand give methods for evaluating and developingthem.

44. Interrelationship of the Four Indications

All four of the indications of leadership contrib-ute to the degree of effectiveness of a unit, and allare to some extent interdependent. No absenceswithout leave for a period of time, for example,may well indicate high morale and good discipline.Therefore, some of the items listed under morale

54 AGO 2S96C

will necessarily appear under discipline, profi-ciency, and esprit de corps. Although discipline,esprit de corps, and proficiency are dependent onthe degree of morale present, all four should beconsidered of equal importance. The other threeare dependent upon morale because it is the sumtotal of all the attitudes of the individual. It canbe said that morale is the fertile soil in whichthe seeds of discipline, esprit de corps, and profi-ciency are sown. Thus, while you should strive formorale, initially, your efforts must always be di-rected toward building up all of the indications ofleadership to a high degree, as the absence orlessening of one will soon destroy the others.

45. Moralea. General. Morale may be defined as the indi-

vidual's state of mind-how he feels about himself,his fellow soldiers, Army life in general, and allthe other things that seem important to him. It isclosely related to his needs. If your actions in thetraining, operations, administration, and fightingof your unit, satisfy the basic needs of your men,you will produce favorable attitudes in them. Highmorale gives the soldier a feeling of conftdence andwell-being that enables him to face hardship withcourage, endurance, and determination.

b. Evaluation of Morale.(1) Morale does not remain constant but is

continuously changing. The state ofmorale of the members of your unit is animportant index to the effectiveness withwhich you are using the principles and

AGO 2695C 55

techniques of leadership. You can meas-ure morale by close observation of yourmen in their daily activities, by inspec-tions, by formal and informal interviews,and by the evaluation of administrativeand operational reports. Specific thingsto note are-

(a) Job proficiency.(b) Appearance.(c) Practice of military courtesy.(d) Personal hygiene.(e) Care of equipment.(f) Condition of mess and quarters.(g) Adequacy and suitability of rations.(h) Care of casualties.(i) Response to orders and directives.(j) Use of recreational facilities.(k) Attention during training.(1) Number of rumors.

(m) Number of quarrels.

(2) Administrative reports concerning thestatus of personnel, when properly evalu-ated, aid in measuring morale. Par-ticularly valuable are reports whichdeal with-

(a) Men absent without leave and de-serters.

(b) Malingerers.(c) Arrests, military and civilian.(d) Requests for transfer.(e) Sick call rate.

AGO 2695C

(f) Stragglers.(g) Self-inflicted wounds.(h) Damage to or loss of equipment

through carelessness.

46. Disciplinea. General. Discipline is the individual or group

attitude that insures prompt obedience to ordersand initiation of appropriate action in the absenceof orders. The exacting discipline demanded in amilitary organization is of necessity much greaterthan the type of discipline demanded in school,church, or home. One of the major purposes ofdiscipline is to instill in a command a helpful,potent spirit that will foster group identity andcohesion and motivate the individual to withstandthe shock of battle. It results from effective train-ing and intelligent leadership. Before a man canact resourcefully in the absence of orders he musthave an understanding of what is to be done andthe role he plays. This requires training. Beforehe can respond willingly and intelligently toorders, he needs the same understanding andability, plus confidence in his superiors. Thisrequires leadership.

b. Evaluation of Discipline. Things to watchfor are-

(1) Attention to details.(2) Harmonious relations between units and

individuals.(3) Attention to duty.(4) Promptness in reporting for duty.

AGO 2695C 57

(5) Respect for superiors.(6) Proper conduct of individuals at all

times.(7) Attention to cleanliness, dress, and

saluting.(8) Attendance at sick call only when medi-

cally necessary.(9) Promptness in responding to commands,

directives, and other orders.

47. Esprit De Corpsa. General. Esprit de corps is the loyalty to,

pride in, and enthusiasm for a unit shown by itsmembers. It implies devotion to the unit, accept-ance of responsibility by individuals, and jealousregard for the honor of the unit. Esprit de corpsis a spirit above and beyond the aggregate per-sonalities of the individuals in a unit. I- amountsto the unit's personality. It expresses the unit'swill to fight and win.

b. Evaluation of Esprit De Corps. Esprit decorps depends on the satisfaction the members getout of belonging to a unit, or their confidence intheir leaders and on their attitude toward othermembers of the unit. Evidences of esprit are-

(1) Expressions from the men showing en-thusiasm and pride in their unit.

(2) A good reputation among other units.(3) A strong competitive spirit.(4) Willing participation by the members in

unit activities.

58 AGO 2695C

(5) Pride-in the traditions and history of theunit.

(6) Readiness on the part of the men to helpone another.

(7) The belief that theirs is the best unit inthe Army.

48. Proficiencya. General. Proficiency is the technical, tactical,

and physical ability of the individual and the unitto perform their job or mission. Unit proficiencyis the sum of the skills of all the individuals in theunit welded together by the leader into a smoothrunning team.

b. Evaluation of Proficiency. Proficiency resultslargely from training; therefore, supervision oftraining should occupy the major portion of yourtime as a commander. This is the one sure methodyou have of judging the proficiency of individualsand of the unit. You will get proficiency when youdemand the highest possible standard. Some ofthe marks of proficiency you should watch forare-

(1) Personal appearance and physical condi-tion of the men.

(2) Appearance and condition of weapons andequipment.

(3) Willing acceptance and discharge of re-sponsibility by subordinates.

(4) Businesslike operation of the unit.(5) Troop leading ability of junior leaders.

AGO 2695C 59

(6) Promptness and accuracy in passingdown orders and instructions.

(7) Promptness and accuracy in reportingand disseminating information.

49. Development of the Indications of Leadership

a. The development of the indications is a con-tinuous concern. The operation and training ofyour unit must be carried out with the view in mindof developing the leadership indications. If youunderstand the forces that produce desired results,you will be better able to direct your efforts alongproductive lines.

b. Certain known actions have proved to developa specific indication. An action designed to im-prove one of the indications of leadership may alsodevelop the others. Following are the indicationsand some specific steps that will develop each:

(1) Morale.(a) Teach belief in the cause and mission.(b) Instill confidence in self, training,

equipment and leaders.(c) Insure job satisfaction by carefully con-

sidering job assignments.(d) Keep your men cognizant of your con-

cern and the Army's concern for theirwelfare.

(2) Discipline.(a) Demonstrate discipline by your own

conduct and example.(b) Set high standards of performance and

insist they be met.

60 AGO 2695C

(c) Institute an impartial system for pun-ishment and an equitable distributionof privileges.

(d) Remember, discipline is a result ofmutual confidence gained throughtraining.

(3) Esprit de corps.(a) Start the men off right in the reception

program by an orientation of the unit'shistory, traditions, and present role.

(b) Develop the feeling that the unit mustexcel.

(c) Recognize achievements of the unitand its members and see that they areproperly publicized.

(d) Make use of ceremonies, symbols, andslogans.

(e) Use competition to develop teamwork.(f) Make use of decorations and awards.

(4) Proficiency.(a) Train your men in their individual

duties.(b) Emphasize teamwork through the

chain of command.(c) Establish a sound physical conditioning

program.

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CHAPTER 6

LEADERSHIP PROBLEM AREAS AND THEPROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS,

Section I. PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS

50. General

a. Leadership requires the solving of a varietyof problems. These problems cannot be ignored,and must be handled promptly in the most effectivemanner possible. If you fail to solve these problems,they may adversely affect the efficiency of your unit.

b. Some of the more common problem areas youwill encounter are those of selection and develop-ment of junior leaders, the senior-subordinate re-lationship, reception and integration, assumptionof command, and counseling.

51. Leadership Problem Solving Process

a. You cannot always rely upon your experiencesand observations as guides for determining meansof arriving at sound decisions. Problems are oftenmuch more complex than they appear to the casualobserver and experiences are many times mislead-ing. Therefore, it becomes necessary that you de-velop a thinking process which can be used to solveproblems in an orderly and analytical manner.

b. The leadership problem solving process is asound and analyticil approach that helps you to

62 AGO 2695C

decide on "actions and orders" for the solution ofleadership problems. There are three general stepsin this process--recognize the problem, make anestimate of the situation, and take action.

(1) Recognize the problem. A problem existsin a unit when an incident occurs or con-ditions exist which adversely affect oneor more of the leadership indications.However, to think of a problem as beingsolely one of discipline, morale, espirit decorps, or-proficiency, will not satisfy thefirst step in the problem solving processas there are many different incidents andconditions in a unit which influence eachof these indications. Unless you under-stand what incidents or conditions presenta problem, you will allow many of theseto persist which will counteract youreffort to develop and maintain an effectiveunit.

