TheStruggleforMozambiquebyEduardoMondlane

Introduc:on

‘MozambicanPeople_InthenameofallofyouFRELIMOtodaysolemnlyproclaimstheGeneralArmedinsurrec:onoftheMozambicanpeopleagainstPortugueseColonialismfortheaGainmentofthecompleteindependenceofMozambique’.

Proclama(ontothepeopleofMozambiquebytheCentralCommi7eeofFRELIMOontheoccasionofthedeclara(onofwar,25September1964

Thefirstcombat

25September1964

CaboDelgadoProvince

DuringtheSeptemberundergroundmaneuvers,IreceivedanurgentcallfromMueda.Theopera(onalleadersfromthezonesofMontepuez,MocímboadaPraia,andPortoAméliaweresummoned.Iwasthere,andwithmetheotheropera(onalleaders.Wehadbeencalledtogethertohearinstruc(onsfromtheCentralCommi7eeconcerningthedayweweretostartoura7acksonthePortuguesetroops.On20Septemberwereceivedthisinforma(on_thestrugglewastobeginonthetwenty-fiXh.Weimmediatelybegantoorganizeourselves.Wealertedthechairmanofeachzone(Muidumbe,MocímboadaPraia,Montepuez,Chai,MocímboadoRubum,Nangade,Diaca)toorganizegroupsofsaboteurs.Theirtaskwouldbesabotagingbridges,railwaylinesandroads(bydiggingtrenchesandlayingblocksoftreetrunks).Wetoldthemtostartworkatsixpmonthenightofthetwenty-fourth.Weexplainedhowtheyshouldsetsomemenonwatchwhiletheteamworked.Mytaskwastodirectthea7ackonChai.Othergroupswoulda7ackotherzones.IleXMuedaformyzone,whereIarrivedon23September.Iinformedmycomradesofthedaywhenthestrugglewastostart.Wehadsixteenweapons:sixsubmachine-guns,sixriflesandfourautoma(cpistols.Weselectedagroupoftwelvecomrades,andleXbehindussomeweaponsforthedefenseofthebase.Onthemorningofthetwenty-fiXhwearrivedatthetownshipofChai.Wewentwithoutourshoesforfearthatweshouldbediscoveredbecauseofourbootsandfollowed.Thetownshiphasasecretariat,thehouseofthechefedoposto,thehouseofthemanagerofSagal(aco7oncompany),shops,ahospital,aprisonandthehousesofthepolicemenandofthewhitepolice.

WecampedneartheLakeofChai.Itoldoneofourcomradeswhowasinuniformtoputoncivilianclothesandgoouttoreconnoiterthetownship.Iputabandageonhisfootsothathecouldfeigninjury.Hewentouttothemedicalsta(oninthepost,stayedtheresome(meandthenwentuptothesecretariat.Hegotintoconversa(onwithanAfricanwhounknowinglyrevealedwherethetroopsslept:thewhitesoldierssleptbehindthehouseofthechefedoposto;theofficialssleptinhishouse;theAfricansoldierssleptinthesecretariat.ThisMozambicanalsotoldourcomradewherethesentrieswereposted(ontheverandaofthesecretariatandthehouseofthechefedoposto).Theguerillastayedali7lelonger,wentroundthehouseofthechefedopostoandtheprison,thenwentbacktothesecretariat.Hesawthreelorriesleaving,andlearntthattheyweregoingoutonahun(ngexpedi(on.Theywentouthun(ngeveryday.AXerthiseverynightonelorrywouldgoonpatrol.Ourcomradecamebackwiththisinforma(on.Imadeaplanofa7ack.Onemachine-gunwouldneutralizetheAfricantroopsinthesecretariat.Idecidedtoconcentratethea7ackagainstthehousewherethechefedopostoandthe

officialswere.Igaveeachcomradehisposi(onforthea7ack.Theyweretostaycamouflagedunderthemangotree.At16hourswecameoutintotheopen;at18hourswewereatthepost,inourposi(ons.ThePortuguesewerebeginningtolightthelampsinthehouses.At19hoursweadvancedun(lwereachedthehouseofthechefedoposto.

Whilewewereadvancing,thelorriesthathadbeenoutonthehuntreturnedandcamebetweenusandthehouse.Theyunloadedtheanimalswhichhadbeenkilled.Wewatchedtheireverymovement.Wewerenotseen.AXertheyhadunloaded,thesoldiersgotintothelorryandsetoffontheroadtoMacomia.Thelorriesdisappeared_wedecidedtheyhadgoneonpatrol.Theguardcameandsta(onedhimselfatthedoorofthehouseofthechefedoposto,seatedonachair.Hewaswhite.Iapproachedtheguardtoa7ackhim.Myshotwouldbethesignaltotheothercomradestoa7ack.Thea7acktookplaceat21hours.Whenheheardtheshots,thechefedopostoopenedthedoorandcameout_hewasshotandkilled.Apartfromhim,sixotherPortuguesewerekilledinthefirsta7ack.Theexplana(ongivenbythePortugueseauthori(eswas‘deathbymisadventure'.Wewithdrew.Onthefollowingdaywewerepursuedbysometroops_butbythat(mewewerefaraway,andtheyfailedtofindus.

Thissmallopera:on,reportedhereinthewordsofitscommander,wasoneofthefirstbaGlesinthewarnowbeingfoughtbytheMozambiqueLibera:onFrontagainstthePortuguese.Ittookplaceinthenorthernprovince,CaboDelgado,inconjunc:onwithothercoordinatedengagements,on25September1964,tomarkthebeginningofthearmedstruggle.Ifeventsfollowthecoursetheyhavebeentakinginthefouryearssince,thatdaymaywellgodownasoneofthemostimportantdatesnotonlyinthehistoryofMozambiquebutinthehistoryoftheAfricancon:nent.

Uptonowrela:velyfewpeoplehaveseenandcommentedonthesignificanceofMozambique.TheworldpressandeventheAfricanpressrarelymen:onit.‘Portuguese’Africahastradi:onallybeenanobscurepartofthecon:nent:thePortuguesedidnotwelcomeotherforeigners,andevenrecentlytheyhavemadeitdifficultforanyonetodoseriousresearchinthepartsofAfricatheycontrol,whetherinsuchsubjectsassocialstudies,economicsandanthropology,orintheapparentlyneutralfieldofthenaturalsciences.Theresultisadearthofinforma:onabouttheseareasandespeciallyaboutMozambique,wherethePortuguesethemselveshavedonelessworkthaninAngola.

Agoodillustra:onoftheignoranceaboutMozambiqueisthisremarkmadein1962,twoyearsbeforetheoutbreakofwar,byamanwhohadstudiedtheAngolansitua:oninsomedetail:

‘ItcanbearrangedthatinsomepartsofthePortugueseAfrica,par(cularlyMozambique,Portugueserulehasmaintainedanatmosphereofpeaceandapparentcontentment'.

Therearemanypeople,reasonablywellinformedabouttheEnglishandFrenchspeakingcountriesofAfrica,whocanscarcelyplaceMozambiqueonthemap.Ifthisislesscommonnowthanitwasafewyearsback,itismainlyduetothewhiteseGlerrebellioninRhodesia,whichfocusedaGen:ononthePortofBeiraandlocatedMozambiqueasthecountrywhichlaybetweenRhodesiaandtheIndianOcean.Buteventhosewhocannowiden:fyMozambiqueexactly,asalongthincountrystretchedalongtheEastCoast,betweenTanzaniaandSouthAfrica,rarelyknowmuchmoreaboutit,exceptperhapsthatitis‘Portuguese’.

Aboutthis‘Portugueseness'thereareinnumerablemisconcep:ons.Themostcommon,largelytheproductofskillfulpublicrela:onsworkbyPortugal,concernsthe‘non-racial'Portuguese.Thisillusionisdealtwithatsomelengthelsewhereinthisbook.Anotherisanexaggeratedideaofthedepthandan:quityofPortugueseinfluenceinthearea.ItistruethatVascodaGama,onhisfamousvoyage,

landedtherein1498,thatsubsequentlysporadicvisitsweremadebyPortugueseships,andsomesmallisolatedtradingpostsestablished.ButtheideathattheseearlytradersfoundinEastAfricaasavagecoastlineandcompletelyprimi:vepeopleonwhichtheycouldeasilyimprinttheir‘civilizinginfluence'isfarfromthetruth.ArabtradershadalreadyvisitedandseGledthecoastforsomethinglikeathousandyears,spreadingIslamandsomeoftheirmaterialcultureamongthepeopleofthecoast.

Asfortheinterior,bythefiaeenthcentury,highlyorganizedandmateriallyadvancedBantustateshadgrownup,stateswhichwereresponsibleforseGlementslikethegreatstonecityofZimbabwe.Thesepeopleforcenturieshadrela:onswiththePortugueseontheirownterms,withPortugueseinfluenceexercisedthroughcourtintrigueandreligiousblackmailamongtheirfewconvertsratherthanthroughanpoli:calorculturalstrengthinthearea.

PerryAndersoninLePortugaletlafindel'ultra-colonialismereportsthatin1854‘Livingstonecalculatedthattherewere830whitesinLuandaandonly100intherestofAngola.Thus,inthemiddleofthenineteenthcenturyonecanes:matethattherewerenevermorethan3,000Portuguesena:onalsinthewholeofAfricasouthoftheSahara'.

EvenattheendofthenineteenthcenturythePortuguesehadmadeveryliGleimpressiononMozambique.OliveiraMar:nsgivesusthegeneraldescrip:onofthePortuguesepossessionsin1890.‘Tostandonguard_triggerless_onthewallsofaruinousbas:on,alongsideacustomshouseandapalacewherebadandill-paidofficialsvegetate,watchingwithfoldedarmsthetradewhichforeignerscarryonandwecannot;towaiteverydaytheraidsoftheblacks,andtoheareveryhourthedisdainandderisionwithwhichallAfricantravelersspeakofus_franklyitisnotworththetrouble'.

Beforethe1961explosion,Angolawasalsoverymuchofanunknownquan:tytopeopleoutsidethePortugueseempire.Buttherevoltandthesubsequentreprisalsbecameheadlinenewsfora:meintheworldpressandraisedAngolaoutofherobscurity.Thewarwhichstartedin1964forMozambiquehasnothadthesameeffect.ForaboutayearthePortuguesewereverysuccessfulinkeepingacurtainofsilenceacrosswhatwashappening.Theyallowedinveryfewreporters,andselectedonlythosewhichtheyweresurewouldreporttheirpointofview.Thenin1965theymadeamistake.TheyallowedinLordKilbracken,andalthoughatthat:meheclearlyhadliGlesympathywithFRELIMO,hedidreporttruthfullywhathesaw.Theresultwasaseriesofar:clesintheEveningStandardwhichdescribedastateoffull-scaleguerillawarfare.SincethenmostofthemajorEuropeanandAmericanpapershaveatsome:megivenitcoverage,butthesear:clesseemtohavemadeliGleimpressiononpublicimagina:on.Now,fouryearslater,mostpaperss:llrefertoitas‘theforgoGenwar'.

Publicinterestinthisfieldhaslaggedalongwaybehindcommercialinterest.Eveninthe1930s,interna:onalbusinesswasbeginningtowakeuptothegreateconomicpoten:alinAngolaandMozambique.AnEnglishvisitor,PatrickBalfour,remarkedexpressively,‘ThePortuguesecoloniesarenolongeraltogetherajoke'.Foralmostanotherthirtyyears,however,thePortuguesepolicyofrestric:ngforeigninvestmentpreventedthisinterestfromhavingmuchprac:caleffect.Bytheendofthe1950s,thestateofunrestinAngolawascausingenoughalarminthegovernmenttobringaboutageneralrevalua:onofpolicy.Withtheoutbreaksofhos:li:esin1961itbecameclearthat,completelyalone,PortugalmighthavedifficultyinkeepinghergriponAfrica.AninfluxofforeigncapitalinhercolonieswouldbothrelievethefinancialburdenandaGractsomepoli:calsupportfrominterestedgroupsabroad.Thus,theoldlawsrestric:ngforeigninvestmentwereabandonedinfavorofan‘opendoor'policy,whichproducedaflowofforeignmoney.Now,withhugecompanieslikeGulf,Firestoneand

Anglo-Americanrapidlyextendingtheirinterests,thePortuguesecolonieshavebecomeintheworldofbigfinancesomethingveryfarfrom‘ajoke'.

ThewarinMozambique,therefore,hasbeenfollowedwithconsiderableinterestinbusinesscircles.Attheendof1967theconserva:veFrenchnewspaperFigarodevotedtwoeditorialstotheques:on.BothdrewaGen:ontotheposi:onofMozambiqueinrela:ontotheeconomicresourcesoftherestofSouthernAfricaandtotheworldtraderoutes.On24October1967GeneralBethouartwrote:

AcenturyaXertheopeningoftheSuezCanal,thesearoutetoIndiaandtheFarEasthasreturnedtotheCaperoute.Theeventisimportant.Itwillnotbetemporary.Unabletotakethenewlargetankers,Suezwillalsocon(nuetobehandicappedbytheconvulsionsshakingtheArabworldfromAdentotheYemenandtoCairowheretheRussiansareentrenched.

Facedwiththissitua(onintheWestmustreviseitspolicytowardsSouthAfricaandthePortugueseprovinceswhich,throughtheirgreatseaports,controltheoujlowoftheprodigiousmineral,agriculturalandindustrialrichestobefoundinlargequan((esinthatpartofthecon(nent.

DavidRousset,on8November1967,endorsedBethouart’sremarksaboutthenewimportanceoftheCaperouteandelaboratedontheeffects:

OneknewwellenoughthatwhenSouthAfricaexplodedtheworldwouldshake,butnoonethoughtoftheeventasnear.OntheotherhandthewarwhichwasraginginthePortuguesecoloniesseemedtobewithoutworld-wideimplica(ons,Portugalbeingtoosmallapieceonthechessboardofthebigindustrialcountries…ThereturntotheCaperoutegivesastrategicvaluetotheguerillainthePortuguesecolonies.Toseethisoneneedonlyglanceatamap.

Mozambique,AngolaandPortugueseGuineaoccupykeyposi:ons.TherethePortuguesearestrugglingwithanenemywhoisalreadystrong,wellledandintegratedintoaninterna:onalmachine.Onecanreasonablyguessthatassoonasthestrategicvalueoftheseposi:onsisclearlyunderstood,theywillgetmoreaGen:onandmoreeffec:veaid.ThePortuguesecoloniesareemergingfromtheposi:onofmetropolitanprovinces.AsaresulttheSouthAfricanques:onisalsoposedinnewterms.Fortheworldbalancehasbeenmodified.

ThesignificanceofMozambiqueintheRhodesiaissuehasbeengivenremarkablyliGleaGen:on,althoughon27December1967theGuardiandidpointout:

TheFrenchhaveamucheasierrouteintoRhodesiathantryingthecomplicatedbusinessofrou(ngoilthroughBeira.Theyjusttakeit400milesdownthecoasttoLourençoMarqueswherenobodyputstheleastobstacleintheirway.

Itshouldhavebeenself-evidentfromthegeographicalposi:onofthetwocountriesthattheaktudeoftheMozambiquegovernmentmusthaveanenormousimpactonRhodesia'sabilitytoevadesanc:ons.

Theques:onsraisedbythesear:clesmustmakeitclearthat,ifthewarinMozambiqueremainsforgoGenbythegeneralpublic,incertaincirclesitisbeingwatchedwithacuteinterest.TheinterestsbroughtintoplaybythewarreachnotonlybeyondMozambiqueandPortugalbutbeyondAfrica.Itseemsimpossiblethatthewarwillremain‘forgoGen'muchlonger.Alreadyar:clessuchasBethouart's,speakingfortheoutsideinterestedpar:es,arepreparingthegroundforinterven:on,predic:ngchaosandcollapseofWesternChris:anciviliza:oninthearea,andhin:ngatthepresenceofthe‘Bolsheviks'andthe‘yellowhoards’behinditall.Topreparethemoralclimate,the‘roleofthePortuguese

coloniza:on'fortheAfricanisbeingeulogized;thestoryoftheassimila:onpolicy,paternalismandnon-racialism,dressedupfordisplay.

ThepurposeofthisbookistoshowwhatthePortuguesecoloniza:onhadreallymeantfortheAfrican,totracethetrueoriginsofthewar,andtotrytoindicatewhatthestrugglemeanstothepar:cipantsandwhatisemergingfromitintermsofnewsocialstructureswhichmayhelptomoldtheAfricaofthefuture.

Note:Theaccountofthefirstcombatgivenherecomesfromasemi-officialreportpublishedinMozambiqueRevolu(on,September1967.

Thepersonalhistoriesquotedelsewherecomemainlyfromaseriesofinterviewstape-recordedinoneofourmilitarycampsbyamemberofFRELIMOearlyin1968andtranslatedfromthePortuguese.TheseFRELIMOinterviewsareindicatedinthetextby(F.I).Anexcep:onisthelifestoryofAlbertoJoaquimChipande,whichwasrecordedinEnglishbyBasilDavidsonattheSecondCongressofFRELIMO,July1968.Thisisindicatedby(D.I).

November1968

PartOne:UnderPortugal

Chapter1.Coloniza:on_TheTradi:on

Whenthewhitescametoourcountrywehadtheland,andtheyhadthebible;nowwehavethebibleandtheyhavetheland.

Africansaying

ThePortugueseclaimtherighttocontrolthepartsofAfricaknownasAngola,Mozambique,GuineaBissau,theCapeVerdeIslands,SãoTomeandPrincipeislands.TheseAfricancoloniesareprac:callyallthatisleaoftheempirewhichthePortugueseestablishedinthesixteenth,seventeenth,eighteenthandnineteenthcenturies.Angolacoversthelargestarea,butMozambiquehasthelargestpopula:on(nowprobablyabout8million,althoughofficialsta:s:csgiveitasnearer7million).

ContactsbetweenPortugalandpartsofwhatisnowknownasMozambiquebeganattheendofthefiaeenthcentury,whenVascodaGama,thecelebratedPortuguesenavigator,reachedtheislandofMozambiqueinearlymarch1498.SincethemaininterestofthePortuguesekingswhosponsoredthesetripswasinopeningasaferroutetoIndiathanthethendangerousNearEastlandroute,thePortugueseweresa:sfiedformanyyearswiththeprovisioningsta:onstheyestablishedalongtheEastAfricancoast,andtheyleatherestoftheinterioruntouched.ThePortugueseclaimnowthattheyhavebeeninMozambiqueforover450years,implyingthatforallthat:metheyhavecontrolledthecountrypoli:cally.Ifthereisanytruthinthisclaim,itliesinthefactthatsoonaaertheirfirstcontactwiththepeopleofthecoastalregionofEastAfrica,thePortuguese,envyingthewealthandpoweroftheArabrulersofthe:me,organizedwhateverforcestheycouldmusterandfoughttheirwayintoaposi:onofcontrol.TakingadvantageoftherivalrieswhichexistedamongthesheriffsandsheiksofsuchcitystatesasPate,Malindi,Zanzibar,MozambiqueandSofala,famousfortheir‘prosperityandelegance’theyatlastsucceededinmonopolizingthethenveryrichtradeinivory,goldandpreciousstones.

Inthecitystates,poli:caldevelopmentlaggedbehindmaterialandculturalprogress.AccordingtoprofessorJamesDuffy:‘Poli:calunityamongthesecitystateswasatransitoryburden.Eachlocalprincedefendedhiscity'spoli:calandcommercialindependence,andatno:mewasthereanEastAfricanna:on,althoughthestrongertownsatone:meoranotherdominatedtheirweakerneighbors’.

YeteventhoughthePortugueseexploitedthissitua:on,theywereneverabletoimposealas:ngpoli:calcontrol,exceptonaverythincoastalstriprunningfromCaboDelgadotothecitystateofSofala.By1700,aresurgenceofIslamicinfluenceinthispartofAfricahadbeenableeffec:velytoeliminatePortuguesetradersandsoldiers,andtodrivethePortuguesefromscoresoftownswhichtheyhadheldfrom:meto:me.

Fromthebeginningoftheeighteenthcentury,thePortugueseconcentratedonwinningcontrolovertherichcommerceoftheareabetweenCaboDelgadoandtheZambezibasin,inanaGempttocapturetheflowofgoldfromthethenfamousgoldminesofMonomotapa,whichtheybelievedtobetheproverbial‘KingSolomon’smines'.Inthisinstance,theirac:vi:esaffectedanareaincludedwhatistodayknownasZambiaandZimbabweorSouthernRhodesia.ThecapitalofMonomotopa'sempirewaslocatedinMashonalandandwaspartoftheMakalangaconfederacyofthat:me.

For200years,thePortuguesewerethusabletoderiveagreatdealofwealthfromtheircontrolovertheflowofcommercefromtheinteriorofthecountrytothecoastalcitystatesandabroad.Duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,PortugueseauthoritywasfirmlyestablishedintheNorthernandcentralpartsofMozambique,sothatitwaspossibletointroduceCatholicmissionaries,firstDominicansandthenJesuits,whointroducedChris:anitytoEastAfrica.Butwhateversuccessthisfirstmissionaryeffortachieved,wasalmostcompletelydestroyedintheeighteenthcentury,bythecorrup:ngeffectsofthealliancebetweenthecommercial,religiousandpoli:calac:vi:esofChurchandState.

ThisalliancebetweenChurch,Stateandcommercialinterestsdatesbacktotheverybeginningofcolonialexpansion.In1505,KingManuelgaveanordertoenslavetheMuslimmerchantsofSofala,

‘becausetheyareenemiesofourHolyCatholicFaithandwehavecon:nualwarwiththem'.Therealreasonfortheexpulsion,commercialcompe::on,isopenlyadmiGedinaleGerfromDuartedeLemostothecrown,urgingthekillingorexpulsionof‘respectablemoors'andexemp:ngtheSwahilis(althoughtheywereusuallyMuslimbyreligion),‘sincetheyarelikeanimals,andsa:sfiedwithgainingahandfulofmaize;norcantheyharmus,andtheycanbeusedforanykindofworkandtreatedlikeslaves'.ThesplitcausedintheEuropeanChurchbytheInforma:onwasclearlyagreatblowtothePortuguese.MarceloCaetanocomplainsthat‘thereligiousinforma:onalmostledtothedissolu:onoftheEmpire,sincethecountrieswhichleatheRomancommunionfailedtorespectthepon:ficalbullswhich,inexchangeformissionarywork,commiGedtoPortugalthenewlydiscoveredlandsandgaveherexclusivesovereignty’.

TheReforma:onmayhavediminishedtheusefulnessoftheChurchasapoli:calallyininterna:onalaffairs,butatlocalleveltheChurchremainedapowerfulforce,andwasrewardedforitsworkwithgrantsoflandwhichwereexploitedlikeanysecularestate.

ItwasduringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturiesthattheprazosystemwasintroducedinMozambique.PrazeiroswerePortuguesewhiteandGoanseGlersandlandownerswho,notunlikeEuropeanfeudallords,ruledthoseAfricanswhohadthemisfortunetofallundertheirauthorityandcontrol.ThelotoftheseAfricanswasworsethanthatofslaves.Theprazeirosoaencontrolledwholedistrictsaspersonalproper:es,andrecognizednolawbuttheirown,onlyoccasionallypayingtheirvassalagetotheKingofPortugal.JesuitandDominicanmissionariesofthe:mealsocametoownvasttracksofland,administeringthemlikeanyprazeiro,collec:ngheadtaxesand,whenslaverybecamemoreprofitable,dealinginslaves.Itwasoutoftheprazosystemthatthegreatlandcompanies,suchastheNiassaandManicaeSofala,developed.ThepeculiarlyPortugueseconcessionarycompanysystem,whichtypifiesthemajoreconomicenterprisesofPortuguesecolonialism,probablyderiveditsrefinementsfromtheprazosystemofthisperiod.

Corrup:onintheprazosystemwassorampantthat,bythethirddecadeofthenineteenthcentury,eventhePortuguesegovernmentfeltcompelledtooutlawit.Itsdisregardforpersonsandpropertywasnotorious,andtheslavingmanorlordsdroveanexcessivenumberofAfricansawayfromtheareaaltogether.

Mostofsuchac:vi:esinEastAfricatookplaceprimarilyalongthethincoastalstrip,involvingmostlycommunica:onwiththeArabsandtheSwahilis,andonlyverysuperficialcontactswiththebulkoftheBantu-speakingpeopleofpresentdayEastAfricaandMozambique.

ItisfromtheproverbialscrambleforAfrica,whichbeganinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcentury,thatwemustdatethestartofthePortugueseconquestofwhatisnowMozambique.

Aaerthepar::onofAfricaattheBerlinConferenceof1884_5,Portugalwasimpelledtocaptureandcontrolwhathadbeenassignedtoher.Andinordertoaccomplishthis,thePortugueseusedeverytechniqueknowninthehistoryofcolonialconquest.Whereitwaspossible,sheusedinfiltra:onbyPortuguesetraders,whodisguisedthemselvesassimplebusinessmeninterestedintheexchangeofgoodsbetweenequals;butsubsequently,havingthoroughlyspiedandmappedoutawholeregion,theysentintheirmilitaryforcestowipeoutanyresistancefromlocalrulers.At:mesthePortugueseusedwhiteseGlers,whopretendedthattheyneededlandtofarm,butwho,aaerhavingbeenaccommodatedbythena:vetradi:onalrulers,claimedpossessionofthecommunallandsandbeganenslavingtheirAfricanhosts.Some:mesevenPortuguesemissionarieswereusedas‘pacifiers'ofthe

na:ves,withtheChris:anfaithofferedasalullaby,whilethePortuguesemilitaryforcesoccupiedthelandandcontrolledthepeople.

Wherethetradi:onalpoli:calauthoritywasstrong,andthemilitarymachineryadequateinofferingseriousresistancetoEuropeanconquest,thePortugueseweremoretacrul,usingtechniquesofini:alcontactwhichweremoregentle.TheywerepreparedtobegintheircontactswithstrongAfricanstatesbyestablishingdiploma:crela:ons,sendingPortuguese‘ambassadors'tothecourtsofthemostimportanttradi:onalrulers.Then,aaerhavingsufficientlyexploredtheinternalstrengthsandweaknessesofthegovernment,theyproceededtoaGack,usingthetradi:onalexcusesof‘provoca:on'or‘protec:onofwhiteseGlersormissionaries'.

ThewaragainstGaza,thelastoftheMozambicantradi:onalempires,wasjus:fiedinthisway.Beginningin1895,itfinishedthreeyearslaterwiththedeathinbaGleofGeneralMagigwaneandthecaptureanddeporta:onoftheemperorGungunhanatoPortugal,wherehediedseveralyearslater.

Atthebeginningofthetwen:ethcentury,thePortuguesebegantosetuptheirsystemofadministra:on,althoughitwasnotun:ltheearly1920sthatarmedresistancefromtheAfricanpopula:onwasfinallycrushedinallareasoftheterritory.

Themenwhowereinchargeofthiscampaignofpacifica:onsetthepaGernforfuturecolonialpolicy,establishinginthewakeofconquestasystemofadministra:onwhichhaschangedliGle.Duringthepreviouscentury,theore:calcolonialpolicyhadfluctuatedwithpoli:calvicissitudesinLisbon,butwithinthecolonies,sincePortuguesecontrolwasperipheral,thesefluctua:onsmeantveryliGle.AliberallikeSàdaBandeiracouldlegislateagainstslaveryandoutlinemorehumanitarianprinciples;buthedidnothave,andcouldnotcreate,themachinerytoenforcehispolicies.Itwasonlyinthe1890sand1900sthatthePortuguesegovernmenthadthepowerinAfricatodevelopacolonialpolicywhichhadsomeapplicability.

AntónioEneswasthemostinfluen:alofthosewhosupervisedthepacifica:on.RoyalCommissionerofMozambiquein1894_5,hewassurroundedbyagroupofmilitarymen,manyofwhomfollowedhimintotheadministra:on.AmongthesewereMousinhodeAlbuquerque,whowasfêtedasacolonialheroinLisbonforhiscampaignagainstGungunhana,andwhosucceededEnesasRoyalCommissionerandwroteaworkonthenewlycontrolledcolony,Moçambique,1899;andEduardoFerreiradaCosta,governorofMozambiquein1896,GovernorGeneralofAngolain1906,andauthorofEstudosSobreaAdministraçãoCivildasProvinciasUltramarinas,whichsetsoutthemainprinciplesoffuturecolonialadministra:on.

Thesemenwereallformedinamilitarymold,devotedPortuguesepatriotswithliGle:meforthebroaderviewsofliberals.Theywereindignantatthehumilia:ngwayinwhichPortugalhadbeentreatedbytheothercolonizingpowers.Enes'sapproachwasstraighrorwardandprac:cal:thecoloniesweretobemadeuseful,providingPortugalwithprofitandpres:ge.Thismeantthattheconquesthadtobecompleted,anadministra:vesystemestablishedtosecuretheconquests,andtheneconomicexploita:onenerge:callypursued.Thechiefconsidera:onwasu:litytoPortugal;theconceptofmissioncouldbeleatotheoristsandapologists.HewasquiteclearabouttheroleoftheAfricans:likeeverybodyelseinthecolony,theyweretobeturnedtothepurposesofPortugal.‘Ifwedonotlearnhowtomakethenegroworkandcannottakeadvantageofhiswork,withinashortwhilewewillbeobligedtoabandonAfricatosomeonelesssen:mentalandmoreu:litarianthanwe’.

Thekeystoneintheadministra:vestructureswastheGovernorGeneral,whofirstwieldedhispowerfromthecapitalcityofMozambiqueinthenorth,andlaterfromLourençoMarquesinthesouth.Underhimwerethevariousprovincialgovernors;belowthesewerethedistrictintendentes,whosupervisedtheadministratorsofcircuits;theseinturnhadthedutytooverseetheworkofchefesdoposto,eachofwhomdirectlycontrolledthedailylivesofthousandsofAfricansinthecountry.Tofacilitatetheworkoftheadministratorsandthechefesdoposto,thePortuguesegovernmentre-establishedalimitedtradi:onalauthorityforseveralAfricanchieaains.ButinordertomakecertainthatnooneAfricanrulercouldeveracquiresufficientpowertochallengethewhiteman,thePortuguesegovernmentsplitthevariouschiefdomsintosmallterritories,eachwithonlyafewthousandpeople.AllAfricanchiefsweremadedirectlyresponsibletoeitherthecircuitadministratorortothechefedoposto.Evenmoreimportantwasthefactthatthechief'spowernolongerderivedfromaconceptoflegi:macywithintradi:onalsocietybutwasbasedontheconflic:ngconceptofPortugueselegality.Thechiefwasnolongertheleaderofhiscommunitybuttherepresenta:vewithinhiscommunityofahierarchicalcolonialauthority.Theoldpoli:cal:esbetweenthevariousAfricancommuni:esweresevered,andtheirplacetakenbyPortuguesepower.

Havingestablishedcompletepoli:calandadministra:vecontrol,andhavinghandedovertotheCatholicChurchtheresponsibilityforspiritual‘pacifica:on'ofthepeople,thePortuguesegovernmentproceededtodistributethenaturalresourcesofthecountrytothevariouseconomicinterestswhichwerevyingtoexploreandexploitthem.Suchnaturalresourcesincludedagriculturalland;thenaturalharborsofBeira,LourençoMarquesandNampula;thefivelargestriversofEastAfrica,allofwhichhavetheirestuariesinMozambique;allkindsofhardwood,rubberplants,palmtrees,wildanimalsforhidesandskins,fisheries,andaboveall,alargelaborforce.

ThePortuguesegovernmentleasedoutlargetractsoflandtoforeigncompanies,whichnotonlyacquiredrightsovernaturalresources,butwerealsoallowedtocontroldirectlythelivesofallAfricanslivingwithintheseleasedareas.Consequently,vastterritoriesinthecentralandsomenorthernregionsofMozambiquesoonenjoyedajuxtaposi:onofgovernments:thePortuguesecolonialauthority,asrepresentedbyitsgovernors,administratorsandchefesdoposto;andthelocalcompanies,whichhadamplerightstoforceallable-bodiedmen,andsome:meswomenandchildrenaswell,toworkintheirplanta:onsatnominalpay.

Tobeginwiththerewerethreelargecompanies:theMoçambique,theNiassa,andtheZambézia.AllhadtheblessingandencouragementofthePortuguesegovernment,andthefirsttwohadaformalcharter.Eachwasassignedanenormoussec:onofthecountrywithinwhichtoexploreandexploitmineralandagriculturalresources,andsetupthenecessarylinesofcommunica:on.Intheareaassignedtoit,eachhadamonopolyoncommerce,mining,construc:on,postalservicesandtherighttotransferland.Italsohadsolerighttocollecttaxes:thefounda:onofitspoweroverthelocalpopula:onanditsmeansofcollec:nglabor.Indeed,thecapitalofthesecompanies,partlyPortuguesebutlargelyforeign,wasextremelysmallinrela:ontotheareasalloGed,anindica:onthatexploita:onratherthandevelopmentwastheintentandthatanyprovisionsforbuildingschoolsandhospitals,orotherwisepromo:ngthewelfareofthepopula:onwerenottakenveryseriously,ifproposedatall.

TheMoçambiquecompanywasgiven62,000squaremilesinthedistrictofManicaandSofala;theNiassacompanywasgiventhevastareaoflandnorthoftheLúrioriver;andtheZambéziacompanywasgiventherichareaofQuelimaneandTete,thoughinthiscasewithoutadministra:verights.Infact,thislastcompanyprosperedmost,whiletheothercompaniesfoundthetaskofadministra:on,although

executedincompetentlyandlargelyturnedtotheiradvantage,aburdeninthelongrun.Thecompaniesdidnotyieldthelargeprofitsan:cipated,buttheydidseeapaGernforthefuture;extensiveuseoftheconcession,andcoopera:onbetweencompaniesandadministra:oninpursuingthesameends_profitforthecompaniesandsubmissionofthelocalpopula:on.

Atthesame:meanumberofsmallercompanies_mostofthemwholly,orpartly,foreign-owned_cameintobuildtheports,therailwaysandtoprospectformineralsinthesouth.Butalthoughtheseac:vi:estransformedthefaceofthecolony,theeffectsdidnotreachveryfar.Againtheexpectedprofitsdidnotmaterialize,andbiginterna:onalcapitallostinterest.TheextensivemineralresourcesofMozambiquehadnotyetbeendiscovered,andnearbySouthAfrica,withitssuppliesofgoldandothermetals,wasamuchmoreaGrac:veproposi:on.

Landremainedthemainsourceofprofit.Atthe:meofthePortugueseexpansion,nearlyallthelandinMozambiquebelongedtothevariousAfricanpeopleslivinginthearea,withtheexcep:onofregions,par:cularlyintheZambezivalley,wherethelandhadbeenexpropriatedbytheprazeiros.Inthelate1890sthethreebigcompaniescarriedoutfurtherextensiveexpropria:ons,conver:ngthelandmainlyintoplanta:onsandestatefarmsforgrowingcashcropslikesugar,sisalandcoGon.SeGlementwasaseparateaspectoflandaliena:on.Civilservantsandofficialswereencouragedtostayintheprovince,andeffortsweremadetoimportcolonistsdirectlyfromPortugal.FortheseschemeslandwasagaintakenfromitsAfricanowners.Alandpolicywasini:atedin1901,whenalllandnotprivatelyownedwasdeclaredtobepropertyoftheState.SincethevarioustypeofAfricanlandtenuredidnotcountasprivateownership,thismeantthatvirtuallyalllandownedandfarmedbyAfricanscameundergovernmentcontrol.

IntheorythegovernmentsetasidelargetractsfortheexclusiveuseofAfricans,supposedlytosafeguardtradi:onalownership.Inprac:ce,however,thiss:pula:onwaswavedwhereacompanyorindividualwantedland.Atthebeginningofthetwen:ethcentury,thegovernmentwasunabletoaGractmanyPortugueseseGlers,andpressurecamemainlyfromcompaniesandplanta:onowners.Atthat:me,therefore,onlyasmallamountoflandwasinfactalienatedtoseGlers;butthepolicyofseGlementwasestablished,sothatlater,whenademandarose,largeamountsoflandcouldbeseizedforthispurpose.

Duringthisearlydevelopmentofthecolony,agricultureandthesearchformineralsyieldedrela:velysmallprofits.Buttherewasoneresourcethatcouldbeprofitablyexploited:labor.Itwasonlaborthatalltheotherenterpriseswerefounded;theexploita:onoflaborwascentraltothewholedevelopmentofthecolony.

Inthepre-colonialperiod,theslavetradehadbeenthemostprofitableformofcommerceinMozambique,andtheprazoshadbeenbasedonslavelabor.ThusitisnotsurprisingthatthesystemofslaverysetthepaGernforearlycolonialdevelopment.

AlthoughourmainconcerniswiththeuseofslavelaborwithinMozambique,therearesomeaspectsofthetrafficinslaveswhichareimportant.Thefirstisitsrela:verecency.InMozambiquethetradebothreacheditsheightandcametoanendlaterthaninmostpartsofAfrica.ThedistancefromAmericanmarketsaccountsfortheslowstart,whilethedemandsfromtheFrenchsugarislandsledtoaboominthemidnineteenthcentury.Thesecondisthehistoryofitsaboli:on,whichbearsondevelopmentsinsidethecolony.Theini:almovementsagainstthetradecamenotfromthePortuguesegovernmentbutfromtheBri:sh,whowereatthat:metryingtoextendtheirinterests,andpossiblytheirterritory,intoareasofAfricaunderPortuguesedomina:on.Theresultwasatendencyfortheauthori:esin

Mozambiquenottotakeaboli:onveryseriouslyandtoignoreorcollaboratewiththeeffortsoftradersandseGlerstocon:nuethetrafficindefianceoflegisla:onbythedistantmetropolitangovernment.Moreover,legisla:veloopholeswereleawhichallowedthesameprac:cestopersistunderdifferentnames.In1836,adecreewaspassedprohibi:ngthetrafficinslaves;butthetradecon:nuedtoflourishasbefore,withtheonlydifferencethattheslavesmightbereferredtoas‘freeemigrélabor’whennecessary.In1854thestatusofliberto,orfreeman,wascreated,supposedlytoprovidetheusefultransi:onalstagebetweenslaveandfreeman;butinfactthisonlyservedtogiveofficialsanc:ontotheprac:ceofnotcallingaslave,aslave.Forthelibertoremainedboundforaperiodofsevenyearsandwassubjectedtoanumberofrestric:onsnotdissimilartothoseofslavery.Andin1866,forinstance,theBri:shcommissionersfromCapeTownreportedthat:‘AtIbo,PointPangane,Matemo,Lumbo,QuissangaandQuirima,from5,000to6,000slaveswereseenreadyforembarka:on…attheseGlementatPembaBaytheCapeCommissionisinformedthatthereisnotrafficcarriedonexceptinslaves’.

