the university of texas at tyler dr. marilyn young mana3311 –organizational behavior &...

The University of Texas at Tyler

Dr. Marilyn Young

MANA3311 –Organizational Behavior & Leadership: Chapters 12, 3,5, 6 & 7

College of Business and Technology

http://www.uttyler.edu/Main/fact_sheet.htm

Chapter 1

What Is Organizational Behavior?

What Managers Do

Managerial Activities

• Make decisions

• Allocate resources

• Direct activities of others to attain goals

Managerial Activities

• Make decisions

• Allocate resources

• Direct activities of others to attain goals

PlanningPlanningControllingControlling

LeadingLeading OrganizingOrganizing

The FunctionsThe Functionsof Managementof Management

Management Functions

The Roles of The Roles of ManagementManagement

InformationalInformationalInterpersonalInterpersonal

DecisionalDecisional

E X H I B I T 1-1a

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

E X H I B I T 1-1b

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

E X H I B I T 1-1c

Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles (cont’d)

The Skills ThatThe Skills ThatManagers NeedManagers NeedThe Skills ThatThe Skills ThatManagers NeedManagers Need

TechnicalTechnicalTechnicalTechnical HumanHumanHumanHumanConceptualConceptualConceptualConceptual

Katz’s Essential Management Skills

• Technical Skills– The ability to apply specialized knowledge or

expertise

• Human Skills– The ability to work with, understand, and

motivate other people, both individually and in groups

• Conceptual Skills– The mental ability to analyze and diagnose

complex situations

Managerial ActivitiesManagerial Activities

TraditionalTraditionalManagementManagement

NetworkingNetworking

CommunicationCommunication

ManagingManagingHuman ResourcesHuman Resources

E X H I B I T 1-2

Allocation of Activities by Time

The Study of Organizational The Study of Organizational BehaviorBehavior

IndividualIndividual

GroupGroup

OrganizationOrganization

Study ofStudy ofOrganizationalOrganizational

BehaviorBehaviorSocial PsychologySocial Psychology

Political SciencePolitical Science

AnthropologyAnthropology

PsychologyPsychology

SociologySociology

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field

Contributing Disciplines

See E X H I B I T 1–3 for detailsSee E X H I B I T 1–3 for details

Many behavioral sciences have contributed to the development ofOrganizationalBehavior

1-21© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Contributing Disciplines to the OB Field (cont’d)

Levels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB AnalysisLevels of OB Analysis

IndividualsIndividuals GroupsGroups

StructuresStructures

Challenges and Opportunity for OB

• Responding to Economic Pressures

• Responding to Globalization

• Managing Workforce Diversity

• Improving Customer Service

• Improving People Skills

• Stimulating Innovation and Change

• Coping with Temporariness

Challenges and Opportunity for OB

• Working in Networked Organizations

• Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts

• Improving Ethical Behavior• Creating a Positive Work

Environment• Improving Ethical Behavior

DomesticDomesticPartnersPartners

DomesticDomesticPartnersPartners

Major Workforce Diversity Categories

RaceRaceRaceRaceNon-ChristianNon-ChristianNon-ChristianNon-Christian

NationalNationalOriginOrigin

NationalNationalOriginOrigin

AgeAgeAgeAge

DisabilityDisabilityDisabilityDisability

GenderGenderGenderGender

Improving People Skills

PersonalInsight

WorkplaceSkills

Conceptsand Theories

EmpoweringEmpoweringthe Workforcethe Workforce

Managers

Are GivingAre Giving

Up ControlsUp Controls

Workers AreWorkers Are

AcceptingAccepting

ResponsibilityResponsibility

Coping withCoping with““Temporariness””

The NatureThe Nature

of Work Isof Work Is

ChangingChanging

OrganizationsOrganizations

Are AlsoAre Also

ChangingChanging

Stimulating Innovationand Change

• Maintaining flexibility

• Improving quality

• Introducing new

products and services

Improving Qualityand Productivity

Total QualityTotal QualityManagementManagement

CorporateCorporateReengineeringReengineering

What Is Quality Management?