(2) Make an estimate of the situation. It isnecessary to take positive and immediateaction when dealing with problems thatarise within your command. However, be-fore taking corrective action you shouldrealize that a basic underlying causeexists. If the problem is to be entirelyeliminated, or at least minimized, youmust take additional steps to determinethe cause. A rash leader who jumps toconclusions and does not attempt to exer-cise insight will often create a more seri-

AGO 2695e 63

ous problem than the one he is attemptingto correct. Carefully analyze facts. De-termine possible solutions and comparetheir strong and weak points. Select thebest solution available.

(3) Take action. After making a completeestimate of the situation in order to selectthe best possible solution, select "actionsor orders" to complete solving of theproblem. The selected "action or order"will be guided by the same considerationsas listed in paragraph 4f. Having decidedon what to do, it remains for you to putyour plan into effect and check results.Remember, 'one of the most outstandingfactors which distinguishes a successfulcommander from a mediocre one is theability to select sound "actions and or-ders." Solve problems daily-do not letthem accumulate-they multiply with in-action.

Section II. PROBLEM AREAS

52. Assumption of Commanda. Many conditions exist in military leadership

that require rotation and replacement of leaders.This poses a problem for the leader who must as-sume command of a unit on short notice.

b. In assuming command of a unit, plan everymove with the thought that the first impressionyou make will be a lasting one. Essential elementsof planning an assumption of command follow:

64 AGO 2695C

(1) Observe your unit for a period of time be-fore making any major changes. This in-sures that your actions and orders willbe based on facts.

(2) Evaluate the indications of leadership inthe unit. The majority of leadershipproblems originate in the areas coveredby the indications. Judicious applicationof the problem solving process will ex-pedite the solving of leadership problems.Evaluate your junior leaders to determinetheir strengths and weaknesses. Utilizeall possible means to further the develop-ment of your subordinates. Evaluate theeffectiveness of each subordinate elementunder your command with a view towardraising its level of proficiency.

(3) Orient your unit on your policies and de-sired standards. Set and maintain thehighest standard attainable. The unitmust be motivated to reach the ultimategoal of an effective unit.

(4) Set the example for your unit and juniorleaders.

53. Selection of Junior Leadersa. No foolproof method has been devised'to de-

termine whether a man will be a leader. Successfulleaders with the responsibility for selecting leadershave used the following means to obtain informa-tion:

(1) Interview. A personal interview is a val-uable device to use to observe potential

AGO 2695C 65

539933 0-60 -5

leadership characteristics, and will oftenprovide useful information not; availablefrom other sources. Whenever possible,plan the interview. Look for the follow-ing qualities during the interview:

(a) Poise.(b) Ability to express ideas.(c) Evidence of sincerity and honesty.(d) Frankness.(e) Pleasing personality.(f) Grooming.

(2) Observation. This is a reliable method ofgaining information when conducted overa period of time. Observe for the follow-ing:

(a) Possession of a positive attitude andapproach toward all tasks.

(b) A desire to seek and accept responsi-bility.

(c) The ability to see a problem in itsproper perspective. This ability issimply the capacity to divorce personalemotions from facts.

(d) Loyalty to his men as well as to hissuperiors.

(e) The ability to perform consistently ina superior manner under adverse con-ditions.

(f) The respect and admiration the individ-ual merits among the members of theunit.