Asimilarsitua:onarosewhenthegovernmentsetaboutabolishingslaveryontheestateswithinMozambique.AGacksonthesystemfollowedsoonaaerthefirstmovesagainstthetradeweremade.Adecreein1869madeallslavesthroughouttheempirelibertosbutstatedthattheyshouldneboundtotheirmastersun:l1878.In1875thestatusoflibertowasabolished,buttheex-libertowass:llobligedtocontracthislaborfortwoyears.Thishalf-heartedmethodofaboli:ontendedtoencourageamongtheseGlerstheaktudethatfreedslavescoulds:llbeusedasslaves.Aclauseallowingvagrantslibertostobeforcedintolaborcontractsalsoleaalargeloopholewhichwasconsistentlyexploited.In1899,indeed,adecreewasissuedwhichgaveofficialsanc:ontothissmoothtransi:onfromslaverytoforcedlabor.Itstatethat‘allna:vesofPortugueseoverseasprovincesaresubjecttotheobliga:on,moralandlegal,ofaGemp:ngtoobtainthroughwork,themeansthattheylacktosubsistandtobeGertheirsocialcondi:on’.Iftheworkerfailedthroughhisowneffortstodothis,thegovernmentcouldintervenetoforcehimundercontractintoeitheritsownserviceorthatofanindividualemployer.Naturally,withareadysourceofcheapforcedlabor,therewerefewjobsavailableatalevelofpaywhichcouldaGracttheAfricanofhisownfreewill,andsinceonlyAfricanswithunusuallylargeandproduc:veplotsoflandcouldclaimexemp:onasfarmers,thedecreecoveredthevastmajorityoftheadultpopula:on.ThustheAfricanfoundhimselfdispossessednotonlyofhispoli:calpowerandhisland,butalsoofthemostrudimentaryrightstocontrolhisownlife.Hecouldbetreatedvirtuallylikeaslave:forcedtoleavehishomeandfamilytoworkalmostanywhere,forexcessivelylonghoursandformerelynominalpay.

Ifthispooloflaborcouldbeturnedtogoodaccountintheplanta:onsofMozambique,itwasfoundtobeevenmoreprofitableifexportedtotheminesoftheTransvaal.Theneedforlaborwassuchthattheminingcompanieswerepreparedtopaythecolonialgovernmentafeeforeachlaborersent.Variousconven:onsweredrawnupbetweentheUnionofSouthAfricaandMozambique,andin1903theWitwatersrandNa:veLaborAssocia:onwasgivenfullrightstorecruitlaborinMozambique.Whileotherenterpriseshadbeenlargelydisappoin:ng,thisexportoflaboratleastbroughtinasteadyprofit,anditbecamefirmlyrootedinthecolonialsystemasoneofthemainstaysoftheeconomy.

Thus,intheyearsbetween1890and1910,themaincharacteris:csofPortuguesecolonialismwereestablished:acentralizednetofauthoritarianadministra:on;thealliancewiththeCatholicChurch;theuseofcompanies,frequentlyforeign,toexploitnaturalresources;theconcessionsystem;forcedlabor,andtheextensiveexportofworkerstoSouthAfrica.Therehaveinevitablybeenminorchanges;butinitsessencethesystemtodayisthesame.

2.SocialStructure_MythandFact

Ibelievethatthegreatsuccessintherela(onsofthePortuguesewiththepopula(onsofothercon(nentsistheconsequenceofasuigenerisformofethnocentrism.Infact,thePortuguesedonotneedtoaffirmthemselvesbydenying…theyaffirmthemselvesthroughlove.HereliesthesecretofharmonyprevailinginalltheterritorieswherePortugalse7led.

JorgeDias(aPortugueseethnographer)

Ourpeoplehavesufferedagreatdeal.Myparents,Imyself,havebeenexploited.Myunclewasmurdered.

TeresinhaMblale(aMozambicanpeasant[F.I])

Mostimperialrégimeshavetriedtopainttheirac:vi:esinfavorablemoraltermsfortheconsump:onofpublicopinion.TheyaGributevariousvirtuestotheirpar:cularbrandofcolonialism,todifferen:ateitfromthenefariousprac:cesoftheirrivals.Portugal'sspecialclaimforhermethodsistheconten:on

thattheycontainnoelementofracialism.Tosupportthis,statementsandroyaldirec:vesarequotedasfarbackasthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies.Forexample,thisroyalorderof1763declared:‘Thatitwasmypleasurebymeansofanordinancedatedthe2ndAprilseventeenhundredandsixtyonetorevivethepiouslawsandpraiseworthycustomswhichhavebeenestablishedinthatstatewherebyallmyvassalsthereinborn,beingbap:zedChris:ansandhavingnootherlegalimpediment,shouldenjoythesamehonors,pre-eminences,preroga:vesandprivilegesthatthena:onalsofthisrealmenjoy'.

RecentlythegreaterinteresttakeninAfricanaffairshasledanumberofAfricanists,journalistsandhumanitarianstopointoutthefalsenessofthisclaim.Also,withthegeneralacceptanceaffordedtheprincipleofself-determina:on,Portugalhasbeensubjectedtoconsiderableinterna:onalcri:cismforhercolonialpolicy.Heranswertothishasbeenchieflytoreaffirmthisimageofthenon-racial‘colorblind'Portuguese,inordertoarguethatasequalci:zensofagreaterPortugaltheinhabitantsofhercolonieshavenoneedforindependence.AfewyearsagoDRAntóniodeOliveiraSalazar,thenPrimeMinisterofPortugalstated:‘Thesecontacts(inoverseasterritories)haveneverinvolvedtheslightestideaofsuperiorityorracialdiscrimina:on.IthinkIcansaythatthedis:nguishingfeatureofPortugueseAfrica_notwithstandingtheconcertedeffortsmadeinmanyquarterstoaGackitbywordaswellasac:on_istheprimacywehavealwaysaGachedandwillcon:nuetoaGachtotheenhancementofthevalueanddignityofmanwithoutdis:nc:onofcolororcreed,inthelightoftheciviliza:onwecarriedtothepopula:onswhowereineverywaydistantfromourselves'.

GilbertoFreyre,thewellknownBrazilianhistorian,hasdevelopedanelaboratetheoryofLuso-tropicalismtoaccountforthis‘dis:nguishingfeature'.Accordingtohim,thepeopleofLusitanian(Portuguese)backgroundwerespeciallyequippedbytheirRomanCatholictradi:on,andbytheirlongcontactwithpeopleofvariousethnicandreligiousbackgrounds.Theywere,sotosay,pre-ordainedtoleadtheworldtowardsracialharmonyandtobuildafarflungempirecomposedofpeoplesofvariouscolors,religionsandlinguis:cgroups.Hehasdevelopedthisintoamys:caltheoryoftheessen:alPortuguesecharacter:‘Portuguesesuccessinthetropicsislargelyduetothefactthat…theirexpansioninthetropicshasbeenlessethnocentric,lessthatofapeoplewhoseac:vi:esarecenteredintheirraceandtheirdeliberatelyethnicculturesystem_thanChristocentric_thatis,apeoplewhoconsiderthemselvesmoreChris:anthanEuropean'.

Yetevenontheleveloftheory,thePortuguesehavebynomeansbeensosolidonthispointastheofficiallineimplies.Inthe1890scolonialadministratorssuchasAntónioEnes,MouzinhodeAlbuquerqueandEduardodaCostamadeliGleefforttohidetheinegalitarianandracialistbasisoftheirviewsonthecolonialques:on.EnesopenlyadmiGed:‘ItistruethatthegeneroussoulofWilberforcehasnottransmigratedintomybody,butIdon'tbelieveIhaveinmethebloodofaslaver;IevenfeelaninnerfondnessfortheNegro,thisbigchild,ins:nc:velybadlikeallchildren_mayallmothersforgiveme_thoughdocileandsincere.Idonotconsiderhimsomethingtobeexterminatedbecauseofthenecessityfortheexpansionofthewhiterace,althoughImaybelieveinnaturalinferiority’.Hewasalsoastaunchsupporterofauthoritarianruleandforcedlabor:‘TheState,notonlyasasovereignofsemi-barbaricpopula:onsbutalsoadepositoryofsocialauthorityshouldhavenoscruplesinobligingandifnecessaryforcingtheserudenegroesinAfrica,theseignorantPariahsinAsia,thesehalf-wiGedsavagesfromOceania,towork'.

EventhestatementsquotedbythePortuguesethemselvesasproofoflackoftheirracialism,whenexaminedcloselyshowsignsoftheaktudesopenlyexpressedbyEnesandhiscontemporaries.Intheroyalorderpreviouslyquoted,thephrase‘beingbap:zedChris:an'iscrucial;theques:onofequality

couldonlyariseatallinthecaseofthe‘na:ves'whohadmadeeveryefforttoadoptPortuguesehabits.EverywherereferencestoAfricansinthecontextoftheirownsocietyarefullofscornoratleastpity:‘thenaturalsimplicityofthepeopleofthiscon:nent'.Theimplica:onisalwaysthatthePortuguesearenaturallysuperiortothepeopletheyhaveconquered,andthatthesecanonlyclaimanysortofequalitybyactuallybecoming‘Portuguese'.Inthemeanwhiletheroleoftheconquerorsisdescribedas‘ajust,humanitarianandcivilizingtutelage'.Thisisthepolicyof‘assimila:on',whichliesatthebaseofthePortugueseclaimtonon-racialism.ThetheoryisthateveryinhabitantofthePortugueseempirehastheopportunitytoabsorbPortugueseciviliza:on,andthatifhedoesthis,hewillthenbeacceptedonequaltermswiththosebornPortuguese,irrespec:veofcolorororigin.

Whetherprac:cebearsanyrela:ontotheorycanbeseenbyastudyofactualcondi:onsinMozambique.Unfortunately,anyaccountofcurrentsocialrela:onsinMozambiqueishamperedattheoutsetbythelackofanycomprehensivefieldstudiesmadebyoutsidesocialscien:sts,forthePortuguesegovernmenthasalwaysblockedtheaGemptstocarryoutsuchon-the-spotinves:ga:ons.Thisinitselfindicateshowawaretheauthori:esmustbethatthefactsdonotconformtotheirfavoredimage.Despitethisopposi:on,anumberofdeterminedBri:shandAmericanscholarshavebeenabletoclimbacrossthewallbuiltbythePortuguesegovernmentandsomehowgatherenoughinforma:ontosupplementpersonalobserva:onsandexperiences.Formuchofthebackgrounddata,however,andpar:cularlyforpopula:onfigures,itiss:llnecessarytorelyonPortuguesesources.Thisisscarcelysa:sfactory:first,becausethecensusmethodsarefarfromaccurate;secondly,becauseinaccordancewiththenon-racialimage,theauthori:esareunwillingtogiveabreakdownoffiguresbyethnicandracialgroups.

Theofficial1960_61sta:s:csgivethetotalpopula:onofMozambiqueas6,592,994.AccordingtotheJuntadeInves(gaçãodoUltramar,initsmonographPromoçãoSocialemMoçambique,(Lisbon,1964),thispopula:oniscomposedof‘threedis:nctsocio-economicstrata'.

(a) Aminoritypopula:on,quan:ta:velyabout2.5percentofthetotalpopula:on_composedofEuropeanwhites,Asians,MulaGosandafewAfricansconcentratedintheurbanareasandintheagriculturalandmineraldevelopments.ItisaWesternizedminority,andalmostallofthemareurbanized.Theyareemployedinmodernac:vi:es(enterprises),thestatederivingagreaterpropor:onofitspublicrevenuefromit.

(b) Anumericalminority_3.5percent,composedofelementsofvariousracesbutaboveallofAfricans,withatendencytoconcentrateintheperipheriesofthemostimportantpopula:oncenters.TheAfricansofthistypeofpopula:onareofruralorigin,havingthetendencyeithertoaGracttothemselvesdistantfamilyrela:ons,ortodetribalizethemselves,thusabandoning,atleastpar:ally,theculturalandsocialhabitsoftheirorigin.Theyturn,ingeneralintoasalaried(proletariat).

(c) Alargemajority_94percent_oftheAfricans(wemightaswellsayalmostallofthem)composedofthepeasants,wholivebasicallyunderaregimenofsubsistenceeconomy,complementedbysomewage-workofamigratorynatureandbysomecash-earningpeasantfarmers.Thesearetheresidentsoftribalregions,governedintheirlegalrela:onsbytradi:onallaw.

Somefiguresfor1950giveafurtherbreakdownofthefirstgroupintothefollowingsub-groups:

Whites:67,485

Orientals:1,956

Indians:15,188

MulaGos:29,507

Assimilados(African):4,555

Thewhitesarenumericallythelargestsub-group.Theyalsohaveaspecialposi:oninrela:ontotheothersub-groupsinthatmostofthembelongdirectlytotherulingna:onandclass.OntheotherhandtheAfrican,whetherhebelongstothesecondorthethirdgroupoutlinedabove,belongstodirectlytotheconqueredandcolonizedna:on.Thus,itistherela:onshipbetweenthesetwopeopleswhichmustbeconsideredthebasicrela:onshipinthestudyofsocialstructure.Asinanysocietytherearethreeessen:alaspectstobeconsidered:thelegal/poli:cal,theeconomicandthesocial.

Theposi:onofthe‘na:ve'

Aswehaveseen,thebackgroundtothepoli:calrela:onshipbetweenthePortugueseandtheAfricanisoneofconquest.ThePortuguesesoughttocontroltheAfricaneitherbyinfluence,orfailingthis,throughmilitaryconquestwhichdirectlydestroyedtheAfricanpoli:calstructure.ThecommentsofthePortuguese,JoãoBap:stadeMontaury,giveafairideaofthenatureofthisrela:onshipneartheendoftheeighteenthcentury:‘IngeneraltheK*ffirsofSena,whoareeitherslavesoftheseGlersorelsetributaryvassalsoftheState,aredocileandfriendlytothePortuguese,whomtheycallMuzungos.TheydislikeanyonewhoisnotPortuguese.…Thisdislikederivesfromasupers::ousfearthatthePortuguesehavespreadamongthem,tellingthemthatallMafutos(non-Portuguesewhiteforeigners)eattheNegroes,andotherabsurdtaleswhichtheyimplicitlybelieve.…Itistobehopedthatthisconvic:onwillendureinthemindsofthesaidK*ffirs,forinthiswaywewillalwaysbeabletodominatethemandtoliveundisturbed.TheyaremostobedientandsubmissivetotheirmastersandtoallMuzungosingeneral'.

Itwasnotun:ltheendofthenineteenthcentury,whenconquestwascompletedandacomprehensivecolonialadministra:onsetup,thatthefulllegalbasisoftherela:onshipbegantoemerge.Thesignificantpointaboutthegovernmentestablishedattheendofthenineteenthcenturywastheclearsepara:onoftwoadministra:vecodes,oneforAfricansandoneforEuropeans.Europeanareaswereadministeredaaerthemetropolitanmodelbytheconselho,orcouncil,withtheareaoftheconselhosubdividedintofrequesias,orparishes;Africanareasorcircumscripçõeswereadministeredbythechefesdopostoandhisadministradores,andsubdividedintoregedoriasorchiefdoms,inwhichachief,usuallyderivinghispowerratherfromappointmentbythePortuguesethanfromtheoriginaltribalstructure,simplycarriedouttheinstruc:onsoftheadministradores.

Themainlegisla:veachievementsoftheearlytwen:ethcenturyweretodefinethelegalbasisforthisdis:nc:onbetweentwotypesofpopula:on.TheNa:veAssistancecodeof1921definedthecivilizedAfricanasonewhocouldspeakPortuguese,haddivestedhimselfofalltribalcustoms,andwasregularlyandgainfullyemployed.HewastoberegardedasafullPortugueseci:zen,whileallAfricansnotansweringtothisdescrip:onweretoberuledundertheadministradores.Thiswasthebasisfortheassimiladosystem,wherebytheAfricanpopula:onwasdividedintoassimilados

(assimilated),a:nyminoritywhohadsupposedlyadoptedanessen:allyPortuguesewayoflife,andtheindígenas(na:ves),whoformedthevastmajorityoftheAfricanpopula:on.TheNewStateofSalazar,inthethir:esandfor:es,con:nuedthispolicy,elabora:ngandclarifyingpreviouslegisla:on.AregimedoindigenatowassetupinalltheAfricanterritories.TheAfricanpopula:onwasdividedintotwodis:nctcategories,indígenas(unassimilatedAfricans)andnãoindígenas(anyoneenjoyingfullPortugueseci:zenship,includingassimilatedAfricans,althoughinprac:cethesewereoaenregardedasbelongingtoathirdcategory).Theindígenahadnoci:zenship,hadtocarryaniden:tycard(cadernetaindígena),andwassubjecttoalltheregula:onsoftheregimedoindígenata,whichimposedonhimlaborobliga:ons,excludedhimfromcertainareasofthetownsaaerdark,andrestrictedhimtoafewplacesofentertainment,includingcinemasshowingspeciallycensoredfilms.Thenãoindígenahad,intheory,allprivilegeswhichwentwithPortugueseci:zenship.

AaertheSecondWorldWar,substan:alchangestookplaceintheworldoutside.Interna:onalorganiza:onsbecamemoreinfluen:al,theconceptofself-determina:onwasgraduallyacceptedbymostofthecolonialpowers,andtherewasageneralmovementtowardsgreaterdemocracyinmanypartsoftheworld.Portugalremaineduntouchedbythesetendenciesun:ltheIndianclaimstoGoadrewaGen:ontothecondi:onofhercolonialterritories,andPortugalbegantofeeltheneedtodefendhercolonialstand.Shestartednego:a:ngtojointheUN;butinordertodothissuccessfully,shehadtomakesomemovetomodernizethestructureofhercolonies.Herfirstac:on,in1951,wastotransformthecoloniesovernightinto‘overseasprovinces',makingthemanintegralpartofPortugalandsohopingtoavoidUNresolu:onsrela:ngtonon-self-governingterritories.TheunrestinAngola,whichin1961explodedintoarmeduprising,wasafurtherimpetustochangeandallowedagroupofgovernment‘liberals',ledbyAdrianoMoreira,togaininfluencewithinthecabinet.Theresultwasaseriesofreformswhichculminatedin1963withthepublica:onofaNewOverseasOrganicLaw.

Theques:onofci:zenshipwasdealtwithin1961when,on6September,theEstatutodosindígenaswasabolished,andallna:veinhabitantsofMozambique,AngolaandGuineaweremadefullPortugueseci:zens.Ithas,however,beenacharacteris:coftheSalazarrégimethatgovernmentonpaperbearsliGleresemblancetogovernmentinfact:thiscasewasnoexcep:on.Thereformwasmademeaninglessbytheissueofdifferenttypesofiden:tycardtothose‘ci:zens'whohadpreviouslybeenindígenandthosewhowerecountedasci:zensbefore1961.TheformerindígenaholdsaCartãodeiden(dadeonwhich‘provinceofMozambique'isclearlywriGenandwhichinsidespecifiesplaceofbirthandresidenceintermsofna:veadministra:vearea;theformerci:zenholdsaBilhetedeiden(dade,whichmakesnomen:onofprovinceorplaceofresidenceandwhichisineveryrespectiden:caltothatheldbyaci:zenlivinginmetropolitanPortugal.Thus,inprac:ceitiseasyfortheauthori:estodis:nguishbetweenthesetwoclassesof‘ci:zen',andthedetailssuppliedontheCartãodeiden(dadehelppoliceapplytheoldlawsrestric:ngtheac:vi:esandmobilityoftheindígena.

ThenewOverseasOrganicLawagainintheoryincreasedrepresenta:onintheoverseasprovinces:itallowedforanextensionofthemunicipalitysystem,wherebylocalofficialsareelectedonalimitedfranchisebytheinhabitantsofthearea;andalsoprovidedforpar:cipa:onintheelec:onstotheCentralLegisla:veAssemblyinLisbon.Thereisaclause,however,whichpreventsthisfromapplyingtotheAfricanpopula:on.Sec:onIIofAr:cleXLVstates:‘Transitorilyinregionswheretheeconomicandsocialdevelopmentdeemednecessaryhasnotbeenreached,municipali:esmaybereplacedby

administra:vedistricts,formedbyadministra:veposts,exceptwherethecrea:onofparishesprovespossible'.Inprac:ce,thismeansthatallareasinhabitedbyAfricansaregovernedbyPortugueseofficialsundertheoldauthoritariansystem,butthataparishcanbeformedforagroupofwhiteslivingwithinapredominatelyAfricanregion.

Thefiguresrela:ngtothe1964elec:oninMozambiqueshowaverystrongracialbias.Outofatotalpopula:onof6,592,994,therewereonly93,079,qualifiedvoters.Sincethetotalassimiladoandnon-Africanpopula:onwas163,149,itisclearthatnoteveneveryoneinthisgrouphadthevoteandthatthereforevirtuallyno‘indigenous’Africanwasenfranchised.Insomedistrictstherewasaveryclosecorrela:onbetween‘nonindigenous'popula:onandfranchise:

Localpopula(on.‘Non-indigenous'Voters

ManicaandSofala.779,462.31,205.31,054

CaboDelgado.546,648.3,894.3,890

Niassa.276,795.1,490.1,489

Innodistrictwasthefigureforvotershigherthanthefigurefor‘non-indigenous'popula(on,althoughinmanycasesitwasconsiderablylower.

Itshouldbeaddedthatevenfortheveryfewpeoplewhomitaffects,thelawdoesnotreallyprovideformuchlocalautonomy.ByAr(cleVIII,thesystemandscopeofoverseasgovernmentsaretobedictatedbytheNa(onalAssembly.ByAr(cleIX,theGovernor-Generalofeachprovinceisappointedbythecentralgovernment.ByAr(cleX,theoverseasMinisterinLisbonmay‘cancelorabolish…thelegisla(vedecreesoftheoverseasprovincesifhedeemsthemillegalorcontrarytona(onalinterest';byAr(cleXI,theOverseasMinister‘nominates,demotes,promotes,transfers,etc.,allstaffofthegeneralserviceoftheoverseasprovinces'.Perhapsmostdangerousofall,byAr(cleIX,generaleconomicpolicy,includingques(onsofse7lement,displacementandlabor,isdrawnupbythecentralgovernment.Clearly,evenifinthefutureasignificantnumberofAfricanswereenfranchised,theywouldnotgainanyworthwhilepoli(calpower.

SincetheAfricanremainsineffectwithoutci(zenshipanddivestedofallpoli(calpower,itwouldbesurprisingifthiswerenotreflectedinthecon(nuinginferiorityofhiseconomicsitua(on.TheunassimilatedAfricanisbylawseverelyrestrictedinhiseconomicac(vi(es:hemaynotengageinanycommercialac(vity,andhedoesnothavetheeduca(onalopportuni(estoenteraprofession.Thus,theonlywayhecangainalivingisbyagricultureorwagelabor.Andwagesarebasedonstrictlyracialconsidera(ons,asthefollowingrecentfiguresreveal:

Agriculturalwages:

Race.Annualwagesinescudos

Whites.47,723.00

Colored.23,269.10

AssimilatedAfricans.5,478.00

UnassimilatedAfricans.1,404.00

Industrialwages:

Race.Qualifica(ons.Dailywageinescudos

Whites.None.100.00minimum

Colored.None.70.00maximum

Africans.Semi-skilled.30.00maximum

Africans.Unskilled.5.00maximum

Togiveanindica:onofwhatthismeansinprac:calterms,herearetwobriefaccountsbyMozambicanAfricansoftheirownexperiences.ThefirstrelatestoanAfricanwithsomeskill,theabilitytodriveacar,andthusdescribesthecondi:onofafortunateminority:

NatachaDeolinda(ManicaandSofalaProvince):Myfatherdrovealorrytranspor(ngloadsofflour,sugar,rice,etc.,foracompany.…Heearned300escudosamonth($10.17cents)workingeverydayandoXenthenightaswell,whilethewhitelorrydriversearnedatleast3,000escudos($100.17cents)forthesamework.…Lifewasdifficultinourhousehold:weateabitofmaize,abitofflour,some(mesali7lerice,butitwasveryhardtobuymeat;averysmallpieceofmeatwouldcostatleast15.00escudos.(F.I)

ThesecondaccountisbyanordinarylaboreranddescribesworkontheteagrowingestateoftheSociedadedeCháOrientaldeMilange:

JoaquimMaquival(ZambéziaProvince):Myfatherearned,ands(llearns150escudosamonth($5.30cents)…

ThePortuguesewage-earnersearnedwell.Attheendofamonththeywouldbuyanewcar,whilewecouldn'tevenbuytea,andattheendofayearwedidn'thaveenoughtobuyabicycle.(F.I)

FormostAfricanstheonlyalterna:vetoheavymanuallaborisdomes:cwork,butwagesarelow,withcondi:onshardandoaenhumilia:ng.AnotherMozambicandescribesherexperiences:

TeresinhaMbale(CaboDelgadoProvince):Iwasneverabletogotoschoolaswedidn'thavethemoney.Ihadtoworkandwentasamaidtotheadministrator'shouse.Theypaidme50escudosamonth($1,75cents).Ihadtostartearlyinthemorningandworkthrough(llsunset,oXenintothenightaswell.Ididn'tgetmealsthere.Mybosseshitmeandinsultedme.IfIbrokeaglass,theyhitmeandshoutedatme,andattheendofthemonthIwouldnotgetpaid.(F.I)

Thelawitselfsanc:onsthisstateofacuteinequality.Suchwasimplicitintheearlylegisla:onwhichallowedforasmoothtransi:onfromslaverytoforcedlabor,butitwasnotun:laaertheestablishmentofthefasciststateinPortugalthatthesystemwasra:onalized.On6September1928,the‘Na:veLaborCode'waspublishedintheformofadecreeandwasincorporatedintotheColonialActof1930.PhilippeComtecommentedin1964:‘Theprincipleofdiscrimina:onwaswriGenintothenameevenofthe1928law:thereweretwosetsoflaborregula:ons,oneforna:ves,oneforothers,andtheformerimposedextremelyhardcondi:onsontheworker'.(RevueJuridiqueetPoli(que:IndépendenceetCoopéra(onnos.2_4April|1June1964.)Ar:cle3oftheCodesupposedlyforbadetheprac:ceofforcedlabor,butadded_‘withouthinderingthena:ves

fromaccomplishingthemoraldutyofassuringthemselvesbywork,ofthemeansofsubsistence,andinthiswayservingthegeneralinterestsofhumanity'.Ineffect,byitsotherar:clesthelawmakesfullprovisionforasystemofforcedlabor:Ar:cle294authorizesforcedlaborinexcep:onalcases,forurgentprojects;Ar:cle296permitsitincasesofurgency,or‘foranyotherreason',aphrasewhichtakesallmeaningoutofthewordexcep:onalinAr:cle294;Ar:cle299permitstheuseofforceinrecrui:nglabor.

TheprincipleofforcedlaboriscontainedeveninthePortuguesecons:tu:on,whichstatesinAr:cle146,s:llinforcetoday,that:‘TheStatecannotforcena:vestoworkexceptonpublicworksinthegeneralinterest…tofulfillsentencesofapenalcharacterandtofulfillfiscalobliga:ons'.

The1928Codeitself,however,wasabolishedinthecourseofthereformsprecipitatedbypost-warinterna:onalpressureandtheAngolaninsurrec:on.Aspartofhereffortstoescapefrominterna:onalisola:on,PortugalsignedtheInterna:onalLaborConven:onandtheAboli:onofForcedLaborConven:onin1959.Fromthenon,herownlaborregula:onshadtoconformwiththerequirementsoftheseconven:ons;in1960someoftheclausesgivingadministratorswidepuni:vepowerswererepealed,andminimumwageswereraised.Alsoin1961,thelegalbasisforcompulsorycroppingwasremoved.Sincethen,onpaper,therehasbeennoforcedlaborinMozambique.Butwehavealreadyseenhow,duringthewholehistoryoflaborcondi:ons,therehasbeenalongtradi:onofpaperreformswhichhavemadenodifferencetoactualprac:ce.InthenorthernareasofMozambique,compulsorylaborofalltypeswasprac:cedwidelyupto1964,whenthewareffec:velyputastoptoitbyforcingthePortuguesetowithdraw.

In1961acommissionoftheILOwenttoinves:gateallega:onsofforcedlaborinthePortuguesecoloniesandreportedthatitwasunabletofindadequateevidenceofadirectbreachbythegovernmentofthe1959Aboli:onofForcedLaborConven:on.Someofitsfindings,however,appeartocontradictthisconclusion:inMozambiquethecommissioninterviewedonlyonegroupofroadworkers,andthesestatedthattheyhadbeenorderedtoworkagainsttheirwillbytheirchefedoposto(ILOOfficialBulle:n,Vol.XLV,no.2,para.389);onthedocksatBeiraoneofthemeninterviewedhadbeensentagainsthiswill(ibid.,para.387);attheSenaSugarestates,onegroupofworkersinterviewed‘statedthattheywerenothappythereanditseemed…thattheyhadbeenorderedtocomebythena:veoradministra:veauthori:es’(ibid.,para.497).Ontheques:onoffinancialpressure,theHeadoftheNa:veAffairsDepartmenthimselfstatedthat‘na:veswererequiredtopaytheirtaxes,andiftheywerenotrichtheonlywayofobtainingthenecessaryamountwouldbebyworking…ifthetaxhadnotbeenpaid,thepersonconcernedwassentencedtocorrec:velabortoworkofftheamountdue'(ibid.,para.451).ThisevidencewasfoundinspiteofthefactthatthecommissionspentonlysixdaysinMozambiqueandonlyvisitedthemoreprosperousareasaroundLourençoMarques,BeiraandQuelimane.Furthermore,althoughthecommissiondidonsomeoccasionsinterviewworkerswithoutanyofficialbeingpresent,fearofthePIDE(thePortuguesepoli:calpolice)woulds:llhavehadanunseeninfluenceonalldiscussions.

In1962anewlaborcodewaspublished,calledthe‘RuralLaborCodefortheAfricanprovincesandTimor'(DecreeLaw44,310,27April1962).Theprincipleofdiscrimina:onisnolongerstatedinthe:tle,butinfactthelawhasapplica:ontothesamepeoplereferredtointheoldlawas‘na:ves'.‘Rural’inthecodestandsfor‘unqualified'_agriculturallaborers,miners,factoryworkers,domes:cservants,‘alllaborwhoseservicesconsistofthesimpleac:vi:esofthelaborforce'.Inthiswaydiscrimina:onisretainedinprac:cealthougheliminatedinappearance.Thesameistrueofforced

labor.Ar:cle3oftheCode,followingtradi:on,abolishesforcedlaboryetagainandstatesthatpenalsanc:onscannolongerbeusedtoenforcecontractsorthepaymentofthehead-tax.Thisismeaninglessinprac:ce,however,sincecivilsanc:ons,thepaymentofcompensa:on,remain,andthefailuretocomplywiththesecanbepunishedascontemptofcourtwithaprisonsentence.Adecreelawof29December1954statesthat‘prisonsentencesservedonna:vescanbereplacedbysentencesofhardlaboronpublicworks'.Thusforcedlaborcancon:nuewithoutbreakingtheleGerofthenewlaw.

Itisclearfromthewholebodyofrecentlegisla:onthattheAfricaninMozambiqueisineconomicandpoli:calsubjec:ontothewhiteman.Eventhelawprovidesforinequality,whileactualprac:cegoesfarbeyondthis,tokeeptheAfricanfirmlyintheroleofasecondclassbeingwhosewholefunc:onistoservethePortugueseminority.Itisonlytobeexpectedthatsocialrela:onsshouldreflectthis.Therecentexpansionofthewhitepopula:onhasmadetheexistenceofseparateracialcommuni:esincreasinglyobvious.Sincethethir:es,Portugalhasbeenverysuccessfulinhereffortstoencourageimmigra:ontotheAfricanterritories,andbetween1932and1960thewhitepopula:onofMozambiqueincreasedfrom18,000to85,000.Theresultofthishasbeenthedevelopmentofaclearwhitegroup,separatefromandsuperiortotherestofthepopula:on:thecentralareasoftownsarewhite_theAfricanpopula:onlivesinslumsaroundtheedges_therearewhitecinemas,whiterestaurants,hospitalshaveseparatewardsforwhitepeople,andinBeiraeventhebusesaresegregated.

Assimila:on

TocounterchargesofracialismthePortugueseregularlycitetheposi:onoftheassimilado.ProfessorCaetanoinhiseulogyonPortuguesecolonialmethodswrites:‘Althoughrespec:ngthemodusvivendiofthena:ves,thePortuguesehavealwaysendeavoredtoimparttheirfaith,theircultureandtheirciviliza:ontothem,thuscallingthemintotheLusitaniancommunity'.Assimila:onistheofficialrecogni:onofaman'sentrytothe‘Lusitaniancommunity':aaerwardshecanlegallyuseallwhitefacili:esandsupposedlyhasthesameeduca:onalandprofessionalopportuni:es.Inordertogainthisnewstatus,apersonmustfulfilthefollowingcondi:ons:

1. Hemustread,writeandspeakPortuguesefluently.

2. Hemusthavesufficientmeanstosupporthisfamily.

3. Hemustbeofgoodconduct.

4. Hemusthavethenecessaryeduca:onandindividualandsocialhabitstomakeitpossibletoapplythepublicandprivatelawofPortugaltohim

5. Hemustmakearequesttotheadministra:veauthorityofthearea,whowillpassitontothegovernorofthedistrictforapproval.

Alreadyacertainracialbiasappears,fortofulfilthesequalifica:onsamanmustbeconsiderablymore‘civilized’thanmuchofthewhitepopula:onwhohaveci:zenshipautoma:cally:40percentofPortugal'spopula:onisilliterate,andmanyhaveinsufficientmeanstosupportthemselves.Asonemightexpectthisracialbiasdoesnot,infact,vanishthemomentanAfricangainsofficialassimiladostatus.Salazarhimselfhassaid:‘Ittakesacenturytomakeaci:zen'.Thisaktudeisreflectedinthesitua:onofanassimiladowho,althoughheescapessomeofthelegaldisabili:esoftheindígena,doesnotfindhimselfinaposi:onofequalitywithhiswhitefellowci:zens.Firstofall,hiseconomic

posi:onismarkedlyinferior.Thetableofwageratesgivenearliershowedthatthereisaveryconsiderabledifferen:alinsalariesforwhitesandforassimilatedblacks.Thisisaggravatedbytheprac:ce,commonenoughincountrieswithanunofficialorsemiofficialcolorbar,ofgradingAfricansintoinferiorjobsandgivingwhitespreferenceirrespec:veofqualifica:ons.EvenifanAfricandoesthesameworkasawhite,hisjobwilloaenbegivenadifferent:tlesothattheincomedifferen:alcanbepreserved.Hereisoneexampleofhowthisworks:

RaulCasalRibeiro(Teteprovince):Ialsoworkedintheminestoredoingtheaccounts,whereIearned300escudos($10,17cents).WhenaPortuguesecametodotheaccounts,heearnednearly4,000escudos($142)anddidlessworkthanIhaddone.Iwasalonewhilehehadanassistant,buthes(llearnedthirteen(mesasmuchasIdid.Infact,itwashisAfricanassistantwhodidallthework;hejustsignedit.TheAfricangot300escudosamonthlikeme;thePortuguesegot4,000.(F.i)

Duringhiseduca:on,too,theassimiladofindshimselfatadisadvantage:healwayshastodoratherbeGerthanaPortuguesechild.Onegirl,whowasattechnicalsecondaryschoolinLourençoMarques,commented:‘ThePortuguesedidn'ttreattheAfricanandthePortuguesepupilsinthesameway.Some:mesthediscrimina:onwasquiteclear.Forinstance,theyalwaysgavetheMozambicanlowermarks'.(F.I)

WhenIvisitedMozambiquein1961,theprincipaloftheSalazarhighschoolhimselfadmiGedthatstaffdidtendtomarkdownAfricanpupils.

Onefactmakingcompletenonsenseofthesugges:onthatassimiladoscanreachapositonofrealequalitywithwhitesisthatinordertoenjoyanyofhisprivileges,anassimiladomustalwayscarryhisiden:tycardwithhim.Awhitewillnotbeques:oned;heholdshisprivilegedposi:onbyvirtueofhisappearance.

Ifanassimiladoisoutaaercurfew,hewillregularlybeques:onedbythepolice;ifhecannotproducehiscard,hewillbearrested.Manyprivilegescannotbeassertedevenwiththeiden:tycard:anassimilatedAfricanisnot,forinstance,admiGedtoawhitecinema;hemayoaennotusewhitetoilets_anAfricanRomanCatholicPriestrecentlycitedacasewherehesawanassimilatedschoolteacheractuallybeatenbyawhitesta:onmasterbecausehehadusedtheEuropeantoiletonthesta:on.

Eventheconceptof‘assimila:on’isnotasnon-racialandliberalasitsapologistssuggest.ItinvolvesnoacceptanceoftheAfricanasanAfrican.Inreturnforthedoubrulprivilegesalreadydescribed,accordingtothelawhemustliveinanen:relyEuropeanstyle;hemustneverusehisownlanguage,andhemustnotvisitunassimilatedrela:vesintheirownhomes.Oneoftheabsurdcontradic:onsofthesystemisthatwhilenotreceivingthesametreatmentasawhite,heisexpectedtoiden:fycompletelywithwhites.Oneassimiladorelates:‘Bytheendofsecondaryschool,IwasalmosttheonlyAfricanleainclass.IusedtogetlowermarksthanthePortugueseboysforthesamework.Mywhitecompanionscouldnotseeanythingwronginthis.Atthesame:metheyusedtotalkinfrontofmeabout“thoseignorantblacks”,referringtounassimilatedAfricans,andtheycouldnotseehowthiscouldbehurrultomeasanassimilado'.Themostthattheassimiladosystemevensetsouttodoistocreateafew‘honorarywhites',andthiscertainlydoesnotcons:tutenon-racialism;visi:ngMalawianandJapanesediplomatshavebeengivensuchastatusinSouthAfrica.