1. Intense focus on the customer.

2. Concern for continuous improvement.

3. Improvement in the quality of everything the organization does.

4. Accurate measurement.

5. Empowerment of employees. E X H I B I T 1–6

E X H I B I T 1–6

Provide in-house advisers

Create protection mechanisms

Write and distribute codes of ethics

Give seminars, workshops, & training

Improving Ethics

The The DependentDependentVariablesVariables

ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity

AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism

Job SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

OrganizationalOrganizationalCitizenshipCitizenship

OrganizationalOrganizationalCitizenshipCitizenship

TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover

The Dependent Variables

x

y

The Dependent Variables

Chapter 2 Diversity

Managing Workforce Diversity

Dimensions of Intellectual Ability

Intellectual Abilities

• Number aptitude

• Verbal comprehension

• Perceptual speed

• Inductive reasoning

• Deductive reasoning

• Spatial visualization

• Memory ability

Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence

AbilityAn individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Intellectual AbilityThe capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple IntelligencesIntelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

Flexibility

Factors

Flexibility

Factors

Strength

Factors

Strength

Factors

Other

Factors

Other

Factors

Basic Physical AbilitiesBasic Physical Abilities

Physical Abilities

Physical Abilities

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Other Factors

7. Body coordination

8. Balance

9. Stamina

Nine Physical AbilitiesStrength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength

Strength Factors

1. Dynamic strength

2. Trunk strength

3. Static strength

4. Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

Flexibility Factors

5. Extent flexibility

6. Dynamic flexibility

E X H I B I T 2–2E X H I B I T 2–2

Source: Adapted from HRMagazine published by the Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.

The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit

• Abilities of the

employee

• Requirements of

the job

Ability-JobFit

The Ability-Job Fit

Employee’sEmployee’sAbilitiesAbilities

Job’s AbilityJob’s AbilityRequirementsRequirements

BiographicalBiographicalCharacteristicsCharacteristics

MaritalMaritalStatusStatus

GenderGender

TenureTenure

AgeAge

Biographical Characteristics.

•Age– Older workers bring experience,

judgment, a strong work ethic, and commitment to quality.

•Gender– Few differences between men and

women that affect job performance.•Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself)– Contentious issue: differences exist, but

could be more culture-based than race-based.

Other Biographical Characteristics

• Tenure– People with job tenure (seniority at a job) are more

productive, absent less frequently, have lower turnover, and are more satisfied.

• Religion– Islam is especially problematic in the workplace in this post-

9/11 world.• Sexual Orientation

– Federal law does not protect against discrimination (but state or local laws may).

– Domestic partner benefits are important considerations.• Gender Identity

– Relatively new issue – transgendered employees.

2-53© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Learning

SocialSocialLearningLearning

ClassicalClassical

ConditioningConditioning

OperantOperant

ConditioningConditioning

What Is Learning?What Is Learning?

Learning

Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Learning

• Involves change

• Is relatively permanent

• Is acquired through experience

Theories of Learning

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned response

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned stimulus

• Unconditioned response

• Conditioned response


Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Key Concepts

• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior

• Conditioned (learned) behavior

• Reinforcement

Methods ofMethods ofShaping BehaviorShaping Behavior

Methods ofMethods ofShaping BehaviorShaping Behavior

Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

Negative Negative ReinforcementReinforcement

PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement

PositivePositiveReinforcementReinforcement

ExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionExtinctionPunishmentPunishmentPunishmentPunishment

Reinforcement contingencies - relationships between a person’s behavior and the consequences resulting from it

Negative reinforcement (avoidance)people learn to perform acts that lead to the

removalof undesired eventsPunishment - decreasing undesirable behavior by

using undesirable consequences

Extinction – no longer reinforced tend to gradually diminish in strength

Positive reinforcement -people learn to perform behaviors leading to the the desired outcomes


Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.

• Some rewards are more effective than others.

• The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Organizational Applications

• Lotteries to reduce absenteeism

• Well pay versus sick pay

• Employee discipline

• Training programs

• Mentoring programs

• Self-management

Chapter 3Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.

The emotional or The emotional or feeling segment feeling segment of an attitudeof an attitudeThe opinion or The opinion or

belief segment of belief segment of an attitudean attitude An intention to An intention to

behave in a certain behave in a certain way toward someone way toward someone or somethingor something

What Are Attitudes?What Are Attitudes?

• Cognitive component

• Affective component

• Behavioral component

Attitudes

Attitudes

Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.

Affective ComponentThe emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Cognitive componentThe opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes

• Job satisfaction

• Job involvement

• Organizational

commitment

Outcomes of Job Satisfaction

• Job Performance– Satisfied workers are more productive AND more productive workers

are more satisfied! – The causality may run both ways.