(3) Recommendations. Seek recommendations

~~~~~~~66 ~~~AGO 2695C

regarding the abilities of the potentialleader. The previous jobs held, amountof responsibility, and relationship tothe recommending officer are amongthe things that should be considered inevaluating these recommendations.

(4) High standards. This is an excellent in-dication of competence. Neatness, correctposture, proper behavior, and punctualityare some of the qualities to look for inan individual's standards.

(5) Administrative records. When recordsare available, use them to obtain generalbackground information.

b. Commanders have obtained good results inthe past using the following criteria in selectingmen for command positions:

(1) Demonstrated ability to do the job (firstconsideration).

(2) Personality as noted by personal contactwith the men.

(3) Length of service.(4) Experience in the job or similar jobs.(5) Seniority.

54. Development of Junior Leadersa. Consider not only the leadership that you ex-

ert, but also that of your junior leaders. Thequality of your leadership is reflected in the juniorleader's ability. Take every opportunity to teachyour junior leaders the fundamentals of leadershipand their application in order that they may be-

AGO 2695C 67

come more effective. A sense of responsibility injunior leaders is best developed by the assignmentof duties, setting the standards of accomplishment,setting a personal example, operating the unitthrough the chain of command, wise counseling,and supervision. The commander must. be con-scious of the dangers inherent in the usurpation ofthe junior's prerogatives. Junior leaders must begiven complete authority appropriate to theirpositions.

b. The development of leadership in juniorleaders must be a constant concern. A good juniorleader not only possesses a sense of responsibilitybut also possesses leadership ability. This abilitycan be developed through study, practice and ex-perience in command. This means that juniorleaders must be trained. This training is accom-plished through-

(1) Periodic rotation of duty assignments(professional education).

(2) Leadership instruction.(3) Special duty assignments.(4) Training inspections and field exercises.(5) Attendance at unit and Army service

schools.(6) Proper study and reading.

c. In dealing with junior leaders, maintain asdirect and personal a relationship with them asthe situation permits. Let them know what youexpect of them, how they are getting along, andways to improve. Give them credit when due, andbe careful to avoid favoritism.

68 AGO 2695C

d. With rapid turnover of leaders in every unit,replacement of these individuals is a pressingproblem. A system of planning for and preparingthese replacements in advance is essential. Thereis a necessity for training replacements for eachkey position so that two substitutes are alwaysavailable. This planning for leaders, in depth ofthree, becomes even more important in combatwhere turnover is greater.

e. The leadership ability of junior leaders willhave to be of a higher quality in the future thanit has been in the past. The concept of atomic war-fare will require that small unit leaders rely moreand more on their abilities and resources. Unitswill be required to operate with little feeling ofmutual security and with limited supplies. Newerweapons, greater distances between units, newtactics, and more advanced means of communica-tion will produce leadership problems which haveno parallel in military history. Success or failurewill depend upon how effective commanders are insolving these new problems. Junior leaders mustbe trained to cope with these new challenges, oneof the most pressing of which will be the conserva-tion of fighting strength.

55. Senior-Subordinate Relationship

a. The relationship that exists between the offi-cer and noncommissioned officer must be one ofrespect and confidence. This same relationshipmust be maintained between officers of differentrank. As a junior officer, you must be respectful

AGO 2695C 69

and obedient to your superiors before you can ex-pect your men to respect you.

b. The proper senior-junior relationship is onein which there is close mutual confidence and trustwithout overfamiliarity. Overfamiliarity breedscontempt and has a tendency to tear down the re-spect of the men. Base your actions on the wayeach man performs his job, never on any prejudiceyou may hold.

c. Your personal influence is a great; asset inbuilding harmonious relationships among the lead-ers of your unit.

d. Proper senior-subordinate relationship meansyou must know your men and look out for theirwelfare. Any leader who does not know his mendoes not know the effectiveness of his unit.

56. Counselinga. Counseling is talking over a problem with

someone. It involves the clearing up of a problemor pointing the way to a solution by discussion orby advice. The most effective counseling is thatwhich encourages a person to think out his ownsolution. You accomplish this by exhibiting an in-terest in the problem and by encouraging the manto talk freely. Then, by injecting pertinent ideasand comments, you guide the man's thinking to-ward a logical solution to his problem.

b. The purpose of counseling is to help developthe ability of each individual to take care of him-self-to stand on his own feet without being de-pendent on others. The end result of counseling

70 AGO 2t95C

is clear-to teach the individual to .adopt, as hisown, habits of mind and emotion that will enablehil4 to solve his own problems as they arise, notto encourage him to continue relying upon externalhelp.

c. The range of personal problems arising with-in a unit is vast and varied. Problems which mayrequire counseling are those involving grievancespertaining to rank and promotion, job assignment,discrimination by others, financial problems, familytroubles, morale problems, and many other factorsinvolving the individual's well-being. It is neces-sary that you help the individual solve his problemsso that his mind will be free from worry and hecan concentrate on the job at hand. Proper counsel-ing will assist the man in solving his problems.

d. An understanding of human behavior willhelp you to find a plausible solution to your men'sproblems. Always attempt to understand why aman thinks and acts the way he does.

e. When initiating a counseling program, thefollowing should be included:

(1) All leaders within a unit should be ori-ented on the functioning, the need for,and the benefits derived from a counsel-ing program.

(2) Leaders should make themselves availableat any time to give guidance and assist-ance.

(3) The soldier should be oriented to take hisproblems to his immediate leader, and notto violate the chain of command.

AGO UMsC 71

f. Following are certain fundamental rules con-ducive to effective counseling:

(1) Use common understandable words andphrases in your discussions.

(2) Never talk down to your men.(3) Retain any information secured during

counseling in strict confidence.(4) Make full use of assistance available from

the staffs, services, and higher headquar-ters. You should know where to get theinformation, the channels, and ii possible,know by name the people to whom refer-rals are made. When you put the soldierin direct contact with the agency or serv-ice, you strengthen the soldier's confi-dence in your ability. Some of theseagencies or services are-Chaplain, ArmyMedical Service, The American RedCross, Legal Assistance Officer, TheArmy Emergency Relief Society, Inspec-tor General, Personnel Officer, Informa-tion Officer, Education Officer, and Fi-nance Officer.

57. Reception and Integrationa. The new soldier, finding himself almost en-

tirely separated from his friends and family, mustdevelop a feeling of being part of a group by form-ing new friendships. In military life he finds thathe has much less freedom of choice than in privatelife, and he has little or no privacy. He feels un-important. You can make his adjustment less diffi-

72 AGO 2695C

cult by explaining the reasons for regimentationduring his first few days of service. Tell him aboutthe process of training which makes it impossiblefor him to live, work, and play as he did in privatelife. Explain that the Army cannot provide theconveniences of civilian homes and communities.

b. On the other hand, the new soldier may findin the military life a personal freedom greater thanhe was allowed in his hometown. The restrictionsformerly imposed by his parents, teachers, church,and community are remote to him. This suddenrelease may lead to a great deal of thoughtless andunbridled behavior. Personal counsel and neces-sary restrictions sometimes help control this prob-lem.

c. It is particularly important that you takespecial care in the adjustment of the new men,especially in the first few months of service. Dur-ing this period, the seeds of future personalitydisorders are usually sown. These disorders willnot develop if preventive measures are used.

d. New men must be classified and assigned tounits and integrated in such a way that the re-quirements of the various component units of theorganization are met first and that each individualis assigned to a position where he can be expectedto perform best. Often problems of morale developafter you have carefully considered the needs ofthe unit, the individual's capabilities, and his de-sires. You can eliminate many such problems by-

(1) Utilizing noncommissioned officers' ex-

AGO 2695C 73

perience and knowledge of the men inmaking detailed assignments within theunit.

(2) Emphasizing by personal example ofword and deed the importance of the indi-vidual's job to the overall mission. Theimportance a man attaches to his job isoften directly proportional to the leader'sattention to and interest in that job.

(3) Stressing during initial orientation andthroughout training the relationship ofthe individual to the success of the teamas a whole.

e. A good program of reception, indicatingthoughtful concern for the men's comfort and wel-fare, does much to speed their initial adjustmentand creates in them a favorable attitude towardtheir leaders and the Army in general. In orderto accomplish this you must-

(1) Keep the program moving. Avoid uselessdelays and long periods of waiting duringprocessing.

(2) Keep the men informed. Prepare an in-formation program to orient men quicklyon their assignments to units.

(3) Allow a short readjustment period duringtransfer between units. After this period,minimize transfers.

(4) Organize a modified training program fornew arrivals pending implementation ofthe scheduled training program.

74 AGO 2695C

Section III. LEADERSHIP OF FEMALE GROUPS

58. Fundamentalsa. The fundamentals of leadership as they per-

tain to Women's Army Corps personnel (b below),are applicable to all women leaders within theArmy; i. e., nurses, dietitians, etc.

b. The 11 principles of leadership are as appli-cable to officers and noncommissioned officers ofthe Women's Army Corps (WAC) as to maleleaders. WAC officers and noncommissioned offi-cers enhance their value to the Army by develop-ing the same leadership traits and techniques asthose prescribed for male leaders. Women, perhapseven more than men, require evidence of personalinterest and recognition from their leaders. Gen-uine concern for others is essential to the leadershipof women. The woman leader must control heremotions, guard against professional jealousy andselfish ambition, and strive to conduct her life ina manner to be emulated by her associates. TheWAC leader is required to exemplify the highestmoral standards. Such leadership traits as justice,integrity, unselfishness, sincerity, decisiveness,tact, and courage are essential to women leaders.