Apartfromtheotherfailingsofthesystem,itsfinalcondemna:onistobefoundintheveryfewAfricansithasaffected:outofapopula:onofover6millionin1950,therewerenomorethan4,555

assimilados.Asystemwhichtouchesonlysuchaminuteminority,mustbeconsideredvirtuallyirrelevant.

Miscegena:on

TheothermainproptothemythofPortuguesenon-racialismisintermarriage.ThePortugueseclaimthatat:mesithasevenbeenencouragedasofficialpolicy.In1910,VazdeSampaioeMelowrote:‘Miscegena:onisthemostpowerfulforceofcolonialna:onalism.GivenequalitytotheEuropeanunderthelawandadmiGedtoadministra:ve,religious,poli:calandmilitaryposi:ons,themulaGocomestoadoptexclusivelythecustomsandlanguageoftheconqueringna:on,andtheycons:tutethemostprofitableandappropriateinstrumentforthespreadofthoseethniccharacteris:csinthena:vesociety'.TheresultofthispolicyisamulaGominority,aaertheEuropeansthelargestoftheminoritygroups,andanimportantelementinthesuperstructureofnãoindígenasociety,althoughitsimportanceisqualita:veratherthanquan:ta:ve.ThePortuguesetendtoexaggeratethesizeofthiscommunity.Infact,inMozambique,mulaGoscons:tuteonly0.5percentofthepopula:on,whereasinSouthAfrica8.5percentofthepopula:onismadeupoftheColored.

TheexistenceofamulaGocommunitywasafeatureofPortugueseterritoryfromtheearlydaysofPortugueseseGlement,whencondi:onsweresuchthatveryfewPortuguesewomencouldbeinducedtoaccompanytheadventurers,whofilledthisgapbytakingAfricanwomenascompanions.Atthis:me,certainly,thesystemdidnotinvolvemuchracialequality:thewomenwerevirtuallynevermadelegalwives,andwere,accordingtocontemporaryaccounts,treatedasservantsorslaves.Theoffspringdidquiteoaeninherittheirfather'swealthandposi:on,butthiswasmorearesultoftheassimila:onofthePortuguesetotheAfricanthanthereverse.TheeighteenthcenturyestateownersoftheZambéziaresembleddegenerateAfricanchieaainsmorethanPortugueselords.

Thepresent-daymulaGocommunity,however,ismostlyurbanizedandeducatedunderthePortuguesesystem.LegallytheypossessPortugueseci:zenship,andinrespectofeduca:onandjobstheyenjoyafargreaterdegreeofactualequalitythantheassimiladodoes.SuperficiallytheyappearwellintegratedintoPortuguesesociety,butthesuperficialityofthispictureisshownmostclearlybytheposi:onofafirstgenera:onmulaGo,thechildofonePortugueseparentandoneAfricanparent.Eventodayitismiscegena:onnotintermarriagewhichisaccepted.InAngolain1958therewereonlytwenty-fivemixedmarriagesofanysort.Thesebrokedownasfollows:

Whiteandblack:1

MulaGoandblack:4

MulaGoandwhite:20

InalmostallcasesitisthefatherwhoisPortuguese;rela:onsbetweenaPortuguesewomanandanAfricanmalearenotviewedwithsuchtolerance.TheAfricanwomanwouldnotbehislegalwife,butatbestamistresswhoisalsoaservant_takenforconveniencewhenthemaneithercannotaffordaPortuguesewifeorhasnothadtheopportunitytolookforone_oratworstapros:tuteorthevic:mofrape.Intheformersitua:on,thechildhastoreconciletwocompletelydivergentupbringings:whenveryyoung,helivesmostlywithhismother,oaenintheservant'squarters,andisbroughtuptosomeextentasanAfricanchild,whilewhenheisolder,thefatherwillsendhimtoaPortugueseschool,takehimintothePortuguesehousehold,andexpecthimineverywaytobehavelikeaPortuguesechild.Oaen,hespendsthefirstpartofhislifereconcilingthesefactorsandthen

hastosufferagreatchangeinhisposi:onbecausehisfathertakesaPortuguesewife.Whenthishappens,thechildmayeitherbedisowned,thrownbackcompletelyonhismother,orkeptinthefamilyinadis:nctlyinferiorposi:ontothechildrenofthePortuguesemarriage,receivingonlysecondaryconsidera:oninallmaGersofhiswelfareandupbringing.Ifhisfatherisapriest,asoaenhappens,thechildwillatleastbesparedthislaterrejec:on;butthen,fromthebeginning,separa:onbetweenhisfather’sandmother'shouseholdswillbeevenmorecomplete.ItisnotsurprisingthatmulaGosoaenfindthemselvesresen:ngthePortugueseandyetbeingunabletoiden:fywiththeAfricanpartoftheirculture.Broughtuptoconsidertheirmotheraninferior,theyoaendonotevenspeakherlanguage.

TheresentmentfeltbymulaGosagainstthePortugueseisnotonlybasedonthecircumstancesoftheirchildhood.PortuguesepolicytowardsthemulaGohasadis:nctelementofracialismwhichis:edtotheideathatmiscegena:onisameansofcemen:ngPortuguesedomina:onovertheindigenousculture.ItispartofthispolicythatwhilemulaGosshouldbetreatedasPortugueseinmanyrespects,thisshouldnotincludeopeningtothemallthesameopportuni:es:thehighestoffices,thetopofappointmentsshouldremaininPortuguesehands.ThePortugueseanthropologistMendesCorreiagivesaclearexposi:onofthis:‘Ashumanbeings,:edtoourracebythesacredbondsoforigin,themulaGoshavearighttooursympathyandhelp.Butthereasonswhichwehavepropoundeddonotpermitthepoli:calroleofthemes(çostogobeyondthelimitsofsociallife.Howeverbrilliantandeffec:vemaybetheirprofessional,economic,agriculturalorindustrialac:on,they,asnaturalizedforeigners,mustneverholdhighpostsinthegeneralpoli:csofthecountry,exceptperhapsincasesofprovedandcompleteiden:fica:onwithusintemperament,inwill,infeeling,inideas,caseswhicharebothexcep:onalandimprobable'.

Thusbothinhischildhoodandinhisadultlife,themulaGohasmanyexperienceswhicharelikelytopreventhimfromiden:fyinghimselfcompletelywiththePortuguese.ItischieflythemosteducatedmulaGos,theintellectuals,whohavebeenabletogiveexpressiontothis:theywereverymuchinvolvedintheearlyan:colonialistpoli:calagita:onandintheearlymanifesta:onsofna:onalism;andmorerecently,somemulaGoshavethrownthemselveswhole-heartedlyintothepresentna:onalistmovement.Yettheirveryprivilegedposi:oninrela:ontotheAfricanhashamperedpoli:calac:vity,evenpoli:calthought.Theymayhavewantedtovoicetheprotestofthepopula:onbuthavebeenfarremovedfromit.Forthereisadivisionevendeeperthanthatwhichusuallyseparatesapoli:callyconsciousintellectualfromtheproletariathetheorizesabout;theyoaendonotevenhaveacommonlanguage.Asaresulttheyhavetriedveryhardtoreturnemo:onallytotheirAfricanorigins,theAfricansideoftheirculture.ThiscanbeseeninsomecommonthemesofthepoetryofCraveirinha,NoémiadeSousaandtheearlyworkofMarcelinodosSantos:theblackmother-figurerepresen:ngtheirownAfricanmother;Africaitself,themothercountry;andacertainpoe:cfusionbetweenthetwoideas.NoémiadeSousa,forinstance,writes,inapoemcalled‘BlackBlood':

MyAfrica,strangeandwild

Myvirginraped

Mymother!

HowlonghaveIwalked

Exiledfromyou,astrangerdistantandselfabsorbed

Inthesecitystreets,pregnantwithaforeignrace?

Mother!Forgiveme!

Mother!MymotherAfrica

Ofslavesongsinthemoonlight

IcannotCANNOTdeny

Theblack,thesavageblood

Yougaveme

Forstrongestofallinme

Itfloodsmysoul,myveins

Throughit

Ilive,Ilaugh,Iendure

MOTHER!

ThisaktudeofmindexpressesthepresentdilemmainwhichthemulaGofindshimself.Onetheonehandheisabletoreachaposi:onofconsiderableeminencewithinthePortugueseframework;manyofthebestknownMozambicanintellectualsaremulaGos,andthear:s:clifeofthecountry,inpar:cular,isdominatedbymensuchasJoséCraveirinha.Ontheotherhand,whentheyreachacertainlevelintheirprofessions,theyfindthedoortofurtheradvancementshutintheirfaces,andiftheyprotestagainstthisorstarttotakeanac:veinterestinthepoli:calaffairsoftheircountry,theyfindthemselvesdistrustedandsubjectedtosomeformofoppression.Theyearlyonbegintothinkintermsofna:onalistrevolt,buttheirdistancefromtheordinaryAfricanpopula:onleathemwithoutthebasisforconver:ngtheseideasintorealis:cac:on.

AsiansandEuropeans

Theremainingsignificantnon-whiteminorityistheAsian,composedmostlyofIndianstogetherwithafewPakistanis.TheoriginalArabpopula:onofthecoasttoalargeextentintegrateditselfwiththelocalAfricans,andthosewhohaveretainedadis:nc:vecharacterbelongtoaperipheraltradinggroup,inmanywayssimilartoapartoftheIndiancommunity.Thereis,indeed,animportantdivisionintheIndiancommunity,separa:ngitintotwogroupswithadifferentcharacterandsocialrole.FirsttherearetheIndiansorPakistanisfromthetradi:onalsub-con:nent.ThesearemostlyHinduorMuslimbyreligion,usuallyrunsmall-scalecommercialventures_bushtradingsta:onsinthecountry,smallshopsinthetowns_andcons:tutearela:velyclosedcommunity,whichdoesnothaveclosecontactswithAfricans,Europeans,oreventhemembersofotherIndiansects.Ingeneral,theyareverysimilartoAsiangroupselsewhereinEastAfricaandareequallyperipheraltothepoli:callifeofthecountry.TheothergroupofIndiansaretheGoans.Inthenineteenthcentury,PortugalwasunabletoachievemuchEuropeanseGlementinMozambique,butwasverysuccessfulatpersuadingGoanstoimmigratethere.The:nycolonyofGoahadbeensubjectedtofarmorePortugueseinfluencethananyAfricanterritory,andtheseimmigrantswereinmanywaysmore

PortuguesethanIndian:theyspokePortugueseandinsomecaseshadevenadopteditasthelanguageofthehome;theywerepredominatelyRomanCatholic.Theywereaccordinglyconsidered‘usefulcivilizingagents'bythePortuguese,andmanyofthemwererecruitedforthecivilservice.Nowthereares:llalargenumberofGoansintheadministra:on,whiletherearealsomanyinthevariousprofessions,par:cularlymedicineandlaw.Intheory,asinthecaseofthemulaGos,allAsianscarryingPortuguesepassportsarehavethesamerightsandopportuni:esasEuropeanPortugueseci:zens;butinprac:cetherearesimilarlimita:onstothe‘equality'.Onthewhole,though,lessfric:onresults,partlybecausethefamilysitua:onoftheGoanisusuallymoreseGled,partlybecauseassimila:onwasverymuchmoreeffec:veinGoathanInAfrica,andpartlybecausethepoweroftheCatholicChurchintheGoancommunityisenormous.ThismeansthatthosewhohavereactedagainstthePortuguese,andthereareanumberofGoanintellectualswhohavegivenvigoroussupporttona:onalistmovements,moreoaenthannotfindthemselvesopposednotonlytothePortuguesebuttotheirowncommunityandeventheirownfamilies.

Thewhiteminorityitselfiscomposed,ontheonehand,ofofficials,administratorsandmilitarypersonnelsentoutfromPortugalfora:mespecificallytoservethegovernment;ontheotherhand,ofpermanentseGlers,mostlyPortugueseinoriginbutwithasprinklingofGreeks,Italians,Afrikanersandotherna:onali:es.Itisgovernmentpolicytoencouragememberofthefirstgroup,par:cularlytheordinarysoldiers,tostayinthecolonybyofferingthemgrantsofland,andsosomeofthesebecomeseGlersaaertheirtermofserviceiscompleted.Thesecondgroupisratherdifferentfromcomparablesmallwhiteminori:eselsewhereinAfricainthat,althoughmembersofitmonopolizenearlyalltheimportantjobsinbusinessandtheprofessions,alargepartofitisengagedinfairlymenialpursuits:therearewhitear:sans,whitesmall-scalefarmers,evenwhitelaborers.Thereasonforthisistobefoundinthelowlevelofeduca:onandthewidespreadpovertyinPortugalitself.ManyoftheimmigrantstothecolonieswerepoorpeasantsinPortugal;50percentofimmigrantsareilliterate,andanevenhigherpropor:onunskilled.InconsideringthecharacterofPortuguesecolonialism,GilbertoFreyremakesavirtueofthis,claimingthatbecauseoftheirownpovertyandruralbackground,Portugueseimmigrantswereabletomixeasilywithpeopleofthecoloniesanddidnothaveaninnatesenseofsuperiority.Thisisnot,however,substan:atedbytheexperiencesofAfricansinMozambique.PortugueseseGlershaveoaensurpassedthegovernmentintheirracialistapproach.AtTete,in1948,forexample,when,forthefirst:metheauthori:esallowedthechildrenofnon-whitestoaGendthelocalprimaryschool,thewhitecolonatosprotestedvigorously;andwhentheirprotestbroughtnoresult;theyinsistedthattworowsofdesksshouldbeleaemptytoseparatetheirownchildrenfromthenon-whiteones.VeryrecentlyinacolonatowherethegovernmenthadseGledoneortwoAfricanswithwhites,thewhitesharassedtheAfricansandonatleastoneoccasionbeatuponeofthem,damagedhishouseandthreatenedhiswife.TheseandthemanysimilareventsIhavewitnessedorheardofmaybeisolatedincidents;butthegroundsforfric:onarebuiltintothesystem.EvenifthenewPortuguesearrivalsareliGleornobeGeroffthanmanyAfricansatfirst,wagedifferen:als,preferenceinjobsandspecialgovernmentassistanceinfarmingcanhardlyfailrapidlytochangetheirsitua:onandoutlook.EventhepoorilliteratepeasantdoesagreatdealbeGerinMozambiquethanhewouldinPortugal.Moreover,theveryfactthatmanywhitesareuneducatedand,onarrival,poor,bringsthemintodirectcompe::onwiththeAfrican.Forthem,theAfricanisapoten:althreat;fortheAfrican,thereisnora:onaljus:fica:onforthesuperiorposi:onofthewhite.

Sincewithinthefascistsystemthereisnodemocracy,evenforci:zenswithfulllegalrightsandthevote,thereexistsacertainfric:onbetweeneventhewhitesandtheauthori:es.Because,however,

itisthegovernmentwhichguaranteesthewhitehisprivilegedposi:on,veryfewseGlershaveiden:fiedwiththeAfricansindemandingindependence.Insomecases,asalreadyindicated,thefric:onarisesbecausetheseGlerswantevenstrongermeasuresagainsttheAfricans,agreaterdegreeofsegrega:on.Inothers,theysimplydemandagreaterdegreeoffreedomfortheirownminority.Atone:me,therewasinMozambiqueabodyofwhiteliberalopposi:ontotheestablishmentofthefasciststate,justastherewasinPortugal,butthishasbeenvirtuallysilencednow.Thereareafew,mostlyintellectuals,whosean:-fascistconvic:onsandopposi:ontoSalazararefundamental;whosupportthelibera:onmovement;andofwhomoneortwohaveactuallyjoinedtheresistance.Insomeareasofthefigh:ngnow,thegovernmenthasfounditnecessarytopunishordinarywhiteciviliansfornotshowingenoughac:veopposi:ontotheguerillas.Thuseventhewhiteminorityisnotahomogenousbody,iden:fiedineverywaywiththecolonialgovernment.

3Educa:onandSubmission

Schoolsarenecessary,yes;butschoolswhereweteachthena(vesthepathofhumandignityandthegrandeurofthena(onwhichprotectshim

Pastoralle7erofCardinalCerejeira,PatriarchofLisbon,1960

IthasbeencustomaryamongEuropeansandAmericanstoconceiveofallhumanthoughtasderivingfromtheWesternmind.Africainpar:cularwasthoughttohavemadenocontribu:ontohumandevelopment,wasregardedasaclosedandcompletelybackwardworldonlybroughtintothemainstreamofdevelopmentasaresultoftheEuropeaninvasion.Morerecentscholarship,however,hasshownthistobeaproductoftheintroversionandethnocentrismofWesternthought.MrLeakey'sworkhaspointedtoCentralandEastAfricaasthepossiblebirth-placeofhumansocietyinitsearliestform.Inmuchmorerecent:mes,fiveorsixthousandyearsago,itwasintheNilevalleythatwhatwerefertoas‘civilized’societyfirstdeveloped.WhileEuropeansweres:lllivinginprimi:vetribalsocie:esisolatedintheNorthernforestbelt,NorthAfricanswerelearningtocontroltheirenvironment,developingtechnologyandscienceandformingacomplex,seGledsociety.Theyusedmathema:cstomeasuretheland,tochartthemovementsofthestarsandtodesignlargeelaboratebuildings;theyinventedsomeoftheearliesttechniquesofmining,ironsmel:ngandcas:ng;theytooksomeofthefirststepsinthemedicalsciences.Itwasthissocietythatabsorbedthefirstprimi:veMosleminvadersandbyaculturalfusioncreatedtheadvancedIslamiccultureofAfrica,fromwhichEuropegainedmanyofthescien:ficideasthatmadetheRenaissancepossible.NorwasitonlyareasofIslamicinfluencewhichcouldboastanadvancedmaterialculture.Itisknownnowthatsomeoftheci:esofWestAfricaandtheCongowerebuiltbeforetheadop:onofIslam.AndifforthelastfiveorsixcenturiesAfricahadceasedtobeintheforefrontofdevelopment,itwasnoteventhena‘closedcon:nent’.ThereisevidenceofconsiderabletradeandculturalexchangebothbetweendifferentareasofAfricaandbetweenAfricaandsuchareasabroadastheMiddleEastandIndia.

Whilearchaeologistsandhistorianshaveshownthehistoricalfallacyofthe‘DarkCon:nent'thesis,sociologistshaveaGackedotheraspectsofit.Europeanssupposedthat,becauseAfricawasbackwardatthe:metheyinvadedit,Africanshadnocultureatall,nomoralityandnoeduca:on.ItisnowrealizedthattherewereanumberofculturesinAfrica,somemorecomplexthanothersbutallembracingsomekindofmoralityandallincludingsomemethodofeduca:onthroughwhichchildrencouldabsorbthecultureandbecomewell-adjustedmembersofthesocietyintowhichtheywereborn.

ThisisallsufficientlyrecognizednowinmostpartsofEuropeandAmerica,andthereisnoneedtoarguethepointanyfurtherhere.Buttherecogni:onoutsideanarrowcircleofexpertsislargelyaproductofthepost-colonialperiod.Toacolonialgovernmenttheno:onthatthecultureofthecolonizedeither

doesnotexistorisworthlessisobviouslyconvenient_tooconvenienttoallowmeresciencetocorrectit.

Colonialistsingeneralhavedespisedanddismissedtradi:onalAfricancultureandeduca:on.Theyassailedit,ins:tu:ngcompletelyoutofcontextaversionoftheirownsystemofeduca:on,whichwoulduproottheAfricanfromhispastandforcehimtoadapttocolonialsociety.ItwasnecessarythattheAfricanhimselfshouldacquirecontemptforhisownbackground.InthePortugueseterritories,educa:onfortheAfricanhadtwoaims:toformanelementofthepopula:onwhichwouldactasanintermediarybetweenthecolonialstateandthemasses;andtoinculcateanaktudeofservilityintheeducatedAfrican.TheseaimsareclearlyexpoundedinapastoralleGerof1960byCardinalCerejeira:

‘Wetrytoreachthena(vepopula(onbothinbreadthanddepthto(teachthem)reading,wri(ngandarithme(c,nottomake‘doctors'ofthem.…Toeducateandinstructthemsoastomakethemprisonersofthesoilandtoprotectthemfromthelureofthetowns,thepathwhichwithdevo(onandcouragetheCatholicmissionarieschose,thepathofgoodsenseandofpoli(calandsocialsecurityfortheprovince…schoolsarenecessary,yes,butschoolswhereweteachthena(vethepathofhumandignityandthegrandeurofthena(onwhichprotectshim’.

Atalllevels,theschoolsforAfricansareprimarilyagenciesforthespreadofthePortugueselanguageandculture.Broadly,thePortugueseidealhasbeenthatcarefullycontrollededuca:onwouldin:mecreateanAfricanpeoplespeakingonlyPortuguese,embracingChris:anity,andasintenselyna:onalistPortugueseasthemetropolitanci:zensthemselves.IfalltheAfricansinAngola,MozambiqueandGuinea(Bissau)becamePortuguesena:onals,thePortuguesehavedreamed,therewouldbenothreatofAfricanna:onalism.Butin1950,only30,089AfricansinAngolaand4,554inMozambiquehadreachedthelegallyrecognizedstateofassimila:onintoPortugueseculture.

Inimplemen:ngthesepolicyobjec:ves,thePortuguesegovernmenthasdecreedthatonlyonelanguage,Portuguese,istobetaughtinschoolsunderitsjurisdic:oninAfrica.Africanlanguagesareusedchieflyasameansoffacilita:ngtheteachingofPortuguese,buteventhisisrare.Whateverthelong-rangeprospectsforthisapproach,theintermediateresulthasbeenthecrea:onofasmallclassthatlooksdownuponitsowntradi:onallanguagesandculture,butisnotsufficientlyeducatedtousePortugueseefficiently.

Ontheassump:onthatpoli:calunityisfoundeduponamoralunity,thePortuguesehaveaGachedgreatimportancetoreligioninAfricaneduca:on.Thecons:tu:onofPortugalspecifiesapreferenceforCatholicismamongreligiousfaiths;98percentofthepeopleofmetropolitanPortugalareRomanCatholic,andPortugueselawandprac:ceinrecentyearshavelargelyrestoredthepre-republicanunitybetweenChurchandState.Ontheassump:onthattheestablishmentofaspirituallinkbetweenthemotherlandanditsoverseasterritoriesisvitaltotheestablishmentofthedesiredpoli:calcoherence,theSalazarrégimehasencouragedthediffusionofCatholicisminAfricaandhasturnedovertheelementaryeduca:onofAfricanstogovernment-subsidizedRomanCatholicmissionschools.

Schoolsystems

TherearetwocategoriesofschoolsysteminthePortugueseTerritories:(1)theRomanCatholicmissionschools,whoseprincipalfunc:onistoeducateAfricansthroughtheprimarylevel:and(2)themoresophis:catedgovernmentschoolsystem,cateringforthewhites,Asiansandassimilados.TheschoolsforAfricansareorganizedasfollows:

EnsinoRudimentar,(calledensinodeadaptaçãoaaer1956,orensinoMissionario).Accordingtolawno.238of15May1930andtotheConcordatof1940,theaimofthis‘rudimentary’educa:onisto‘leadtheindígenagraduallyfromalifeofsavagerytoacivilizedlife'.ThisprogramisofficiallytheresponsibilityoftheRomanCatholicmissions,althoughsomeProtestantmissionsarepermiGedtooperateafewschoolsalso.Theschoolyearsare:iniciação(kindergarten),primeiraclasse(firstgrade),andsegundaclasse(secondgrade).

Ensinoprimário_Thisprogramisforstudentswhohavepassedtheensinodeadaptação.Itcomprisesterceiraclasse(thirdgrade),quartaclasse(fourthgrade),andadmissão(prepara:onforadmissiontotheliceuprogram).

TheschoolsforEuropeans,assimiladosandothersareorganizedalongthefollowinglines;

Ensinoprimário(primaryeduca:on),afive-yearprogram(since1952,whenthefiahyearwasadded)whoselastyearisprescribedforentrancetothehigh-schoolprogram.

Encinoliceal_includingtheprimeirociclo(twoyears),thesegundociclo(threeyears)andtheterceirociclo(twoyears).ThethirdcycleisdesignedforthosepreparingtoenteraPortugueseuniversity.

Priorto1940,allschoolcurriculaforAfricansweredeterminedbytheDepartmentofEduca:onandInstruc:onintheTerritory;examina:onswereconductedbythestate,andcer:ficateswereawardedsolelybytheDirectorofEduca:on.Then,from1940to1960,theCatholicChurchofficiallytookchargeofpreparingthecurricula,andtheexamina:onswereconductedandcer:ficatesawardedonChurchauthority.

Prepara:onofthecurriculaisnowinthehandsoftheMinistryofEduca:oninLisbon,inlinewiththe1950reorganiza:onoftheAfricancoloniesintoprovincesofPortugal,andinspectorsfromtheterritorialofficeoftheDirectorofPublicInstruc:onpayperiodicvisitstothemissionschools.Itisclearlyunderstood,however,thatnogovernmentinspectormayvisitaCatholicschoolwithoutthepermissionandcoopera:onoftheproperreligiousauthori:es.Forallprac:calpurposes,theofficeoftheArchbishopofLourençoMarquesisthecenterofeduca:onalauthorityinMozambique,astheofficeoftheArchbishopofLuandadirectsAfricanschoolsinAngolaandSãoTomé.InallschoolsforAfricansinAngola,MozambiqueandPortugueseGuinea,thecurriculaareuniformexceptforafewlocalvaria:ons.

Inprac:ce,thethreestagesofeduca:on_rudimentary,primaryandsecondary_areorganizedtopresentaseriesofbarrierstotheAfricanchildseekinghighereduca:on.

Theensinodeadaptaçãoprogram,theequivalentofkindergartenandthefirsttwogradesinmostotherAfricanterritories,isdesignedintheorytointroduceAfricanchildrentothePortugueselanguageandthebeginningsofthethreeR's,sobringinghimtothelevelofthePortuguesechildstar:ngprimaryschool.Inmanycountryareas,however,thechildrenofmulaGosandAsianshavebeenforcedtogothroughthethreeyearsofrudimentaryschoolingalthoughtheywerebroughtupspeakingPortugueseandcouldhavestartedprimaryschoolonthesamelevelasPortuguesechildren;whileinotherareas,childrenofAsianornon-PortugueseEuropeanparentage,whohavenotbeenbroughtupspeakingPortuguese,areallowedtostartatastateprimaryschool.SincetheteachingisdoneinPortuguesefromthefirst,manyAfricanchildrenareunabletopasstheadaptaçãoexamina:ons(normallygivenaaerthreeyearsofinstruc:on)un:ltheyaretwelvetofourteenyearsofage.Sincethemaximumageforentrytoprimaryschoolissetatthirteen,averylargenumberofchildrenaccordinglyfindthemselvesdebarredevenfromprimaryschool.

Theensinoprimárioprogram_thatis,thethirdandfourthyears_coversmaterialssimilartothoseusedforPortuguesechildrenatthesamelevel.Contentanalysisofthetextbooksusedindicatesthatthefocusisen:relyonPortugueseculture;Africanhistoryandgeographyaretotallyignored.EmphasisisonthePortugueselanguage;thegeographyofPortuguesediscoveriesandconquests;Chris:anmorals;handicraas;andagriculture.

Beyondthefourthyear,thereisaclasswherestudentsaretheore:callypreparedforeitherhighschoolorindustrialandtechnicalschools.Veryfewmissionschoolsactuallyhavethisfiah-yearprogram,however,sothattheopportunityforanAfricanchildtogainthenecessaryqualifica:onforenteringsecondaryschoolisalmostnil,unlesshemovestothecityandaGendsthereaprivateschoolthatcanpreparehimfortheadmissionexamstothesecondaryprogram.Anotheragebarrierisencounteredatthisstage.Themaximumageforentrytosecondaryschoolisfourteen,anditisrarethatanAfricanchildhasstartedhisschoolingearlyenoughtohavecompletedthethreeyearsofrudimentaryschoolandthefiveyearsofprimaryschoolbythe:meheisfourteen.

Althoughover98percentofthewhitePortugueselivingintheAfricanterritoriesareCatholics,thegovernmenthasretainedcontroloftheschoolscateringtotheeduca:onalneedsofwhites,Asiansandassimilados.ChildrenfromthesegroupsmayaGendeitherState-ownedschools,orprivateschools,butcurriculaandexamina:onsare,inbothcases,supervisedbytheState.TheseStateschoolsforEuropeansareadministra:velydirectedbytheMinistryofNa:onalEduca:oninLisbon.WithintheMinistryeduca:oninPortugueseAfricaandAsiaissupervisedbytheDepartmentofOverseasEduca:on.ThereisaDivisionofEduca:onforMozambique,oneforAngola,andoneforGuineaandtheislands,eachheadedbyaterritorialdirector.Eachdirectorisassistedbytwoinspectors,oneforprimaryschoolsandtheotherforschoolhealth.

Educa:oniscompulsoryforallEuropeanchildrenwhoresidewithinthreekilometers(abouttwomiles)ofaschoolandwhoarebetweensevenandtwelveyearsofage.Althoughtheprescribedageofentryintoprimaryschoolisseven,childrenmaybeadmiGedoneyearearlier.ThecurriculaoftheStateschoolsarethesameasthatofallPortugueseschoolsatthesamelevelinmetropolitanPortugal,exceptforsomeminoradjustmentstolocalgeographic,clima:candsocialcondi:ons.

AconsiderablenumberofEuropeanandAsianchildren,andaveryfewAfricanones,aGendprivateschoolssupervisedbythegovernment.Theseschools_allCatholicinorienta:on,sinceProtestantschoolsaregenerallyforbiddentoreceiveEuropeans_donotdiscriminateagainstAfricans;butonlyafewAfricanscanaffordtosendtheirchildrenthere.Theaveragetui:onfeeisroughlyequivalentto$17,50centsamonth,andmostoftheAfricanstudentsarenecessarilyboarders,whichraisesthecosttoaprohibi:velevelevenforthemiddle-classAfricanparents.

Teachertraining

Thesamedualstandardsthatapplytotheeduca:onalprocessinthePortugueseterritoriesarecarriedoverintothetrainingofteachersforAfricanandEuropeanschools.WhentheCatholicmissionstookovertheeduca:onoftheunassimilatedAfricansinthe1940s,thetrainingofteachersfortheseAfricanschoolsalsobecamethefunc:onoftheChurch.ThegovernmentNormalSchoolinMozambique,whichwascloseddownaaerthepassageoftheMissionaryActin1940,reopenedin1945asaCatholicratherthanagovernmentins:tu:on.Priortothat:me,Africanteachercandidatesneededonlytocompletethefourthgradetobeeligibleforadmissiontothetrainingschool,butnowmembershipoftheCatholic

Churchisalsoaprerequisite.TeachercandidatesfortheAfricanrudimentaryschoolsaredrawnlargelyfromunassimilatedAfricans.

In1960,therewerefouroftheseteacher-trainingschoolsinMozambique,operatedbytheChurchandsubsidizedbythegovernment;totalenrolmentwas341malestudents,withsome65graduatesperyear.

Staffforthegovernment-operatedprimaryandsecondaryschoolscateringtothe‘civilized'popula:onofMozambiqueandotherPortuguesecoloniescomefrommetropolitanPortugal.Itis,however,possibleforanindividualwhohascompletedthefirstcycleofhighschooltoobtainateacher'scer:ficatequalifyinghimtoteachinthelowergradesintheprivateschools.

Resultsofthesystem

Ifthesystemistobejudgedaccordingtoitsprofessedaimofeduca:ngtheAfricantoPortugueseciviliza:on,itmustbeadmiGedafailure.VeryfewAfricansreceiveanyschoolingatall,withtheresultthatinMozambiquebetween95and98percentoftheAfricanpopula:onareilliterate.Mostoftheeduca:ontheydoreceiveisprovidedbyChurchbodies.In1955therewere2,041rudimentaryschools,withatotalof242,412pupils.Oftheseschools2,000wererunbyCatholicmissions,twenty-sevenbyProtestantones,twelvebythegovernment,andtwowereprivateschools.In1959,therewere392,796childrenreceivingensinodeadaptação,butoftheseonly6,928managedtostartprimaryschool.

Althoughnearly98percentofthepopula:onofMozambiqueiscomposedofblackAfricans,onlyasmallpropor:onofchildrenaGendingprimaryschoolsareAfrican,whilethenumberofAfricansinsecondaryschoolisalmostnegligible.In1963therewere311primaryschoolscateringfor25,742pupils,butofthoseonlyone-fiahwereAfrican.InthesameyeartherewereonlythreeStatesecondaryschoolswhichcouldawardtheschool-leavingcer:ficate.(Therearethreelowersecondaryschools.)ThesethreeStateschoolswereeduca:ng2,250pupils,whilethethreemainprivatesecondaryschoolshad800pupils.Ofthistotal,only6percentwereblackAfricans.In1960,atthelargestacademicsecondaryschoolinMozambique(LiceuSalazarinLourençomarques),therewereonlythirtyAfricanstudentsoutofatotalofmorethan1,000.TheRomanCatholicChurch,whichenjoystheresponsibilityforeduca:ngthena:vepeople,doesnothaveasinglesecondaryschoolforAfricans.SomeoftheProtestantmissions,whichares:llallowedlimitedfacili:esforworkinginMozambique,subsidizeandadministerboardinghousesforsomeoftheveryfewAfricanstudentswhoaGendsecondaryschoolsinthecapitalcityofLourençoMarques.Therearealsoanumberofprivatesecondaryschoolsandanumberofsecondarytechnicalschools,butwithaverysmallnumberofAfricanstudentsaGendingthem,duetothehighfeesrequired.Onegirlwhodidmanagetogettoatechnicalsecondaryschooldescribesthecondi:onsofherschooling:

JosinaMuthemba(GazaProvince):Myparentsmadeagreatmanysacrificestosendmetoschool.Iwenttocommercialschoolforfiveyears.Myparentshadtosaveonfoodandclothes.AttheprimaryschooltherewereonlyabouttwentyofusAfricanstoaboutahundredPortuguese.AtthecommercialschooltherewereaboutfiXyAfricanstoseveralhundredPortuguese.(F.I)

Josinawasinaverymuchmorefortunateposi:onthanmostAfricans,asherfatherearnedanexcep:onallyhighsalaryforanAfrican_3,000escudos($142)_yets:llherfamilycouldonlyjustaffordthefees.TheStateclearlydidnotencouragethosewhocouldnotaffordthem:‘OutofthefiayAfricansatthecommercialschool,nottwentyhadscholarships,whileatleasthalfthePortuguesehadthem,althoughtheirfamilieswerebeGeroffthanours'.(F.J)

ThegovernmenthasalsoestablisheduniversitygeneralstudiesatLourençoMarques,butaccordingtotheinforma:onathand,outofthe280studentsenrolledin1962,therewerenotyetadozenAfricanones.ThereareafewAfricansnowaGendinguniversityinPortugalitself,andafewtakingsomehigherprofessionalcoursesattechnicalschoolsinPortugal.ButtheirnumberisinsignificantincomparisontothehundredsofMozambicanwhiteandAsianstudentsinthesameprograms.Everyyear,whitePortuguesestudentscrosstheborderstoSouthAfricaandRhodesiafortheirstudies.This,ofcourse,noAfricansareallowedtodo,eventhoughsomeAfricansmanagetoslipthroughandclandes:nelyregisteraslocalna:vestudents.

Since1963therehasbeenaconsiderableexpansioninthenumberofschools.ThisispartlyduetotheseGlementpolicyandanincreaseinthewhitepopula:on,butalsotothewarandaneffortbythePortuguesegovernmenttowinsomeAfricansupport.TheBole(mGeraldeUltramarof1967givesthefollowingfiguresfor1965_6:

Schools.Teachers.Pupils

Primary:1,305.2,912.92,002

Academicsecondary:46.530.9,028

Technicalsecondary:41.734.12,273

Theseincludealargenumberofprivateandreligiousins:tu:onsnotincludedinthe1963figures,whilethesecondaryschoolfiguresincludealsoteacher'straining,nursingcourses,etc.ThenumbersbeingeducatedatStatesecondaryschoolshaveincreasedonlymoderatelyinthelastfouryears.Unfortunately,thereisnoguidetothepropor:onofAfricanstudentsatthevariouslevels;butreportsbystudentsrecentlyescapedfromMozambiqueindicatethatthepropor:onshavebeenliGleaffectedbytheexpansion,exceptthatconsiderablymoreAfricansarenowintechnicalins:tutes.FortheordinaryAfricanchildinthecountry,theprospectsofreachingevenprimaryschoolares:llveryremote.

Apartfromthesheerlackofschoolsandplaces,thereareseveralfactorswhichpreventmoreAfricanchildrenfromgekngsomeschooling.Thereisthemaximumageofentryalreadydescribed.Andthereismoney.Eventherudimentaryschoolschargefees,andalthoughthesemaybelessthan$20ayear,thisisagooddealmorethanapeasantoraplanta:onworkercanafford,ashewouldprobablyearnaaertaxnotmorethan$50ayear,andmightearnlessthan$20.EvenamanwithaliGleskill,adriveroraclerk,earnsnotmuchmorethan$100ayear,aaertax.

Higheruptheacademicscale,schoolsbecomeprogressivelymoreexpensive,whiletheincidentalexpenditurealsoincreases.Attherudimentarystage,theparentsmayonlyhavetobuythechildsomeclothes;butlatertheywillhavetopayaswellforvariousschoolmaterials,fortransportandpossiblyforboard.Atthelevelofsecondaryschooling,transportandboardposeconsiderableproblems;mostoftheAfricansliveinthecountrywhileallthesecondaryschoolsareintowns_ofthethreeuppersecondaryschools,twoareinLourençoMarques,oneinBeira_andtheschoolsmakenoprovisionforchildrenfrompoorfamilieswhoneedtoboardcheaply.Finally,thereisthequalityofelementaryeduca:onprovidedforAfricans:ashasalreadybeenpointedout,mostoftheseschoolsdonotofferahighenoughstandardofteaching,oreventeachtherightcourses,toreachthenextlevelofschooling.