• Organizational Citizenship Behaviors– Satisfaction influences OCB through perceptions of fairness.

• Customer Satisfaction– Satisfied frontline employees increase customer satisfaction

and loyalty.• Absenteeism

– Satisfied employees are moderately less likely to miss work.

3-71

What are the Major Job Attitudes?

Job SatisfactionA positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics

Job InvolvementPsychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth

Psychological EmpowermentInfluence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy

And Yet More Major Job Attitudes…

• Perceived Organizational Support (POS)– Degree to which employees believe the organization

values their contribution and cares about their well-being.

– Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.

– High POS is related to higher OCBs and performance.

• Employee Engagement– The degree of involvement with, satisfaction with, and

enthusiasm for the job.– Engaged employees are passionate

– Organizational Commitment

Causes of Job Satisfaction

Pay influences job satisfaction only to a point.After about $40,000 a year (in the U. S.), there is no relationship between amount of pay and job satisfaction.

Money may bring happiness, but not necessarily job satisfaction.

Personality can influence job satisfaction.

Negative people are usually not satisfied with their jobs.

ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity

AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism

TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover

JobJob

SatisfactionSatisfaction

and Employeeand Employee

PerformancePerformance

JobJob

SatisfactionSatisfaction

and Employeeand Employee


Types of Attitudes

Cognitive Dissonance

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on

• Importance of elements creating dissonance

• Degree of individual influence over elements

• Rewards involved in dissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on

• Importance of elements creating dissonance

• Degree of individual influence over elements

• Rewards involved in dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance

•Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

•Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”

Does Behavior Always Follow from

Attitudes?

Leon Festinger – No, the reverse is sometimes true!Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes

Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or dissonance, to reach stability and consistency

Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying the behaviors, or through rationalization

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:

Importance of elements

Degree of individual influence

Rewards involved in dissonance

Attitude Surveys

Sample Attitude Survey

E X H I B I T 3-5

Job Satisfaction

• How Satisfied Are People in Their Jobs?– Job satisfaction declined to 50.7% in

2000– Decline attributed to:

• Pressures to increase productivity• Less control over work

The Effect of Job Satisfaction on Employee Performance

• Satisfaction and Productivity– Satisfied workers aren’t necessarily more

productive.– Worker productivity is higher in organizations

with more satisfied workers.• Satisfaction and Absenteeism

– Satisfied employees have fewer avoidable absences.

• Satisfaction and Turnover– Satisfied employees are less likely to quit.– Organizations take actions to cultivate high

performers and to weed out lower performers.

Responses to Job Dissatisfaction

In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of In general, when we think of attitudes and organizations, we think of

1) Job Satisfaction1) Job Satisfaction

2) Happiness2) Happiness

3) Job Involvement3) Job Involvement

4) Mood at work4) Mood at work

5) Organizational Commitment5) Organizational Commitment

6) 1 and 2 6) 1 and 2

7) 1, 3, and 5 7) 1, 3, and 5

Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes

Ernesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings donuts and coffee to theErnesto is the known as the Donut Hut King---every day he brings donuts and coffee to the

1.1. Job satisfactionJob satisfaction

2.2. Organizational citizenship behaviorOrganizational citizenship behavior

3.3. ProductivityProductivity

4.4. Job involvementJob involvement

5.5. ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Chapter Check-Up: Attitudes

Write down three things someone could do at work that would constitute an OCB. Compare

your list with a neighbor’s.

Chapter 5

Personality and Values

What is Personality?

The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others; measurable traits a person exhibits.

Personality Traits

Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior.

Personality

Determinants

• Heredity

• Environment

• Situation

Personality

Determinants

• Heredity

• Environment

• Situation

What is Personality?

E X H I B I T 4-1

What Is Personality?What Is Personality?What Is Personality?What Is Personality?