(1) Delegation of authority and supervisionis equally important among women lead-ers. They should insure that personnelare assigned duty positions commensuratewith demonstrated or potential abilityand should help subordinates to recog-nize their specific contributions to theaccomplishment of the Army mission.

AGO 2695C 75

(2) The successful woman leader is obligedto set an example of loyalty to the Army,to the command and its policies, and toother members of her unit. The develop-ment of leadership traits will enhance theability of women leaders to inspire sub-ordinates through persuasive methods.

(3) The special leadership techniques whichapply principally to combat are presentedto WACs theoretically to provide themwith knowledge of what is desired of theleaders of combat troops. Since combattraining or participation is barred tomembers of the WACs, disaster trainingis utilized to develop leadership tech-niques similar to those. emphasized incombat training.

59. Special Considerations

Civil service and other civilian employees, RedCross workers, Special Services hostesses, librar-ians, and USO entertainers normally accompanythe Armed Forces. Their presence with the Armyposes certain problems of leadership for both maleand female Army personnel who must be preparedto understand the special problems and require-ments of the women.

76 AGO 2695C

CHAPTER 7

LEADERSHIP ASPECTS OF ORGANIZATION

60. Organization and Control

a. General.(1) Leaders must understand the principles

of a sound organization in order to obtainthe best results. "There are no poor units,only poor commanders," is the sayingattributed to Napoleon-and it is stillworthy of quotation.

(2) Organizing is the process of creating andmaintaining conditions necessary for theeffective execution of plans. It involvesdefining and arranging systematicallyeach task in respect to the final accom-plishment of the mission. Sound func-tional organization provides a structurewhich enables individuals to work to-gether efficiently for the attainment ofa common purpose. The extreme test ofcoordination and organization is evi-denced when a unit carries on even whenit is literally shot to pieces.

b. Processing for Organizing.(1) The purpose for organizing may be dis-

cussed under three headings: determin-ing the job, setting up the structure, and

AGO 2695C 77

allocating the resources. These functionsare performed as a result of thoroughplanning.

(2) The job to be accomplished may have tobe decentralized by listing each phase ofeach operation. Each single phase is thentaken and a similar process repeated. Theprocess is continued until there is a de-tailed listing of the operations whichmust be accomplished to get the job done.The grouping of tasks for a specific as-signment should be related so that theymay readily be accomplished. All assign-ments should be interrelated to assure anintegrated effort. There should be noduplication of effort, and responsibilitiesshould be clearly defined.

(3) Setting up the structure results in an or-ganization chart and a TOE. The organi-zation chart shows where authority lies,command channels, and the relationshipof components. The TOE puts similarinformation into tabular form and indi-cates the placement of men and equip-ment allocated to a unit.

(4) A commander will work with a unit or-ganized under TOE, as directed by com-petent authority. His prerogative maybe exercised in development of the func-tional organization of his command. Hemay organize his staff and unit com-manders according to his own visualiza-

78 AGO 2696O

tion of conditions required to enhance theeffectiveness of his unit. Prompt deter-mination should be made of the internalorganiization required for the conduct oftactical operations, and that organiza-tion should be placed in effect for allphases of the life of the unit.

61. Span of Controla. The span of control must be fully appreciated

by any person who is to become a successful leader.By definition, span of control is the number ofimmediate subordinates one commander can effec-tively control, supervise, or direct. Violation ofthe span of control leads only to cumbersome andinefficient organization. An individual's ability tocontrol the activities of others is limited by manypsychological and physical factors.

b. From the psychological viewpoint, one mustrecognize that a person can only pay attention toa limited number of things, at one time. Each newtask assigned distracts a person from the workalready assigned, and too many projects cause oneto lose sight of the real objective. In addition, eachindividual has many previously acquired attitudeswhich influence his approach to a problem. Theseattitudes may be so strong as to predetermine hisidea of what is correct about a certain problem. Hemay close his mind to any attempt to change thispoint of view. This is a mind-set. A mind-set canresult in many misinterpretations and misunder-standings. One may not hear what is said or mayinterpret what has been said as supporting his

AGO ,91SC 79

view. A strict disciplinarian taking a course ofinstruction in the use of reward and punishment inmilitary leadership may actually be stimulated byinstruction in the proper and improper use of bothreward and punishment, but he will perceive onlythat punishment is good and reward is bad. In thecase of a subordinate who is greatly admired, thismind-set concerning him may cause the commanderto be unable to see that he is actually inefficient oris the cause of friction in the organization. Thespan of attention, thus, is further restricted by themind-set.

c. The physical factors which influence effectivecontrol include time, distance, and the arithmeticalprogression of human relationships involved. Mostpeople easily recognize that there is a definite limitas to how much work an individual can accomplishduring a given period of time. It is also readilyunderstood that the greater the distance separatingthe locations of persons or activities, the moredifficult becomes the task of controlling them. Also,for each individual brought directly under the con-trol of a commander, the number of human rela-tionships he must be concerned with increasesmanyfold. In the case of one person controllingtwo individuals he will be concerned with threerelationships. This is his personal relationshipwith each individual and their relationship witheach. other. If, however, another individual isadded, he will be concerned with six relationships.This factor-the mathematical complex of humanrelationships-must not be overlooked.

80 AGO 2695C

d. A commander should supervise at least threepeople; otherwise, he should be doing part of thework himself. This figure should be consideredminimum due to economy and efficiency. It is muchmore difficult to determine the maximum numberof people one can supervise adequately. This num-ber will depend on the following:

(1) The experience and training of theleader (commander).

(2) The experience and training of the menbeing supervised.

(3) The amount of communication betweenthe leader and his men.

(4) The degree to which the jobs performedby the men are similar.

(5) The operating distance (radius of action)between the leader and his men.

(6) The time available for the organization totranslate decisions into actions.

(7) The personality of the leader and the menbeing led.

62. Chain of Commanda. The chain of command is a succession of com-

manders from a superior to a junior through whichcommand is exercised. This is also known as thecommand channel. The leader must understandthis chain if he is to have an effective unit.

b. Effective operation of the chain necessitatesthat-

(1) Sufficient authority be delegated to indi-

AGO 2695C 81

539933 0-60 -6

viduals responsible for the accomplish-ment of tasks.

(2) Definite responsibilities be assigned foreach task to be accomplished.

(3) Men know for whom they are workingand to whom they are responsible.

(4) Men be required to initiate all requeststhrough their immediate commander orhis staff.

(5) Each man be aware of his place in thechain of command.

(6) Any man not have more than one superiorgiving him orders.

63. The Commander-Staff Officer Relationshipa. The staff officer occupies a position of detailed

planning and exacting demands in the service heperforms for his commander. He must subordinatehis own personal aspirations to the desires anddecisions of the commander.

b. The primary function of the staff is to assistthe commander in performing his duties.. The re-sponsibilities of command remain with the com-mander and cannot be delegated to any membersof his staff. Staff officers, therefore, only issueorders of and for the commander.

c. A good staff officer keeps himself informed byfrequent visits to commanders of subordinateunits. He interprets and explains policy, orders,and directives. He observes the execution of thecommander's desires and advises him concerningthe extent to which they are being executed.

82 AGO 2695C

d. Tact is a desirable characteristic when deal-ing with higher headquarters, troops, and juniorcommanders. It is also needed within the staffwhere cooperation and coordination can be seri-ously hindered by petty jealousies and minor differ-ences in personalities.

e. The commander will logically expect a staffofficer to-

(1) Work in close harmony with other staffmembers, higher and parallel commands,and with lower units.

(2) Correctly analyze, properly evaluate, andrecommend sound courses of action onproblems arising within the command.

(3) Prepare directives for lower commandsbased on the commander's policies.

(4) Keep the commander completely informedwithout "spying" on the unit.

(5) Develop in lower units the feeling thatthey can rely on the actions of the staffofficer, and welcome their visits.

(6) Insure that complete coordination will beobtained prior to taking or recommendingan action.

AGO 2695C 83

CHAPTER 8

LEADERSHIP IN COMBAT

64. Willingness for Combat of the American Soldier

a. How do unfavorable attitudes developed inthe soldier during training relate to his combatperformance? Many commanders have stated:"Suppose that many combat soldiers did have un-favorable attitudes. What of it? They fought,didn't they?" The question still remains: Howo welldid they fight in relation to their potential abilities?

b. During World War II, the research branch,Department of the Army conducted a series ofstudies on the willingness for combat of the Ameri-can soldier. These studies support the fact thatattitudes and performances during training are re-lated to performance in combat and that individ-uals who had the least satisfactory attitude relat-ing to combat while in training later tended to berelatively poor combat soldiers. The results ofthese surveys also showed that at least 241 percentof the men said that they would rather not, or feltthey could not, kill an enemy soldier. It is vitallyimportant that the leader in training be sensitiveto his men's attitudes and strive to build an atti-tude of confidence in their combat skills.

c. Further studies indicated that a large per-centage of the available firepower in units was

84 AGO 2695C

never fully developed. This failure to fire was due,in part, to the soldier's belief that firing his weaponentailed increased exposure. Primarily, however,it was due to a paralysis caused by such fearsas being wounded or disfigured, lack of confidencein weapons, in leaders, in fellow soldiers, or inhimself.

65. Factors Adversely Affecting Combat Effectiveness