Theauthori:esshowveryliGleinterestinimprovingthesecondi:ons.In1950,only1.3percentofthetotalbudgetforMozambiquewasalloGedtoeduca:on,andby1962thishadincreasedonlyto4percent.In1961,thetotalsumalloGedtothemissionsforAfricaneduca:onwas$1,050,000.00,

whereassome$6millionarecollectedinannualrevenuefromtheAfricanpopula:on.WhenIvisitedMozambiquein1961,ItalkedtotwoofthehighestofficialsintheBoardofEduca:on:theDirectorofEduca:onforMozambiqueandthePrincipalofSalazarHighSchool.IaskedthemabouttheheavybiasagainstAfricans,andwhatplansthegovernmenthadforexpandingAfricaneduca:ontocorrectit.TheDirectorofEduca:ontoldmethatnothingcouldbedonetoincreasethenumberofAfricangradeschoolchildrenun:lmoremoneywasmadeavailabletoexpandthewholesystem.ThePrincipalofSalazarHighSchoolevadedmyfirstques:ononthenumberofblackAfricansatsecondaryschoolsinLourençoMarquesbysimplysta:ngthatthereweremorethanatthe:mewhenhetookuphispost.Inanswertofurtherques:onsabouttheiracademicperformance,hesaidthattheblackstudentscomparedfavorablytothewhiteinthephysicalsciencesandmathema:cs,butthattheirperformanceinthearts,par:cularlyinPortugueselanguageandliterature,waspoorer.HealsosuggestedthatpoorPortuguesemightaccountfortheirlowresultsinotherartsubjects,becausealthoughexaminersdidnotknowtheracesofthecandidates,theycouldtellbythepoorPortuguesegrammarwhichoneswereAfricans.Later,talkingtoaRomanCatholicpriest,IagainaskedaboutthenumberofblackAfricansaGendingsecondaryschoolinLourençoMarques.Hebeganbyproudlypoin:ngoutthatinPortugueseAfricastudentsarenotiden:fiedbyrace,andthenwentontomakeanes:mateoftwenty.Whenheno:cedmydisappointment,hequicklyaddedthatthereweremoreAfricanstudentsintheuptowngovernmenthighschool.However,whenIvisitedtheschoolmyself,Ifoundthatthepropor:onwass:llheavilyinfavorofwhites:ontalkingtosomeAfricanstudents,IgatheredthattheremusthavebeennomorethanfortyblackAfricanstudentsoutofanes:matedtotalof800.

TheroleoftheChurchinMozambique

Sincetheeduca:onoftheAfricanisalmosten:relyinthehandsoftheChurch,itisworthtakingacloserlookatthewholeposi:onoftheChurch,itsac:vi:esandaktudes.

WhiletheColonialActprovidesfreedomofconscienceandthefreedomofthevariousreligions,atthesame:meandinacontradictorymaGeritprovidesforspecialprotec:onandassistancetotheRomanCatholicChurchandtoitsmissionprogram.Depar:ngfromanearlieraktude,heldduringthefirsttwodecadesfollowingtheestablishmentoftherepublic,thePortuguesegovernmentrecognizedtherightsandspecialfunc:onsoftheChurch,whichare‘toChris:anizeandeducate,tona:onalizeandcivilizethena:vepopula:ons'.InMozambiquethispolicyisgovernedbyappropriatecons:tu:onalprovisions,beginningwiththeMissionaryAccordof1940_whichspelledoutinsomedetailtheprinciplescontainedintheConcordatof7May1940betweentheVa:canandPortugal_andtheMissionaryStatuteof1941.Bytheseagreements,thePortuguesegovernmentiscommiGedtosubsidizetheChurch'smissionaryprograms,limi:ngtheac:vi:esofnon-CatholicforeignmissionariesanddiscouragingtheinfluxofCatholicforeignmissionaries.

Inanes:matedMozambicanpopula:onof7,000,000,thenumberofpeoplewhosubscribetotheRomanCatholicfaithisabout800,000.Theseareservedbyabout100missionsandparishchurches,ledbysecularpriestsandfathersofvariousorders,includingFranciscans,Dominicans,Benedic:nes,Lazarists,andthoseoftheHolyGhostCongrega:on.In1959therewereinMozambique240priestsandfathers.AndoftheseonlythreepriestswereAfricans.Someofthemostimportantac:vi:esoftheCatholicChurchare‘thefoundinganddirec:ngofschoolsforEuropeansandAfricanchildren,elementary,secondaryandprofessionalschoolsandseminaries…aswellasinfirmariesandhospitals'.Thewholeresponsibilityforeduca:ngtheAfricanpeoplehasbeenentrustedtotheRomanCatholicChurch,despitethefactthattheoverwhelmingmajorityoftheAfricansarenotChris:ans.Andtothis

hasalsobeenaGachedtheresponsibilityforpreparingthoseAfricanswhomightbecomeassimilatedtothePortugueseculture.ThePortuguesebelievethatthereisabeGerchanceforanAfricantobecomeaPortugueseineveryrespectifheisaRomanCatholic.Thisbelief,oaenexpressedbyofficialsofthegovernment,iswellillustratedbyastatementmadein1960byDrAdrianoMoreira,thenUnder-SecretaryofStateforOverseasAdministra:on.Whileemphasizingthatpoli:calloyaltydidnotdependuponChris:anqualifica:ons,DrMoreiradeclaredthatCatholicmissionaryac:vitywasinseparablylinkedtopatrio:sm,andthattheforma:onofChris:anquali:esledtotheforma:onofPortuguesequali:es.

Itisthisaktudewhichhasledtosepara:ngtheeduca:onofAfricanchildrenfromthatoftheEuropeans,asepara:onwhichisthemorepeculiarinthatelsewhereintheworld,theCatholicChurchinsistsoneduca:ngthechildrenofitsmembers.YetinMozambique,thechildrenoftheEuropeans,whoaremorethan95percentRomanCatholic,areleainthehandsofsecularschools,runbytheState.Theintentofthispolicyisobviouslytoindoctrinatethechildrenofthena:veblackMozambicanswithChris:anity,therebyassuringthegovernmentofapopula:ondocileandloyaltoPortugal.

ThisaktudeofthePortuguesegovernmentissoentrenchedthatitconstantlyinfluencespolicy,evenindecisionsinvolvingtheadmissionofforeignChris:anmissionaries,CatholicorProtestant,intothecountry.Sincetheseventeenthcentury,foreignmissionarieshavebeensuspectedof‘dena:onalizingthena:ves’,andofac:ngasadvanceagentsforforeigngovernments.WhenthesemissionariesareProtestant,fearsandresentmentsaremul:plied.Consequently,formanyyearstheProtestantmissionsinMozambiquehavebeenhamperedandquiteoaenthwartedbyapowerfulcombina:onofthePortugueseCatholicclergyandofficialsofthecolonialgovernment.From:meto:me,publicstatementsaremadebyhighofficialsofthecolonialgovernmentaGackingProtestantmissions,accusingthemoffomen:ngan:-Portuguesesen:mentsamongsttheAfricanpopula:on.Lately,indeed,ProtestantmissionarieshavebeenaGackedasresponsiblefortheriseofna:onalisminbothAngolaandMozambique.

Infact,theleadershipofthena:onalistmovementsinthetwocountriesisreligiouslymixed.InourownMozambiqueLibera:onFront,mostofthemembersintheCentralCommiGee,whichdirectsthewholeprogramofthestruggle,eitherareRomanCatholicsorcomefromCatholicfamilies.Themanwhofirstdirectedourmilitaryac:onprogram,thelateFilipeMagaia,hadbeenbap:zedintheRomanCatholicChurch,ashadSamoraMachel,thepresentchiefoftheLibera:onarmy.Thelargestnumberofourstudentsabroad,whomayhaverunawayfromPortugueseschoolseitherinMozambiqueorPortugal,areRomanCatholic.WheninMay1961morethan100universitystudentsfromPortuguesecoloniesinAfricaranawayfromPortugueseuniversi:estoFrance,SwitzerlandandWestGermany,overeightyofthemdeclaredthemselvestobeeitherRomanCatholicortohavecomefromCatholicfamilies.Thereis,therefore,noevidencetosupportthePortugueseconten:on,whichmustbebasedratheronthepurposesoftheChurch,itsmethodsandtheaktudeswhichitaGemptstoinculcate.

Theelementaryeduca:onwhichtheChurchprovidesforAfricansishighlyreligiousincontent,withalargepartoflesson:medevotedtoreligiousknowledge.Apartfromthis,subjectstaughtarePortuguese,reading,wri:ngandarithme:c,butthestandardinalltheseisverylow.ThecoursesareorientatedtowardsPortugal.SuchhistoryandgeographyasaretaughtarethehistoryandgeographyofPortugal.Africaisonlyskimmedinconnec:onwiththePortugueseEmpire.Furthermore,agreatdealof:meisspentonmanualworkattheexpenseofacademicsubjects.Althoughtheproceedsofthiswork

gotothemission,thisisnotacceptedinplaceoffees.AllthesefeaturesareillustratedbythisaccountofImbuhomissionschoolbyaformerpupil,GabrielMaurícioNan:mbo(CaboDelgadoProvince);

Istudiedatthemission,butweweren'twelltaught.Inthefirstplace,theytaughtusonlywhattheywantedustolearn_thecatechism;theydidn'twantustolearnotherthings.Theneverymorningwehadtoworkonthemissionland.Theysaidourfathersdidn'tpayforourfoodorourschoolthings.Themissionalsoreceivedmoneyfromthegovernment,andourfamiliespaidthemfees.AXer1958ourparentsevenhadtobuythehoeswithwhichwecul(vatedthemissionland.(F.I)

Inthecourseofeduca:on,theChurchnaturallytriestoins:llmoralandpoli:calaktudesinitspupils,andinthisconnec:onitisimportanttoexaminetheroleoftheChurchinrela:ontothePortuguesestate.IngeneralthePortugueseCatholichierarchysupportstheprogramsoftheLisbonrégimebothathomeandoverseas.AndtheVa:candoesliGletoaltertherela:onship.Indeed,onhisvisittoPortugalinMay1967,thePopebroughtagiaof$150,000tothePortuguesegovernment‘foroverseasuse',andhenominatedtheCardinalofLisbontotheofficeofBishopofthePortugueseArmedForces,withtherankofbrigadier.TheaktudeofthegovernmenttotheChurchisclearlyexpressedinastatementmade,onhis28August1967,bytheUnder-SecretaryforOverseasAdministra:on;‘WhentheStateentruststheCatholicmissionswithashareintheworkofeduca:on,theStateiscertainthatthemissionswillworkforcommongood,inthetaskentrustedtothem.AndwhentheChurchacceptsthistask,theChurchisequallycertainthattheStatehastakenthebestpathfordefendingtheinterestsitisitsdutytodefend.Fromthiswecanconcludethat,intheauspiciousworkwhich,forcenturies,theyhavebeenaccomplishinginAfrica,theac:vi:esofChurchandStatewillcon:nueinperfectharmony,ledbythesameideals'.

FormanyPortugueseCatholics,beingPortugueseandbeingCatholicareoneandthesamething.AndweknowofnoinstanceduringthelastfortyyearswhentheRomanCatholicChurchofPortugalfeltcompelledtoprotestofficiallyagainstthemanysavageactsofthePortuguesegovernmentagainsttheAfricanpeople.Onthecontrary,thehighestofficialsoftheChurchhavetendedtocomeoutinsupportofgovernmentpolicyandconduct.Theonlyexcep:ontothisrulehasbeentheposi:onofoneChurchleaderinMozambique,theBishopofBeira,MonseigneurSebas:ãoSoaresdeResende.Foranumberofyears,heevendaredques:onthegovernmentforitstreatmentoftheAfricancoGongrowers.InhismonthlypastoralleGers,publishedinaChurchperiodical,hefrequentlycri:cizedthemannerinwhichthegovernmentwascarryingoutsomeofitsAfricanpolicies.BishopResendeisoneofthePortugueseliberalswhobelieveinthepossibilityofcrea:nganewBrazilinAfrica,wherePortugueseculturecanflourishevenaaerindependence.Theimpressiononegetsofhisposi:on,asgleanedfromsomeofhispastoralsandadailynewspaperwhichheispurportedtocontrol,isthathecanconceiveofanindependentMozambiqueonlywithinacommunityofPortugueseinterests,cultural,religiousandeconomic.Hisinten:onwastoliberalizethepolicyratherthantochangeitradically.ButwhenfinallysomeofhisopinionsbegantoannoytheSalazarrégime,hewasorderedbytheVa:cantostoppublishingthem.Subsequently,thegovernmentcurtailedsomeoftheprivilegeswhichhehadpreviouslyenjoyed,inpar:culartakingawayhisresponsibili:esasdirectoroftheonlysecondaryschoolinBeira.

ThecleareststatementevermadebyaPortugueseCatholicleaderofanystandingontheques:onofself-determina:onandindependencehascomefromMonseigneurCustódioAlvimPereira,AuxiliaryBishopofLourençoMarques.Ifhisposi:onistobetakenasrepresenta:veoftheRomanCatholicChurch,thentheChurchisunequivocallyagainstindependence.InarecentcircularwhichwasreadinallCatholicChurchesandSeminariesthroughoutMozambique,BishopPereiraoutlinedtenpointsintended

toconvincetheclergythatindependencefortheAfricanpeoplewasnotonlywrongbutcontrarytothewillofGod.Thestatementranasfollows:

1. Independenceisirrelevanttothewelfareofman.Itcanbegoodiftherightcondi(onsarepresent(theculturalcondi(onsdonotyetexistinMozambique).

2. Whilethesecondi(onsarenotbeingproduced,totakepartinmovementsforindependenceisac(ngagainstnature.

3. Evenifthesecondi(onsexisted,theMetrópolehastherighttoopposeindependenceifthefreedomsandrightsofmanarerespected,andifit(theMetrópole)providedforthewell-being,thecivilandreligiousprogressofall.

4. Allthemovementswhichuseforce(terrorists)areagainstthenaturallaw,becauseindependence,ifitistobeassumedthatitisgood,mustbeobtainedbypeacefulmeans.

5. Whenthemovementisaterroristone,theclergyhavetheobliga(on,ingoodconscience,notonlytorefrainfromtakingpart,butalsotoopposeit.This[obliga(on]derivesfromthenatureofhismission[asareligiousleader].

6. Evenwhenthemovementispeaceful,theclergymustabstainfromitinordertohavespiritualinfluenceuponallpeople.TheSuperioroftheChurchmayimposethatabsten(on;heimposesitnowforLourençoMarques.

7. Thena(vepeopleofAfricahavetheobliga(ontothankthecolonialistsforallthebenefitswhichtheyreceivefromthem.

8. Theeducatedhavethedutytoleadthosewithlesseduca(onfromalltheillusionsofindependence.

9. Thepresentindependencemovementshave,almostallofthem,thesignofrevoltandofCommunism;theyhavenoreason;wemustnot,therefore,supportthesemovements.ThedoctrineoftheHolySeeisquiteclearconcerningatheis(candrevolu(onaryCommunism.Thegreatrevolu(onisthatoftheGospel.

10. TheSlogan‘AfricafortheAfricans'isaphilosophicalmonstrosityandachallengetotheChris(anciviliza(on,becausetoday'seventstellusthatitisCommunismandIslamismwhichwishtoimposetheirciviliza(onupontheAfricans.

ClearlyitisnoaccidentthattheChurchadoptsthisapproach,andthattheeduca:onofAfricansisentrustedtotheChurch:itisyetanothersignthattheaimofPortugueseforAfricansissubmission,notdevelopment.Intheorytheaimofeduca:onistohelptheAfricanbecome‘civilized'andtomakehimintoa‘Portuguese’.Thisinitselfisanarrowethnocentricapproach,butitwouldatleastofferAfricanstheopportunitytodevelop,evenifnotinthemostsuitabledirec:on.Inprac:ce,however,nothingofthesortispursued.ThesystemisdesignedtomakeitalmostimpossibleforanAfricantogetaneduca:onwhichqualifieshimforanythingbutmenialworkaaerwards.ThewholesystemofAfricanschoolingisdesignedtoproducenotci:zens,butservantsofPortugal.

4TheEconomicsofExploita:on

PortuguesepolicyplacesonparallellinestheinterestsofEuropeansasleadersinthetransforma(onofbackwardregionsandtheinterestsofthena(vesasamasspreparedtobecomepartofafuturecivilizedpeople.ThusPortugalcannotacceptinabsolutetermstheprinciple‘paramountcyofna(veinterests',ratheronthecontraryhertradi(onalmethodscomeclosertowhatLugardcalled‘DualMandate'.ColonizingTradi(ons,PrinciplesandMethodsofthePortuguese,MarceloCaetano,Lisbon,1961

Theroleofthecolonies

AccordingtothePortuguesecons:tu:on,thegovernmentdoesnotacceptevenatrue‘dualmandate'inrespectofhercolonies:herpurposeinholdingontothemisfirstandforemostthatshemaysystema:callyexploittheresourcesoftheterritories,seGlePortuguesefamiliesinthecoloniesandregulatethemovementofAfricanworkers,includingthedisciplineandprotec:onofimmigrantworkers.Allotherreasons,suchasraisingthemoralandsocialstandardsoftheinhabitantsandrealizingsocialjus:ce,arestatedassecondary.

Tounderstandtheeconomicsofthisrela:onshipbetweenPortugalandhercolonies,onemustfirstconsidertheeconomyofPortugalherself.Portugalissmallandeconomicallybackward.Herterritoryisafrac:onthatofMozambiqueandherpopula:on,at9million,isonlyaliGlehigherthanthepopula:onofthecolony.In1961Portugal’ssocialtotalna:onalrevenuewas64,200,000millionescudos,whichrepresentsapercapitaincomeofabout$250ayear,oneofthelowestinEurope.Herrateofeconomicgrowthisslow.ShehasfewmineralresourcesandliGleindustry.Asaresultofhermountainousterrainandtheprimi:vemethodsofagriculturewhich,prac:cedforcenturies,havecausedextensivesoilerosion,shehasashortageofcul:vatableland.

Yetdespitetheshortageofland,halfthepopula:onisengagedinagriculture,andthesitua:onoftheseisaggravatedbytheconcentra:onoflandownershipinthehandsofafewpowerfullandlords.Only0.4percentoflandownersown45percentoftheland,andthe500biggestlandownerscontrolmorelandthandothe500,000smallestones.Unemploymentandunder-employmentareendemic.

Theownershipofindustry,likethatoflandisconcentratedinthehandsofafewcapitalists.Theaverageindustrialwageisabout$1aday.Therehasalwaysbeenachronicshortageofdomes:ccapital,andtheeconomyislargelysupportedbyforeigninvestment(un:l1930thiswasmostlyEnglish,butsincethenGermany,FranceandAmericahavebecomeimportantsuppliersofcapital).Thepovertyofthepopula:onhasledtoextensiveclandes:neemigra:ontoFrance,whichthegovernmenthastriedunsuccessfullytocheck.Thebackwardnessofthena:onaleconomygivesPortugalachronicallyunfavorabletradebalance;hermainexportstoforeigncountriesarecork,wolfram,coGontex:les,winesandsardines,whileshehastoimportnearlyallthemanufacturedproducts,apartfromtex:les,thatsheuses.Between1955and1959,thevalueofherexportscoveredonly62percentofthevalueofherimports;in1964theycovered66percent,butsincethenthegaphasincreasedagain.

1964tradefigures

Imports:5,257,000tonsworth22,320millionescudos

Exports:3,614,000tonsworth14,831millionescudos

Thisispar:allyoffsetbythetradeofthe‘overseasprovinces',whichhasalwaysshownafavorablebalanceofpaymentswithcountriesotherthanPortugalandanunfavorablebalanceofpaymentswithPortugalherself:

1963distribu(onoftradeofthe‘overseasprovinces'(inmillionsofescudos)

Imports.Exports

Totaltrade:11,370.9,888

WithPortugal:4,219.3,193

WiththeOECDcountries:3,628.4,650

WiththeUSA:646.1,712

RecenttradefiguresforMozambiqueshowthatduringthefirstsixmonthsof1967,shehadanega:vebalanceof668millionescudoswithintheescudozoneandafavorablebalanceof343millionescudoswiththerestoftheworld.

AlreadyonecanseewhythecoloniesareimportanttoPortugal:theirresourcescancompensateforPortugal’sownlack;theyprovideforamassofpoverty-strickenandfrequentlyunemployedpeopleanemigra:onoutletwhich,atthesame:me,keepsthemwithinthejurisdic:onofPortugal,contribu:ngtothena:onalincomeandliableformilitaryservice;sincethecolonieshaveafavorabletradebalancewithcountriesotherthanPortugal,theyhelphertoretainreservesofforeignexchange.Anexamina:onoftheeconomicstructurewillshowingreaterdetailhowPortugaltakesadvantageoftheseassets.

TheprinciplesunderlyingtheeconomicsysteminmetropolitanPortugalareentrenchedinthebasiclawsgoverningthecorpora:veorganiza:onofthestate.Forexample,itisstatedinthecons:tu:onoftheStatethat‘privateenterpriseisrecognizedasthemostprolificinstrumentofprogressandoftheeconomyofthena:on';theStateisrelegatedtocoordinatorandregulatoroftheeconomicandsociallife,andarbitratoroftheeconomicandsocialgoals.Thecons:tu:on,indeed,prohibitstheStatefromengagingintradeorestablishinganyindustries,exceptwhereprivateeconomicinterestcannotaffordtheini:alinvestmentcosts.Sincetherealpoli:calpowerinPortugalresidesinthecorpora(vechamber,abodycomposedofrepresenta:vesofguilds(grémios),‘theeconomicinterestsofthena:on’areactuallydeterminedbyapowerfulfew.

Thissamesystemisextendedtocovertheoverseasterritories.Inthecons:tu:onofPortugal,theeconomicrela:onshipwiththeoverseasterritoriesisdefinedasfollows:

Theeconomicorganiza(onofthePortugueseoverseasterritoriesshallformpartofthegeneraleconomicorganiza(onofthePortugueseNa(onandshalltherebytakeitsplaceintheworldeconomy.

Withinthisstructure,itisalsoenvisagedthatmetropolitanPortugalwill‘secure,throughmeasurestakenbythecompetentbodies,aproperbalanceofthevariouseconomicinterests'.AsinmetropolitanPortugal,guildshavebeenestablishedinMozambique,forproducersofcereals,vegetableoilprocessingindustries,teaandtobaccogrowers,whoseroleistohelpthegovernmentinplanninganddirec:ngtheexploita:onofthecountry'snaturalandhumanresources.

PrimeMinisterSalazarhashimselfstatedthattheoverseasterritorieswere‘alogicalsolu:ontoPortugal’sproblemofoverpopula:on,toseGlePortuguesena:onalsinthecoloniesandforthecoloniestoproducerawmaterialstoselltothemotherlandinexchangeformanufacturedgoods'.

AlthoughforeigninterestsinPortugalherselfworkunderspeciallegalrestric:ons,intheoverseasterritoriestheydonotapply.UsuallythePortuguesegovernmentrequiresthepar:cipa:onof

Portuguesecapitalinforeign-ownedcompanies,theregistra:onofcompanies,andtheappointmentofPortuguesena:onalstotheboardofdirectors,althoughthePortuguesecapitalneednotexceed50percent.Theonlysectoroftheeconomyinwhich51percentofcapitalmustbePortugueseisthatconcernedwiththeuseandexploita:onoflandconcessions.Thisrequirement,however,wasnotmadeapplicabletooverseasterritoriesun:l1947.InMozambiquenearlyalltheforeigncompaniesholdinglargetractsoflandcameintoexistencelongbeforethis,andtodatePortuguesepar:cipa:onisinsignificant.

Eventhe1947decreeintroducingthe51percentPortuguesepar:cipa:onrequirementforoverseasterritorieswasnotmadebinding,sincethesamelawempoweredtheMinisterforOverseasTerritoriestowaivetherequirementin‘specialcases'.Furthermore,therestric:onswhichwereoriginallyimposedonforeigninvestmentswereremovedinApril1951,andnewregula:onsadoptedwherebyenterprisesen:relyorlargelyforeign-ownedmightbeestablishedinthevariouseconomicsectorsoftheoverseasterritories,withthesamerightsofdutyandexemp:onasna:onalenterprisessolongastheywereownedbyresidentsofaPortugueseterritoryorpersonsdomiciledinoverseasterritories.

Then,facedwithcolonialwarssincethe1961outbreakinAngola,thegovernmentdecidedtoeliminateallrestric:onsontheentryofforeigncapitaltothecolonies,inthehopeofgainingfinancialandpoli:calsupportabroadforthemaintenanceofthePortugueseempire.

Aspartofthepolicyofexploi:ngtheresourcesofthecolonialterritories,theSalazarrégimeinsistsonaprocessofeconomicintegra:on,establishingrulesin1961wherebytheparentcountryandoverseasterritoriesmustwithintenyearsbecomeonesingleeconomiccommunity_commercialandmonetary.Thismeansthatbytheendof1971,theexis:ngquan:ta:vecustomsrestric:onsbetweenthecoloniesandtheparentcountrywillhavebeenprogressivelyeliminated.Accordingtothetermsofthislaw,allforeignexchangeearnedbytheoverseasterritoriesinpaymentfortheirexportsmustbedirectlydepositedwiththeBankofPortugalinLisbon,whichinitsturnwillcredittotherespec:vecolonythecorrespondingamountinPortuguesecurrency.Inordertoenableeachcolonytopayitsinter-territorialdebts,Portugalcreatedamonetaryfundoftheescudozone.

Inpursuitofhereconomicaims,itwas,inshort,necessaryto:(1)integratethewholeeconomyofthecountrywiththatofthecolonies;(2)centralizeinLisbonthepoli:calmachineryofthecolonialempire;and(3)baralltendenciestowardstheindependenceinherAfricanpossessions,tothepointofestablishinganarmymuchbeyondherinternalneeds.

Inordertofacilitatecontroloftheeconomiclifeofthecoloniesaswellasforpoli:calreasons,thePortuguesegovernmentdecidedunilaterallytoalterthecons:tu:onin1951,declaringPortugaltobeonena:onembracingnotonlymetropolitanPortugal,butalsoallheroverseasterritories.Priortothis,theSalazarrégimehadgraduallyreducedandfinallyeliminatedanyfinancialcontribu:onsfromPortugaltothedevelopmentofthecolonies,byinsis:ngthateachcolonymustpayitsownexpenseswithitsownresources:that(1)thebudgetsoftheoverseasterritoriesbebalanced;(2)thereceiptscomefromlocalresources;and(3)theexpensesbecompletelymetbythebudgetoftheterritory.

Furthermore,colonialterritoriesareobligedtopayforthecostofmaintaininganumberofpoli:cal,economicandeduca:onalins:tu:onsinmetropolitanPortugal,suchastheCouncilofOverseasProvinces,theGeneralOverseasAgency,theIns:tuteofTropicalMedicineandtheCenterforOverseasStudies.In1961,suchextra-territorialexpensescostthethreeAfricancoloniesmorethan35millionescudos.AndthePortuguesegovernmentinsiststhatallbutone-thirdofthebudgetforthenon-

governmentalorganiza:ons,suchastheboardsforcoordina:ngtheexportsofcoGon,cerealsandcoffee,bebornebytheoverseasterritories.

Despitethesemeasures,however,itwouldappearthatPortugalenjoysaneteconomicgainonlyfromAngola,andthatinthecaseofMozambiquesheactuallylosesfinancially.Thisdoesnotmean,however,thatintermsofrealeconomicgainsheistheloser.TheparadoxliesinthedetailsofeconomicintercoursebetweenMozambiqueandmetropolitanPortugal.Mozambiqueisprincipallyanexporterofrawmaterialsandanimporterofmanufacturedgoods.Withtheexcep:onofvegetableoils,meatandfishcanning,thereareatpresentnolocalmanufacturingindustriesofanyimportance.MostofthesugargrownisexportedrawtoberefinedinmetropolitanPortugal.ThesameappliestocoGon;itissenttoPortugal,forthetex:leindustriestheretoconvertitintothreadandcloth.Since1961thispaGernhasbeguntochange,andwiththehelpofforeigncapitalanumberofsmallfactoriesandassemblyplantshavebeenestablishedinthecolony.Recently,evensomecoGonindustrieswereallowedtostartproducingtex:lesinMozambique,sincebeGercoGonfromelsewhere(liketheUnitedStates)isnowavailableatcompe::veprices.Inspiteofthis,thePortuguesetex:leindustriess:llprefertobuymostoftheircoGonrequirementsfromMozambiqueandAngola,forthreereasons:theyareabletopayinna:onalcurrency;pricesarefixedbythegovernment,sufficientlybelowthoseoftheworldmarkettorepresentaconsiderablesaying;andtheyhaveacap:ve12millionpeopletoconsumetheirfinishedgoods.RecentlyProfessorQuitanilha,chiefofMozambique’sCoGonResearchCenter,saidthatifPortugalhadhadtopurchaseabroadallthecoGonthathertex:leindustryhadconsumedinthepastfewyears,thiswouldhavemeantanannualexpenditureofsome£12million.Instead,theactualincomethatthecoGonindustrybringstothePortugueseeconomyis£18million.

LookingovertheannualimportlistofmanufacturedgoodsforMozambique,oneno:cesthatthereisapreponderanceoftwoimportantitems,co7ontex(lesandwinesandspirits,bothproducedinPortugalinlargequan::es.Indeed,Mozambiqueimportsmoreclothandwinesandspirits(bothinquan:tyandvalue)thanshedoesindustrialandfarmequipment.Ofgoodswhichhavetobeimportedfromoutsidetheescudozone,itisworthno:ngthelargenumbersofprivatevehiclesinMozambique,whichareobviouslynotfortheconsump:onofthepoorAfricanpopula:on,butfortheprivilegedfewnon-Africans.

ThusthestructureofexchangebetweenPortugalandtheoverseasterritoriesistypicalofthePortuguesecolonialsystem,inthattheeconomiclifeofthecolonialterritoriesisgearedtowardsservingtheinterestsofmetropolitanPortugalratherthantheirown;theoverseasterritoriessupplymetropolitanPortugalwithtropicalproducts,basicrawmaterials,whileservingasacap:vemarketandadumpinggroundforcheapindustrialgoods,andthewineandspiritsforwhichPortugalisfamed.Recently,too,theyhaveacquiredanewimportanceasameansofearninghardcurrency.Methodsofproduc:oninMozambiquereflectthisscaleofpriori:es:Portugal’sinterestsareputbeforeMozambique’s,aswithinMozambiquetheinterestsofthewhiteminorityareputbeforethoseofMozambicanAfricans.

Topromotesuchapolicy,theSalazarrégime,rightfromitsincep:on,setouttoincreasetheproduc:onofcommercialagriculturalproducebyintroducingnewmethodsoflanddistribu:onandcontrol;andbyforciblyreducingtheproduc:onofagriculturalconsumergoodstradi:onallyusedbytheAfricanpopula:on.ItalsodiscouragedthedevelopmentofAfricanagriculturalandconsumercoopera:vesforfearthattheymightcompetewithEuropeanseGlerinterests.

Produc:onofcashcrops

Mozambiqueisatthemomentprimarilyanagriculturalcountry,andthemostimportantofherproductsare:coGon,sisal,canesugar,rice,tea,tobacco,copra,cashewnuts,groundnutsandvarioustypesofoilseed.Produc:onoftheseintheterritoryfollowsacertainracialpaGernwhichillustratesthecolonialeconomicpolicyandprac:ceofPortugal.Ingeneral,coGonandriceareproducedbyAfricans,onindividualorfamilyplots.Copra,sugarcane,teaandsisalareproducedbyEuropeanfarmers,principallyonlargeindividualfarms,oronestatesandplanta:ons,whichrequiremuchini:alcapital.

Theproduc:onofriceandcoGonbyAfricanfarmersisnotspontaneous;becauseofcontrolledprices,thereisnoprofitincen:vewhichmightmakethemundertakeitoftheirownaccord.Thegovernmentcompelsthemtoraisesuchcrops,some:mesonspeciallyalloGedplotsofland,some:mesontheirowntradi:onalholdings.

Letustaketheproduc:onofcoGonasanexample.WhenSalazarfirstcametopowerin1928,thePortuguesecoloniesinAfricaproducedabout800tonsofcoGon,whilethePortuguesetex:leindustriesneed17,000tons.OneofthefirststepstakenbytheSalazarrégimewastoins:tuteasystemofforcedcoGoncul:va:oninthetwomainAfricancolonies.InAngola,speciallegaldecreesmadeitobligatoryforallable-bodiedAfricanslivingindesignatedareastogrowcoGon.InMozambique,nofurtherlegalini:a:vewasnecessary,sincetheobliga:ontoproducecoGoncouldbederivedfromearliergenerallegalprovisionsforAfricanlaborandfarming.Bythemiddle1950s,thenumberofAfricansengagedinthecul:va:onofcoGonhadrisentohalfamillion,andproduc:oninMozambiquealonehadreached140,000tons.ThePortuguesetex:leindustry,whichemploysathirdofPortugal’sindustriallaborforceandaccountsforafiahofthevalueoftotalexports,took82percentofitsrawmaterialsfromthecolonies.

Upto1961,thedirec:onandsupervisionofcoGonproduc:onbelongedtotheagentsoftheconcessionarycompanies,supportedbythelocaladministra:veservices,undertheoverallguidanceoftheCoGonExportBoard.Underthissystem,theBoarddesignatedtheareaswherecoGonwastobegrown,determiningtheamountoflandtobecul:vatedbyeachAfricanindividualorfamilyinthecoGonzone.

In1930,theCoGonexportBoarddrewup‘generalinstruc:on',whichwerelaterapprovedbytheGovernor-General,sekngouttheprocedureforcoGongrowingbyAfricans.Allable-bodiedAfricanmalesbetweentheagesofeighteenandfiay-fiveweretobedesignatedas‘coGonfarmers’,andwereexpectedtocul:vateatleast2.5acresofcoGoneach,plus1.5acresforeachwifeaaerthefirst,plusanequalareaoffoodcrops.Singlewomenbetweentheagesofeighteenandforty-five,andmenbetweenfiay-sixandsixty,weredesignated‘coGoncul:vators',responsiblefor1.5acresofcoGon,plusanequalareaoffoodcrops.

Thefurtherorganiza:onwasoutlinedbyProfessorMarvinHarrisinhismonographPortugal'sAfricanWards:

Inthismodernserfdom,theroleofthemedievallordisexercisedbytwelvePortuguesecompanies,eachofwhichhasreceivedmonopolis(cconcessionrightsoverco7onproduc(oninvastareasofMozambique.Indígenaswithintheconcessionareasofeachcompanyareassignedco7onacreagebytheadministra(veauthori(es.Theyhavenochoiceinthema7erandmustplant,cul(vateandharvestco7onwherevertheyaretold.Thentheymustselltherawco7ontotheconcessioncompanyoftheirareaatpriceswhicharefixedbythegovernmentfarbelowthoseavailableontheinterna(onalmarket.…In1956,therewere519,000Africancul(vatorspar(cipa(ngintheco7oncampaign…theactual

numberofmen,womenandchildrenbeingforcedtoplantco7on(onacreagetakenoutoffoodproduc(on)probablyexceedsonemillion.In1956,the519,000sellersreceivedanaverageof$11.17perpersonastheirfamily’srewardforanen(reyearofwork.

ItwasthedutyofthePortugueseadministra:ontoensurethatallthecoGonproducedeachyearwaspresentedatthemarketplacesfortheconcessionarycompanytobuy,sothattheAfricanproducermightnotsellhiscoGonelsewhere.Inthiswayboththeprivatecompany,enjoyingmonopolyrights,andthePortuguesegovernmentwereabletosetthepriceatwill,thusensuringthemselvesoftheprofitthattheywantedfortheyear.

ThissystemmaywellhaveenrichedtheEuropeancompaniesinvolvedbutithashadadifferentandoaendisastrouseffectonalargepropor:onoftheAfricans.Ithasdisruptedtheirnormaleconomicac:vi:es,reducingtheoutputofconsumerfoodcropsandcausingrecurrentfamines;whileduringtheplan:ng,cul:va:ngandharves:ngperiods,theaverageAfricanhasbeenunderconstantpersecu:onbythepolice,busilycombingeveryhouse,anddrivingouteveryman,womanandchildtothecoGonfieldseveryday,inordertomakecertainthattheydonothingelsebutworkincoGon.Furthermore,theeagernessoftheconcessionarycompaniestomakeyetgreaterprofitshasinducedthegovernmenttoforceAfricansintogrowingcoGononmarginallands,resul:nginuntoldeconomichardshipstothecul:vatorsthemselves,mostofwhomearnlessthan£210ayearfromthesaleofcoGon.

The1961‘reforms'madesomechangesinthesystem,thechiefofwhichwastoremovethelegalbasisforcompulsorycul:va:on.Asinotherfields,however,thechangeinthelawhadliGleeffectinprac:ce.Theessen:alcharacteris:csofthesystemremainastheywerebefore1961.Thefollowingaccounts,whichillustratethis,arebyMozambicanswhowereworkingincoGonproducingareasatleast:ll1964,whenthelibera:onstruggleforcedsomeofthecompaniestoclosedown.Thecondi:onstheydescribeareprevalenttodayinthoseregionsnotyetdeeplyaffectedbythewar.

RitaMulumbua(NiassaProvince):Myparentsarepeasants.Onourlandwegrewcassava,beansandmaize.Wealsogrewco7onwhichwesoldtoacompany.Wesoldabagofco7onforfrom25escudos(90cents)to50escudos($1,80cents)dependingonthequalityandtheyear.Inagoodyearmyfathermusthavesold10bags.Hepaid195escudos($7.0)tax.

Iworkedinthefieldsgrowingco7on.Wedidn'twantco7on,butwehadtogrowit;wewantedtogrowcassava,beansandmaize.Ifwerefusedtogrowco7on,theyarrestedus,putusinchains,beatusandthensentusawaytoaplacefromwhereonedidn'tcomeback.WhenIwasachildIknewChiefNava(a;theyarrestedhimandhehasn'tbeenseensince.(F.I)

GabrielMauricioNan(mbo(CaboDelgadoProvince):Mywholefamilyproducedco7onfortheCompanhiaAgrícolaAlgodeira.Whenthecompanycametoexploitourregion,everyonewasforcedtocul(vateonefieldofco7on.Eachpersonwasgivenseed.Thenonehastoclearthefield,thintheco7on,,becausewhentherearetoomanyplantstheco7ondoesnotgrowwell,andthenremovetheweeds.Finally,aXertheharvest,thecompanytolduswheretotaketheco7onandthenboughtitfromus.Theypaidusverybadlyforit.Itwasextremelydifficulttomakealivingbecausewewerebadlypaidforit,andwedidn'thave(metolookaXerourothercrops:co7onneedsconstanta7en(on;youhavetokeepweddingthefieldandthinningouttheplants.