HeredityHeredityHeredityHeredity SituationSituationSituationSituationEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironmentEnvironment

Personality Traits

Personality Determinants

•Heredity

•Environment

•Situation

Personality Determinants

•Heredity

•Environment

•Situation

Style ofStyle ofDecision MakingDecision Making Judgmental (J)Judgmental (J)

Perceptive (P)Perceptive (P)

Preference forPreference forDecision MakingDecision Making Thinking (T)Thinking (T)

Feeling (F)Feeling (F)

Type of SocialType of SocialInteractionInteraction Introvert (I)Introvert (I)

Extrovert (E)Extrovert (E)

Preference forPreference forGathering DataGathering Data Intuitive (N)Intuitive (N)

Sensing (S)Sensing (S)

Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorMyers-Briggs Type Indicator

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Personality Types

• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)

• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)

• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)

• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

Personality Types

• Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)

• Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)

• Thinking or Feeling (T or F)

• Perceiving or Judging (P or J)

Personality TraitsPersonality Traits

Reserved

Less Intelligent

Affected by Feelings

Submissive

Serious

Expedient

Timid

Tough-Minded

Outgoing

More Intelligent

Emotionally Stable

Dominant

Happy-Go-Lucky

Conscientious

Venturesome

Sensitive

Personality TraitsPersonality Traits

Trusting

Practical

Forthright

Self-Assured

Conservative

Group-Dependent

Uncontrolled

Relaxed

Suspicious

Imaginative

Shrewd

Apprehensive

Experimenting

Self-Sufficient

Controlled

Tense

The “Big Five”Personality Model

ExtraversionExtraversion AgreeablenessAgreeableness

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

EmotionalEmotionalStabilityStability

Openness toOpenness toExperienceExperience

The The Big Five Big Five

PersonalitPersonality Modely Model

Openness to ExperienceOpenness to Experience

ExtraversionExtraversion

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

Emotional StabilityEmotional Stability

Personality Attributes Personality Attributes and Behaviorand Behavior

RiskRiskTakingTaking

LocusLocusof Controlof Control

Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem

Type AType APersonalityPersonality

Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring

MachiavellianMachiavellianTraitsTraits

Measuring Personality

Personality is Measured By

• Self-report surveys

• Observer-rating surveys

• Projective measures – Rorschach Inkblot Test – Thematic Apperception

Test

Narcissism

A Narcissistic Person

•Has grandiose sense of self-importance

•Requires excessive admiration

•Has a sense of entitlement

•Is arrogant

•Tends to be rated as less

effective

Locus of Control

Machiavellianism

Conditions Favoring High Machs

• Direct interaction

• Minimal rules and regulations

• Distracting emotions

Conditions Favoring High Machs

• Direct interaction

• Minimal rules and regulations

• Distracting emotions

Self-Esteem and Self-Monitoring

Personality Types

Type A and B Personalities

Type A Behavior Pattern - a pattern of behavior involving high levels of competitiveness, time urgency, and irritability

Type B behavior pattern - a pattern of behavior characterized by a casual, laid-back style- Type A - overall edge in job performance,

especially tasks involving time pressure or solitary work; impatient with coworkers

- Type B - perform better on complex tasks that require accuracy rather than speed

Which of the following is not a typical personality

trait considered to be organizationally relevant?

Locus of controlLocus of control

Self-monitoringSelf-monitoring

Self-enhancingSelf-enhancing

Self esteemSelf esteem

Machiavellianism Machiavellianism

Chapter Check-Up: Personality

Discuss with your neighbor how each of the three traits above

would influence a college instructor’s behavior, and where you

think your teacher falls with respect to each of them.


Alison arrives to class and realizes that she’s forgotten her Alison arrives to class and realizes that she’s forgotten her

homework to turn in. She says “Oh man, it’s just not my lucky homework to turn in. She says “Oh man, it’s just not my lucky

day today.” Alison has ______________.day today.” Alison has ______________.

Alison has a high external locus of control. Alison believes

that things outside of her control determine what happens.

If Alison works on a team with you, and you

have a very high internal locus of control, what

kinds of discussions do you think the two of you

might have? Discuss with a friend.

Julia is known for being a go-getter. She

never leaves a task incomplete, and is

involved in a number of activities. Moreover,

she’s at the top of her class. She’s so busy

that sometimes, she forgets to stop and eat

lunch. Julia can be easily characterized as

someone that has/is a Type ____ Personality.