a. Factors adversely affecting the combat poten-tial of the command include fear, panic, discourage-ment, isolation, and lack of confidence by the indi-vidual in himself, in his unit, or in his leaders. Thepresence of fear and a tendency to panic fluctuatewith changes in condition of the troops, in degreeof tactical success, and physical conditions on thebattlefield. Normally, it is the commander of thesmall unit who must sense the development ofsituations interpreted by the troops as critical andwho must take personal action to eliminate condi-tions conducive to fear and panic. However, it islargely the commander of the large unit who trainsand indoctrinates the small unit commander andwho initiates policies that help him to counteractfear and panic.

b. The disruption of mutual support among ele-ments of the combat unit sometimes results in theisolation of units on the battlefield. In such situa-tions, units should not be allowed to feel that theyhave been forgotten, neglected, or abandoned, orthat they are in any way acting alone or fightinga "sacrifice" mission. They must be assured that

AGO 2695C 85

the commander adequately appreciates their posi-tion, is confident of their ability to extricate them-selves from the situation and to perform their mis-sion creditably, and will assist them in every waypossible.

66. Feara. Fear, although a painful emotion that may

at times be incapacitating, is actually nature's wayof preparing the body for action. Body functioningis stepped up; sugar and adrenalin are releasedinto the blood to act as fuel for the fight ahead;there is a temporary loss of any feeling of fatigue.Even blood clots more readily !

b. Nevertheless, it is sometimes difficult for atense, frightened soldier to look upon fear in thelight of body chemistry, especially if his period offright is prolonged. He may become helpless anddemoralized, completely paralyzed or immobilizedby his fear.

c. It is here that training and discipline pay off.Training will teach the soldier to respond fromforce of habit to specific battle orders, even thoughbattle commands often cannot be given as in train-ing. It will become second nature to him to carryout his own job as a member of the fighting team-to begin the action that will relieve his fear.

67. Rumorsa. Rumors are essentially anonymous communi-

cations that yield readily to distribution. Thosewhich seem plausible under existing conditions cir-

u rAGO t695C

culate rapidly. Rumors destroy confidence andcreate uncertainty. In combat, when soldiers maybe uncertain and insecure, rumors may create anillusion and a critical situation where, in reality,none exists. Thus rumors create a condition ofhigh susceptiblity to emotional and irrational be-havior. The hearers become excited and react inan unreasonable fashion to even weak suggestions.Additional rumors can incite a mob action or panic.Rumors are most effective when the individual seesthem as plausible or suitable to his circumstances.However, once the characteristics of mass psychol-ogy destroy the ability to reason, rumors no longerrequire credence to be acceptable. This was oneof the bases of the propaganda campaigns of ouradversaries in World War II. The most fantasticrumors were accepted without analysis becausepeople were fearful and lacked factual informationin a critical situation.

b. A rumor that supports a suspicion or a hatred,verifies a fear, or expresses a hope will be repeatedand reinforced by the emotions of the teller. Whenrumors spread rapidly and far, it means that hates,fears, or hopes are common to the many peoplewho are doing the repeating. Rumors are repeatedeven by those who do not believe them because theyprovide a chance to express an emotion whichwould otherwise have to be suppressed.

c. Confidence varies continually between over-confidence and shaken confidence. Rumor causesviolent fluctuations between these extremes. Forthis reason, rumors must be controlled. Effective

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rumor control requires an attentive ear to detectand identify rumors and specific action to discreditand eliminate them at the source. Rumors origi-nated by the enemy necessitate counterintelligencemeasures to determine their source. Specific con-trol measures applicable to all rumors include-

(1) Information programs.(2) Disseminating information on plans and

operations as complete as security re-quirements permit. Give the troops asmany facts as possible.

(3) Finding out and attempting to eliminatethe basic conditions creating uncertaintyand frustrations before they accumulate.

(4) Keeping informed regarding currentrumors in the unit. A long range pro-gram of instilling faith in the informa-tion passed out by the chain of commandis better than a point-for-point rebuttalof rumors passed along the "grapevine."Soldiers want information! If factual in-formation is not expeditiously suppliedby the chain of command, then the"rumor campaigns" take over. The obvi-ous disadvantage of replying directly torumors is that the rumors may be rein-forced and given creditability.

(5) By example and instruction, emphasizingdemocratic principles to eliminate hatred,prejudice, and animosity.

(6) Developing confidence in individuals to-ward their leaders.

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d. Keeping your men informed assumes a majorrole on the battlefield. A soldier who is uninformedor misinformed cannot be expected to produce athis maximum ability in combat. Men must knowwhat is expected of them and what means theyhave at their disposal to assist them in accomplish-ing the mission. Troops who are aware beforehandof the enemy's capabilities exert a positive in-fluence toward successful accomplishment of themission.

68 Panica. Panic develops when a soldier is overcome

with fear. It may be evidenced by sudden flight orby freezing in place. Panic may develop in a groupfaced with sudden catastrophe or from a few indi-viduals fleeing from destruction in a critical situa-tion. The critical situations responsible for themass emotion of fear may be real, as in the case ofbombing raids, or imaginary, such as those createdby terror, enemy propaganda, and malicious gossip.The seeds of panic are always present in troopsas long as they believe that physical danger isnear.

b. The emotion of fear reaches panic proportionsonly when individuals believe themselves incapableof overcoming a critical situation. When emotionaltension is produced by a critical situation, indi-viduals become excitable and highly susceptible tosuggestion. Nothing is more likely to collapse aline of infantry in combat than the sight of a fewof its number in full and unexplained flight to the

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rear. Sudden and unexplained motion in the wrongdirection is an open invitation to disaster. As panicspreads, a man will join a disorganized fleeingcrowd without stopping to ask why they arerunning. When discipline breaks, only a smallminority of the most hardy individuals will retainself-control. The others cannot stand fast if thecircumstances appear to justify flight. The obviousfear among the panicked troops is evidence thatthere is something to be afraid of and to escapefrom.

c. Any suggested or observed movement may beinterpreted as a means of escape and cause of sud-den flight. This flight is not generally focused upona known goal other than escape, but is rapidlycanalized in a certain direction. Someone has to bethe first to break and run. Studies of local panicsduring Korea revealed that a lack of informationand the sight of running men were the real crux ofthe fear. It was found that those who had startedto run, and who in doing so had started a panic,rationalized an excuse for their action.

d. The emotion of fear is reinforced by escapeaction to such a degree that reason is greatly re-duced. A soldier in panic runs without muchrational thought. His fear is increased by thefears of his fleeing companions, and his field ofattention is narrowed. He is forgetful of honor anddiscipline.

e. Troops in combat are continually in thepresence of a situation threatening death or bodilyharm. During such times of stress, they are sub-ject to all of the anxieties and fears conducive to

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panic. Experienced troops who are well trained,organized, disciplined, and led seldom give way topanic because they are confident of their ability tomaster any situation regardless of its criticalnature. This power to resist fear and panic fluc-tuates according to psychological and physiologicalconditions of the troops, the degree of tacticalsuccess, and the physical conditions of the battle-field. You must constantly measure and strengthenthe confidence of your command. You must realizethat even experienced and well-trained troops havepanicked in situations which appeared beyond theircontrol as a result of rumor or unfavorable cir-cumstances. You must sense the development ofsituations interpreted by the troops as critical andtake action to eliminate conditions conducive topanic.

f. You should recognize and compensate orminimize the following conditions that lead to un-certainty and panic:

(1) Physical conditions-scarcity of arms andammunition, insufficient supporting weap-ons, fog, darkness, woods, baptism of fire,and introduction of new enemy weapons.

(2) Physiological conditions-hunger, thirst,fatigue, and exhaustion.

(3) Psychological conditions-danger (realor imaginary), anxiety, insecurity, ignor-ance of the military situation, tension, andexpectant waiting.

(4) Morale conditions-homesickness, lack ofmail, boredom, rumor, defeatist attitude,

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loss of confidence in leaders, and lack ofbelief in the cause.

(5) Tactical conditions-destruction ot or-ganization, heavy losses, reverses, con-flicting orders, and poor communications.Panic is rarely caused by the strength ofenemy action. There is danger of panic ina withdrawal. For this reason, carefullycontrol withdrawals at all times. Duringa rearward movement, keep troops fullyinformed, within the limits of security,as to why it is being done and how andwhere the new line of resistance will beestablished.

(6) Leadership conditions-absence of lead-ers, loss of good leaders, and lack of con-fidence in the ability of leaders.

g. The ultimate defense against panic lies ingood leadership, not only when panic starts butalso in the months of training during which thetroops are becoming seasoned.

h. You must take immediate and decisive actionat the first sign of panic. Unity of action is oftenrestored by the prompt action of the leader or a fewvolunteers who stand squarely in the path of flight,command the men to turn back, and do not hesitateto manhandle those men who come within reach orto threaten the others with weapons. Likewise, tothe soldier who is in terror and verging on panic,no influence can be more steadying than to see someother soldier near him, and especially the leader,retaining his self-control and doing his duty.

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i. A logical course of action to control panicincludes the following:

(1) Decisive action on the part of the com-mander and his junior leaders.

(2) Presence of the commander and his dis-play of a calm, confident attitude.

(3) Physical restraint on the part of thecommander and junior leaders to stopmen who are in a state of panic.

(4) Threatening men with weapon if all other

means fail.

(5) Constant alertness for the developmentof conditions which produce panic.

69. Spirit of the Offensive (Ma ntaining Momentum)