The(meofco7ongrowingwasa(meofgreatpoverty,becausewecouldonlyproduceco7on;wegotapoorpriceforit,andwedidnothave(metogrowothercrops.Wewereforcedtoproduceco7on.Thepeopledidn'twantto:theyknewco7onisthemotherofpoverty,butthecompanywasprotectedbythe

government.Weknewthatanyonewhorefusedtogrowitwouldbesenttotheplanta(onsonSãoToméwherehewouldworkwithoutanypayatall.Soasnottomakeourpovertyanygreater,then;soasnottoleavethefamilyandleavethechildrentosufferalone,wehadtogrowco7on.Thecompanyandgovernmentworktogethercloselytoenforcethesystem.…OnedaymyunclefellsickandcouldnotlookaXer(his)field.Thecompanymanagersenthimtotheauthori(es,andhetoldhetoldthemhewassick.…Theadministratorsaidtohim:‘You'reabadman.Doyouthinkothersdon'tfallsick?Iseveryonewhoworksinthefieldsingoodhealth?’Myunclereplied,‘Therearedifferentsortsofillness.Withsomeyoucangoonworking,withothersyoucan't.Icouldn'twork’.TheyarrestedhimandsenthimtoSãoToméforayear(F.I)

EuropeanproducersofcoGonandothercashcropsarenotsubjecttothesameregula:onsastheAfricans.Asidefromthefactthattheyreceivelargetractsoflandfromthegovernment,theyarefavoredbythebanksforloans.Aboveall,theyarenotobligedtoselltheirproducetotheconcessionarycompanies,butcanputitintheopenmarket,governedbystandardworldprices.ThesumspaidtoAfricanproducersandquotedbyRitaMulumbuaarewellbelowworldprices,whichmakespossiblethelowresalepricetothePortuguesetex:leproducers:recentlycoGonwasbeingsoldtothePortugueseindustryat17escudosperkilogram,whileintherestoftheworldthestandardpricewas20_25escudos.

Governmentlegisla:onrecognizesonlyEuropeansasproducer,withtherighttoberegisteredontheexportboards,althoughinprac:cemostoftheworkisdonebyAfricanlabor,eitherinpaidemploymentorplanta:onsorasprincipalgrowersthemselves.

Theproduc:onofothercashcrops,apartfromrice,takesplacemostlyonlargeplanta:ons,wherethelaborforceisAfricanbuttheresponsibilityforproduc:onrestswiththemanagement.Inotherrespectsthesystemissimilar:thereisthesamecoopera:onbetweencompanyandgovernment;thereisthesameelementofcompulsionandoflowcostsforthecompany,inthisinstanceprovidedbypayinglowwagestotheAfricaninsteadoflowpricesforhisproducts.Adescrip:onofworkonateaplanta:oninZambéziashowsthattheeffectontheAfricanpopula:onisverymuchthesame:

JoaquimMaquival(ZambéziaProvince):Wehadtoworkonthegovernmentland,atleastitisn'tgovernmentland;itbelongstoacompanybutitwasthegovernmentwhichmadeusworkonit.ItwasthelandoftheSociedadedeCháOrientaldeMilange.Thegovernmentcameandarrestedusinourvillagesandsentustothecompany;thatis,thecompanypaidmoneytotheadministra(onorthegovernment,andthenthegovernmentarrestedusandgaveustothecompany.IbeganworkingforthecompanywhenIwastwelve;theypaidmefiXeenescudosamonth(53cents).Iworkedfromsixinthemorningun(ltwelvenoon,whenwestoppedfortwohours;thenagainfromtwopmun(lsixpm.Thewholefamilyworkedforthecompany;mybrothers,myfather_myfatheriss(llthere.Myfatherearnedands(llearns150escudosamonth($5.3).Hehadtopay195escudostaxyearly.Wedidn'twanttoworkforthecompany,butifwerefusedthegovernmentsentthepolicetothevillages,andtheyarrestedthosewhorefused,andiftheyranawaythegovernmentcirculatedphotographsandahuntwasstarted.Whentheycaughtthemtheybeatthemandputtheminprison,andwhentheycameoutofprisontheyhadtogoandworkbutwithoutpay;theysaidthatastheyranawaytheydidn'tneedthemoney.…ThusinourownfieldsonlyourmotherswereleXwhocouldnotdomuch.Allwehadtoeatwastheli7leourmotherswereabletogrow.Wehadneithersugarnortea_wehadtoworkontheteabutwedidn'tknowwhatittastedlike.Teanevercametoourhomes.(F.I)

Mixedfarming

Thenormaloccupa:onofmostAfricans,ifnotdisturbed,wouldbesubsistencefarming.Butwhenthegovernmentdoesnotac:velyhinderthem,itdoesliGletohelp.Africanfarmersareen:tledtoveryliGlesupportandaidfromthegovernment,apartfromtheoccasionaldistribu:onofqualityseeds,whichhastoberepaidinkindanyway.Onthecontrary,theyarefacedwithallsortsoflegalandadministra:veobstaclesbeforetheycanqualifyasindependentfarmersatall.

Since1928,whentheSalazarrégimewasfirstestablished,thegovernmenthadissuedanumberofdecreesrestric:ngthefreedomofAfricanstochosewheretowork.From1928to1961,anAfricancouldengageinindependentfarmingonlyunderthefollowingcondi:ons:

1. Hemustcul:vatepermanentlyoneormoreplots,whichhadtoconformwithofficialrequirementsforlandcul:va:on.

2. Hemustbethemainandpermanentagentofthevariousac:vi:esinconnec:onwithhisholding,wherehemighthavethehelpofhisrela:onsandpaidemployeesorexchangeservicewithotherworkers.

3. Hemustresidewithhisfamilyononeofhisplots.

4. Hemusthavepaidallhistaxes.

5. Hemustmaintainhisac:vi:esinaccordancewiththeinstruc:onsoftheGovernor-General

Theaboverequirementsaresodifficulttofulfilthatonlyafewpeoplecanqualifyasindependentfarmers.AndasifthesewerenotsufficienttodiscourageAfricansfromventuringintoindependentfarming,thePortuguesegovernmenthasdecreedfurtherthananAfricanfarmercanbeexpelledfromhislandif,amongotherthings:

1. Hehasbeenawayandnottakingcareofhisplotformorethanatotaloffourmonthsinayear;

2. Aaerthreeyears,hehasnotshownthathewasachievingadequateagriculturaldevelopment,asevidentfromthegrowthandincreasedvalueofhiscul:vatedareasandlivestock;

3. Hehasnot,withinthreeyears,builtabrickhouseonhisplotsorclosetothem.

Eventheordinarypeasantwhoisnottryingtoestablishhimselfasanindependentfarmerfacesmanydifficul:es.Themostpersistentisheadtax.Inordertopaythis,mostpeasantshavetoproducesomecropforsale;but,again,pricespaidtoAfricanproducersareverylow.Forexample,inoneareapeasantswerepaid1escudo(about3cents)akilogramforpeanutsbylocaltraderswhosoldthemagainat5escudos.

Theothercommonthreatislandaliena:on.Intheory,tradi:onallands,asdifferen:atedfromlandunderwhiteseGlement,belongtotheAfricans.Ar:cle38ofthe1955Na:veStatuteforMozambiqueandAngolareaffirmedthispolicy:

Na(veswholiveintribalorganiza(onsareguaranteed…theuseanddevelopment,fortheircrops,andforthepastureoftheirca7le.

ButundertheheavypressureofEuropeanseGlers,thePortuguesegovernmentyielded.Someofthena:velandwasexpropriated,oaenwithoutcompensa:on,andgivenovertolargeplanta:onsofsugarcane,tea,orsisal,andfortheseGlementofwhiteimmigrantsfromPortugal.Forthisagain,wehavedirecttes:monyfromthepeopleaffected:

NatachaDeolinda(ManicaandSofalaProvince):AtBuzi(Beira)thePortugueseboughtalltheland.Thereweresomevillagesontheland,andthepeopleinthemweredrivenoutandhadtoleavetheirhomes,theirland,andlookforanotherplacetolive.Theyreceivednocompensa(onfortheirhouses;theywerejustdrivenout.Inourareawewereforcedtoleave,abandoningourfields,andthePortugueseplantedsugarcaneeverywhere.Wewerenotallowedtousethewellswehaddug;allthewaterwasreservedforthecane.Ifoneofuswasfoundwithsomesugarcane,theyarrestedusandmadeuspayfiXyescudosfora(nypieceofit.Theysaidwehadstolenit,andifwedidn'thaveanymoneytheadministra(onmadeusworkforaweekintheplanta(on,supposedlytopayforthebitofsugarcane.(F.I)

Inareaswherethelandwastakennotasaplanta:on,buttoseGlewhitepeasantfarmers,afewoftheoriginalAfricanownerswereallowedtoremain.Thisbringsustoanotherofthemanycontradic:onsinPortuguese-ruledMozambique:theestablishmentoftheso-called‘mul:-racialseGlements',intherichrivervalleysoftheLimpopo,Incoma:andZambezibasins,knowninPortugueseascolonatos.ThesystemwasdreamedupbySalazar'ssociologists,whoclaimedthatanyaGempttoadvancefromatradi:onalAfricanwayoflifetoamodernindustrialsocietyinashortperiodof:mewouldnotbefeasible.Instead,theysuggestedthatthebestcoursetofollowwouldbetheestablishmentofanagrariansocietythroughtheseGlementofPortuguesepeasantsingovernmentcoloniza:onprojects,insomeofwhichtheAfricanwastotakepart,andthroughthedevelopmentofAfricanagriculturalcolonieswhichwouldmakepossiblefavorablecondi:onsfortheeconomicandspiritualassimila:onoftheAfrican.Partofthemo:va:onforthisschemewastohelpexpeditetheincreaseofthePortuguesepopula:oninMozambique.Buttheofficiallystatedaimwastocreateasemi-literatepopula:onofAfricansandPortugueseholdingruralPortuguesevalues,dedicatedtothelandandpoli:callyconserva:ve,soastoabsorbanddiverttheenergiesoftherisingAfrican,andrenderhimunabletothreatenthelargeEuropeaneconomicinterestsrepresentedbytheagriculturalestates,themaineconomicpropsofthecolony.

ThefirstseriousaGemptsatestablishingsuchseGlementstookplaceintheearly1950s,andthebestknowncolonatosinMozambiquearetobefoundinthesoutherndistricts,especiallyintheLimpopovalley.WhilethereareafewAfricanfarmersintheseagriculturalseGlements,theoverwhelmingmajorityarewhitePortugueseimmigrants.

Whilevisi:ngMozambiquein1961,Italkedtosomefarmerswhoweremembersofgovernment-sponsoredcoopera:vesinZavala,ChibutoandChai-Chai.IalsovisitedsomenewagriculturalprojectsintheManjacazearea,organizedonthemodeloftheIsraeliKibbutzim.TheprevailingcomplaintamongtheAfricanmemberswasthatthegovernmentdidnotallowthemtobargainwiththeoutsidepurchasersoftheirproduce.Inotherwords,thecoopera:veswerebeingusedasanothercheapwayofsupplyingagriculturalgoodstothegreatconcessionarycompaniesattheexpenseoftheAfricanfarmer.

TherearesomePortugueseandforeigneconomistswhoareimpressedbythefewcoopera:vesnowopera:nginthesoutherndistrictsofMozambique.Theybelievethattheseins:tu:onspointthewaytothefuture,andthattheself-administra:onand‘democra:c’rulelearnedinthecoopera:vesmaybeanimportantfirststepinmovingawayfromthepaternalis:cgovernmentofthePortuguesecolonies.Letusassumethatthereissomesmalltruthinthispointofview;yetin1960,therewereonly12,000farmerspar:cipa:ngincoopera:veprojects,outofanes:matedpopula:onofover6,500,000,orone-twen:ethof1percentofthetotalpopula:on.

Labor

Wehavealreadyseenhow,fromtheearlystagesoftheircontrol,thePortugueseregardedtheAfricanlaborasoneofthecolonialresourcestobeexploitedforthebenefitofPortugal.Weoutlinedthelaborlaws,andindicatedhowtheproduc:onofcashcropswasbasedontheunderpaidforcedlaborpermiGedbysuchlaws.Itisworth-whileheretosummarizethemainmethodsoflaborexploita:onandtheirplaceintheoveralleconomyofthecolony

Sixmaintypesoflaborcanbedis:nguished:

1. Correc(onallabor,imposedinsteadofaprisonsentence,followingconvic:onforinfringementoftheCriminalCode,orindirectlyforaninfringementoftheLaborCodeorfornon-paymentoftax.Sincethemodifica:onmadetothelawin1960_62,convic:onintheleGercasesisforcontemptofcourt,followingonnon-compliancewithacourtordertopayataxorcompensa:onfee.Thistypeoflaborisgenerallycompletelyunpaid.

2. Obligatorylabor,originallybasedonagovernmentcircularof5May1947,orderingall‘na(ves'toworksixmonthsoftheyearfortheState,acompanyoranindividual.Since1961thishasbeenabolished;but,byministerialedict,laborcanbecalledontoredresseconomicills(9May1961,no.24),andbasedonthis,theprac(ceof‘obligatorylabor'con(nues.Thissortoflaborisusuallypaidatverylowrates(2or3escudosaday).Itwasintendedinthemainforroadbuildingandsimilarpublicworks,butunofficiallyisoXendraXedintoplanta(ons.

3. Contractlabor,regulatedunderthepresentrurallaborcode,andcalledcontractbecausetherela:onshipbetweenemployerandemployee,assetoutinthecode,isofthecontracttype.Afailurebyemployeetofulfilhisobliga:oncanbepunishedwithvariouscivilsanc:ons,whichmayleadtoacriminalconvic:onandasentencetocorrec:onallabor.Contractlaborisalsopaidatlowrates.

4. Voluntarylabor,whereanindividualemployeeisengageddirectlybyanemployer.Thisisthecasemostlywithdomes:cwork,andisfoundrarelyoutsidethetowns.

5. Forcedcul:va:on,wheretheworkerispaidnotforhislaborbutfortheproductofit.

6. Exportlabor,orlaborsentabroad,mainlytoSouthAfrica,inreturnforvariouspaymentstothePortuguesegovernment.

Thislasttypeoflaboristheonlyonewhoseworkingshavenotalreadybeendescribed.InitspresentformitisbasedonanagreementbetweenthePortugueseandSouthAfricangovernments,da:ngfrom11September1928andcarryingtheponderous:tle:‘AgreementontheEmigra:onofNa:vesfromMozambiquetotheTransvaal;Ques:onsRela:ngtotheRailwaysandCommercialRela:onsBetweentheColonyofMozambiqueandSouthAfrica'.Itallowedfortherecruitmentofatleast65,000andatmost100,000MozambicansbytheTransvaalminingcorpora:on.TheWitwatersrandNa:veLaborAssocia:on,alreadyfavoredintheearlieragreementof1903,wasgivenchargeofrecruitmentandrequiredtopayanamountof£216perheadtotheMozambicancolonialgovernmentforeverymanrecruitedtoserveaperiodofeighteenmonths.Theagreementalsospecifiedthat,exceptforasmalladvance,thewagesoftheMozambicansweretobepaidtothegovernment,whichwouldhanditoveronlyonthereturnoftherecruits,aaerdeduc:ngtaxandinPortuguesecurrency.TheSouthAfricangovernmentalsoagreedtousethePortofLourençoMarquesfor47.5percentoftheexportsfromandimportstotheTransvaal.AsimilaragreementwassignedwithSouthernRhodesia,althoughthedemandforMozambicanlaborwasmuchsmallerthere.

TheexportoflaborremainsanextremelyimportantaspectoftheMozambicaneconomy.In1960thereweremorethan400,000MozambicanworkersinSouthAfricaandSouthernRhodesia,providingoneofthecolony'smainsourcesofrevenueandforeignexchange.Thebudgetin1961allowedforatotalreceiptof6,300,000millionescudos(90,000millionpounds);andofthissum,theexportoflaborwasexpectedtoaccountfor1,200,000million.

Ofthesixtypesoflabordescribedabove,thefirstfivearedesignedtoproduceprofitsforcompaniesandthusindirectlyforthegovernmentbyprovidingverylowcostproduc:on;thelastisdesignedtoproducerevenueandforeignexchangeforthegovernmentdirectly.

Mineralresourcesandindustry

BeforethePortuguesecametoEastAfrica,somegoldandsilverwereexportedfromtheareanowoccupiedbyMozambiqueandSouthernRhodesia.TheearlyPortugueseadventurersdreamtoffindingagreatstoreofsuchpreciousmetalsintheinterior,buttheirexpecta:onswerenotfulfilled.Un:lwellintothiscentury,prospec:ngrevealedliGleofanyvalue,andthecolonyrefusedtoyieldanythingbutthemodestprofitstobemadefromagriculturalexploita:on.Recently,though,thesitua:onhasbeendrama:callychangedbythediscoveryofseveralimportantminerals,includingcoal,bauxite,asbestos,tantalumandniobium,modestquan::esofgoldandcopper,andreservoirsofoilandnaturalgas.

Therealiza:onthattheremightbeimportantmineralresourcesinMozambiquecameataboutthesame:methatthePortuguesegovernmentfounditselfforcedtorelaxrestric:onsonforeigninvestmentinthe‘overseasprovinces'.ThesetwofactorscombinedtoencourageamassiveinfluxofforeigncapitalintoMozambiquefromtheearly1960s.

Thisheavypar:cipa:onofforeigncapitalisbynomeansanewphenomenon,aseventhefirst‘bigthree'concessioncompanieswerelargelyfinancedfromabroad.Thedifferenceliesinthenewtypeofinvestmentandinitsorigins.Earlierinvestmentwasconfinedmainlytoagriculturalschemes,andthemainsourceofcapitalwasBritain.TheSenaSugarEstatesisoneofthemostimportantcompaniesda:ngfromthisphaseofinvestment.ItislargelyBri:shownedandisthebiggestsugarproducerinallthePortuguesecolonies:between1965and1966,itaccountedfor70percentoftotaloutput;itemploys25,000Africanworkers,andin1967showedaprofitof£1,400,000beforetax.

Thenewphaseofinvestment,ontheotherhand,hasbeendominatedbySouthAfricaandtheUnitedStates,althoughBritain,France,andJapanhavealsobeenimportant,andsmallerWesternEuropeancountries,suchasBelgium,SwedenandSwitzerlandhavecontributed.Theextrac:onofminerals,andsmallprocessingmanufacturingindustries,havetakenprecedenceoveragriculturalproduc:on.Thesearchforoilhastakenapar:cularlyprominentplace:AmericanownedGulfOilstartedprospec:ngasearlyas1953andwasgrantedconcessionrightsin1958,sinceextendedseveral:mes.ThecompanyhasmadeanumberofsuccessfulstrikesinSouthernMozambiqueincludingthediscoveryofnaturalgasatPande,buttheextentofthereservesiss:llamaGerforspecula:on.AnotherAmericancompanywhichhasbeenprospec:ngforseveralyearsnowisthePanAmericanInterna:onalOilCorpora:on.In1967bothcompaniesweregrantedfurtherconcessions.Gulfmadeanothernaturalgasstrike,neartheBuziriver,about30milesfromthedepositatPande.Thetotalgasdepositsinthisregionareatpresentes:matedatsome3,000millioncubicmeters.

Alsoin1967prospec:ngrightsweregrantedtothreenewAmericancompanies_SunrayMozambiqueOilCompany,ClarkMozambiqueOilCompany,andSkellyMozambiqueOilCompany_andagroupofSouthAfricanandFrenchcompanies.Theconcessionisgrantedini:allyforthreeyears,duringwhichthe

minimumexpendituremustbe11millionescudosinthefirstyear,35millioninthesecond,and56millioninthethird.Thecompanieswillpay3millionescudosinsurfacerentduringthefirstthreeyears,andonrenewaloftheconcession,200escudospersquarekilometer.

TheFrenchandSouthAfricangroupconsistsoftheAngloAmericanCorpora:onofSouthAfrica,theSociétéNa:onaledesPétrolesd'Aquitaine,andEntreprisesdeRechercheetd'Ac:vitésPetrolière.Theirconcessioncoversatotalareaof14,000squaremiles,includinganoff-shoreregion.Investmentduringthefirstthreeyearsistobe140millionescudos.

Inthelasttwoyears,thediscoveryofmetaldepositshasalsobeenaGrac:ngforeignfunds.In1967alargedepositofhighgradeironorewasfoundnearPortoAmélia,andtherightstoexploitithavebeengrantedtotheJapanesegroup,Sumitomo,whichwillinvest50millionUSdollarsintheprojectandplansaspecialraillinktoNacala.Theorehasa60percentironcontent,andreservesarees:matedat360milliontons.Produc:onisexpectedtoreach5milliontonsinthefirstyear.Toprocesspartofthisore,twoblastfurnacesarebeingbuiltatBeirajointlybytheSociedadeAlgodeiradeFomentoandtheShercompanyofRhodesia.

OtherrecentdiscoveriesincludeadepositoftantaliteinMoçambiquedistrict;depositsofcopperore,azuriteandmalachitenearNacala;goldnearVilaManica;andanewveinofdiamondsatCatuaneontheSouthAfricanborder.

Inmanufacturing,investmenthasbeendirectedmainlytowardsprocessingplantsforagriculturalproductsorassemblyplantsforimportedmanufacturedgoods.TypicalaretheSouthAfricansugarmillbeingbuiltnearBeira,theNestlémilkprocessingplantinLourençoMarquesandtheAmericanFirestone:refactoryinBeira.Morerecentplansincludetheprocessingofbauxite,themanufactureofammoniaandofchemicalfer:lizer.Fourcompanies_theSouthAfricanfirm,FrazerandChalmers;theFrenchfirms,SodeixandSocaltra;andthePortugueseSociedadeQuímicaGeraldeMoçambique_areinvolvedinaprojecttobuildachemicalfer:lizerplantnearLourençoMarques,whichwillhaveacapacityof170,000tonsandwillrequireaninvestmentof250,000,000escudos.

Allthesedevelopmentsinextrac:ngandmanufacturingindustryarebriningintoMozambiquelargesuppliesofforeigncapitalandwillcertainlyincreasethetotalna:onalincomeofthecountry.TheeconomicexpansionaGributedtotheseinvestmentsis,however,extremelysuperficial;itisnotmaking,andeveninthelongrunisnotlikelytomake,muchimpressionontheextremelylowoverallstandardoflivinginthecountry.For,essen:ally,thenatureoftheprojectshasbeendictatedbytheinterestsoftheinvestorsandofthePortuguesegovernment,notbytheneedsofMozambique.Therearethreeimportantfactorswhichpreventthistypeofdevelopmentfromprovidingthemajorityofthepopula:onwithanysignificantbenefits.

Firstofall,becausemostofthenewfactoriesaresitedineitherofthetwomajorurbancenters,BeiraandLourençoMarques,anyimprovementinwagesandindustrialcondi:onswhichmightresultfromtheirpresence(nosignificantimprovementisyetevident)wouldbeextremelylocalizedinitseffects.Lessthan4percentofAfricansliveinthesetwotowns,andeventhepresentrateofindustrializa:onisonlyjustsufficienttoabsorbthepresentgradualincreaseintheurbanlaborforce.Growingprosperityinthesetownsmightaffecttheimmediateruralhinterland;butinavastcountrylikeMozambique,withitspoornetworkofcommunica:ons,itwilldonothingtoimprovecondi:onsforthegreatmajorityoftheruralpopula:on.Theoilextrac:onindustry,althoughsituatedinthecountryandscaGeredoverawide

area,canalsonotdirectlybenefitmuchofthepopula:onbecauseitessen:allyrequiresveryliGlelocallabor.

Thesecondfactorrelatestotheuseofrevenuefromnewindustry.Itcanbearguedthatconcentratedhigh-capital,low-labordemandingindustrywills:llbenefitthewholecountrythroughtheincreasedincomemadeavailabletothegovernment.InMozambiquehowever,thegovernment'sshareofrevenueisnotbeingchanneledintothemuchneededsocialservices,butintothewar:in1967Mozambique’sshareofsupportforthePortuguesearmedforceswassetat838,000,000escudos,tobeobtainedfromlocalrevenue.Inordertocoverthis,governmentexpenditureelsewherehadtobecut.Thus,whilein1967expenditureondefenseroseby20percent,alloca:onsforagricultureandforestrywerereducedby30percent,andalloca:onsforpublicworksby50percent.

Thirdly,inseveralinstancesthegovernmentisgran:ngsuchfavorabletermstoaGracttheinvestmentthatitissacrificingmuchofitspoten:alrevenue,allowinglongtax-freeworkingperiodsandthewholesaleexportofprofits.In1963,forinstance,whenajointSouthAfrican-PortuguesechamberofcommercewassetupinJohannesburgtofinancedevelopmentinMozambique,theGovernor-Generalagreed,amongotherthings,tograntaten-yeartax-freeworkingperiodtoforeignenterprises.In1967areportbytheSouthAfricanHandelsins:tutstressedtheneedforguaranteesontherepatria:onofcapitalandearnings,andrecommendedtaxadvantagesfornewindustries.Theinvestmenttermsbeinggrantedareoaensofavorabletotheinvestor,andoffertheadministra:oninMozambiquesoliGlefinancialgain,thatitseemsclearthattheconcessionstoforeigncapitalareaimedmoreatsecuringpoli:caladvantagesthanatopeningthewaytorealeconomicprogress.

CaboraBassaandtheZambeziValley

TheZambeziValleyschemeistheking-pinofPortugal’splansfordevelopmentinMozambique.TheZambeziValleyitselfisalreadyoneoftherichestagriculturalareas,andrecentlyanumberofimportantmineralshavebeendiscoveredthere.In1962DiáriodeLisboaannouncedthatplanswereafootfortheextrac:onof:tanium,magne:teandfluor.Coalandironwerealreadybeingminedinmodestquan::es,butitwases:matedthattheexportofironalonecouldbringanannualtotalof£25million.Themostimportantaspectoftheplan,however,istheconstruc:onofagiantdamatCaboraBassa.ThisisenvisagedasajointprojectwithSouthAfrica,andtherewillbeconsiderablebackingfromWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

Fiveinterna:onalgroupscompetedforthetendertobuildthedam,andinJuly1968itwasawardedtoZamco,aconsor:umorganizedbytheAngloAmericanCorpora:onofSouthAfricawiththepar:cipa:onofFrench,WestGermanandSwedishfirms.FinancialbackingisbeingprovidedbyBanquedeParisetPaysBas,UnionAcceptancesofJohannesburg,theDeutscheBank,andtheBancaComericalItaliana.SomeassociatedprojectswillalsobebackedbytheBankofAmericaandPortuguesebanks.

ThedamwillbethelargestinAfrica,willfloodanareaof1,000squaremiles,andwillproduce17billionkilowaGhoursofhydro-electricpower,toservearadiusof900miles.Itisscheduledtobecompletedby1974,andthees:matedcostwillbe£130million.

ThisgreatschemeisinlinewiththeotherrecentcommercialprojectsinMozambique;liGleofthewealthitcouldcreatewill,underthepresentarrangement,filterdowntotheAfricanpopula:onofMozambique.TheZambeziValleyisalreadyanareaofseGlers,wherealargeamountoflandisheldbywhitefarmersorplanta:onowners,andwherethePortuguesehaveannouncedplansfortheseGlementof1millionmorePortugueseimmigrantsalongtheriver.(Consideringthatthetotalpopula:onof

Portugalisabout9million,thisfigurecanbetakenatallseriouslyonlyifmovestoseGlelargenumbersofnon-Portuguesewhitesareassumedaswell).In1967theMozambiqueCoGonIns:tuteannounceddefiniteplanstoseGle3,250familiesintheZambeziValley,and231familieshadalreadyestablishedthemselveswithinayearoftheplanshavingbeenpublicized.Duringthebuildingofthedam,employmentpreferencewillbegiventoPortuguesesoldierswhohavecompletedtheirserviceinMozambique.Nodoubt,partoftheideabehindthislastarrangementisthattheyshouldalsohelppolicetheareaandprotectthesiteagainstna:onalistac:on.

ThemainbeneficiaryoftheplanwillbenotMozambique,however,butSouthAfrica.DrMárioFerreirasecretarygeneralofZamcoandadirectorofAngloAmerican,hasstatedthatSouthAfricawillbethelargestconsumerofpower.AtransmissionlineisplannedtolinkCaboraBassawithJohannesburg,870milesaway.DrFerreiraaddedthatthecostofthepowerwouldbeamongthelowestintheworld.RhodesiaandMalawiwillalsoabsorbsomeofthepower.

Portugal’scutfromthisprojectisclearlypoli:calratherthaneconomic.TheplandrawsSouthAfricaclosertoPortugalandgivesheranimportantstakeinthefutureofMozambique.

PartTwo:TowardsIndependence

5Resistance_TheSearchforaNa:onalMovement

Andasknomore

ToknowwhatIam

I'mnothingbutalumpofflesh

Inwhich,itscryswollengreatwithhope

TherevoltofAfricahasmerged.

From‘IfyouwanttoknowwhoIam',byNoémiadeSousa

LikeallAfricanna:onalism,theMozambicanformwasbornoutoftheexperienceofEuropeancolonialism.Thesourceofna:onalunityisthecommonsufferingduringthelast50yearsspentunderPortugueserule.Thena:onalistasser:ondidnotriseoutofastablecommunity,inhistoryalinguis:c,territorial,economicandculturalunity.InMozambique,itwascolonialdomina:onwhichproducedtheterritorialcommunityandcreatedthebasisforapsychologicalcoherence,foundedontheexperienceofdiscrimina:on,exploita:on,forcedlabor,andothersuchaspectsofcolonialrule.

Communica:on,however,hasbeenlimitedbetweentheseparatecommuni:essubjectedtothesesameexperiences.Allformsofcommunica:onpreviouslycamefromabove,throughthemediumofthecolonialadministra:on.Andthisnaturallysloweddownthedevelopmentofasingleconsciousnessthroughouttheterritorialarea.InMozambique,thesitua:onhasbeenaggravatedbythe‘GreaterPortugal'policy,wherebythecolonyisreferredtoasa‘province’ofPortugal,thepeoplecalled

‘Portuguese’bytheauthori:es.Ontheradio,inthenewspapers,intheschools,thereisagreatdealoftalkabout‘Portugal',andveryliGleabout‘Mozambique’.Amongthepeasantry,suchpropagandahasdoneagreatdealtohinderthedevelopmentofa‘Mozambique’concept;andasPortugalistoodistantanideatoprovideaunifyingfactor,thishasalsofosteredtribalismbynothelpingpeopletolookbeyondtheirimmediatesocialunit.

Inmanyareaswherethepopula:onissmallandwidelyscaGered,contactbetweenthecolonialpowerandthepeoplehasbeensosuperficialthatliGlepersonalexperienceofdomina:onexisted.ThereweresomegroupsinEasternNiassawhohadneverseenthePortuguesebeforetheoutbreakofthepresentwar.InsuchareasthepeoplehadliGlesenseofbelongingeithertoana:onoracolony,anditwasatfirsthardforthemtounderstandthestruggle.ThearrivalofthePortuguesearmy,however,veryrapidlychangedthis.

Popularresistance

Whereverthepresenceofthecolonizingpowerwasfelt,somekindofresistancewasshown,takingvariousformsfromarmedinsurrec:ontowholesaleexodus.Butatanygivenmoment,itwasonlyalimitedcommunity,smallinrela:ontothewholesociety,whichroseagainstthecolonizer,whiletheopposi:onitselfwaslimitedbecausedirectedagainstonlyoneaspectofdomina:on,theconcreteaspectwhichaffectedthatpar:cularcommunityatthatpar:cular:me.

Ac:veresistancewasfinallycrushedin1918,withthedefeatoftheMokombe(King)ofBarwe,intheTeteregion.Andfromtheearly1930s,thecolonialadministra:onoftheyoungfasciststatespreadacrossMozambique,destroying,oaenphysically,thetradi:onalpowerstructure.

Fromthis:meon,bothrepressionandresistancehardened.Butthecenterofresistanceshiaedfromthetradi:onalhierarchies,whichbecamedocilepuppetsofthePortuguese,toindividualsandgroups_thoughforlongtheseremainedasisolatedintheiraimsandtheirac:vi:esasthetradi:onalleadershadbeen.

Asimplepsychologicalrejec:onofthecolonizerandhisculturewasverywidespread,butitwasnotaconscious,ra:onalizedstand;itwasanaktudeboundupwiththeculturaltradi:onofthegroup,itspaststruggleswiththePortugueseandpresentexperienceofsubjec:on.

ThePortuguesewishtoimplanttheirculturethroughouttheterritory,evenifwellinten:oned,wascompletelyunrealis:cbecauseofthenumbersinvolved.Comprisinglessthan2percentofthepopula:on,theycouldnothopetogivealltheAfricansanopportunityofevenobservingthePortuguesewayoflife,letalonebringthemintocloseenoughcontacttoabsorbit.Likemanycolonizingna:ons,theyalsomiscalculatedtheenthusiasmofthe‘poorsavages'for‘civiliza:on’.SincemostAfricansmetthePortugueseonlywhenpayingtaxes,whencontractedforforcedlabororwhenhavingtheirlandseized,itisscarcelysurprisingthattheyshouldhavereceivedaveryunfavorableimpressionofPortugueseculture.Thisrevulsionisoaenexpressedinsongs,dances,evencarvings_tradi:onalformsofexpressionwhichthecolonizerdoesnotunderstand,andthroughwhichhecanthusbesecretlyridiculed,denouncedandthreatened.TheChope,forinstance,sing:

Weares(llangry;it'salwaysthesamestory

Theoldestdaughtersmustpaythetax

Nataneletellsthewhitemantoleavehimalone

Nataneletellsthewhitemantoleavemebe

You,theeldersmustdiscussouraffairs

Forthemanthewhitesappointedisthesonofanobody

TheChopehavelosttherighttotheirownland

Letmetellyouaboutit…

Inanothersong,theyridiculetheaGempttoimposePortuguesemanners:

ListentothesongofChigombevillage

It'stedioussayingbomdiaallthe(me

MacariteandBabuaneareinprison

Becausetheydidn'tsaybomdia,

TheyhadtogotoQuissicotosaybomdia

Themercan:levaluesoftheEuropeanarefrequentlysa:rizedoraGacked:

Howitsurprisedme,

MybrotherNguissa,

Howitsurprisedme

Totakealongmoneytobuymyway.

SomeofthecarvingsoftheMakondepeopleexpressadeep-seatedhos:litytothealienculture.Inthatarea,Catholicmissionarieshavebeenveryac:ve,andundertheirinfluencemanycarvershavemadeMadonnasandcrucifixes,imita:ngEuropeanmodels.UnlikeMakondeworktradi:onalthemes,theseChris:animagesareoaenrigidlystereotypedandlifeless.Butsome:mesoneofthemdepartsfromthestereotype,andwhenitdoes,thisisnearlyalwaysbecauseanelementofdoubtordefiancehasbeenworkedintoit:aMadonnaisgivenademontoholdinsteadoftheChristchild;apriestisrepresentedwiththefeetofawildanimal,apietabecomesastudynotofsorrowbutofrevenge,withthemotherraisingaspearoverthebodyofherdeadson.

Inspecificareasatspecific:mes,theseaktudes,ingrainedinpopularculture,crystalizedintoac:onofonekindoranother:the‘elders'did‘discussouraffairs'.Oneformthatthistookwasthecoopera:vemovement,whichdevelopedinthenorthinthefiaies.Initsearlystages,thiswasconstruc:veratherthandefiant.Anumberofpeasants_includingMzeeLázaroKavandame,nowamemberofFRELIMO'sCentralCommiGeeandProvincialSecretaryforCaboDelgado_organizedthemselvesintocoopera:ves,inanaGempttora:onalizetheproduc:onandsaleofagriculturalproduceandsoimprovetheireconomiclot.ThePortugueseauthori:es,however,placedsevererestric:onsontheac:vi:esofthecoopera:ves,burdenedthenwithfinanciallevies,andkeptalltheirmee:ngsunderstrictsurveillance.Itwasthenthatthemovementbegantoacquireamorepoli:calcharacter,becomingtotallyhos:letotheauthori:es.

Earlyna:onalism

Condi:onswerescarcelyfavorableforthespreadofdevelopedna:onalistideasthroughoutthecountry.Becauseofthebanonpoli:calassocia:on,thenecessityforsecrecywhichthisimposed,theerosionoftradi:onalsocietyandthelackofmoderneduca:oninruralareas,itwasatfirstonlyamonga:nyminoritythattheideaofna:onal,asopposedtolocal,ac:oncouldgaincurrency.Thisminoritywaspredominatelyanurbanone,composedofintellectualsandwage-earners,ofindividualsessen:allydetribalized,mostlyassimilatedAfricansandmulaGos;inotherwordsa:nymarginalsec:onofthepopula:on.

Inthetowns,thecolonizingpowerwasseenatclosequarters.Itwaseasiertheretounderstandthatthecolonizer’sstrengthwasbuiltuponourweakness,andthattheirachievementsdependedonthelaboroftheAfrican.Possiblytheveryabsenceofthetribalenvironmenthelpedtoencourageana:onalview,helpedthisgrouptoseeMozambiqueasthecountryofallMozambicans,helpedthemtounderstandthepowerofunity.

EncouragedbytheliberalismofthenewRepublicinPortugal(1910_26),thesegroupsformedsocie:esandstartednewspaperswithwhichtheyconductedcampaignsagainsttheabusesofcolonialism,demandingequalrights,un:l,liGlebyliGle,theybegantodenouncethewholecolonialsystem.