Types of Values

TerminalTerminalValuesValues

TerminalTerminalValuesValues

InstrumentalInstrumentalValuesValues

InstrumentalInstrumentalValuesValues

Types of Values –- Rokeach Value Survey

Values in the Rokea

ch Survey

E X H I B I T 3-1a

Values in the Rokea

ch Survey(cont’d

)

Generational Values

CohortEntered

WorkforceApproximate Current Age

Dominant Work Values

Veterans 1950-1964 65+ Hard working, conservative, conforming; loyalty to the organization

Boomers 1965-1985 40-60s Success, achievement, ambition, dislike of authority; loyalty to career

Xers 1985-2000 20-40s Work/life balance, team-oriented, dislike of rules; loyalty to relationships

Nexters 2000-Present

Under 30 Confident, financial success, self-reliant but team-oriented; loyalty to both self and relationships

4-113

Millennial Characteristics

• Confident

• Hopeful

• Connect 24/7

• Goal/achievement oriented

• Civic minded

• Team approach

• Fair workplace

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Values, Loyalty, and Ethical Behavior

Ethical Climate inEthical Climate inthe Organizationthe Organization

Ethical Climate inEthical Climate inthe Organizationthe Organization

Ethical Values and Behaviors of Ethical Values and Behaviors of LeadersLeaders

Values Across CulturesValues Across CulturesValues Across CulturesValues Across Cultures

Power Distance

Individualism or Collectivism

Quantity or Quality of Life

Uncertainty Avoidance

Long-Term or Short-Term

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures

Hofstede’s Framework for Assessing Cultures

Power Distance

Low distance: relatively equal power between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth

High distance: extremely unequal power distribution between those with status/wealth and those without status/wealth

Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Collectivism

A tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them.

Individualism

The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups.

Vs.

Hofstede’s Framework (cont’d)

Masculinity

The extent to which the society values work roles of achievement, power, and control, and where assertiveness and materialism are also valued.

Femininity

The extent to which there is little differentiation between roles for men and women.

Vs.

Hofstede’s Framework

In Country J most of the top management team meets

employees at the local bar for a beer on Fridays, and there

are no reserved parking spaces. Everyone is on a first

name basis with each other. Country J, according to

Hofstede’s Framework, is probably low on what dimension?

Chapter Check-Up: Values

• CollectivismCollectivism

• Long Term OrientationLong Term Orientation

• Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance

• Power DistancePower DistanceHow would a College or University in Country J differ from your

College or University? Identify 3 differences and discuss with a

neighbor.

Chapter 6

Perception and Individual Decision

Perception

Select

Organize

Interpret

Select

Organize

Interpret

Perception

Factors That Influence Perception

E X H I B I T 5-1

Factors ThatFactors ThatInfluence PerceptionInfluence Perception

SituationSituationTargetTarget PerceiverPerceiver

Perception

Internal

External

ATTRIBUTION

ContrastContrastEffectEffect

ContrastContrastEffectEffect

SelectivePerceptionSelective

Perception

StereotypingStereotyping

Halo EffectHalo Effect

ProjectionProjection

Frequently Used Shortcuts When Judging Others

Perceptual Errors/Biases Fundamental Attribution Error Halo Effect Similar-to-me Stereotyping Selective Perception Perceptual Readiness Projection First Impression Contrast

Perceptual Errors/Biases Fundamental Attribution Error Halo Effect Similar-to-me Stereotyping Selective Perception Perceptual Readiness Projection First Impression Contrast

Errors and Biases in Attributions

Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others


• Selective Perception– People selectively interpret what they see on the

basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes

• Halo Effect– Drawing a general impression about an individual

on the basis of a single characteristic• Contrast Effects

– Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics

Another Shortcut: Stereotyping

Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs – a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization

•Profiling– A form of stereotyping in which members of a

group are singled out for intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait.

Errors and Biases in Attributions

• Fundamental Attribution Error– The tendency to underestimate the influence of

external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others

– We blame people first, not the situation

• Self-Serving Bias– The tendency for individuals to attribute their own

successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

– It is “our” success but “their” failure

© 2009 Prentice-Hall Inc. All rights reserved. 5-138

Specific Applications in Specific Applications in OrganizationsOrganizations

• Employment interview

• Performance expectations

• Performance evaluation

• Employee effort

• Employee loyalty

Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations

• Employment Interview– Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’

judgments of applicants– Formed in a single glance – 1/10 of a second!