a. The creation of a desire to close with anddestroy the enemy is highly important in developing

aggressiveness in military units. In a large meas-

ure it is gained by expert training, by the fostering

of confidence, and through success in combat.

Aggressive action is essential to secure objectiveswith minimum combat losses. The problem of

maintaining aggressiveness is intensified during

periods of inactivity.

b. Attainment of objectives depends on restoring

the effectiveness of those units weakened by enemy

action. With the rapid movement of modern war-

fare, it is imperative that ineffective men and

equipment be replaced quickly. This entails effi-

cient movement, proper reserve and support posi-tions, and assignment of units to missions within

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their capabilities. To retain combat effectiveness,you should-

(1) Insure that the chain of command re-mains intact.

(2) Maintain momentum and utilize fire-power.

(3) Instill in men an aggressive attitude anda desire to destroy the enemy.

(4) Effectively use supporting fires to supple-ment organic firepower.

(5) Teach the unit to lean into supportingfires when attacking.

(6) Teach men to "talk it up" and support oneanother when moving.

(7) Constantly train to improve proficiency inweapon utilization and tactical maneu-vers.

(8) Stress battlefield discipline and individualresponsibilities.

(9) Set the example that you desire your mento emulate.

70. Restoration of Fighting Effectiveness

a. The fighting effectiveness of a unit decreasesafter sustained action or heavy losses, or duringdefensive situations and periods of inactivity.Units suffering heavy losses in men and equipmentrequire time in a reserve position to assimilatereplacements and reorganize.

b. One of the most effective means of restoring

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the confidence and esprit de corps of a unit whichhas failed or performed poorly in battle is to haveit carry out creditably the same or commensuratetasks. The situation may dictate additional train-ing or a change in command.

c. The following actions will help to rebuild con-fidence and esprit de corps and insure the mainte-nance of combat effectiveness:

(1) Keep informed on the status of personnel,weapons, equipment, and training so thatreplacements of personnel and equipmentare made rapidly and provisions are madefor the proper integration of new men.

(2) Personally observe units in action in or-der to better assess their capabilities.Require additional training of the unit ifthe situation warrants.

(3) Constantly improve battle techniques anddisseminate proven methods to the units.

(4) Carefully observe the physical, emotional,and mental state of the troops. Dis-seminate data on enemy casualties, thenumber. of prisoners captured, and theamount of enemy equipment destroyed.

(5) Improve the health and welfare of thetroops by emphasizing battle discipline toreduce unnecessary losses from all causes.These may include trenchfoot, malaria,and poor field sanitation, as well as enemyfire.

(6) Insure that the chain of command re-

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mains intact by prompt replacement ofcommanders lost in action.

(7) Orient troops on the situation,, pointingout that inactivity or defense is alwaysa prelude to offensive combat.

(8) Command and reward the display ofaggressiveness on the part of individualsand units. Express confidence in theunit's combat ability.

(9) Provide for and insure the proper use ofthe fire support plan.

71. Support of Isolated Unitsa. The effect of enemy action sometimes results

in the isolation of units on the battlefield. In suchsituations, units must be assured that the com-mander adequately appreciates their position andis confident of their ability to extricate themselvesfrom the situation and perform their missioncreditably. To prevent a deterioration of confidenceand aggressiveness, furnish every possible supportto isolated units.

b. Some specific steps are-(1) Never let a unit think it has been

abandoned.(2) Immediately furnish all possible fire sup-

port.(3) Make a positive attempt to assist.(4) Reconstitute a chain of command if neces-

sary.(5) Keep unit informed of all actions being

taken.

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72. Relations With Commanders of Support:ng Unitsa. When a unit of another arm or service sup-

ports his unit but is not attached, the commandermay request, but cannot order, the desired assist-ance. However, the commander of the supportingunit must regard a request as an order unless itconflicts with orders of his commander.

b. The commander of the supporting unit, likethe commander of the attached units, is an advisorto the commander. He advises the commander onthe capabilities and limitations of the supportingunit. He recommends ways and means by which itmay be best employed to serve the needs of thesupported unit. He makes every effort to renderthe desired support.

c. The commander must keep supporting unitcommanders informed of the situation and of thesupport he wishes to obtain. In order that the sup-port rendered by the supporting unit be effective,it is necessary that adequate communication andliaison between the unit and supporting units bemaintained by the supporting organization. Thesupporting unit must be kept informed of the move-ments and plans of the unit and locations of itsforward elements and command post.

d. Attached units are subject to the decisionsand orders of the commander. The attached unitcommander is an advisor to the major unit com-mander on matters affecting the employment of theattached unit. The commander's relationships withthe attached unit are the same as with organicunits.

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539933 0-60 -7

73. Leodership for Anoched Units to Include Allied Units

a. One of the major leadership problems thatconfront the commanders of larger commands suchas groups, divisions, corps, and armies, is theproper handling of attached units. In corps espe-cially there is a frequent turnover of divisions andseparate units during the course of a campaign.The corps commander has the difficult problem ofintegrating newly attached units into the corpseffort and of giving them a sense of belonging tothe team. This calls for certain leadership tech-niques of a special nature in addition to the moregeneral techniques previously discussed.

b. With the many alliances that the UnitedStates has made with the nations of the world,senior commanders can expect to have allied unitsattached on many occasions. To integrate newlyattached units into his command, the commandershould-

(1) Establish communication with a newlyattached unit at the earliest practicabletime.

(2) Insure that liaison is established with aunit as soon as he learns it is to beattached.

(3) Deliver promptly a brief of all currentstanding operating procedures and ad-ministrative policies to the commanderand staff of a newly attached unit.

(4) Make all necessary administrative ar-rangements for the efficient reception ofa unit newly attached to his command.

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(5) Insure that administrative responsibilityfor attached units is clearly defined andpromptly accepted.

(6) Require only necessary reporting to hisheadquarters by attached units.

(7) Require his staff to observe the chain ofcommand in dealing with attached units.

(8) Visit attached units, even though theymay be further attached to subordinateunits.

(9) Require his staff to visit newly attachedunits to ascertain what assistance hiscommand can render.

(10) Be familiar with the history of every unitattached to his command.

(11) Insist that subordinate commanders in-clude attached units in recommendationsfor decorations and awards.

(12) Encourage commanders of attached unitsto make their problems or suggestionsknown to him.

(13) Check plans of subordinate commandersto see that attached units are not dis-criminated against in missions assigned.

(14) See that attached units receive theirfair share of all privileges and welfareactivities. Make these units feel that theyare an integral part of his team.

(15) Write a letter of appreciation to a depart-ing unit whenever its service merits suchaction.

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(16) In the case of allied units, every effortmust be made to obtain interpreters andto assist the attached commander withany problems peculiar to the customs ofhis army.

(17) By example, lessen the difficulties of thelanguage barrier with allied units by at-tempting to learn words, phrases, idioms,and conversational sentences of theirlanguage.

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APPENDIX I

REFERENCES

AR 320-50 Authorized Abbreviations andBrevity Codes.

SR 320-5-1 Dictionary of United StatesArmy Terms.

FM 21-5 Military Training.FM 21-6 Techniques of Military In-

struction.FM 21-13 Soldier's Guide.FM 21-30 Military Symbols.FM 33-5 Psychological Warfare Opera-

tions.FM 101-1 The GI Manual.FM 101-5 Staff Officer's Field Manual;

Staff Organization and Pro-cedure.

DA Pam 108-1 Index of Army Motion Pic-tures, Film Strips, Slides,and Phono-Recordings.

DA Pam 310-series Military Publications Indexes.DA Pam 600-2 The Armed Forces Officer.

AGO 265BC 101

APPENDIX II

COMBAT EXAMPLES OF SMALL UNIT LEADERSHIP

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 1: While the EighthArmy was in a static position in Korea, an officertook over a company that was low in combat effec-tiveness. The battalion commander warned theofficer of this and told him that the battalion wouldgo into a limited attack in two weeks.

The new company commander decided to observehis men for four days and try to get to know hisplatoon leaders and NCO's before making anyradical changes in the company routine. However,just to let the company know that it could expectchanges in policy, he corrected at once a few minordeficiencies as they came to his attention.

After four days he called his platoon leaders toan orientation meeting. He told them that he hadbeen studying the company situation for the pastfew days and had found nothing basically wrong,but that he had found several things that had tobe done to get the men on their toes again.

For their health and comfort, he told the platoonleaders to have their men construct squad sheltersand dig squad latrines; he added that he wanted theplatoon leaders to check with the squad leadersevery day to see that the men were massagingtheir feet and changing socks frequently enough toward off trenchfoot.

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As a matter of self-discipline, he wanted themen to shave daily and wear their helmets; and hetold his platoon leaders to check every man on hisability to fire well and clean his weapon adequately.He further directed that they spend half an houreach day on bayonet training.

To improve patrolling, he gave his talks on thesubject with open forum discussion. He personallytook out a platoon patrol to demonstrate correctpatrol procedure.

When his company went into the attack it se-cured its objective in a minimum of time and withfewer casualties than any other company in thebattalion. After the attack, the men of the com-pany gave their commander full credit for trans-forming them into an efficient combat unit. Officersand men said, "We couldn't .let our CO down."