In1920theLigaAfricanawasestablishedinLisbon,asanorganiza:onuni:ngtheveryfewAfricanandmulaGostudentswhocametothecity.Itsinten:onwastogive‘anorganizedcharactertoliaisonsbetweencolonizedpeoples';itpar:cipatedintheThirdPanAfricanConferenceheldinLondonandorganizedbyW.E.B.DuBois,andin1923receivedtheSecondsessionoftheConferenceinLisbon.Itwassignificantthatinitsconcep:ontheLigastoodnotonlyforna:onalunityofbutalsoforunitybetweencoloniesagainstthesamecolonialpower,awiderAfricanunityagainstallcolonizingpowers,andunityamongalloppressedblackpeoplesoftheworld.Butinfactitwasweak,consis:ngasitdidonlyofsometwentymembersandsituatedinLisbon,farfromthesceneofpossibleac:on.

InMozambiqueintheearlytwen:es,anorganiza:oncalledGrémioAfricano(AfricanGuild)wasformed,andthislaterevolvedintotheAssociaçãoAfricana.TheseGlersandtheadministra:onsoonbecamealarmedatthestrengthoftheAssocia:on’sdemands,andintheearlythir:es,favoredbythefascistwindsblowingfromPortugal,theybeganacampaignofin:mida:onandinfiltra:on,andsucceededingainingthehelpofsomeoftheleaderstodirecttheassocia:onalongmoreconformistlines.Amoreradicalwingwasthenformed,whichbrokeawayandcreatedtheIns(tutoNegrófilo;andthiswaslaterforcedtochangeitsnamebytheSalazargovernment,toCentroAssocia(vodosNegrosdeMoçambique.AtendencydevelopedformulaGostojointheAssociaçãoAfricana,whileblackAfricanswereconcentratedintheCentroAssocia(vo.

Athirdorganiza:onwasformed,calledAssociaçãodosNaturaisdeMoçambique.ThiswasoriginallyconceivedasameansofdefendingtherightsofwhitesborninMozambique;butfromthe1950sitopeneditsdoorstootherethnicgroups,andaaerthatbecamequiteac:veinthestruggleagainstracism.ItevendidaliGletoadvanceAfricaneduca:onbyprovidingscholarships.Othersimilarassocia:onswereformedbysmallerinterestgroups,likeMoslemAfricansordifferentgroupsofIndians.

Alltheseorganiza:onscarriedoutpoli:calac:onunderthecoverofsocialprograms,mutualaid,andculturalorathle:cac:vi:es.Andsidebysidewiththesemovementstheredevelopedaprotestpress,typifiedbythepaperOBradoAfricano(theAfricancry),whichwassetupbytheAssociaçãoAfricanaanddirectedbytheAlbasinibrothers.Thispresswasmuzzledin1936bythefascistgovernment'ssystemofpresscensorship,butun:lthenitformedafairlyeffec:vemouthpieceforrevolt.

ThespiritoftheseearlymovementsandthenatureoftheirprotestarewellillustratedbythisOBradoAfricanoeditorialof27February1932:

We'vehadamouthfulofit.We'vehadtoputupwithyou,tosuffertheterribleconsequencesofyourfollies,ofyourdemands…wecannolongerputupwiththeperniciouseffectsofyourpoli(calandadministra(vedecisions.Fromnowonwerefusetomakeevergreaterandevermoreuselesssacrifices.…Enough.…Weinsistthatyoucarryoutyourfundamentaldu(esnotwithlawsanddecreesbutwithacts.…Wewanttobetreatedinthesamewaythatyouare.Wedonotaspiretothecomfortsyousurroundyourselveswith,thankstoourstrength.Wedonotaspiretoyourrefinededuca(on…evenlessdoweaspiretoalifedominatedbytheideaofrobbingyourbrother.…Weaspiretoour‘savagestate'which,however,fillsyourmouthsandyourpockets.Andwedemandsomething…wedemandbreadandlight.…Werepeatthatwedonotwanthungerorthirstorpovertyoralawofdiscrimina(onbasedoncolor.…Wewilllearntousethescalpel…thegangrenethatyouspreadwillinfectusandthenwewillnolongerhavethestrengthtotakeac(on.Nowwehaveit…we,thebeastsofburden…

Fromthistextclearlyemergesalineofdemarca:onbetweencolonizerandcolonized;thelaGerviewshimselfasadominatedwholeandsetshimselfupagainstanotherwhole,thecolonizinggroup,withwhichhecontestsforpower.Itisinteres:ngtonotethecompleterejec:onofthecolonizer'svalues,theproudassump:onofthe‘savagestate'andthedefini:onofthecolonizer'sciviliza:onasdominatedby‘therobberyofyourbrother’.

Itistruethatasyetitisnotthedemandforna:onalindependencewhichisformulated.Thisstageofdenuncia:on,though,andthedemandforequalrightswerenecessaryinthedevelopmentofpoli:calconsciousnesstowardsthedemandforindependence.Itwasnotun:laaerthesepreliminarydemandshadbeenrejectedthatamoreradicalposi:oncouldbetaken.

TheestablishmentofSalazar'sNewStateandthepoli:calrepressionwhichfollowedputanendtothiswaveofpoli:calac:vity.Corrup:onandinternaldissensionfomentedbythegovernmenttransformedtheorganiza:onsintobourgeoisclubs,whichfromthenonwerefrequentlyrequiredbytheauthori:estojoininthechorusofallegiancetoSalazarandhisrégime.

Itwasnotun:ltheendoftheSecondWorldWarandthedefeatofthemajorfascistpowers,thatsomerenewalofpoli:calac:vitybecamepossible.Thechangesinpoweracrosstheworldandtheresurgenceofna:onalism,par:cularlyinAfrica,hadrepercussionsinthePortugueseterritories,despitethecon:nuanceofafascistgovernmentinLisbonandtheeffortsmadebythePortugueseauthori:estoinsulatetheareastheycontrolledagainsttheideasofself-determina:ongaininggroundelsewhere.

Therevoltoftheintellectuals

Againitwasforthemostpartonlythesmalleducatedminoritywhowereinaposi:ontofollowworldevents,whohadadequatecontactswiththeoutsideworld,whohadbeenabletoacquirethehabitofanaly:calthoughtandsothenecessaryequipmenttounderstandthecolonialphenomenonasawhole.

InMozambiqueanewgenera:onofinsurgentsarose,ac:veanddeterminedtostruggleontheirowntermsandnotonthetermsimposedbythecolonialgovernment.Theywereinaposi:ontoseethethreeessen:alaspectsoftheirsitua:on:racialdiscrimina:onandexploita:onwithinthecolonialsystem;therealweaknessofthecolonizer;andfinallyman'ssocialevolu:oningeneral,withthecontrastbetweentheemergenceofblackstruggleinAfricaandAmericaandthemuteresistanceoftheirownpeople.

Theycouldanalyzethesitua:on,butitwasdifficulttodomorethanthis.Thefieldofac:onwaslimitedfirstofallbythecomprehensivestructureofoppression,theinsidiouspolicenetworkdevelopedbythefasciststateduringitslongperiodofstrength,andsecondlybythelackofcontactbetweenthepoli:callyconsciousurbanminorityandthemassofthepopula:onwhoborethebruntofexploita:on,whoactuallysufferedforcedlabor,forcedcul:va:onandthedailythreatofviolence.Itisnotsurprisingthereforethatamongthisminority,resistancefirstfoundapurelyculturalexpression.

Thenewresistanceinspiredamovementinalltheartswhichbeganduringthefor:esandinfluencedpoets,paintersandwritersfromallthePortuguesecolonies.FromMozambiquethebest-knownoftheseareprobablythepaintersMalangatanaandCraveirinha,theshortstorywriterLuisBernardoHonwana,andthepoetsJoséCraveirinhaandNoémiadeSousa.

Thepain:ngsofMalangatanaandJoséCraveirinha(thenephewofthepoet)drawtheirinspira:onfromtheimagesoftradi:onalsculptureandfromAfricanmythology,bindingthemintoworksexplosivewiththemesoflibera:onandthedenuncia:onofcolonialviolence.

TheshortsstoriesofLuisBernardoHonwana,whohasbeenrecognizedwidelyoutsideAfricaasamasterofhismedium,leadthereadertomakethesamedenuncia:onthroughapercep:vedetailedanalysisofhumanbehavior.Followingalongtradi:onofar:stsworkingunderanoppressivegovernment,hesome:meswritesintheformofparables,orcentershisstoryaroundoneapparentlyinsignificanteventwhichheusestoilluminatethewidersitua:on.

Inthepoli:calpoetryofthefor:esandfiaies,threethemespredominate:thereaffirma:onofAfricaasthemothercountry,spiritualhomeandcontextofafuturena:on;theriseoftheblackmanelsewhereintheworld,thegeneralcalltorevolt;andthepresentsufferingsoftheordinarypeopleofMozambique,underforcedlaborandinthemines.

Thefirstofthesethemesisoaeninterwovenwiththepoet'spersonalconflicts,theproblemsarisingfromhisoriginsandfamilysitua:onalreadydescribedinconnec:onwiththesocialposi:onofthemulaGo.InamoregeneralizedformittriestoexpressthecommonrootsofallMozambicansinapre-colonialAfricanpast,asinthisextractfromanearlypoembyMarcelinodosSantos,‘Herewewereborn':

Thelandwherewewereborn

Goesback

Like(me

Ourforefathers

Wereborn

Andlived

Inthatland

Andthey,likethecoarsewildgrass

Werethemeagrebody'sveins

Runningred,earth’sfragrance.

Treesandgranitepinnacles

Theirarms

Embracedbytheearth

Indailywork

Andsculp(ngthenewworld'sfer(lerocks

Beganincolor

Thegreatdesignoflife…

ThebestexampleofthesecondthemeisprobablyNoémiadeSousa’spoem,‘Letmypeoplego',inspiredbythestrugglesoftheAmericanNegro:

AwarmMozambicannight

Andthedistanttonesofmarimbasreachme

_firm,constant_

Coming,Idon'tknowfromwhere.

Inmyhouseofwoodandzinc

IturnontheradioandletmyselfdriX,lulled.…

ButvoicesfromAmericas(rmysoulandnerves

AndRobesonandMarionsingforme

NegrospiritualsfromHarlem.

‘Letmypeoplego'

_ohletmypeoplego

Letmypeoplego_

Theysay.

Iopenmyeyesandcannolongersleep.

AndersonandPaulsoundwithinme

AndtheyarenotthesoXvoicesofalullaby

Letmypeoplego…

Thesufferingsoftheforcedlaborerandthemineworkerinspiredmanypoems,andtherearepowerfulexamplesfromallthemainpoetsoftheperiod:deSousa's‘Magaiça’;Craveirinha’s‘MamparraM'Gaiza',‘MamanaSaquina';MarcelinodosSantos's(AterraTreme'.Thosepoems,however,areinteres:ngperhapslessfortheirpowerandeloquencethanforthetermsinwhichtheystatethesitua:on.Fortheyillustrateveryvividlytheweaknessaswellasthestrengthofthemovementtowhichtheirauthorsbelonged.Noneofthesewritershadthemselvesexperiencedforcedlabor;noneofthemwassubjecttotheNa:veLaborCode,andtheywriteofitasoutsiders,readingtheirownintellectualizedreac:onsintothemindsoftheAfricanminerandforcedlaborer.NoémiadeSousa,forinstance,writesin‘Magaiça':

BemusedMagaiçalitthelamp

Tolookforlostillusions

Hisyouth,hishealth,whichstayedbehind

DeepintheminesofJohannesburg

Craveirinha,speakingof‘theChopeman'oncontractintheRand,writes:‘each:mehethinksofescapeisaweekinagallerywithoutsun'.Butinfactthereisnoques:onof‘escape':theMozambicancontractsfortheminesinordertobringbackcashforthefamilyandavoidforcedlaborunderevenmoreunfavorableeconomictermsathome.Theverywayinwhichsuchpoemsareconceived,inastyleofeloquentself-pity,isalientotheAfricanreac:on.CompareanyofthesepoemswiththeChopesongsquotedearlier.Itisclearthatdespitetheeffortsoftheirauthorstobe‘African',theformerhavetakenmorefromtheEuropeantradi:onthanfromtheAfrican.Thisindicatesthelackofcontactexis:ngbetweentheseintellectualsandtherestofthecountry.Atthat:metheywerenomoreinaposi:ontoforgeatruena:onalmovementthanwerethepeasantsofLázaroKavandame’scoopera:ves.Ontheotherhand,theirstrengthlayintheirenthusiasmandability,gainedpartlyfromtheirknowledgeofEuropeanhistoryandrevolu:onarythinking,toanalyzeapoli:calsitua:onandexpressitinclearandvividterms.

NoémiadeSousawrotethispowerfulcalltorevoltwhenoneofhercompanionsinthemovementhadbeenarrestedanddeportedaaerthestrikesof1947:

Butwhatma7er?

TheyhavestolenJoãofromus

ButJoãoisusall

BecauseofthatJoãohasn'tleXus

João‘was'not,Joãoisandwillbe

ForJoãoisusall,weareamul(tude

Andthemul(tude

Whocancarryoffthemul(tudeofandlockitinacage?

InBlackCry(GritoNegro),Craveirinhaachievedperhapsoneofthemostvividstatementsonaliena:onandrevolteverwriGen.Becauseofitsextremely:ghtandmeaningfulmusicalstructure,thispoemloses

muchofitspowerintransla:on;butitisworthquo:nginfull,asitisamongthemostimportantandinfluen:alworksofthe:me:

Iamcoal!

Youtearmebrutallyfromtheground

Andmakeofmeyourmine,boss

Iamcoal

Andyouburnme,boss

Toserveyouforeverasyourdrivingforce

Butnotforever,boss

Iamcoal

Andmustburn

Andconsumeeverythingintheheatofmycombus(on

Iamcoal

Andmustburn,exploited

Burnaliveliketar,mybrother

Un(lnomoreyourmine,boss

Iamcoal

Andmustburn

Andconsumeeverythinginthefireofmycombus(on

Yes,boss

Iwillbeyourcoal!

FewofCraveirinha’sgroupsucceededinescapingfromtheirisola:onandbridgingthegapbetweentheoryandprac:ce.NoémiadeSousaleaMozambique,hasstoppedwri:ngpoetry,andnowlivesin

Paris;many,includingCraveirinhaandHonwana,areinprison.Malangatanaiss:llworkinginMozambiquebutcloselysupervisedandharassedbythepolice.Ofallthosemen:onedhere,onlyMarcelinodosSantos,aaeralongperiodofexileinEurope,joinedthelibera:onmovement,andsincethenhispoetryhaschangedanddevelopedundertheimpetusofthearmedstruggle.TheworkofCraveirinhaandhiscompanions,however,influencedandinspiredaslightlyyoungergenera:onofintellectuals,manyofwhomwereabletoescapethesurveillanceofthepoliceandhavethrownthemselvesintothelibera:onmovement.There,inthecontextofthearmedstruggle,anewliterarytradi:onistakingshape.

Thisisthegenera:onwhichgrewupaaertheSecondWorldWarandwhowereatschoolduringtheearlymovementforself-determina:onelsewhereinAfrica.Itwasatschoolthattheybegandevelopingtheirpoli:calideasandatschoolthattheybegantoorganizethemselves.ThePortugueseeduca:onsystemitselfgavethemgoodcausefordiscontent.ThosefewAfricansandmulaGoswhoreachedsecondaryschoolonlydidsowithgreatdifficulty.Inthepredominatelywhiteschoolstheywereconstantlysubjecttodiscrimina:on.Ontopofthis,theschoolsaGemptedtocutthemofffromtheirbackground,annihilatethevaluestheyhadbeenbroughtupwith,andmakethem‘Portuguese’inconsciousnessalthoughnotinrights.HowtheyfailedisillustratedbythisaccountfromanAfricangirlwhowasatatechnicalschoolinLourençoMarquesonlyafewyearsago:

JosinaMuthemba:Thecolonialistswantedtodeceiveuswiththeirteaching;theytaughtusonlythehistoryofPortugal,thegeographyofPortugal;theywantedtoforminusapassivementality,tomakeusresignedtotheirdomina(on.Wecouldn'treactopenly,butwewereawareoftheirlie;weknewthatwhattheysaidwasfalse;thatwewereMozambicansandwecouldneverbePortuguese.(F.I)

In1949thesecondaryschoolpupils,ledbysomewhohadbeentoSouthAfricatostudy,formedtheNúcleodosEstudantesSecundáriosdeMoçambique(NESAM),whichwaslinkedtotheCentroAssocia(vodosNegrosdeMoçambique,andwhichsimilarlyundercoverofsocialandculturalac:vi:es,conductedamongtheyouthapoli:calcampaigntospreadtheideaofna:onalindependenceandencourageresistancetotheculturalsubjec:onwhichthePortugueseimposed.Fromthefirstthepolicekeptaclosewatchonthemovement.Imyself,asoneofthestudentsreturnedfromSouthAfricawhohadfoundedNESAM,wasarrestedandques:onedatsomelengthaboutourac:vi:esin1949.NeverthelessNESAMmanagedtosurviveintothesix:es,andevenlaunchedamagazine,Alvor,whichalthoughheavilycensoredhelpedtospreadtheideasdevelopedatthegroup'smee:ngsanddiscussions.

NESAM'seffec:veness,likethatofalltheearlyorganiza:ons,wasseverelylimitedbyits:nymembership,restrictedinthisinstancetotheblackAfricanpupilsofsecondaryschoollevel.Butinatleastthreewaysitmadeanimportantcontribu:ontotherevolu:on.Itspreadna:onalistideasamongtheblackeducatedyouth.Itachievedacertainrevalua:onofna:onalculture,whichcounteractedtheaGemptsbythePortuguesetomakeAfricanstudentsdespiseandabandontheirownpeople;NESAMprovidedtheonlyopportunitytostudyanddiscussMozambiqueinitsownrightandnotasanappendageofPortugal’s.And,mostimportantperhaps,bycemen:ngpersonalcontacts,itestablishedana:on-widenetworkofcommunica:on,whichextendedamongoldmembersaswellasthoses:llatschool,andwhichcouldbeusedbyafutureunderground.Forinstance,whenFRELIMOestablisheditselfintheLourençoMarquesregionin1962_3,theNESAMmemberswereamongthefirsttobemobilized

andprovidedastructuretoreceivetheparty.Thesecretpolice,PIDE,alsounderstoodthisandbannedNESAM;in1964theyarrestedsomeofitsmembersandforcedothersintoexile.Itwasatthis:methatJosinaMuthembawasac:veinNESAM,andshedescribesthisstateofoppressionandthefateofherowngroup:

Wewantedtoorganizeourselves,butwewerepersecutedbythesecretpolice.Wehadculturalandeduca(onalac(vi(es,butduringdiscussions,talksanddebateswehadtokeepaconstantlookoutforthepolice.…Thepolicepersecutedus,theyevenbannedNESAM.

IwasalsoarrestedwhenIwasrunningawayfromMozambique.IwasarrestedattheVictoriaFallsonthefron(erbetweenRhodesiaandZambia.TheRhodesianpolicearrestedmeandsentmebacktoLourençoMarques(theRhodesianpoliceworkcloselywiththePortuguesepolice).Therewereeightofusinourgroup,boysandgirls.ThePortuguesepolicethreatenedus,interrogatedusandbeatuptheboys.Iwasinprisonforsixmonthswithoutbeingsentencedorcondemned.Iwasinprisonforsixmonthswithoutthembringingacaseagainstmeatall.(F.I).

Shortlyaaerthis,seventy-fiveNESAMmemberswerearrestedbytheSouthAfricanpoliceandhandedovertoPIDE,whiletheyweretryingtomaketheirwayfromSwazilandtoZambia.Theyares:llinconcentra:oncampsinsouthernMozambique.

In1963itwassomeformerNESAMmemberswhocreatedUNEMO,theMozambicanStudentUnionwhichisformallyapartofFRELIMO,andwhichorganizesMozambicanstudentsstudyingthroughFRELIMOauspices.

WithinPortugal,theveryfewblackormulaGostudentswhoreachedanins:tuteofhighereduca:ongatheredintheCasadosEstudantesdoImperio(CEI),andalsoestablishedalinkthroughtheClubdosMari(moswithsailorsfromthecolonieswhofrequentlycametoLisbon.In1951theCentrodeEstudosAfricanoswasformedbyCEImembers,althoughnotitselfapartofCEI.DespitetheoppressivemeasuresofthepolicetheCEIworkedac:vely,un:litsdissolu:onin1965,tospreadthewordofna:onalindependenceinthecolonies,todiffuseinforma:onaboutthecoloniestotheworldbeyondPortugal,andtohardenandconsolidatena:onalideasamongtheyouth.In1961alargegroupofthesestudents,frustratedandfinallythreatenedbythepersistentnatureofpoliceac:on,fledacrosstheborderandmadetheirwayintoFranceandSwitzerland,makingapublicandirreversiblebreakwiththePortugueserégime.Mostoftheseimmediatelyestablishedopencontactwiththeirna:onalistmovements,andanumberoftheseformerstudentsofthe‘PortugueseEmpire'arenowamongtheleadersofFRELIMO.

Industrialac:on

Ifitwasamongtheintellectualsthatpoli:calthoughtandorganiza:ondevelopedfurthestduringtheperiodfollowingtheSecondWorldWar,itwasamongtheurbanproletariatthatthefirstexperimentsinorganizedac:veresistancetookplace.Theconcentra:onoflaborinandnearthetowns,andtheterribleworkingcondi:onsandpoverty,providedthefundamentalimpetustorevolt;butintheabsenceoftradeunions,itwasonlyclandes:nepoli:calgroupswhichcouldprovidetheorganiza:onnecessary.TheonlyunionspermiGedbythePortuguesearethefascistunions,whoseleadersarechosenbytheemployers

andthestate,andwho,inanyevent,extendmembershiponlytowhitesandoccasionallytoassimilatedAfricans.

In1947theradicaldiscontentofthelaborforce,combinedwithpoli:calagita:on,producedaseriesofstrikes,inthedocksofLourençoMarquesandinneighboringplanta:ons,whichculminatedinanabor:veuprisingatLourençoMarquesin1948.Thepar:cipantswerepunishedferociously,andseveralhundredAfricansweredeportedtoSãoTomé.In1956,againatLourençoMarques,therewasadockstrikewhichendedinthedeathofforty-ninepar:cipants.Then,in1962-3,theFRELIMOundergroundtookovertheworkoforganiza:onandsetupamorecoordinatedsystem,whichhelpedtoplantheseriesofdockstrikeswhichbrokeoutin1963atLourençoMarques,BeiraandNacala.Despiteitswiderextent,thislasteffortalsoendedonlyinthedeathandarrestofmanypar:cipants.Althoughsomepoli:calorganiza:onexistedamongtheworkersresponsibleforthestrikes,thestrikeac:onitselfwasverylargelyspontaneousandforthemostpartlocalized.Itsfailureandthebrutalrepressionwhichfollowedineveryinstancehavetemporarilydiscouragedboththemassesandtheleadershipfromconsideringstrikeac:onasapossibleeffec:vepoli:calweaponinthecontextofMozambique.

Towardsunity

Boththeagita:onoftheintellectualsandthestrikesoftheurbanlaborforceweredoomedtofailure,becauseinbothcasesitwastheac:ononlyofa:nyisolatedgroup.ForagovernmentlikePortugal’s,whichhassetitsfaceagainstdemocracyandispreparedtouseextremesofbrutalitytocrushopposi:on,itiseasytodealwithsuchisolatedpocketsofresistance.ItwastheveryfailureoftheseaGempts,however,andthefiercerepressionwhichfollowed,thatmadethisclearandpreparedthegroundformorewidelybasedac:on.Theurbanpopula:onofMozambiqueamountsaltogethertolessthanahalfamillion.Ana:onalistmovementwithoutfirmrootsinthecountrysidecouldneverhopetosucceed.

Somedevelopmentsinthecountrysidewhichtookplaceintheperiodjustprecedingtheforma:onofFRELIMOwereofenormousimportance.Thesetookthemostextremedirec:oninthenorthernareaaroundMueda,thoughtheyhadtheirmildercounterpartsinotherregions.Theywerefirstofalltheeffectonthepopula:onofthefailureofthecoopera:vemovementalreadydescribed.Thereac:onoftheleadersisbestillustratedinthewordsofLázaroKavandamehimself:

Icouldn'tsleepallnight.Iknewthatfromthatmomenttheywouldn'tleavemeinpeace,thateverythingIdidwouldbecloselywatchedandcontrolledbytheauthori(es;thattheywouldcallmemoreandmoreoXentotheadministra(vepostandthatIwouldbeconstantlywatchedbythepolice.Myonlyhopewastorunaway.…Weimmediatelymadearrangementstoorganizeamee(ngofthepeople'sleaderstodiscusswhatweshoulddotoregainourlibertyandtodrivethePortugueseoppressorsoutofourcountry.AXeralongandimportantdiscussion,wereachedtheconclusionthattheMakondepeoplealonecouldnotsucceedindrivingouttheenemy.WethendecidedtojoinforceswithMozambicansfromtherestofthecountry.[Officialreport.]

Theotherdevelopment,alsoassociatedwiththecoopera:ves,wasanincreaseinspontaneousagita:on,whichculminatedinamajordemonstra:onatMuedain1960.Thisdemonstra:on,though

passingunno:cedbytherestoftheworld,actedasacatalystontheregion.Over500peoplewereshotdownbythePortuguese,andmanywhouptothat:mehadnotconsideredtheuseofviolencenowdenouncedpeacefulresistanceasfu:le.TheexperienceofTeresinhaMbale,nowaFRELIMOmilitant,showswhy:‘IsawhowthecolonialistsmassacredthepeopleatMueda.ThatwaswhenIlostmyuncle.Ourpeoplewereunarmedwhentheybegantoshoot'.ShewasoneofthethousandswhodeterminedneveragaintobeunarmedinthefaceofPortugueseviolence.

AfulleraccountofthatdaycomesfromAlberto-JoaquimChipande,thenaged22,andnowoneoftheleadersinCaboDelgado:

Certainleadersworkedamongstus.SomeofthemweretakenbythePortuguese_TiagoMuller,Faus(noVanomba,Kibiri(Diwane_inthemassacreatMuedaon16June1960.Howdidthathappen?Well,someofthesemenhadmadecontactwiththeauthori(esandaskedformorelibertyandmorepay.…AXerawhile,whenpeopleweregivingsupporttotheseleaders,thePortuguesesentpolicethroughthevillagesinvi(ngpeopletoamee(ngatMueda.SeveralthousandpeoplecametohearwhatthePortuguesewouldsay.Asitturnedout,theadministratorhadaskedthegovernorofDelgadoProvincetocomefromPortoAméliaandtobringacompanyoftroops.ButthesetroopswerehiddenwhentheygottoMueda.Wedidn'tseethematfirst.

Thenthegovernorinvitedourleadersintotheadministrator'soffice.Iwaswai(ngoutside.Theywereinthereforfourhours.Whentheycameoutontheverandah,thegovernoraskedthecrowdwhowantedtospeak.Manywantedtospeak,andthegovernortoldthemalltostandononeside.

Thenwithoutanotherwordheorderedthepolicetobindthehandsofthosewhohadstoodononeside,andthepolicebeganbea(ngthem.Iwascloseby.Isawitall.Whenthepeoplesawwhatwashappening,theybegantodemonstrateagainstthePortuguese,andthePortuguesesimplyorderedthepolicetruckstocomeandcollectthesearrestedpersons.Sothereweremoredemonstra(onsagainstthis.Atthatmomentthetroopsweres(llhidden,andthepeoplewentupclosetothepolicetostopthearrestedpersonsfrombeingtakenaway.Sothegovernorcalledthetroops,andwhentheyappearedhetoldthemtoopenfire.Theykilledabout600people.NowthePortuguesesaytheyhavepunishedthatgovernor,butofcoursetheyhaveonlysenthimsomewhereelse.ImyselfescapedbecauseIwasclosetoagraveyardwhereIcouldtakecover,andthenIranaway.(D.I)

Aaerthismassacrethingsinthenorthcouldneverreturntonormal.ThroughouttheregionithadarousedthemostbiGerhatredagainstthePortugueseandshowedonceandforallthatpeacefulresistancewasfu:le.

Thuseverywhereitwastheveryseverityofrepressionthatcreatedthenecessarycondi:onsforthedevelopmentofastrong,militantna:onalistmovement.The:ghtpolicestatedroveallpoli:calac:onunderground,and_partlybecauseofthedifficul:esanddangersinvolved_undergroundac:vityturnedouttobethebestschoolinwhichtoformabodyoftough,devotedandradicalpoli:calworkers.Theexcessesoftherégimedestroyedallpossibilityofreformswhich,byimprovingcondi:onsaliGle,mighthavesecuredthemaininterestsofcolonialrulefromaseriousaGackforsome:metocome.

ThefirstaGemptstocreateana:on-wideradicalna:onalistmovementweremadebyMozambicansworkinginneighboringcountries,wheretheywerebeyondtheimmediatereachofPIDE.Atfirsttheoldproblemofinadequatecommunica:onsledtotheestablishmentofthreeseparatemovements:

UDENAMO(UniãoNacionalDemocrá(cadeMoçambique)formedin1960inSalisbury;MANU(MozambiqueAfricanNa(onalUnion)formedin1961fromanumberofsmallergroupsalreadyexis:ngamongMozambicansworkinginTanganyikaandKenya,oneofthelargestbeingtheMozambiqueMakondeUnion;UNAMI(UniãoAfricanadeMoçambiqueIndependente)startedbyexilesfromtheTeteregionlivinginMalawi.

Theaccessionofmanyformercoloniestoindependenceinthelatefiaiesandearlysix:esfavoredtheforma:onof‘exile'movements,andforMozambique,Tanganyika'sindependence,gainedin1961,seemedtooffernewscope.AllthreemovementsestablishedseparateheadquartersinDaresSalaamsoonaaerwards.

In1961,too,anintensifica:onofrepressioninallthePortugueseterritoriesfollowedtherevoltinAngolaandcausedaninfluxofrefugeesintoneighboringcountries,par:cularlyTanganyika(nowTanzania).Theserecentexilesfromtheinterior,manyofwhomdidnotalreadybelongtoanyoftheexis:ngorganiza:ons,exercisedstrongpressurefortheforma:onofasingleunitedbody.Externalcondi:onsalsofavoredunity:theConferenceoftheNa:onalistOrganiza:onsofthePortugueseTerritories(CONCP)heldatCasablancain1961andaGendedbyUDENAMOmadeastrongcallfortheunityofna:onalistmovementsagainstPortuguesecolonialism.Aconferenceofallna:onalistmovements,calledbyGhana’sPresidentKwameNkrumah,alsoencouragedtheforma:onofunitedfronts,andinTanganyikaPresidentNyererepersonallyexertedinfluenceonthemovementsestablishedintheterritorytounite.Thuson25June1962thethreemovementsinDaresSalaammergedtoformtheMozambiqueLibera:onFront(FRELIMO),andprepara:onsweremadetoholdaconferenceinthefollowingSeptemberwhichwoulddefinetheaimsoftheFrontandworkoutaprogramac:on.

Abriefaccountofafewamongtheleadersofthenewmovementwillillustratehowvariouspoli:calandpara-poli:calorganiza:onsfromalloverthecountrycontributedtoit.TheVice-President,theReverendUriaSimango,isaProtestantpastorfromtheBeiraregionwhohadbeeninvolvedinthemutualaidassocia:onsandwastheleaderofUDENAMO.Alsofromthemutualaidassocia:onoftheBeiraregioncameSilverioNungu,laterFRELIMOSecretaryforAdministra:on,andSamuelDhlakama,nowamemberoftheCentralCommiGee.Fromthepeasantcoopera:vesofnorthernMozambiquecameLázaroKavandame,laterProvincialSecretaryforCaboDelgado;alsoJonasNamashulua,andothers.Fromthemutualassistanceassocia:onsofLourençoMarquesandChaiChaiinthesouthofMozambiquecamethelateMateusMuthemba,andShaffrudinMKhan,whobecameFRELIMOrepresenta:veinCairoandisnowrepresenta:veintheUnitedStates.MarcelinodosSantos,laterFRELIMOSecretaryforExternalAffairsandnowSecretaryoftheDepartmentofPoli:calAffairs,isapoetofinterna:onalstanding;hewasac:veintheliterarymovementinLourençoMarquesandthenspentsomeyearsofexileinFrance.

ImyselfamfromtheGazadistrictofsouthernMozambique,and,likemanyofus,myinvolvementwithresistanceofoneformoranothergoesbacktomychildhood.Ibeganlife,asmostMozambicanchildrendo,inavillage,andun:ltheageoftenIspentmydaysherdingthefamilylivestockwithmybrothersandabsorbingthetradi:onsofmytribeandfamily.ThatIwenttoschoolatallIowetothefar-sightednessofmymother,whowasmyfather'sthirdandlastwife,andawomanofconsiderablecharacterandintelligence.Intryingtocon:nuemyeduca:onaaerprimaryschool,Iexperiencedallthefrustra:onsanddifficul:esinstoreforAfricanchildaGemp:ngtoenterthePortuguesesystem.EventuallyImanagedtoreachSouthAfrica,andwiththehelpofsomeofmyteachersIcon:nuedstudyingonscholarshipstocollegelevel.ItwasduringthisperiodthatmyworkwithNESAM,andsomyserious

troubleswiththepolice,began.WhenIwasofferedascholarshiptoAmerica,thePortugueseauthori:esdecidedtosendmetoLisbonUniversityinstead.Duringmybriefstaythere,however,Iwasharassedsoconstantlybythepolicethatitinterferedwithmystudies,andImadeeffortstotakeupmyscholarshipintheUnitedStates.Succeeding,IstudiedsociologyandanthropologyatOberlinandNorthwesternUniversi:es,andthenworkedfortheUnitedNa:onsasaresearchofficerintheTrusteeshipsec:on.

MeanwhileIkeptintouchasfaraspossiblewithdevelopmentsinMozambique,andIbecameincreasinglyconvincedfromwhatIsawandfromoccasionalcontactsthroughtheUNwiththePortuguesediplomatsthatnormalpoli:calpressureandagita:onwouldnotaffectthePortuguesestand.In1961IwasabletovisitMozambiqueonleavefromtheUN,andtravellingwidelysawformyselfhowcondi:onshadchanged,ornotchanged,sinceIhadlea.OnmyreturnIleatheUnitedNa:onstoengageopenlyinthelibera:onstruggle,andtookajoblecturingatSyracuseUniversitywhichleamethe:meandtheopportunitytostudythesitua:onfurther.Jhadestablishedcontactswithalltheseparatelibera:onpar:es,butIhadrefusedtojoinanyofthemseparately,andwasamongthosecampaigningstronglyforunityin1961and1962

TheMozambicanswhogatheredinDaresSalaamin1962togetherrepresentedalmosteveryregionofMozambiqueandeverysectorofthepopula:on.Nearlyeveryonehadsomeexperienceofresistanceonasmallscale,andofthereprisalswhichnormallyfollowed.Bothinsideandoutsidethecountry,condi:onswerefavorabletothena:onaliststruggle.Ourproblemwaswhetherwecouldweldtogethertheseadvantagessoastomakeourmovementstrongthroughoutthecountry,andcapableoftakingeffec:veac:onwhich,unlikepreviousisolatedefforts,wouldhurtthePortuguesemorethanithurtus.

6Consolida:on

ItisclearthatwePortugueseareforewarnedanditwillnotbepossibleforagents…torepeatinMozambiquethevileexploitsofagentsinAngola.Hewhoisforewarneddoubleshisdefenses.

DiáriodaManhã,12September1964

AaerSeptember1962wehadasinglepartyandthebonesofapolicy,butweweres:llalongwayfromhavinganeffec:vena:onallibera:onstruggle.Ittooktwoyearsofhardwork,planningandlearningfromourmistakesandfailuresbeforewewereabletosetoutconfidentlyonanac:vepathtowardslibera:on.

AtthefirstcongressofFRELIMO,theaimsofthepartyweredefined:

TheCongressofFRELIMO_

HavingexaminedthepresentneedsofthestruggleagainstPortuguesecolonialisminMozambique_declaresitsfirmdetermina(ontopromotetheefficientorganiza(onofthestruggleoftheMozambicanpeopleforna(onallibera(on,andadoptsthefollowingresolu(onstobeputintoimmediateexecu(onbytheCentralCommi7eeofFRELIMO

1. Todevelopandconsolidatetheorganiza(onalstructureofFRELIMO;

2. TofurthertheunityofMozambicans;

3. Toachievemaximumu(liza(onoftheenergiesandcapaci(esofeachandeverymemberofFRELIMO;

4. Topromoteandacceleratetrainingofcadres;

5. ToemploydirectlyeveryefforttopromotetherapidaccessofMozambiquetoindependence;

6. TopromotebyeverymethodthesocialandculturaldevelopmentoftheMozambicanwoman;

7. TopromoteatoncetheliteracyoftheMozambicanpeople,crea(ngschoolswhereverpossible;

8. TotakethenecessarymeasurestowardssupplyingtheneedsoftheorgansofdifferentlevelsofFRELIMO;

9. Toencourageandsupporttheforma(onandconsolida(onoftradeunion,student,youthandwomen'sorganiza(ons;

10. Tocooperatewiththena(onalistorganiza(onsoftheotherPortuguesecolonies;

11. TocooperatewithAfricanna(onalistorganiza(ons;

12. Tocooperatewiththena(onalistmovementsofallcountries;

13. Toobtainfundsfromorganiza(onswhichsympathizewiththecauseofthepeopleofMozambique,makingpublicappeals;

14. ToprocureallrequirementsforselfdefenseandresistanceoftheMozambicanpeople;

15. ToorganizepermanentpropagandabyallmethodsinordertomobilizeworldpublicopinioninfavorofthecauseoftheMozambicanpeople;

16. Tosenddelega(onstoallcountriesinordertoundertakecampaignsandpublicdemonstra(onsofprotestagainsttheatroci(escommi7edbythePortuguesecolonialadministra(on,aswellastopressfortheimmediatelibera(onofallna(onalistswhoareinsidethePortuguesecolonialistprisons;

17. Toprocurediploma(c,moralandmaterialhelpforthecauseoftheMozambicanpeoplefromtheAfricanstatesandfromallpeaceandfreedomlovingpeople

Theseaimscouldbesummarizedasconsolida:onandmobiliza:on;prepara:onforwar;educa:on;diplomacy.