• Performance Expectations– Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher

performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities

• Performance Evaluations– Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of

appraisers of another employee’s job performance – Critical impact on employees

Steps in the Rational Decision-Making Model

E X H I B I T 5-3

Rational Model of Decision Making

Problem

Identify andDefine Problem

DevelopAlternatives

A1

A2

A3

A4

An

EvaluateAlternatives

+

A1 A1

A2 A2

An An

Criteria

Weightthe Criteria

T E C H

Set DecisionCriteria

Choice

Make OptimalDecision

The Three Components of Creativity

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and useful ideas.

Three-Component Model of Creativity

Proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation.

E X H I B I T 5–4E X H I B I T 5–4

Source: T.M. Amabile, “Motivating Creativity in Organizations,” California Management Review, Fall 1997, p. 43.

How Are Decisions Actually Made in Organizations

Intuitive Decision Making

High uncertainty levels Little precedent Hard to predictable variables Limited facts Unclear sense of direction Analytical data is of little use Several plausible alternatives Time constraints

Making Choices

Chapter Checkup: What biases might have affected Martha Stewart’s judgment?

Discuss with a classmate.

Chapter 8

Motivational Concepts

What Is Motivation?

Direction

PersistenceIntensity

The Motivation ProcessThe Motivation ProcessThe Motivation ProcessThe Motivation Process

UnsatisfiedUnsatisfiedNeedNeed

UnsatisfiedUnsatisfiedNeedNeed TensionTensionTensionTension

BehaviorBehaviorBehaviorBehaviorDrivesDrivesDrivesDrives

SatisfiedSatisfiedNeedNeed

SatisfiedSatisfiedNeedNeed

ReductionReductionof Tensionof TensionReductionReductionof Tensionof Tension

Maslow’s HierarchyOf Needs

Maslow’s HierarchyOf Needs

Self Self ActualizationActualization

EsteemEsteem

SocialSocial

SafetySafety

PhysiologicalPhysiological

Early Theories of Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.

•Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Alderfer’s ERG (Existence, Relatedness, and

Growth)

•McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y•Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory•McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsThere is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Assumptions– Individuals cannot

move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied

– Must move in hierarchical order

Lower OrderExternal

Higher OrderInternal

Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryKey Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not

opposites but separate constructs

Extrinsic and Related to

Dissatisfaction

Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory

• Goal-Setting Theory– Management by Objectives (MBO)

• Self-Efficacy Theory– Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or

Social Learning Theory

• Reinforcement Theory

• Equity Theory

• Expectancy Theory

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

6-156

Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory

• An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. – Higher efficacy is related to:

• Greater confidence• Greater persistence in the face of difficulties• Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

– Self-Efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory.

Given Hard Goal

Higher Self-Set Goal

Increased Confidence

Higher Performance

Increasing Self-Efficacy

• Enactive mastery– Most important source of efficacy– Gaining relevant experience with task or job– “Practice makes perfect”

• Vicarious modeling– Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task– Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or

herself

• Verbal persuasion– Motivation through verbal conviction– Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies

• Arousal– Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task– Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

X H I B I T

Theory XTheory XWorkersWorkers

Dislike WorkDislike Work

Avoid ResponsibilityAvoid Responsibility

Little AmbitionLittle Ambition

Theory YTheory YWorkersWorkers

Enjoy WorkEnjoy Work

Accept ResponsibilityAccept Responsibility

Self-DirectedSelf-Directed

Theory X(traditional approach)

Theory Y(modern approach)

DistrustingAccepting, promotes

bettermentOrientation

toward people

Low (disinterested) High(very interested)

Interest in working

Basically LazyNeed to achieve

and be responsibleAssumptionsabout people

Work when pushedWork when

appropriately trainedand recognized

Conditions underwhich people

will work hard

Theory X Versus Theory Y

Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)

Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene FactorsHygiene Factors Motivational FactorsMotivational Factors

• Quality of supervision• Rate of pay• Company policies• Working conditions• Relations with others• Job security

• Quality of supervision• Rate of pay• Company policies• Working conditions• Relations with others• Job security

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

• Career Advancement

• Personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0

Two-Factor Theory of Job Satisfaction

• Quality of supervision• Pay• Company policies• Physical working conditions• Relations with others• Job security

Hygiene factors

Job Dissatisfaction

• Promotion opportunities• Opportunities for personal growth• Recognition• Responsibility• Achievement

Motivators

Job Satisfaction

Job enrichment – • a high degree of control• determine how to do their jobs•vertical job loading