ANALYSIS. It is doubtful whether the work ofthis company commander could have been betterperformed by anyone. He sized up the situation,worked through and with his subordinates, andissued only those orders that were needed to im-prove the training and welfare of his men. Severalleadership principles stand out as the basis for thiscommander's work, the most prominent being-set the example; know your men and look okt fortheir welfare; and insure that the task is under-stood, supervised, and accomplished.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 2: After theRemagen bridgehead was secured and during thebreakout that followed, the commander of one ofthe leading companies was assigned the mission of

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attacking a fortified hill to his front. In his ordersfor that operation, the battalion commander speci-fied the direction of attack for the company.

The company commander made his reconnais-sance. And during this reconnaissance he discov-ered that the direction of attack as laid down byhis orders had vital disadvantages. The companycommander was not a man who disobeyed orders,but he felt that in view of the information he hadobtained, he should recommend that his battalioncommander authorize a change in plans.

On the strength of his reconnaissance, the com-pany commander recommended to the battalioncommander a different avenue of approach for theattack. At first the battalion commander wasreluctant to accept a change in his plans. But afterexamining all the information that the companycommander had discovered during his reconnais-sance and after listening to his reasons forselecting a different direction, he consented.

The company launched its attack using the newdirection of attack recommended by the companycommander. It secured its objectives, sufferingonly a few casualties. Moreover, the companycaptured 75 prisoners and destroyed 2 tanks.

After this action was completed, a reconnais-sance disclosed some startling facts. Had the com-pany attacked by the original plans, it would havehit, head on, the enemy's final protective lines aswell as his defensive wire; it would have been ex-posed to direct fire from enemy tanks; it wouldhave had a distressing number of casualties; andit might not have secured its objective.

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ANALYSIS. The importance of personal recon-naissance as well as the use of skillful maneuver isclearly seen. By stating and adhering to his ownconvictions, the company commander exercised theleadership trait of moral courage. He also dis-played the trait of knowledge; with this trait hewas able to evaluate his discoveries made duringhis reconnaissance and was able to plan an effec-tive maneuver for the attack.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 3: The first nightafter the Chinese intervened in the Korean hostili-ties was a tough one. Company E was engaged ina heavy fire fight as part of a task force ordered todelay the enemy. The company repulsed twobattalion-size assaults, inflicting heavy casualtieson the enemy. But due to the frozen ground andthe time factor, Company E had not been able todig in and its own casualties were excessively high.Also, communication with the company CP wasknocked out and ammunition for the mortars andrecoilless rifles was desperately short.

The enemy withdrew at 0400 to regroup. Duringthe lull, the weapons platoon leader drew the lastof the 60-mm and 57-mm ammunition from thetask force ammunition distributing point.

In the first few minutes of the next assault, theweapons platoon fired its last round of ammunition.The platoon sergeant then turned to his platoonleader in hopeless frustration and asked, "What dowe do now, Lieutenant?"

"We're going to disassemble the breechblocksfrom the 57's and hide them," the lieutenant said.

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"Hide the mortars, too. Then we're going to turnourselves into a rifle platoon and join the fire fighton the hill. Get the word to the mortar men overin the draw."

The men worked fast. They armed themselveswith whatever weapons they could lay their handson. Acting as a rifle platoon, they fought theirway up the hill and engaged the enemy hand-to-hand. Thirty minutes later the enemy called it offfor the night. Company E had 55 men still ontheir feet and 26 of these were from the weaponsplatoon.

ANALYSIS. This platoon leader was outstand-ing in the leadership traits of initiative, decisive-ness, and courage. He made a sound and timelydecision to have his men operate as a rifle platoon.He took responsibility for his action. If he hadwaited for an order from his company commander,he could not have joined the fight on the hill wherehis assistance meant victory for his company.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 4: Company L wasunderstrength as a result of months of hard fight-ing in Korea. To make matters worse, it was heldon a hill by mortar and machinegun fire. AChinese machinegun on the company's left flankcovered the draw to the front, and a bunker up theroad served as an enemy OP, giving cover to acrew of Chinese who were directing mortar andartillery fire.

Sergeant John Doe commanded a platoon thatwas then little more than a squad--only 12 men.With this team of 12 men and one tank, Doe wasassigned the task of taking the hill and the bunker.

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The sergeant studied his map and made a per-sonal reconnaissance. As he went over his plans,he recalled that the battalion S2 had said there wasa long trench directly behind the bunker. He thenmet with the tank commander and the two workedout their plan of attack point by point. Next, hebrought the 12 men of his platoon together andcarefully oriented them on the attack.

The tank-infantry team moved out together. Thetank was to keep firing as long as possible withoutendangering the advancing foot soldiers.

When they arrived within 350 yards of thebunker, enemy artillery, mortar, and machinegunfire started coming in. Sergeant Doe called for hisown artillery support. He kept the platoon movingtoward the enemy as fast as they could walk.Every man in the platoon could hear him yelling,"Keep moving, you ! They can't hit us !"

Just after his own artillery and tank fire waslifted, the platoon reached the bunker. The sergeantdropped a couple of hand grenades inside. Leavingtwo men to guard the bunker, the sergeant proddedthe rest of his platoon on until they reached thetrench-the one the S2 mentioned. There Doefound 31 stunned Chinese ready to surrender.

After having all prisoners searched, he selectedone of them to go back with him to the bunker.By having the prisoner enter the bunker ahead ofhim and making him shift all suspicious equipmentas he moved through, Doe safeguarded himselfagainst possible boobytraps.

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After he searched the bunker, the sergeant sentthe prisoners back. Then he began setting up hisdefense. Only nine of his men were left now, butthey dug in to defend their position throughout thenight. The next morning help arrived.

ANALYSIS. This leader was technically andtactically proficient because he planned after acareful reconnaissance and after conferring withhis tank commander. He set the example by lead-ing the attack. He had his troops advance closebehind the artillery fire even though he knew thatwithout the support of artillery the hazards ofenemy fire were greater than the hazards of shortrounds. When he came under enemy artillery andmortar fire, he pressed his men on toward the ob-jective because he knew that the enemy seldomshortens his range when his fire is already fallingclose to his own position. His immediate reorgani-zation and setting up of a dtfense on his capturedposition clinched the success of the operation hehad so carefully planned.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 5: During his earlytraining, the lieutenant had learned well thedevastating effects that contaminated water couldhave on the human body. Now he was in commandof the 3d platoon of one of the first engineer com-panies to fight in the Korean conflict.

In the early days of the fighting in Korea, theonly watering points available were the neareststreams, wells, or rice paddies-all of which werecontaminated. Usually, a detail of one or two mencollected the empty canteens from the other men

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of the platoon, filled them at the nearest source ofwater, and returned them to their owners. Eachman was supplied with halazone tablets and hadbeen instructed to use them. However, on inspec-tion, the lieutenant found that few of his men hadvoluntarily used the halazone.

To guard against the effects of contaminatedwater, the lieutenant first issued an order that nosoldier could fill his own canteen-all emptycanteens were to be turned in at his CP. Whenenough of these were collected to warrant a tripto the watering point, the lieutenant sent a coupleof men to fill the canteens. But they were orderedto return the full canteens to the CP-not to theirowners. Upon the return of the full canteens, thelieutenant personally saw to it that in each canteenthe required number of halazone tablets were dis-solved. Then he waited 30 minutes before issuingthe canteens to their owners. It takes that long forthe tablets to have their full effect on the deadlymicro-organisms in the water.

The men complained because they did not likethe taste of the halazoned water. A few tried tofill their own canteens on the sly but the lieutenantput a quick stop to that. Then he called his mentogether and patiently explained the dangers thatlurk in untreated contaminated water.

The results of the lieutenant's careful super-vision over the treatment of each man's drinkingwater are evident in the records of his company.His was the only platoon in the company that didnot evacuate one or more men with dysentery.

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Because of actions like this-some of which atfirst seemed to be needless-his men soon learnedto have a feeling of deep respect for this leader.

ANALYSIS. This platoon leader thoroughlyunderstood and fulfilled his obligations to his menby looking after their welfare. He had the moralcourage to do the unpopular thing in order tomaintain an efficient fighting unit. He did not re-main unpopular because his actions soon proved tohis men that their welfare was of great concern tohim.

Some men take little care of themselves eventhough the rules for maintaining good health underfighting conditions are repeatedly explained tothem. Some will try every conceivable subterfugeto avoid taking inoculations and internal preventivemedicines such as atabrine. It is the leader's re-sponsibility to see that all health measures arecarried out by each of his men.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 6: The transporta-tion truck company was bivouacked in a muddylittle orchard with a narrow, slippery road leadingout of it. Enemy heavy mortar and artillery firebegan falling in the area and began creeping in onthe company. It was obvious that the enemy hadspotted the bivouac. The company commander toldhis vehicle commanders to bring their trucks outand move about 500 yards to the reverse slope of ahill. Considerable confusion ensued, and thedrivers began to get panic stricken.

The company commander realized the situationand deliberately moved to the road where the ve-

110o AGO M2UC

hides came to it from the orchard. He motionedeach vehicle onto the road just as if he were di-recting traffic in his home town. He knew that ifone vehicle slipped into the ditch, the others wouldbe unable to get out of the orchard. However, eachdriver seeing the company commander calmlystanding in the road, drove out of the orchard asif he were driving out of a vehicle park. One ofthe sergeants later said that if the company com-mander had not been there, he would have takenoff in flight.