Theneedforanarmedstruggle

Althoughdeterminedtodoeverythinginourpowertotrytogainindependencebypeacefulmeans,wewerealreadyconvincedatthisstagethatawarwouldbenecessary.Peoplemorefamiliarwiththepoliciesofothercolonialpowershaveaccusedusofresor:ngtoviolencewithoutduecause.Thisispartlyrefutedbythefatemetbyeverytypeoflegal,democra:candreformistac:vitytriedovertheprecedingfortyyears.

ThecharacterofthegovernmentinPortugalitselfmakesapeacefulsolu:oninherentlyunlikely.WithinPortugalthegovernmenthaspromotedneithersoundeconomicgrowthnorsocialwell-being,andhasgainedliGleinterna:onalrespect.Thepossessionofcolonieshashelpedtoconcealthesefailures:thecoloniescontributetotheeconomy;theyaddtoPortugal'sconsequenceintheworld,par:cularlytheworldoffinance;theyhaveprovidedana:onalmythofempirewhichhelpsdiscourageanygrumblingbyafundamentallydissa:sfiedpopula:on.Thegovernmentknowshowillitcanaffordtolosethecolonies.Forsimilarreasonsitcannotaffordtoliberalizeitscontrolofthem:thecoloniescontributetothemetropolitaneconomyonlybecauselaborisexploitedandresourcesarenotploughedbackintolocaldevelopment;thecolonieseasethediscontentofthePortuguesepopula:ononlybecauseimmigra:onofferstothepooranduneducatedaposi:onofspecialprivilege.Notleast,sincethefascistgovernmenthaseliminateddemocracywithinPortugalitself,itcanscarcelyallowagreatermeasureoffreedomtothesupposedlymorebackwardpeopleofitscolonies.

Despiteallthis,aGemptsweremadetousepersuasion,encouragedbytheacceptanceelsewhereoftheprincipleofself-determina:on.Butsucheffortswereneverrewardedwithanykindof‘dialogue’.Theonlyreac:ontothemwasprison,censorship,andthestrengtheningofthePIDE,thesecretpolice.ThecharacterofthePIDEisitselfanimportantfactor.Forithasastrongtradi:onofviolence_itsofficersweretrainedbytheGestapo_anditenjoysaconsiderablemeasureofautonomy,allowingittoactoutsidethecontroloftheofficiallaw.

Thisiswhypoli:calac:vityinMozambiquehascalledforthetechniquesofthe‘underground',forsecrecyandexile.Ontheonlyrecentoccasionwhenanopenapproachwasmade,whathappenedisinstruc:ve.Itwastheincident,alreadymen:oned,atMuedain1960,whensome500Africanswerekilled.Ithadbeenplannedasapeacefuldemonstra:onandtosomeextentoweditsorigintopoliceprovoca:on:theauthori:esknewthattherewaspoli:calagita:onintheregion,muchofitclandes:ne,andtheyhadgivenoutthatthegovernorwouldaGendapublicmee:ngon16JunewherehewouldgrantindependencetotheMakondepeople.Thepolicethusbroughtthedisaffec:onintotheopenandimmediatelykilledorarrestedasmanypeopleastheycouldofthoseinvolved.Theyhadhopedtoremovetheleaders,in:midatethepopula:onandsetanexampletootherregions.Butdespiteitsferocity,theac:onwasonlypar:allyandtemporarilysuccessful.Iteliminatedsomeoftheleaders,butothersremained;while,farfrombeingin:midated,thepopula:onbecamemoredeterminedthanevertoresist.

Someoftheexilesandthoseinvolvedinclandes:neopposi:onhopedatfirstthat,evenifPortugalwasimpervioustopeacefuldemandsfromthepeopleofhercolonies,shemightlistentointerna:onalorganiza:onsandthegreatna:onsoftheworld,ifthesewouldinterveneonourbehalf.StemmingfromtheGoanissue,someinterna:onalpressurewasbroughttobearonPortugalduringthefiaies.ButPortugal'sonlyresponsewasthelegisla:onoftheearlysix:es,whichsupposedlyintroducedreformsbutmadenoconcessiontotheprincipleofself-determina:on.SincethenPortugalhasignoredorrejectedallappealsfromotherstatesorinterna:onalbodiesmadeonbehalfofthepeopleinhercolonies.Besidesthis,notallthemajorstatessupportus.Since1961mostWesternpowers,includingtheUnitedStates,havenotcooperatedwithUnitedNa:onsresolu:onsurgingPortugaltogivetherightofself-determina:ontothepeopleofhernon-self-governingterritories.

By1961twoconclusionswereobvious.First,Portugalwouldnotadmittheprincipleofself-determina:onandindependence,orallowforanyextensionofdemocracyunderherownrule,althoughbythenitwasclearthatherown‘Portuguese’solu:onstoouroppressedcondi:on,suchasassimila:onbymul:-racialcolonatos,mul:-racialschools,localelec:onsetc.,hadprovedameaninglessfraud.Secondly,moderatepoli:calac:onsuchasstrikes,demonstra:onsandpe::ons,wouldresultonlyinthedestruc:onofthosewhotookpartinthem.Wewere,therefore,leawiththesealterna:ves:tocon:nueindefinitelylivingunderarepressiveimperialrule,ortofindameansofusingforceagainstPortugalwhichcouldbeeffec:veenoughtohurtPortugalwithoutresul:nginourownruin.

Thiswaswhy,toFRELIMOleaders,armedac:onappearedtobetheonlymethod.Indeed,theabsenceofanyopposi:ontotheuseofforcewasoneofthefactorsaccoun:ngfortheveryshortperiodwhichelapsedbetweentheforma:onofFRELIMOin1962andthebeginningofthearmedstruggleon25September1964.

Prepara:on

Tocreatecondi:onsforasuccessfularmedstrugglewehad,ontheonehand,topreparethepopula:oninsideMozambique;and,ontheother,torecruitandtrainpeoplefortheresponsibili:eswhichsuchastrugglewouldimpose.

TherealreadyexistedwithinMozambiquethemakingsofastructurethroughwhichtheworkofprepara:oncouldproceed.AlmostallthosewhogatheredinDaresSalaamtoformFRELIMOwerepartofundergroundforcesinsideMozambique;thethreepar:eswhichmergedhadmembersinvariousregions,andthese,togetherwiththeNESAMnetworkandthepeoplewhohadtakenpartintheabor:vecoopera:vemovementinNorthernMozambique,formedthebasisofanorganiza:onwhichthenhadtobeconsolidatedandexpanded.Throughthis,theaimsofthepartyhadtobeexplainedtothepopula:on;thepeoplehadtobeorganizedintocells,thegenerallevelofpoli:calconsciousnessraised,theac:vityofthecellscoordinated.Thiswasdonebyundergroundworkersusingpamphletsand‘bushtelegrams'asaids.

Thewaythatsuchamobiliza:oncampaignworksisperhapsbestillustratedbysomeaccountsfrompresentFRELIMOmilitantsofhowtheycametojointheparty.AsJoaquimMaquivalputsit:

In1964IjoinedFRELIMObecauseourpeoplewereexploited.Is(lldidnotknowproperlywhattodoaboutit.Thepeopledidn'tknowwhattodo.WehadheardourneighborsinMalawihadbeenliberatedandwouldcometoliberateus,butwesoonlearntthatwewouldhavetoliberateourselves.Thepartytoldusthatweandnooneelseareresponsibleforourselves.

Somecomradescametoexplainthingstous,andbefore,rightatthebeginning,theradiotoldusthatFRELIMO,ledbyComradeMondlane,wasfigh(ngforthelibera(onofusall.(F.I)

GabrielMaurícioNan:mbohasasimilarstory:

PreviouslyIwasinastateofservitude,butIdidn'tknowit.Ithoughtthatwasjusthowtheworldwas.Ididn'tknowthatMozambiquewasourcountry.ThebookssaidwewerePortuguese.Thenabout1961Ibegantohearotherthings.Theoldmenintheircoopera(veswerealsobeginningtoagitate.In1962eventhechildrensawthetruth.FRELIMObeganopera(nginourzone.SomecomradesexplainedaboutitandIwantedtojoin.Bytheendof1962eventhegovernmentfeltthatthepartywasgrowing,andtheystartedagreatcampaignofrepression,arres(ngandtorturingeveryonetheysuspected.Manypreferredtodieratherthanbetraytheircomrades.Thepartygainedstrength.Theleadersexplainedthetruthtous,taughtusourownstrength,andwesawclearlyhowMozambique,whichbelongstousandnottoPortugal,hadbeendominated.(F.I)

Favorablecondi:onsalreadyexisted:thesufferingcausedbythecolonialsystem;thedesiretotakeac:on;thecourageanddetermina:onthatawardemands.AllFRELIMOhadtoprovidewastheprac:calunderstandingandtheorganiza:on.

SimilarworkcouldbedonemoreopenlyamongthelargenumberswhofledfromMozambiqueataboutthis:me.Manyoftheserefugeeswereeagertoreturnandtakeac:onagainstthesystemthathaddriventhemout;theylackedonlytheknowledgeofhowtodoit.

Theproblemoftraininginvolvednotonlythemilitaryaspect.ThedeficienciesofthePortugueseeduca:onalsystemmeantthatourmovementwasdesperatelyshortoftrainedcadresinallfields.We

couldseethatthesuccessoffuturearmedac:onwouldcreatetheneedforpeoplewithavarietyoftechnicalskillsandacertainlevelofbasiceduca:on.Moreover,thestateofignoranceinwhichalmostthewholepopula:onhadbeenkepthinderedthedevelopmentofapoli:calconsciousnessandwouldclearlyhinderyetfurtherthedevelopmentofourcountryaaerindependence.Wehad,andhave,thetaskofmakingupforyearsofdiligentneglectunderthePortuguese.Andsoamilitaryprogramandaneduca:onalprogramwereconceivedsidebysideasessen:alaspectsofourstruggle.

Asafirststepintheeduca:onalprogram,asecondaryschool,theMozambiqueIns:tute,wasestablishedin1963atDaresSalaamtoprovideeduca:onforMozambicanchildrenwhohadalreadyleaMozambique,whileatthesame:mescholarshipstoforeignins:tutesofhigherstudieswerearrangedforthoserefugeeswhopossessedsuitablequalifica:ons.

Thepersecu:onandsuppressionofNESAMhaddrivenoutmanyofthosefewAfricanswhohadbeenabletopursuetheirstudiesbeyondprimaryschoolinsideMozambique.Someofthesewereeagertojointhestruggleimmediately,usingsuchqualifica:onsastheyalreadyhad;butothersweresenttocon:nuetheirstudiesandgainqualifica:onswhichwouldbeusefulinthefuture.TheMozambiqueIns:tuteexpandedrapidly.Builttotakeonlyfiaystudents,ithadbeenstretchedtoaccommodate120by1968.Inaddi:on,theeduca:onaldepartmentofFRELIMOwasabletousetheorganiza:onoftheIns:tutetohelpprepareaneduca:onalsystemforuseinsideMozambiqueassoonasthemilitaryprogramhaddevelopedfarenoughtoprovidethenecessarysecurity.

Onthemilitaryside,thefirsttaskwastotrainthecoreofourfuturearmy.WeapproachedAlgeria,whichhadjustgainedindependencefromFranceattheendofaseven-yearwarandwasalreadytrainingna:onalistgroupsfromotherPortuguesecolonies.TheAlgerianleadersagreedtoincludeMozambicansinthisprogram,andthefirstgroupofaboutfiayyoungMozambicanswenttoAlgeriainJanuary1963,followedshortlybytwoothergroupsofaboutseventy.Tofollowupthistraining,coordinatethegroupsandpreparethemtofightinsideMozambique,itwasnecessarytofindacountryclosebytheareaofprospec:vefigh:ngwhichwouldpermitustoestablishatleastonecamponitsterritory.ItshouldbestressedthatthisisaveryseriousmaGer.Anycountry,whichagreestobecomehosttosuchamilitaryforce,eventemporarily,mustfaceconsiderableproblems.Firstistheinternalproblemposedbythepresenceofanarmedforcewhichisnotdirectlyunderthecountry'scontrol.Thentherearethediploma:candsecuritydifficul:estobefacedassoonasthegovernmentagainstwhichthemilitaryprepara:onsaredirecteddiscoverstheexistenceofsuchacamp.Thus,whenTanganyikaagreedtohelpus,itwastakingaverycourageousstep.

Thereisacertainhistoricalironyinthesi:ngofourfirstcampnearthevillageofBagamoyo.Forthename‘Bagamoyo'means‘brokenheart’andoriginatesfromthe:meoftheslavetrade,whenthisvillagewasoneofthemainpointsofdeparturefortheslavingportsoftheEastCoast.Later,thesametownbecamethecapitaloftheGermanimperialistventureinEastAfrica.Thenamenowhasacquiredforusacompletelydifferentsignificance,foritwashereinBagamoyothatwewereabletotakethefirstprac:calstepstowardsstampingoutservitudeinourcountry.

OncethefirstgroupshadundergonefurtherstringenttraininginBagamoyo,theyreturnedinsecrettoMozambique,preparedforac:on,andfortrainingotheryoungpeople.ByMay1964armswerebeingintroducedtoMozambique,andammuni:onstocked.

Thearmyalsohasamajorparttoplayinthemobiliza:onandeduca:onalcampaigns.Militantslearnmorethanjustmilitaryscience.AsfaraspossibletheyaretaughtPortugueseandbasicliteracy,with

thosewhohavealreadyhadaliGleeduca:onfrequentlyteachingtheircomrades.Poli:caleduca:onisaveryimportantpartoftheirtraining,andinthecourseofittheyacquiresomeexperienceofspeakinginpublicandofworkingoncommiGees,whilealsolearningtherudimentsofpoli:calargumentandthehistoricalandgeographicalbackgroundofthestruggle.Thusthearmyitselfbecomesanimportantagentinthepoli:calmobiliza:onandeduca:onofthepopula:on.

TheothermainaspectofFRELIMO'sworkduringthisperiodofprefacewasaprogramofdiplomacyandinforma:on.Theaimofthiswas,ontheonehand,tobreakthroughthesilencewhichenvelopedMozambique,todebunkthemythsspreadbythepowerfulpropagandaservicesofthePortuguese;and,ontheotherhand,tomobilizeworldopinioninfavorofthestruggleinMozambique,togainmaterialsupportandtoisolatePortugal.Thisinvolvedac:vepar:cipa:onininterna:onalorganiza:ons,thedispatchofdelegatestointerna:onalconferencesandrepresenta:vestovariouscountries.Tofacilitatethiswork,permanentofficesweresetupoutsideTanzania,par:cularlyinCairo,Algiers,andLusaka.Topropagateinforma:on,paperswerepreparedforconferencesandmee:ngs;ar:cleswerewriGen;andfromtheofficeinDaresSalaamthepublica:onbeganofaregularbulle:ninEnglish,MozambiqueRevolu(on,whileabulle:ninFrenchappearedperiodicallyfromtheAlgiersoffice.

Problems

Inmanywaystheperiodofprepara:onputsmorestrainsonamovementthandoesthe:meofac:on.Oncefigh:ngbegins,solidarityisgeneratedinthefaceofimmediatedangerfromtheenemy.Also,themovementisabletoproveitself:ifcanshowconcreteresultsforitsworkandaprac:caljus:fica:onofitspolicy.Asitprovesitself,theenthusiasmandconfidenceofitsownmembersgrow,whileatthesame:meoutsideinterestsandsupportincrease.Duringthe:meofsecretundergroundwork,however,thereisliGletobeseenofthepartyexceptaname,anofficeandagroupofexileswhoclaimtobena:onalleadersbutwhoseintegrityisalwaysopentoques:on.Itisthenthatamovementisespeciallyvulnerabletointernaldissensionandoutsideprovoca:on.

ForFRELIMOinitsfirsttwoyears,thepoten:aldangerwasaggravatedbytheinexperienceofitsleadersinworkingtogether.Manyofitsmembersalsolackedanunderstandingofmodernpoli:cs.Ontheotherhand,theproblemofmaintainingunitywaseasedbythefactthattherewerenootherpar:esinexistence.Aaertheunionof1962,ourproblemwasnotoneofbringingtogethermajorrivalgroupsbutofpreven:ngfac:onsfromdevelopingwithin.

Theheterogeneousnatureofthemembershipcarriedcertaindangersaswellasadvantages.WecamefromalloverMozambiqueandfromallwalksoflife:differentlanguageandethnicgroupswererepresented,differentraces,differentreligions,differentsocialandpoli:calbackgrounds.Theoccasionsforpossibleconflictwereunlimited,andwefoundthatwehadtomakeaconsciousefforttopreserveunity.Themainformthistookwaseduca:on.Fromtheverybeginningwecarriedonpoli:caleduca:ontocombattribalism,racismandreligiousintolerance.Portuguesewasretainedastheofficiallanguagemainlyforconvenience,asnoAfricanlanguagehasthewidecurrencyinMozambiquethatSwahili,forinstance,hasinTanzania.Work,however,isalsooaencarriedoninotherlanguages,andthefactthatpeoplefromdifferentareasareconstantlyworkingtogetherhasencouragethelearningofthese.Fromtheoutset,militaryunitswerealwaysverymixedincomposi:on,andtheexperienceofworking

togetherwithpeoplefromothertribesdidagreatdealtolessentribalfric:on.FRELIMOisanen:relysecularbody;withinitallreligionsaretolerated,andagreatvarietyprac:ced.

Therewas,allthesame,shortlyaaertheforma:onofFRELIMO,atendencyforindividualstoclaimtorepresentMozambiqueandformbogus,splinterorganiza:ons.Thisseemedmainlyduetotheconjunc:onofcertainpersonalambi:onswiththemaneuversofthePortugueseandotherintereststhreatenedbythelibera:onmovement.Earlyon,COSERU(ComitéSecretodeRestanraçãodaUDENAMO)appeared,andthengaveplacetoaNewUDENAMO,whichthensplitintoNewUDENAMO-Accra,andNewUDENAMO-Cairo;bothofthesehavesincedisappeared.Inaddi:on,thereemergedanewUNAMI(nowvanished),anewMANU,andyetmorevaria:onsonthetheme.Theindividualsformingthesedifferentorganiza:onswereoaenthesame.Then,in1964agroupcalledMORECO(MozambicanRevolu:onaryCouncil)wasformed,whichlaterchangedintoCOREMOandalmostimmediatelyunderwentfurtherupheaval,astheChairmanandtheNa:onalPresident,theGeneralSecretaryandthePlenipoten:arySecretary,eachexpelledtheother.ThereisnowabranchofCOREMOinLusakaandabranchinCairowhichseemtobeseparatedbyideologicaldifferences.COREMO-Lusakahasrecentlyundergoneanothersplit,whichresultedintheforma:onofyetanothergroupcalledUniãoNacionalAfricandaRombézia.UNAR'sprogramaimsatweakeningtheworkofFRELIMOintheareabetweenthetwomainriversofnorthMozambique,theZambeziandtheRovuma.Atthemostcharitablees:mate,theleadersofthegroupmustbenaïvetotakeseriouslytherumors,fannedbythePortuguese,thattheywouldbereadytohandoverthenorthernthirdofthecountrytoMalawiif,bythatmaneuver,theywouldbeassuredofperpetualcontroloverthetwo-thirdsofMozambiquefromtheZambezisouthwards.ItissignificantthattheheadquartersofUNARisinBlantyre,andthattheleadersenjoytheprotec:onandcoopera:onofsomeinfluen:alfiguresintheMalawiCongressParty.

COREMO-LusakaistheonlyoneofthesegroupswhichhasaGemptedanyac:oninMozambique:in1965,COREMOsupportersstartedmilitaryac:oninTete,buttheywerecrushedimmediately.Itseemedthatnogroundworkhadbeendoneonwhichtobasesuchac:on;asaresultoftherepressionwhichfollowed,some6,000peoplefledtoZambia,andthegovernmentofZambiaatfirstassumedthat,astheac:onhadbeenins:gatedbyCOREMO,thesewereCOREMOsupporters.Aaerques:oningthem,however,theyfoundthattheyhadnotheardofCOREMO,andthatthosewhowereaGachedtoanypartyweremembersofFRELIMO.

Noneofthesesplintermovementswas,fortunately,seriousenoughtointerferewithworkinsideMozambique,asmostofthemconsistedofjustanofficeandasmallgroupofexilesupporters.Atthat:me,however,whenallFRELIMOhadtoshowoutsiderswasanumberofofficers,therewasariskthattheymightdosomedamagebeyond.Theprolifera:onofsmallopposi:ongroupswasanembarrassmenttothecountrieswhichofferedsupporttolibera:onmovements,sinceitwasnoteasytotellatfirstwhichgroupshadrealbackingwithinMozambique.

Anotherdifficulty,par:cularlyacuteintheearlystagesofdevelopment,whenmanyofthemovement'smembersknowliGleaboutoneanother,isthedangerofinfiltra:onbyPortugueseagents.Andthisisconnectedwiththeproblemofsplintergroups,sincethesemayuseamemberofthemainorganiza:ontotrytospreaddissent,soattobringoverasec:onofthemembership.Thecomplexityofmo:vesbehinddivisiveconductmakesitthemoredifficulttoguardagainst:individualneuroses,personalambi:ons,realideologicaldifferencesaremuddledupwiththetac:csoftheenemysecretservice.Amovementcannotaffordtobecometooparanoiac,oritwillalienatepoten:alsupportandfailtoreconcilethoserealdifferencesthatsomehowmustbereconciledifitsbroadbasisistosurviveand

develop.Ontheotherhand,itmustguardagainstthemoredangeroustypeofinfiltra:onorganizedbyitsenemies,inevitablyexpending:meandenergyintheprocess.

Thebestanswertosplintergroups,agents,spies,inflammatorypropagandists,isastrongmovement.Iftheleadershipisunitedandisbasedonmasssupportinthecountry;iftheprogramisrealis:candpopular,thenthedamagewhichsuchoutsideeffortscanachievewillbemarginal.InFRELIMO,althoughinsomeinstancesspecificac:onmayhavetobetaken,ourgeneralpolicyissimplytopressonwiththemainworkinhand,ignoringpeGyprovoca:ons.

Apoli:calbiography

Solongastheleadershipoutsidethecountrycouldpreserveareasonabledegreeofunity,themainworkinsideofMozambiquecouldcon:nueunchecked.Thewayinwhichitdidsoduringtheseyears,culmina:nginthelaunchingofthearmedstruggle,andsomeoftheproblemsinthedevelopmentofthemovement,canbeseeningreaterdetailthroughthepersonalstoryofAlberto-JoaquimChipande:

Myfatherwasacapitãomor(avillagelineageheadinasocietywithoutcentralizedpoli(calins(tu(ons).Butsome(mesthePortugueseusedtogivetheirordersthroughhim,althoughhewasn'taregulo(achiefimposedbythePortuguese).TwicemyfatherwastakentoseeLisbon,oncein1940andagainin1946,andyoucouldsaythatinawayhewasevenamemberofthePortugueseadministra(on;buthewassecretlyagainstthemandin1962hebecameasecretmemberofFRELIMOwhenweweres(llworkingundergroundinDelgado…

Imyselfdecidedtojointhestrugglebecauseeverymanshouldbefree,orifhehasto,shouldfighttobefree.EversinceIwasachildIsawthemeaningofPortugueserule:evenwhenIwastwelve(in1950)andatprimaryschool,theytookmeandforcedmetoworkinMueda,cleaningthetown.

ThenthePortuguesebegantotrackdownmyfamily.TwobrothersgotawaytoTanzania.TheyescapedaXerarrestforforcedlabor.…Thatwasin1947.Iwasnine.Thenmysisterandherhusbandalsoranawayfromforcedlabor.Allthistaughtme.ButIstayedatschool.Ipassedexamina(ons.Ibecameateacher.

WhenIfinishedprimaryschoolIwassixteen.ThenlaterIwasgivenateachingpost.…ThenIgotabe7erpostinMuedaintheprimaryschoolandIstayedthereforsixyears.

Ifirstheardaboutacertainorganiza(onforlibera(onin1960.ThatwasMANU.…Certainleadersworkedamongstus.SomeofthemweretakenbythePortugueseatthemassacreatMuedaon16June1960.…AXerthatexperienceIhadas(llstrongerfeelingfortheneedtogetourliberty.Andwheneveryoneelseconsideredwhathadhappenedtheybegantoactaswell,andtheysupportedMANU.

Thenin1962,whenFRELIMOwasformedinDaresSalaam,itsleadersinvitedsomedelegatesfrominsideDelgadotogoandtalkwiththem.PeoplewhohadpreviouslysupportedMANUbegansuppor(ngFRELIMOjustastheydotoday.

AXertheforma(onofFRELIMOIbecameanorganizerinsideDelgado.Thisishowweworked.Wehadformedanagriculturalcoopera(veatMueda,andwhenFRELIMO'SleadersknewofthistheysentdelegatesinsideDelgadotoasktheleadersofourcoopera(vewhohadbeensupportersofMANUtosupportFRELIMO.TheytoldthedelegatesofFRELIMOaboutthereasonsfortheforma(onofMANUandagreedthattheywouldusethecoopera(veaslongaspossibleasameansofpoli(calorganiza(on.Wehadonlyafewpeopleinthefirstyear,andtheninthesecondyearwecul(vatedco7on.Wecalledourcoopera(vetheMozambiqueAfricanVoluntaryCo7onsociety.ButthePortugueseauthori(essaidwecouldn'tusethewordvoluntário,becausetheblacks,theysaid,couldn'tdoanything.S(lltheyletustrytoworkandwebegan.Thatwasin1957.…Andourcoopera(vedeveloped.Manyjoined;andsothePortuguesecompany(inMueda)gotshortoflabor,andwebegansellingourco7oneventothatcompany.Weleadersworkedhardandvoluntarily;wetooknopercentageofthecrop,wehadnoprofitinmoney.Allweleadershadourownshambasforourownsupport.ThenthatPortuguesecompanycomplainedtotheauthori(esthatourcoopera(vewasreallyanan(-Portuguesepoli(calorganiza(on.In1959theleader_LázaroKavandame_wasarrestedandsenttoPortoAmélia.Butweweren'tdemoralized;wecon(nued.Thenthemassacreoccurredandtheybannedourcoopera(vemovement.

Attheendof1960,Lázarocameback,andwetalkedthingsoverabouthowtofindnewwaysofworking.Theauthori(essaidtheywouldn’tallownoorganiza(onwithmanymembersinit_30wasthemosttheywouldallow.Weagreedtothatandfoundedacoopera(vewith25memberstogrowrice.Inthefirstyearweproducedagoodharvest,wehadmoneyinthesavingsbank,enoughtopaywagesandwealsoboughtatractor.…In1962,aXertheforma(onofFRELIMO,peoplebegangivingac(vesupport.WehadmanycontactswithDarthroughsecretmessengers,andwebeganissuingmembershipcards.Westartedorganizingpeople.Someofthemwerearrested,andagainwecameundergovernmentsuspicion.

This(meitwasdifferent.NowthePortuguesewantedourgroupstoworkforthedestruc(onofFRELIMO.TheysaidthatweshouldsendmentoDartocreateconfusion.Wesentourvice-chairman,andthePortuguesegavehimmoneyforhisjourney.Butwegavehimadifferenttask.Wegavehimale7ertotheleadersinDartoexplainwhyhehadthemoney,andthismoneywetoldhimtogivetoFRELIMOandwefoundthenecessarymoneyourselves.SoreallythismanwenttoDarasadelegatetotheFirstCongressofFRELIMOwhilepretendingtothePortuguesetobetheiragent.HecamebackaXertheCongressandtoldthePortuguesethattherewereconflictsinDarbetweenthevariousgroupingsinFRELIMO…

ThenhewentagaininSeptemberasourdelegate.Butthis(meitwentwrong.ThePortugueseweren'tsosimpleastoacceptwhathesaidjustlikethat.Theysentourcomradeagain,buttheyalsosentanothermantospyonhim.…Whenourcomradecameback,hewentagaintothePortugueseandtoldthemnothinghadchanged_thegroupsinDars(llcouldn'tagreewitheachother;buttherealspyhadmeanwhilegiventhePortugueseaverydifferentandrealreport.SoaXerourcomradecamebackthesecond(me,thePortuguesestartedarres(ngandinterroga(ngourcomrades_thatwasinJanuary1963.InFebruarytheyarrestedLázaro,thechairmanofFRELIMOinourregion,andthenextdaytheyarrestedourcomradewho’dbeenthedelegate.

…

AXerthatthereweremanyarrests,andPIDEagentswereallovertheplace.Manydiedinprison;otherscamebackwithbrokenhealth.Wehadacomradeworkingintheadministrator'sofficeatMueda.Hewarnedusbyle7eraboutthosewhoweregoingtobearrested.…On13February,earlyinthemorning,

theadministratorofMuedacamewitharmedpolicetotheCatholicmissionwhereIwasateacher.…Butwe_LourençoRaimundo,alsoasecretaryofourcoopera(ve,andI_haddecidednottosleepthere.Wemadeoffwhenweheardthenoiseofthetruckscoming.Westayedalldayinthebush,andwhennightfellwewalkedtoTanzania.Wewalkedfromthethirteenth(lltheeighteenth,andthenthatnightwecrossedtheRovumaintoTanzania.

WegottoLindiandthereweweremetbyarepresenta(veofFRELIMO.Wetoldhimwhathadhappened.Manyrefugeescametooatthat(me,becauseofthePortugueserepression.Weheldamee(nganddecidedthatsomemembersofourcoopera(veshouldgobackintoMozambique,becauseweknewitwasourdutytomobilizepeople,andthatwithoutusthepeoplewouldnothaveleaders.WedecidedthatthepartlyeducatedyoungermenshouldgotoDarforfurthertraining,whiletheoldermenshouldgobackintoMozambiqueandhidetheretogoonwithmobiliza(on…

InDartheleadersaskeduswhatwewantedtodo.Wesaid,tojointhearmy.Theyaskedus,didn'twewantscholarships?No,wesaid,tofight.Soourleadersmadecontactswithcountriesreadytohelp,andthefirstwasAlgeria.InJune1963wewenttoAlgeriaandtrainedthereun(lthespringof1964.On4Junewegotorders,24ofus,tomeetthePresidentofFRELIMO,andhetolduswewerechosenforamission.NextdaywewentdowntoMtwara.On15Augustwewereorderedbytherepresenta(veofFRELIMOtoleavethatnight.Wecrossedthefron(er,andthereinsideDelgadowefoundwai(ngforusthearmsandequipmentformygroup,sixFrenchmachine-guns,fiveThompsons,sevenBri(shrifles,sixFrenchrifles,twelvepistols,fivecasesofhandgrenadeseachwithtwelve.…WetooktheseandstartedfortheSouth,throughtheforest,butwithordersnottobegin(llwehadthewordfromourleaders.…Wewerenottoa7ackPortuguesecivilians,nottomaltreatprisoners,nottosteal,topayforwhatweate…

Therewerethreegroupsaltogether.MygrouphadorderstogotowardsPortoAmélia.Thesecond,underAntónioSaido,wenttowardsMontepuez,andthethirdgroup,Raimundo's,wenttowardsMueda.

Wefoundithard,becausetheenemywaspatrollingdayandnightalongtheroadsandeventhebushpaths.Atonepointmygrouphadtowaitacoupleofdaysbeforewecouldgetpast.Wehadgoodcontacts,butbecauseofthePortuguesepatrols,itwasarrangedthatatdangerouspointsonlyonemanshouldreceiveus.Wesufferedfromfoodshortage.AndwehadtotakeoffourbootsforfearofleavingtracksforthePortuguesetofollow;wewalkedbarefoot.

Itwasdifficult.Atonepointtherehadbeenatworkabunchofbandits_menwho'dbeeninMANUorUDENAMOandrefusedtojoinFRELIMO;they’dsimplydegeneratedintobandits.They'dkilledaDutchmissionary.We'dgottoaplaceaboutfivekilometersaway.ThePortuguesetroopsbackedbyairplaneswerebusytherebecauseofthemissionary.Wetookarisk.WemadecontactwiththeDutchmissionary'sparentmission,andweexplainedtothemwhathadhappenedandthatFRELIMOwasanhonestorganiza(onandagainstanythinglikekillingmissionaries.Thishelped,becausethemissionariesthenpersuadedthePortuguesethatitwassoandthattheyshouldn'tkillpeopleinrevenge.

WeadvancedtoMacomia.Fromtherewecouldn’tgetontoPortoAmélia,becausethePortuguesehadsetupablockadeandthey'dmobilizedthepeopleagainstthebandits.…ThebanditsusedtopillageIndianshops,andthePortuguesesaidthatwewerelikethat.Thisheldusback.TheIndiansinformedthePortugueseofourtracks.Wecametotheconclusionthatweshouldstartthestruggle.WewerealreadyfiXeenday'swalkfromthefron(erwithTanzania.SowhilethereinMacomia,notabletogetanyfurtherandwan(ngtostart,wesentmessengerstotheothertwogroupsforinforma(on,andalsotoDar,totell

themthedetailsofthesitua(onandexplainthedangersofdelayingwhilethearmedbanditswerearound.Fromthesemessengerswelearntthatthesecondgrouphadalsometwithdifficul(esandhadn'tgotthroughtoMontepuez;butRaimundoandhisgroupdidgetthroughtotheoutskirtsofMueda.

On16SeptemberwegotourordersfromDartobeginon25September;thatwasatamee(ngofourgroupleaders.Wedecidedthateachshouldgotohisownareaandbegin.Throughorganizersweplannedthatthepeopleshouldriseatthesame(me_arealna(onalinsurrec(on.TodefendthepeopleaXerthat,eachgroupshouldformmili(asandexplainthingstothevillagers,whilealsosabotagingtheroads,and,ofcourse,a7ackingthePortuguesesoldiersandadministra(on.Thatwastheoutlineoftheplanwemade…

7TheWar

Today’smission

Comrade

Is,digthebasicsoilofRevolu(on

Andmakeastrongpeoplegrow

WithaP.M,abazooka,a12.7…

Fromthepoem‘Topointamoraltoacomrade'byMarcelinodosSantos

Thearmedstrugglewaslaunchedon25September1964.

ThePortuguesearmywasexpec:nganaGack,buthadunderes:matedbothourcapacityandouraims.Itsupposedthatourstrategywouldbebasedoncon:nualharassmentofPortugueseforcesoverthefron:er,withtheaimofpukngpressureonthePortugueseauthori:estoreachaseGlement.Inotherwords,FRELIMO,protectedbythe‘sanctuary'ofTanzania,wouldbecontentwithaseriesofhit-and-runraidsacrosstheborder.Toguardagainstsuchac:on,thePortuguesearmyhaddeployedlargeforcealongthebankoftheRovumaandhadevacuatedthepopula:onlivingonthefron:er.

FRELIMO,however,hadpreparednotforharassingac:onbutforafull-scalepeople'swaragainstthePortugueseArmedForces,awarwhichwouldeventuallyleadtothedefeatorsurrenderofthePortuguese.Thisunderes:ma:onofourintentwascertainlybeneficialtousintheearlystagesofthewar.

TheCentralCommiGeehadinstructedFRELIMOforcestomountsimultaneousopera:onsinvariouspartsofthecountry,allintheinterior.Theywerenotgoingto‘invade'thecountry,asthePortugueseexpected,butwere,indeed,alreadythere,reconnoiteringthePortugueseposi:onsandgatheringnewrecruits.

Theylaunchedanumberofac:onon25September,aGackingaseriesofadministra:veandmilitarypostsinCaboDelgadoProvince.ByNovemberthestrugglewasextendingtotheProvincesofNiassa,ZambéziaandTete,forcingthePortuguesetodispersetheirtroopsandpreven:ngthepossibilityofaneffec:veorsustainedcounter-aGack.Facingac:oninfourprovincesatonce,thePortuguesearmywasnotinaposi:ontomountoffensiveexpedi:onswithoutleavingothervitalposi:onsundermanned.Asaresult,FRELIMOwasabletoconsolidateitsstrategicposi:oninNiassaandCaboDelgado,whichhadbeentheobjec:veofthisfirstphaseofthewar.Theunitsopera:nginZambéziaandTetewerethenwithdrawnandprovisionallyregroupedinNiassaandCaboDelgado,toincreasetheoffensivecapacityofFRELIMOandtoensurethatthegainsmadeintheseprovinceswouldbemaintainedandafirminteriorbaseforpoli:calandmilitaryac:onestablished.ThePortuguese,ontheotherhand,couldnotwithdrawtheirforcesfromTeteandZambézia,asindoingsotheywouldruntheriskoffacinganewoffensiveintheseareas.Inthiswaytheenemywascompelledtokeeplargeforcesimmobilized,whileallFRELIMOforcescouldbeusedinac:on.

Thesuccessofthesefirstopera:onsopenedthewayforustointensifyrecruitmentandimproveourorganiza:on.On25September1964,FRELIMOhadonly250mentrainedandequipped,whooperatedinsmallunitsoffromtentofiaeeneach.Towardsthemiddleof1965,FRELIMOforceswerealreadyopera:ngwithunitsofcompanystrength,andin1966thecompanieswereorganizedintobaGalions.By1967theFRELIMOarmyhadreachedastrengthof8,000mentrainedandequipped,notcoun:ngthepeople'smili:asorthetrainedrecruitswhowerenotyetarmed.Inotherwords,FRELIMOincreaseditsfigh:ngstrengththirty-two:mesoverinthreeyears.

OnthePortugueseside,constantincreasesinthesizeofthearmyandinthemilitarybudgetareevidenceoftheimpactthatthewaralreadyhad.In1964thereweresome35,000PortuguesesoldiersinMozambique;bytheendof1967,therewerefrom65,000to70,000.Inthemiddleof1967,theNa:onalAssemblyinLisbonpassedalawloweringtheageofconscrip:ontoeighteen,andextendingmilitaryservicetothreeyears,orevenfourin‘specialcases'.Earlyin1968itwasannouncedthateventhosepreviouslyconsideredunfitformilitaryservice,likethedeaf,themute,thecrippled,wouldbemobilizedfortheauxiliaryservices,andthatwomen,too,couldbeacceptedintothese.

In1963,totalmilitaryexpenditureforPortugalandthecoloniestogetherwas$193million.In1967,forthedefenseoftheoverseasterritoriesalone,thebudgetallowed$180million,andinApril1968thiswasofficiallyraisedby$37million,makinganexpenditureof$217milliononthecolonialwars.ThesearetheofficialfiguresprovidedbyLisbon,andsincePortugalhasgoodreasontounderplayhermilitaryexpenditureforthebenefitofbothworldopinionandhomeconsump:on,itwouldnotbeover-rashtosupposethatPortugalmaynowbespendingsomethinglike£1millionadayto‘defendthepeopleoftheoverseasprovinces’from_thepeopleoftheoverseasprovinces.