Job enlargement • expansion of the content of a job• more variety• does not increase responsibility nor skills

horizontal job loading• may help to improve job performance

Job Design

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

ExistenceExistenceExistenceExistence GrowthrowthGrowthrowth

RelatednessRelatednessRelatednessRelatedness

ERG Theory

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

The TheoryThe Theoryof Needsof Needs

DavidDavidMcClellandMcClelland

The TheoryThe Theoryof Needsof Needs

DavidDavidMcClellandMcClelland

Need forNeed forAchievementAchievement

(nAch)(nAch)

Need forNeed forAchievementAchievement

(nAch)(nAch)

Need forNeed forPowerPower(nPow)(nPow)

Need forNeed forPowerPower(nPow)(nPow)

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

(nAff)(nAff)

Need forNeed forAffiliationAffiliation

(nAff)(nAff)

David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

Matching High Achievers and Jobs

Self-Efficacy

Self Esteem, which is….

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.

•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)

•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

Cognitive EvaluationCognitive Evaluation

IntrinsicMotivatorsIntrinsic

MotivatorsExtrinsic

MotivatorsExtrinsic

Motivators

• SpecificitySpecificity

• ChallengeChallenge

• FeedbackFeedback

• ParticipationParticipation

• CommitmentCommitment

• Self-efficacySelf-efficacy

• CharacteristicsCharacteristics

• CultureCulture

Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

ConsequencesConsequences

RewardsRewards

No RewardsNo Rewards

PunishmentPunishment

BehaviorBehavior

Reinforcement Theory

• Similar to Goal-Setting Theory, but focused on a behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.

– Behavior is environmentally caused– Thought (internal cogitative event) is not important

• Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored

– Behavior is controlled by its consequences – reinforcers

– Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior

– Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause

Adams’ Equity Theory

• Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to-inputs of relevant others.– When ratios are equal: state of equity exists

– there is no tension as the situation is considered fair

– When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness

• Underrewarded states cause anger• Overrewarded states cause guilt

– Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

Ratio Comparison*

Employee’sPerception

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes A

Inputs A

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

Outcomes B

Inputs B

<

=

>

Inequity (Under-Rewarded)

Equity

Inequity (Over-Rewarded)

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

SocialComparison

PersonA

PersonB

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

InputsAngry

Guilty

Underpaymentinequity

for Person A Overpaymentinequity

for Person B

LessThan

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

InputsSatisfied Satisfied

Equitablepayment

for Person A

Equitablepayment

for Person B

EqualTo

Equity Theory

Overpaymentinequity

for Person A

Underpaymentinequity

for Person B

GreaterThan

Outcomes

Inputs

Outcomes

Inputs

Guilty

Angry

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.

Expectancy of performance

success

Instrumentality of success in

getting reward

Valuation of the reward in

employee’s eyes

Expectancy Theory

3. Rewards-personal goals relationship

1. Effort-performance relationship

2. Performance-rewards relationship

IndividualIndividualEffortEffort

IndividualIndividualPerformancePerformance

PersonalPersonalGoalsGoals

OrganizationalOrganizationalRewardsRewards

1 2

3

Expectancy Theory

Performance DimensionsPerformance Dimensions

OpportunityOpportunityMotivationMotivation

AbilityAbility


Matching High Achievers and Jobs

Self-Efficacy

Self Esteem, which is….

Individuals’ degree of liking or disliking themselves.

•An individual’s feeling that s/he can complete a task (e.g. “I know I can!”)

•Enhances probability that goals will be achieved

Not to be confused with:

Self-Efficacy and Goal Setting

Elizabeth’s boss starts out the day each

morning saying, “Bet you wish you

didn’t have to be here, huh?” Knowing

this, which theory gives us insight as to

why Elizabeth may not be motivated at

work?

Chapter Check-Up: Motivation

Elizabeth’s boss may well be a

Theory X manager, as s/he

assumes employees don’t like

work and/or want to be there.


If you study really hard and only get a

B on an exam, but your classmate

barely studies at all and gets an A, what

theory will help explain why you feel

less motivated to go to class?


What theory would say that this man, who

knows he works hard and is performing well,

will be motivated by a gym membership for

being a high performer?


Expectancy Theory.

Would a gym membership be considered a motivator or hygiene factor, according to Herzberg? Discuss with a classmate.


the university of texas at tyler dr. marilyn young mana3311 –organizational behavior &...

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