ANALYSIS. It is essential that a leader culti-vate a calm controlled manner. Often an act is lessimportant than the manner in which it is done. Aleader, particularly, must control his physical re-actions and facial expressions. An outward appear-ance of calmness on his part will do much to instillconfidence in his men. This demands self-controland self-discipline by the leader.

COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 7: At this stage offighting in Korea no reserves remained to give re-lief. The platoon had suffered sixteen casualtieswithin the past two weeks and the platoon sergeantwas now the acting platoon leader. The men weredead-tired, but the platoon was ordered to attack ahigh ridge to the front.

Intelligence reports indicated that the ridge washeld by only a handful of enemy who might beknocked off their positions with no great difficulty.

The platoon attacked, and advanced slowly to apoint within 50 yards of the top of the ridge. Atthis point the enemy were evidently out of all other

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ammunition and began throwing concussion gre-nades.

The concussion grenade used by the Communistsin Korea at the time of this attack was not muchmore dangerous in the open than a giant fire-cracker. Unfortunately the men in this attackingplatoon did not understand this. The exploding gre-nades made a terrific noise which caused the mento drop behind what cover they could find and stoptheir advance. By the time the platoon sergeanthad evaluated the situation, many of the men hadalready turned and withdrawn to their originalline of departure.

The sergeant did not give in but told his men,"I'll show you there is no danger." He climbed theridge alone and proceeded to walk its entire length,outlining himself against the skyline. Impressedby the daring of their platoon sergeant andrealizing that the situation was not so dangerousas they had thought, the men readily resumed theattack under the command of the assistant pla-toon sergeant. The objective was taken withoutcasualties.

ANALYSIS., The sergeant realized that nothreats of punishment would cause his men toattack. By setting a courageous example himself,his men were enabled to control their fear andcontinue the attack.

When men become afraid on the battlefield, thesight of their leader calmly going about his workwith no obvious fear will inspire them to continuetheir mission.

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COMBAT EXAMPLE NO. 8: On 2 November1950, orders were received by an infantry battalionto move from its present position north, about 40miles, to cover the withdrawal of a regiment. Thebattalion was on the new position at dusk on 2November. The Chinese Communists had justentered the war. The next morning the regimentpassed through the battalion position. As it clearedthe position, the battalion commander received or-ders to withdraw to the village of ANJU some 5miles south just across the CHON-CHON River.He made plans for the withdrawal and directed theheavy weapons company commander to have the81-mm mortar platoon remain in position, to coverby fire the withdrawal of the other units.

The Chinese attacked while the withdrawal wasin progress. Lieutenant Mike, the mortar platoonleader, had his platoon continue to fire until all the81-mm ammunition was expended. He then tookstock of the number of men with him, their weap-ons, ammunition, food, water and whether or notthey were wounded. He had only 11 soldiers. Fromhis position on the reverse slope of one of thehighest hills in the area he could see the Chinesecolumns in the valley behind him and on many ofthe ridges to either flank. His only vehicle hadbeen destroyed by enemy artillery. He made aquick estimate of the situation and decided thatthe platoon must evade capture and rejoin the bat-talion and that the mortars should be destroyed inplace. While thermite grenades were placed in allmortar tubes, Lieutenant Mike, looked for areaswhich were not occupied by the enemy, in an

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539933 0-60 -8

attempt to locate an escape route that the platooncould use.

It was early afternoon as the platoon began tomove in the direction of the CHON-CHON River,utilizing a small ridge that ran in that direction.They had moved approximately 800 yards when anenemy patrol about platoon size was observed ashort distance to the north, moving in their direc-tion. This caused them to change their direction.As they came opposite the battalion command postlocation they could look down into the area. Menwere walking around, U. S. vehicles were in a nor-mal position-the scene was very peaceful.

Lieutenant Mike cautioned the men to movequickly and quietly past the area. However, one ofthe men could not resist and called out, "Are youguys GI's?" The answer came in the form ofmachinegun and rifle fire. Two men were killed andall but one of the platoon were wounded. Enemysoldiers started in their direction. Lieutenant Mikeurged the men to move quickly along the ridgelineand he remained behind to delay the enemy patrol.This enabled the platoon to escape and shortlyLieutenant Mike rejoined his platoon. It was darkby this time and the men wanted to stop and sleep.Lieutenant Mike allowed the men to rest for ashort period then required them to move out totake advantage of darkness. They managed to reachthe bank of the CHON-CHON River without beingdetected by the enemy. They could hear talkingacross the river but remembering their earlierexperience, Lieutenant Mike decided to conceal thegroup in a ravine near the river and await day-

114 AGO 2695C

light which was just an hour or two away. Theriver was frozen and at dawn Lieutenant Mike leftthe concealed platoon and made a reconnaissance.He clearly identified the U. S. positions on the farside of the river and took his platoon back intothe friendly positions.

ANALYSIS. Situations will occur on the battle-field that put the leader under great stress. This isone of those instances. Lieutenant Mike had shownhis dependability by attention to duty on a difficultmission. He used a keen sense of judgment inestimating the situation and deciding on a courseof action. He made a sound and timely decisionwhen, after expending all ammunition, he plannedto evade capture and return to friendly lines. Heremembered his basic responsibility for welfare ofhis men by taking stock of their condition. Duringthe evasion, one of the men created quite a problemfor Lieutenant Mike by yelling and drawingenemy fire on the platoon. Lieutenant Mike quicklygot the survivors moving and with a demonstrationof courage and unselfishness made possible theescape. By a knowledge of evasion tactics, he keptthe platoon moving at night and then carefullyplanned the daylight move into friendly lines.

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INDEX

Paragraph FPae

Adjustment of the soldier______________ 13 17

Bearing __________________…---------- 26 30

Chain of command- .------------------ 62 81Combat:

Effectiveness, factors adversely 65-68 85affecting.

Willingness -_____-_______-_______ 64 84Combat examples --___________________. App. II 102Command:

Accompaniments --__________________. 6 9Assumption --_____________________ 52 64Chain --__________________________ 62 81Exercise --_________________________ 6 9and Leadership ___________-.______ 6 9

Commander:Definition ____________________.--- 4 7Relationship with supporting 72 97

units.Respwnsibilities… - - -______________. 4,8 7, 11Staff officer relationship --__________ 63 82

Counseling --____________________ ___. 56 70Courage (physical and moral) .-------_-. 19 22

Decisiveness ……_______________________. 20 23Dependability ________________________ 21 24Discipline __________________ _.-------- 46 57

Endurance --_________________________-- 27 34Enthusiasm .--...- ____________________ 25 29Esprit de corps_______________________. 47 58

Fear_________________________________ 66 86

116 AGO 2695C

Pragraph P.geHuman:

Adjustment -_----_--------------- 13 17Behavior _____________-.-.-------. 9-14 12Goals and frustration's .............. 12 16Needs ___________________________ 11 14

Individual differences ---_------------- 10 12Initiative ____________________._______ 22 25Integrity ____________.-------------- - 17 20

Judgment ._-.________________________ 30 36Junior leaders:

Development- .------------_------ 54 67Selection _____.__________________. 53 65

Justice… -- - - -- --______--------------- 24 28

Knowledge - ---_______________--__--__ 18 21

Leadership:Actions and orders ______________- . 4 7Aspects of organization … ----. . .... 60-63 77for Attached units -___-----_-----. 73 98Characteristics… -.. . ............... 5 8in Combat ____________________--_ 64-72 84Definition_ _________-___._______. 4 7Elements _____________….…________ 5 8of Female groups ..-............_ _. 58 75General concepts ______--___-----_ 2 3Indications _____________.______. 4, 43-49 7, 54Military concepts- .-___---__-____ 3 5Principles …____________…-._______. 4, 31-42 7, 37Problems _____------------------- 50-59 62Traits ________-_____.-- -- --...... 4, 15-30 7, 19

Loyalty -_________-___---------------- 29 35

Military:Leader… ___________.._______ 3,4 5Leadership ___________.-...______. 4 8Objectives ___._________________. 7 10

Morale …_______________…. …… ... 45 55

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Psravraph P.a"Organization and control ._________.___ 60 77

Panic __________--- ---- 68 89Problem solving process _____________- E51 62Proficiency _____________-____________. 48 59Purpose and scope -_______________-___ 1 3

Reception and integration -___________ 5Ei7 72References___________ -- __- ___-------- App. I 101Restoration of fighting effectiveness -_-.- 70 94Rumors .____________________________. 67 86

Senior-subordinate relationship - -________. 55 69Span of control . --_______________-____. Sl 79Spirit of the offensive -_______________-- 69 76Support of isolated units .-------------- '11 96

Tact________________________________ 23 26

Unselfishness -______ ___-______ ______. !8 34

[AG 353 (23 Sep 58)]

By Order of Wilber M. Brucker, Secretary of theArmy:

MAXWELL D. TAYLOR,General, United States Army,

Official: Chief of Staff.R. V. LEE,

Major General, United States Army,The Adjutant General.

Distribution:Attive Anny:

DCSPER (5) CofF (2)ACSI (5) CINFO (2)DCSOPS 15) CNGB (2)DCSLOG (5) CLL (2)ACSRC (5i CMH (2)CAMG (21 Dir of Sp Warfare (2)CoA (21 TIG (2)CUSARROTC (2) TJAG (2)

11B AGO 2696C

TPMG (2) Br Svc Sch (6) exceptTAG (2) US ARADSCH (500)CofCh (2) USAIS 13700)Technical Stf. DA (2) USAES (500)Admin & Technical Stf Bd USACAMGSCH (600)

(2) USATSCH 1700)USCONARC (15) AMSS (15001US ARADCOM (5) USA QM Sch (59)US ARADCOM Rgn (5) USASCS (25)OS MSj Comd (5) USA Ord Sch (800)OS Base Comd (5) USAAMS (2400)MDW 12) USAARMS (1500)Armies (16) USACmlCTngCom (150)Corps (5) USAINTC (160)Div (5) PMST Sr Div Units (2)USATC (16) PMST Jr Div Units (2)Rriy (6) PMST Mil Sch Div UnitsRegt/Gp/Bg (5) (2)Bn (6) Mil Dhat (4)Co/Btry (3) USA Corps (Re) (4)Class I Instl (2) Sector Comd, USA CorpsUSAWC (15 (R.) (4)USACGSC Il750) Mil Mis (1)

NG: Stnte AG (3) units-same s Active Army except allowanceis one copy to each unit.

USAR: Same as Active Army except allowance is one copy to eachunit.

For explanation of bbreviations used, ee AR 320-50.

U. S. GOVERNMENT RINTING OFFICE: 1960 O -53993

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