This‘escala:on’ofPortugueseaggressioncorrespondstoanincreaseinPortugueselosses.Compare,forexample,thelossesthattheysustainedinthefirsttwomonths,JanuaryandFebruary,oftheyears1965,1966and1967:

1965.1966.1967

Soldierskilled.258.360.626

ThePortuguesenaturallysettheirlossesatamuchlowerfigurethantheFRELJMOes:mates,andincomparingthetwosetsoffiguresanumberofconsidera:onsshouldbetakenintoaccount.Firstofall,indealingwiththeirownlosses,thePortuguesealwaysaGributeasurprisingnumberofdeathsto‘accidents';theyspreadouttheannouncementofcasual:esoveralongerperiodpf:methanthatinwhichtheyactuallyoccurred;andtheyomitdeathsofAfricanpuppetsoldiers.InassessingFRELIMOlosses,however,theycountallAfricanskilled,andthereforealwaysincludealargenumberofcivilian‘suspects'.Thisisapartfromanydirectfalsifica:onwhichmaytakeplace.Ontheotherside,whenFRELIMOassessesthenumberofPortuguesekilled,itisoaenabletoes:mateonlyfromthenumberwhichfall,withoutbeingabletocheckthebodiesaaerwards,andsowoundedmayoaenbecountedaskilled.

ThePortugueseofficiales:mateoflossestodategiveninmid-1967was378soldiersdead_212killedinac:onand166asaresultof‘accidentsanddisease'_and3,500wounded.Judgingfromtheirmonthlyreports,however,tohavereachedafigureaslowasthistheymusthavecoveredaperiodconsiderably

shorterthanthatfromthebeginningofthewar.Yet,evenwiththesemajordiscrepancies,thePortuguesefiguresconfirmthatPortugueselosseshavebeenincreasingasthewarprogresses.SIFA(PortugueseArmyInforma:onServices)announcedoverthefirstthreedaysof1968,thatthirteenPortuguesesoldiershadbeenkilledinMozambique,anofficerincluded.

AnumberoffactorshavecontributedtothesuccessofFRELIMOforcesagainstthemuchlargerandbeGerequippedPortuguesearmy.

Onthemilitaryfront,thePortuguesefacealltheproblemsofaregulararmycomba:ngaguerillaforceandaforeignarmyofoccupa:onfigh:nginhos:leterritory.Firstofall,onlyasmallfrac:onofthearmedforcescanbeusedinac:on.Thecolonialgovernmentmustemploylargenumberstoprotecttowns,economicinterests,linesofcommunica:on,andtoguardthepopula:onconfinedin‘protectedvillages'.Thus,outofthe65,000PortuguesesoldiersinMozambique,onlyabout30,000areusedagainstourforcesinNiassaandCaboDelgado;andnotevenallofthesearefreetoengageinac:onagainstus,sincemanyarepinneddowndefendingstrategicpointsandpopula:oncentersinthearea.Secondly,thePortuguesearefigh:ngonunfamiliarterrainagainstanenemywhichbelongstothatterrainandknowsitwell.Muchofthelandinthesenorthernprovincesisheavilywooded,providinggoodcoverfortheguerrillasandtheirbases.Oaentheonlymeansonpenetra:ngthebushisalongnarrowfootpaths,whereabodyofmenmustwalkinsinglefile,asikngtargetforambush.Insuchcondi:ons,heavyequipmentlikeaircraaandarmoredvehiclesisofliGleuse.

Thepoli:calaspectisofevengreaterimportance,forthestruggleisessen:allyapoli:calstruggleinwhichthemilitaryisonlyoneaspect.Tojus:fytheirpresence,thePortuguesemustaffirmthattheirarmyisdefendingMozambiqueagainstoutsideaggression.Yetsuchapostureisimpossibletomaintainpersuasively,fortheFRELIMOforcesare,withoutexcep:on,composedofMozambicans,whereasthePortuguesearmyisalmosten:relycomposedofPortuguesetroopsandnumbersliGlemorethanonethousandpuppetAfricansoldiersamongitsranks.WhenitdoesuseAfricantroops,thesearesurroundedbyPortuguesesoldierstoguardagainstdeser:on.

Thenthepeoplethemselvesareintheoverwhelmingmainhos:letothePortuguese.Topreventthemcoopera:ngwithFRELIMO,thePortuguesearmyorganizestheminto‘protectedvillages',villagessurroundedbybarbedwireandguardedbyPortuguesetroops,thecounterpartofthereseGlementcenterssetupbytheFrenchduringtheAlgerianwar,andthestrategichamletsoftheAmericansinVietnam.ThismaytemporarilycutoffthevillagersfromFRELIMO;butitdoesnothingtoreducehos:litytothePortuguese,andwhenanopportunityarises,thepopula:onofsuch‘protectedvillages'revolts.

Thewarisalsocrea:nginternalproblemsforthePortuguesegovernment.ItisfacednotonlywiththewarinMozambiquebutisfigh:ngontwootherfronts,AngolaandGuineaBissau.Atthesame:meithastokeepforcesofrepressioninSãoTomé,CaboVerde,Macau,TimorandPortugalaswell,whereopposi:ontofascism,althoughseverelyweakenedbyfortyyearsofrepression,hasneverbeencompletelycrushed.Thegovernment'sresourcesofmanpowerandmoneyarebeingstretchedtobreakingpointbywarsthousandsofmilesfromhome,warsforwhichthepopula:onispayingbutfromwhich,forthemostpart,itcannothopetogainanything.Thisaddsfueltotheinternalopposi:onandatthesame:meweakensthegovernment'sdefensesagainstit.Totrytofillthemilitarygapleaathomebythedepartureoflargenumbersoftroopsoverseas,thegovernmenthasinvitedtheWestGermanstoestablishmilitarybasesinPortugal,oneofwhichhasalreadybeenconstructedatBejaandhouses1,500Germansoldiers.Suchameasuremaystrengthenthemilitaryposi:onofthegovernment,butweakensitpoli:callybyintroducingaforeignmilitaryforcetoupholditagainstitsownpeople.

ThegovernmentofPortugalisnotapopulargovernment;itwasestablishedandhasbeenmaintainedbyforce,bythearmyandthesecretpolice.Yetitdemandsincreasingsacrificesfromthepeople.ItistruethatsomePortugueseareabletoprofitimmenselyfromthewar,andthefamiliesofsoldiersonac:veserviceinthecoloniesreceiveasmallfinancialsubsidy.Butthepriceinbloodissteadilygrowing.In1961500PortuguesesoldierswerekilledinAngola.InthefirstthreeyearsofthewarinMozambiquealone,thePortugueseadmittoatotalofnearly4,000killedandwounded,whiletheFRELIMOes:mateputsthisatmorelike9,000.In1967onallthreefrontsabout10,000werekilledorwounded.

Theeffectonthepopula:oncanbejudgedbythefactthatthegovernmenthasfounditnecessarytointroducealawforbiddingallPortuguesemalesovertheageofsixteentoleavethecountrywithoutauthoriza:onfromthemilitary.Withinthearmyitselfthereismoreevidencetoindicatethelowstateofmorale.In1966itwases:matedinPortugalthat,sincethestartofthecolonialwars,therehadbeen7,000casesofdeser:onandinsubordina:oninthearmy.InMozambiqueanumberofPortuguesesoldiershavedeserteddirectlytoFRELIMOforces.Someofthemwerepromptedmainlybythefearanddiscomfortsufferedinthecolonialarmyandbythetreatmenttheyreceivedfromsuperiors,butsomedesertedbecauseoftheirfundamentalopposi:ontotheSalazarrégimeandtothewar.One,AfonsoHenriquesSacramentodoRiogavehisreasons:

Ontheonehand,becauseIdisagreewiththerégimeofthedictatorSalazar;ontheotherhand,becauseIdidnotobeyorderscommandingmetoburnhouses,massacretheMozambicanpopula(onanddestroythecrops.

AnotherJoséInácioBispoCatarino,gaveatellingaccountofcondi:onsinthePortuguesearmytoMozambiqueRevolu(on,revealingnotonlywhysomesoldiersdodesert,butalsowhymoredonot;becauseoftheirignoranceaboutthewar,aboutFRELIMO,andtheseveresurveillanceoftheofficers:

Ourofficersnevertellusanythingaboutthewar.Ineverknewdirectlythatwewerefigh(ngFRELIMOtroops.IwasawareofwhatFRELIMOwasbecauseIusedtolistensecretlytoRadioMoscow.IknewthatFRELIMOguerillashadkilledmanyPortuguesetroops,andIknewitwastruebecauseIcouldseemanyofmycolleaguesbeingkilled.…Idesertedbecausewe,thePortuguese,tookbyforcethelandthatbelongstotheAfricans.Nowtheownerswanttheirland.Whyshouldwefightagainstthem?IcannotfightonthesideofthePortuguese,becauseIknowthatwhattheyaredoingiswrong.Isawmanyofmycompanionsbeingkilled;mysergeantdiedinfrontofme,andmanyothers;allofthemdiedforacausewhichisnottheirs.IoXenspoketomysoldiers,tellingthemthattheyshouldpretendtobesicksoastobeevacuatedtoNampula.Iorganizedmee(ngswithsomeoftheonesItrusted,andexplainedtothemthatweweresufferingforacausewhichwasnotours.Igavethemtheexampleofoursergeantwhodiedfornothing.Wemetanywhere,whenweweresureofnotbeingheard_eveninbathrooms.(InterviewinMozambiqueRevolu(on).

Ifrela:velyfewactuallydesertfromac:veservice_ittakesacertainlevelofpoli:calconsciousnessanddetermina:ontodesertundersuchcondi:ons_manydotheirbesttoavoidcombat.DesertershavetoldusthatfrequentlywhensoldiersaresentouttolookforFRELIMO,theysimplyhideinthebushfora

:meandthenreturntocampwithsomesuitablestorymadeupfortheirsuperiorofficers.TherehavealsobeencaseswherecompaniesrefusedtogoonpatrolinaregionwhereFRELIMOwasknowntobestrong.Theobserva:onsofthepopula:onandofourtroopsconfirmsuchstories.

Portugallooksforhelpfromheralliestoovercomehermanyproblems,buteveninthissheishinderedbythecondi:onsandnatureofthewar.AssistancecomesmainlyfromNATOcountriesandfromSouthAfrica.TheUnitedNa:ons,however,hascondemnedPortugal'spolicyandcri:cizedNATOandothercountriesforassis:ngher;moreover,thereisasubstan:albodyofopinionwithintheotherNATOcountrieswhichisopposedtothewarsofrepressionconductedbyPortugal.Asaresult,theUnitedStatesandWesternEuropeareforcedtokeepatacertaindistance.Portugaldoesgain,financiallyandinarmamentsandtrainingfacili:es,fromtheNATOalliance,notleastthroughtheexperienceofcountrieslikeFrance,BritainandtheUnitedStatesinguerillawarfare.Militaryassistance,however,mustbeintheguiseoffulfillingPortugal’srequirementsasamemberofNATO,andofficiallyshouldnotbeusedinAfrica,outsidetheNATOarea.AlthoughsomeNATOarmamentsarecertainlyusedinthecolonies,Portugal’smaingainfromNATOisthathermilitaryrequirementsathomearelargelytakencareof,leavingherfreetouseherownresourcesinthecolonies.Whiletheseares:llinadequate,itwouldbepoli:callydifficultforanyofherNATOalliesdirectlytoenterthecolonialstrugglebysendingtroopsforusebyPortugalinAfrica.

SouthAfrica,ontheotherhand,isrela:velyimpervioustoworldopinionandmakesnopretenseofpermikngdemocra:copposi:onwithinherterritory.HerabilitytoassistPortugal,however,islimitedbyherownproblems.Shealreadyhasalargearmyandpoliceforceoccupiedinmaintainingherownwhiterégimeagainsttheindigenousmovementoflibera:on.Inaddi:on,sheisopenlysendingtroopsandarmstoRhodesia,andhercommitmentstherearelikelytogrow.Tradi:onal:esbetweenwhiteSouthAfricaandthePortuguesearemuchlessclosethanthosebetweenthewhiteSouthAfricansandthewhiteRhodesians,andamajorinvolvementinthePortuguesewarswouldonlyputanaddedstrainonherarmywithoutarousingmuchenthusiasmfromthewhitepopula:on.

Thesamecondi:onswhichmakethewardifficultforPortugalacttohelpFRELIMO.

BecausethePortuguesetroopsare:eddownindefendingvariousseGledstrategicposi:ons,theguerillaforcesalwayshavetheini:a:veinchoosingthe:meandplacetomountanaGack.FRELIMOforcesarefigh:ngontheirownground,inaterraintheyknow,amongapeoplewhoknowandsupportthem.AdefeatforthePortuguesemeansthatthestruggleispushedintoanewarea,andthatasaresulttheyhavetobringupmorecombattroopsthere,weakenings:llfurthertheiroverallposi:on.AdefeatforFRELIMOismoreeasilyretrievable,asitinvolvesonlyatemporaryreduc:onofstrengthinonearea.

AnyprogressinthewarmeansverymuchmoretoFRELIMOthanameregaininterritory.Thewarhasalteredthewholeinternalstructureoftheareasdeeplyaffectedbyit:intheliberatedzones,thevarioussystemsofexploita:onhavebeenabolished,theheavytaxeshavegone,therepressiveadministra:onhasbeendestroyed;thepeoplearefreetocul:vatetheirlandastheyneedto,campaignsagainstilliteracyhavebeenstarted,schoolsandhealthserviceshavebeenestablished,andthepeopleareinvolvedinpoli:caldebate,inmakingtheirowndecisions.Howeverembryonicthesedevelopmentsmaybe,thechangehasbeenfeltinsomewayoranotherbyalmostallthoselivinginthezones,andgiventhemthatmuchmorereasontofight.Eachzonefreedinthiswayisareservoirofnewrecruitsforthefigh:ngforces.Inthevillagespopularmili:asareformedwhichatonceconfirmthepowerofthepeopleandrelievetheordinaryFRELIMOforcesofmanydefensetasks;bycoopera:onwiththearmy,theyalsoextendFRELIMO'soveralloffensivecapacity.

TheFRELIMOarmyandthepopula:onarecloselylinked;thepeopleareaconstantsourceofinforma:onandsupplyforFRELIMO,whiletheyareafurthersourceofdangertothePortuguese.FRELIMO'sforcesliveforthemostpartoffwhattheyproduceinthefigh:ngareas,andwhathastobetransportedistakenonfootthroughthebushbetweenthesmallcenterswhichhavebeenestablished.Asaresult,FRELIMOhasnovulnerablesupplylines,nomilitaryoreconomicstrategicposi:onstodefend.Thelossofasinglesmallbaseorareaofcropsisnotveryserious;ithasnosignificancebeyondtheimmediatelossofresources.

Thelongerthatthestrugglelasts,themoreevidentbecomesitspopularbasis,themoresupportflowstoFRELIMO,andthemoreconfidencethereisinFRELIMO'sabilitytosucceed,whilethelessconfidencethealliesofPortugalhaveinherownprospects.Asthestruggleprogresses,materialaidforFRELIMOincreases,whileFRELIMObecomesitselfmoreformidable.ThuseveryvictoryaddstoourchancesofwinningyetfurthervictoriesandreducestheabilityofthePortuguesetocounterourac:vi:es.

ThecharacteroftheFRELIMOforces

Tounderstandtherealnatureofthewar,itisnotenoughtotakeintoaccountthesegeneralfactors,commonastheyaretonearlyallpopularguerillawars.Moredetailedpointsaboutthecomposi:on,organiza:onandleadershipofthearmyareimportant.

Thearmyisrepresenta:veofthepopula:onatlarge,inthatthevastmajorityoftheguerillasarepeasantsini:allyuneducated,illiterateandoaenunabletospeakanyPortuguese;butthereisalsoascaGeringofthosewhohavehadsomeeduca:onwithinthePortuguesesystem.Themajoritynaturallycomefromtheareasatpresentaffectedbythefigh:ng,becauseitistherethatwidespreadcampaignsofpoli:caleduca:onandtrainingprogramsarepossible.Thereis,however,acon:nualstreamofpeoplefromfurthersouth,fromalloverMozambique,whoescapeinordertojointhestruggle;andatthebeginning,manypeoplefromrefugeecamps,whohadfledfromeverydistrictofMozambiquetoescaperepression,joinedassoonasstructuretocontainthemhadbeencreated.Inthearmy,peoplefromdifferentareasaccordinglymingle,sothateachunitcontainsrepresenta:vesfromdifferenttribesanddifferentareasfigh:ngtogether.Inthisway,tribalismisbeingeffec:velycombatedwithintheforces,andanexampleisbeingsettotherestofthepopula:on.

Thisisnottheonlywayinwhichthearmyleadsthewaytosocialchange.Byaccep:ngwomenintoitsranks,ithasrevolu:onizedtheirsocialposi:on.Womennowplayaveryac:vepartinrunningpopularmili:as,andtherearealsomanyguerillaunitscomposedofwomen.Throughthearmy,womenhavestartedtotakeresponsibilityinmanyareas;theyhavelearnedtostandupandspeakatpublicmee:ngs,totakeanac:vepartinpoli:cs.Infacttheydoagreatdealofimportantworkinmobilizingthepopula:on.Whenawomen'sunitfirstvisitsavillagewhichisnotyetsufficientlyinvolvedwithFRELIMO,thesightofarmedwomenwhogetupandtalkinfrontofalargeaudiencecausesgreatamazement,evenincredulity;whenthevillagersareconvincedthatthesoldiersinfrontofthemreallyarewomen,theeffectontheastonishedmenisoaensoforcefulthattherushofrecruitsisverymuchgreaterthanthearmycancopewithorthantheareacanaffordtolose.

Thearmyishelpingtoraisethestandardofeduca:onaswellasofgeneralpoli:calconsciousness.Recruitsaretaughtwhereverpossibletoreadandwrite,andtospeakPortuguese,andevenwherean

organizedteachingprogramcannotbearranged,theyareencouragedtohelpeachothertolearnthesebasicskills.Indeed,thePortugueseauthori:esareincreasinglysuspiciousofordinarypeasantswhospeakPortuguese,becausetheyknowthatthesearemorelikelytohavelearneditintheFRELIMOarmythaninaPortugueseschool.Thearmyalsoorganizesvariousspecifictrainingprogramssuchasradiowork,accoun:ng,typing,aswellasinsubjectsmorenarrowlyorientatedtothewar.Finally,thearmycul:vatesandproducesitsownfoodwhereverpossible,therebyrelievingthepopula:onpftheburdenofsuppor:ngitandatthesame:mespreadingthelessonsofitsexample.

Intheserespectsthearmyleadsthepeople;butmoreimportantyetisthefactthatthearmyisthepeople,anditisthepeoplewhoformthearmy.TherearecivilianmembersofFRELIMOengagedinalltypesofworkamongthepopula:on;butcoopera:onextendsbeyondthis,tothelargebodyofpeasantswhoarenotmembersofFRELIMO,butwhosupportthestruggle,lookingtothearmyforprotec:onandthepartyforassistanceofvariouskinds.Theyinturnhelpthemilitantswhenevertheycan.

Thesefeaturesarebestsubstan:atedfromthewordsofthemilitantsthemselves:

JoaquimMaquival,fromZambézia:IcomefromZambézia,aChuabo,andIhavefoughtinNiassawherethepeopleareNyanjas,andtheyreceivedmelikeason.IhaveworkedamongAjuas,Makuas,whoreceivedmeasifIweretheirownson.(F.I)

MiguelAmbrósio,companycommanderfromCaboDelgado:IhavefoughtinZambéziaandNiassa,farfrommyownregionandmyowntribe.IhavefoughtinthecountryoftheChuabosandtheLomes.…TheChuabos,theNyanjasandtheLomesreceivedmeevenmorewarmlythanifIhadbeenfromtheirownregion.InWesternNiassa,forexample,IcameacrossComradePanguene,andalthoughheisfromthesouth,youcouldn'tdis(nguishhimfromthepeopleoftheregion:heislikeasonoftheregion.ThepeopleunderstandthatweareallMozambicans.…Thepeopleareunitedandhelpus.Otherwise,forinstance,wecouldn'tgointoenemyareas;itisthepeoplewhogiveusallourinforma(onaboutthemovementsoftheenemy,theirstrengthandtheirposi(on.Also,whenwestartworkinginanareawherewehavenofood,becausewehavenotyethadtheopportunitytogrowany,thepeoplesupplyandfeedus.Wealsohelpthepeople.Un(lmili(ashavebeenformedinaregion,weprotectthepeopleintheirfieldsagainsttheac(onandreprisalsofthecolonialists;weorganizenewvillageswhenwehavetoevacuatethepeoplefromazonebecauseofthewar;weprotectthemagainsttheenemy.(F.I)

RitaMulumbua,womanmilitantfromNiassa:Inourunitstherearepeoplefromeveryregion;IamwithAjuas,Nyanjas,Makondes,andpeoplefromZambézia.Ibelievethisisgood;beforewedidnotthinkofourselvesasasinglena(on;FRELIMOhasshownusthatweareonepeople.WehaveunitedtodestroyPortuguesecolonialismandimperialism.

Thestrugglehastransformedus.FRELIMOgavemethechancetostudy.Thecolonialistsdidn'twantustostudy,whilenowIaminthisdetachmentwetraininthemorningandintheaXernoonIgotoschooltolearnreadingandwri(ng.ThePortuguesedidn'twantustostudy,becauseifwedidwewouldunderstand,wewouldknowthings.ForthisreasonFRELIMOwantsustostudysothatweshouldknow,andinknowingweunderstandbe7er,wefightbe7erandwillserveourcountrybe7er.(F.I)

NatachaDeolinda,womanmilitantfromandSofala:WhenIwentintothearmy,FRELIMOputmethroughacourseonyouthorganiza(onandalsogavememilitarytraining.ThenIwenttoworkinCabo

Delgadoprovince.Ourdetachmentheldmee(ngseverywhereexplainingthepoli(csofourparty,thereasonsforthestruggleandalsotheroleoftheMozambicanwomanintherevolu(on.

TheMozambicanwomanpar(cipatesinallrevolu(onaryac(vi(es;shehelpsthecombatants,shehasanimportantroleinproduc(on,shegrowscrops,shealsohasmilitarytrainingandfights,shejoinsthemili(aswhichprotectthepeopleandthefields.(F.I)

Itisclearfromthesecommentsthattheroleofthearmygoesfarbeyondsimplyfigh:ngthePortuguese.Liketheparty,itisana:on-makingforce.Itpreparesnotjustsoldiersbutfutureci:zens,whopassonwhattheylearntothepeopleamongwhomtheywork.

Leadershipisnotbasedonrankbutontheconceptofresponsibility;theleaderofacertainbodyisreferredtoastheman‘responsible'forit.Manyofthosenow‘responsible'hadneverbeentoschoolbeforetheyenteredthearmy;theywereilliterate,withnoformaleduca:on,whentheyjoinednearthebeginningofthewar.Theyhaveacquiredtheabilitytoleadthroughtheirprac:calexperienceoffigh:ngandpoli:calwork,andthroughtheeduca:onprogramsofthearmy.ThereweresomewhohadhadaliGleschooling;butveryfewofthese,evenamongthoseinthemostimportantposi:onstoday,hadgonebeyondprimaryschool.

Ourexperience,thatofthemilitantsandtheleaders,hasdevelopedwiththestruggle.In1964thearmycomprisedsmallgroupsofmen,frequentlyill-armedandill-supplied,abletomountonlyambushesandsmall-scaleraids.Thearmywasfigh:ngagainsttremendousodds.Thefollowingaccount,byamanwhoisnowna:onalpoli:calcommissarandamemberoftheCentralCommiGee,givessomeindica:onofwhatthewarwaslikeatthebeginning,ofthepeoplewhoengagedinit,andofhowtheywereabletoexpandtheirac:vi:es.Someofthisman'searlierstrugglewiththePortugueseeduca:onalandeconomicstructurehavebeenrelatedinpreviouschapters.ThepresentaccountbeginsjustaaerhewasforcedtofleefromMozambique.

RaulCasalRibeiro:SomecomradesfromFRELIMOfoundmeandeducatedme.…ThreemonthslaterIaskedtojoinFRELIMO.FromthenonIwasamemberofFRELIMOandbegantowork.Iwenttooneofourparty'sbasestodomytraining,andsincethenIhavebeenfigh(ng.Wehavehadtofacemanydifficul(es.Therewere(mesatthebeginningwhenwedidn'tevenhavefood.Thereweremomentsofhesita(on,buttheworkofpoli(caleduca(onhadtaughtmehowtoacceptsacrificesandtostruggleon.

Thepartyhadconfidenceinmeandgavemeresponsibility.Istudiedhard.Iwasentrustedwiththeeduca(onofothercomradesintheunits.ThenIwasputinchargeofsabotageontheTete-Maturararailwaylineandotheropera(ons.Wehada(nydetachmentandveryli7leequipment;theenemysentawholeba7aliontodestroyus,buttheyfailed.Theya7ackedus,buttheyalwayssufferedmajorlosses.Ononeoccasiontheyencircleduswhenwehadonlyfivebulletsbetweenus.Theyfiredonus,butwehadtakencover.Thinkingthattheyhadkilledus,sincewehadnotansweredtheirfire,theyadvanced.Whentheycamewithinthreeorfourmetersofus,thecomradeswhohadthebulletsopenedfireandkilledoneofthem.ThePortuguesewerefrightenedandwithdrew,givingustheopportunitytoescapewithoutthemknowing.Fromadistancetheywentfiringforanhour,evenshoo(ngateachother.AXerwardswefoundthebodyofaSouthAfricanBoerwhohadbeenwiththePortugueseandhadbeenkilledbythem.

Thisishowtheenemysowsthewindandreapsthewhirlwind.Inthisba7lewecapturedoneMG3,sixloadedmagazines,oneoffensiveandtwodefensivegrenades,andaknife.(F.I)

Itwasthroughsuchsmallopera:onswithcourageandini:a:veinthefaceofdifficultcondi:ons,thatthepresentsizeandstrengthofthearmybecamepossible.Asanindica:onoftherapidgrowthofguerillaac:on,hereisacommuniquérela:ngtoanac:onwhichtookplaceon2August1967andwhichwassubsequentlyconfirmedbyareportonthePortugueseradio:

ThreeaircraXandastoreofammuni(oncompletelydestroyed;thefueldepositburnt;nearlyallhousesneartheairfieldruined;dozensofPortuguesesoldierskilledorwounded:thishappenedatMuedainamortara7acklaunchedbyFRELJMOforceson2August.Thefireragedfortwodays.(FRELIMOcommuniqué)

Theorganiza:onofthearmy

Aaerfigh:ngbegan,thearmywasenlargeddrama:callywithnewrecruitsfromtheareasofac:on;andinordertousethisgrowingforceefficiently,theorganiza:onhadtoberapidlyimproved.ThearmyitselfwasorganizedintobaGalionssubdividedintodetachments,companiesandunits.Thishasmeantthat,whilesmall-scaleopera:onscans:llbecarriedonoveraverywideareaofcountry,wealsohaveavailablemuchlargerforcesformoreimportantac:ons,suchasaGacksonPortuguesepostsoragainsttheMuedaair-base.

Thesystemofleadershipalsohadtobeadjustedtomeetthechangingcondi:onsofthewar.Ini:ally,thefigh:ngareasweredividedintomilitaryregions,eachwitharegionalcommand;butduringthefirsttwoyearsofthewar,therewasnocentralcommandoutsidetheDepartmentofDefenseandSecurity,headedbyasecretaryjustlikeanyotherdepartmentoftheorganiza:on.Thesecretarydealtwithallthedetailsofmilitarywork,andalthoughfrom:meto:mehewoulddelegatehisauthoritytooneorotherofhisarmycolleagues,therewasnofixeddivisionofresponsibility.Thesystemworkedreasonablywellwhiletheguerillaforceswereverysmall,andtheirac:onweakandlimited;butassoonasthenumberofguerillasinac:onincreased,andthefigh:ngregionsexpanded,amoreelaboratesystemwasrequired.Thishadtobebasedonaneffec:vecentralcommand,forinthefirstyearsoffigh:ngwefoundthat,withoutacentralauthority,itisimpossibletocoordinateandsupplythevariousforcesthatoperateindistantpartsofthecountry.

Atamee:ngoftheCentralCommiGeein1966,therefore,itwasdecidedthatthearmyshouldbereorganized,withahighcommandwhichwouldoperatefromaseGledheadquarters.Thisdecisionledtotheforma:onoftheNa:onalCommandingCouncil,whichisnowheadedbytheSecretaryfortheDepartmentofDefense(D.D);hisassistant,whoisPoli:calCommissarofthearmy;andtwelveotherleadersresponsiblefortheseparatesec:onsofthearmy.Thearmywasdividedintotwelvesec:ons:(1)opera:ons(2)recruitment,thetrainingandforma:onofcadres;(3)logis:cs(supplies);(4)reconnaissance;(5)transmissionandcommunica:on;(6)informa:onandmilitarypublica:ons(which

alsoeditstheduplicatedjournal25deSetembro,wriGenbyFRELIMOmilitants);(7)administra:on;(8)finance;(9)health;(10)poli:calcommissariat;(11)personnel;and(12)militarysecurity.

Thusthearmynowhasitsownsystemofna:onaladministra:on,onthesamelinesasthecivilianadministra:onandparalleltoit.Onthelocallevelalso,thearmynowhasaclearlydefinedstructure.Ineachprovincethereis(1)aprovincialchief,whoisalsotheunder-secretaryoftheprovince;(2)anassistantprovincialchief;(3)apoli:calcommissar;(4)anopera:onalchief.

Bythisnewmethodoforganiza:on,eachleaderhasaclearlydefinedareaofresponsibilityinwhichhemustusehisini:a:ve,butalsohasanestablishedchannelofcontactwiththehighcommand.Itwasputintoeffectatthebeginningof1967,andalmostimmediatelythingsbegantoworkmoreefficiently:communica:onsfromtheprovincesbegantoreachheadquarterswithgreaterregularity;armsandequipmentbegantoflowoutmorerapidlytothefigh:ngareas;recruitmentincreased;andplansfornewandmoreextensivecampaignsagainsttheenemybecameopera:onal.

Inasitua:onlikethis,whereacountryisinastateofwarandthearmyinevitablyhasveryextensivepowers,thereisapoten:aldangerofconflictbetweenthemilitaryandcivilianorganiza:ons.Inoursystem,though,thisisminimizedbythefactthattheyarebothanswerabletothepoli:calbodyofFRELIMO,whichisitselfcomposedbothofmilitaryandcivilianpersonnel.Therela:onshipofthepoli:cal,militaryandcivilianbodiesisnotonewhichcanbedescribedintermsofaneathierarchy,whereoneissubordinatedtoanother.Policydecisionsaremadebythepoli:calbody,thesupremeorganofwhichistheCentralCommiGee.Thearmy,likethevariousdepartments,worksinconformitywiththedecisionsmadebytheCentralCommiGee;butthearmyleadersthemselves,asmembersoftheCentralCommiGee,alsohelptomakethesepolicydecisions.Themee:ngsofthemilitarycommand,whichtakeplaceonceafortnight,arenormallypresidedoverbythePresidentorVice-PresidentofFRELIMO,whichensuresthatbetweenCentralCommiGeemee:ngs,closecoordina:onofpoli:calandmilitarydecisionsismaintained.

Onthelocallevel,inthefield,thepeople'smili:aplaysanimportantpartinlinkingthecivilianpopula:onandthearmy.Thesemili:asareformedfrommilitantmembersofthecivilianpopula:on,whocarryonwiththeirnormaloccupa:onsand,atthesame:me,thoughnotincorporatedintheguerillaarmy,undertakecertainmilitarydu:es.Theirmaintaskisthedefenseoftheirhomeregion.IfthereisadangerofaGackfromthePortugueseforces,theycanbemobilizedasanaddi:onalarmedforce.Whilethereisfigh:nginanarea,theycoordinatetheirac:vi:eswiththeguerillas,reinforcethemwhennecessary,andsupplythemwithinforma:onaboutthepar:cularlocality.Whentheguerillaforceshaveliberatedanarea,themili:acanthentakeovertheorganiza:onofdefense,ofproduc:onandsupply,leavingthemainforcesfreetomoveontoanewfigh:ngarea.Inregionswherethereisnotyetanac:vearmedstruggle,mili:asareformedinsecretwhosetaskistopreparethegroundforguerillafigh:ng;tomobilizethepeople;toobservethePortugueseforces;toarrangesuppliesandassistancefortheguerillaastheymoveintotheregion.

Inasense,thesepeople’smili:asarethebackboneofthearmedstruggle.Theguerillascarrythemainoffensivesanddomostofthedirectfigh:ng,butitistheworkofthemili:aswhichmakesitpossibleforthemtooperate.

Thedevelopmentofthestruggle

Aaertheini:alphaseofouroffensivewasoverandourforceshadwithdrawntothetwonorthernprovinces;therefollowedaperiodofapparentstalematewhichlastedthrough1965andmostof1966.Duringthisperiod,FRELIMOcontrolledmostofthecountryandvillagesinthenorthernarea;thePortuguesecontrolledthetownsandretainedanumberoffor:fiedbaseswheretheywererela:velysecure.Themainroadsweredisputed,asthePortugueseweres:lltryingtousethemforthetransportofsoldiersandsupplies,whileFRELIMOwasconstantlyminingthemandmoun:ngambushes.ThePortuguesewereunabletomountaneffec:veoffensivebecause,whentheyleatheirbasesandwentintothebushtolookforourforces,theywereambushed.Ontheotherhand,FRELIMOwasnotyetstrongenoughtomountmajoraGacksagainstthePortugueseposi:ons.YetallthewhileFRELIMOwasgainingstrength,consolida:ngthemilitaryandpoli:calposi:on,trainingnewrecruits,andgraduallyerodingthePortuguesestrengthinmanysmallac:ons.Bythesecondhalfof1966,theincreasedstrengthofFRELIMOwasbecomingapparent,andourforceswereabletobeginassailingthePortuguesebasesthemselves.BetweenSeptember1966andAugust1967,morethanthirtyPortuguesemilitarybaseswereaGacked;andatleasttenmoreinthelastthreemonthsof1967.Manyofthesebaseswerebadlydamaged,andsomewereevacuatedaaertheaGacks.Forexample,thepostofManiamba(WesternNiassa)wasaGackedon15Augustandevacuated;itwasreoccupied,butabandonedagainaaerasecondaGackon31August;tendaysaaerthisastrongbodyofmarineswassenttoreoccupyit.On13September,thepostofNambude(CaboDelgado)wasaGacked,andbuildings,threevehiclesandtheradioequipmentweredestroyed.TheairforcebaseatMueda,anextremelyimportanttargetandheavilyguardedbythePortuguese,wasbombardedtwice,andfivesplaneswerecompletelydestroyedonthegroundthere.

During1967theareaoffigh:ngwasextendedinallregions.InCaboDelgadoourforcesadvancedtotheriverLúrioandsurroundedPortoAmélia,thecapital,atthesame:meconsolida:ngtheirposi:onintherestoftheprovince,whichisnowalmosten:relyinourhands.InNiassa,ourforceshaveadvancedtotheMarrupa-Maualine,andareapproachingthefron:ersoftheprovincesofMozambiqueandZambézia.Tothesouth,theyhavegainedcontrolofCaturzone,betweentheprovincesofZambéziaandTete;while,tothewest,theycreatedthecondi:onsnecessaryforreopeningthestruggleinTeteandZambézia,aregionofgreatimportanceforitsagriculturalandmineralresources.

ThePortuguesehavebeenworkingtoimprovetheiran:-guerillatac:csandinpar:cularhavebeentryingtoprofitfromtheexperienceoftheirNATOallies:BritaininMalaya,theUnitedStatesinVietnam,andFranceinAlgeria.AfonsoHenriquesSacramentodoRioreported:

Thisinstruc(onisgiventothePortuguesesoldiersinthefirstpartoftheirsixmonthstraining.Thesoldierslearnerthetheore(calbaseofan(-guerillawarfareincoursestestedbyexamina(ons.Thesecoursesareusuallygivenbyofficerswhohaveundergonespecialtraining,theore(calandprac(cal.DuringtheAlgerianwar,severalPortugueseofficersweregivenmilitarytraininginAlgeriabyFrenchspecialistsin‘subversivewarfare'.ManyotherofficershavebeensenttotheUSA,wheretheytookcommandoandmarinecoursesandstudiedallthetechniquesusedbytheAmericanarmyagainsttheVietnamesepeople.

OneeffectofthisisthatthePortuguesearmynowrarelyoperatesinunitsbelowcompanystrength,sothatwhentheseunitsareaGacked,eveniftheysufferheavylosses,theyretainasufficientnumericalstrengthtopreventtheguerillasfromachievingoneoftheirchiefobjec:ves:thecaptureofarmsandammuni:on.

Nonetheless,thePortugueseares:llsufferingheavylosseswhentheyaGempttoleavetheirbases,andaremakingliGleheadwayagainsttheguerillaforces,whosimplyretreatun:lsuch:meastheycanaGackwithadvantage.Asaresult,thePortuguesehavebeenturningmoreandmoretoaerialwarfare,knowingthatitisnoteasyforustoacquireandtransportthetypeofheavyequipmentneededagainstsuchac:on.Theyhavecarriedoutraidsagainstbases,villages,schools,clinics;bombedareasofcrops,andmadesomeaGemptsinplacestodestroythebushwhichgivescovertoourguerillas.Thecasual:escausedbytheseraidshavebeenalmosten:relyamongthecivilianpopula:on,andhighpriorityhasbeengivenbyustoorganizingprotec:onforthevillagers.Weareincreasingouran:-aircraastrength;inOctober1967oneofthreeplaneswhichwerebombingMarrupazonewasshotdown,andtheotherswereforcedtowithdraw.

Facedwithaseriesofmilitaryreverses,thePortugueseauthori:eshavebeenexperimen:ngwithvariousextra-militaryan:-guerillatac:cs,amixtureofterrorismandpsychologicalwarfare,withthemainaimofforcingorpersuadingthepopula:ontowithdrawsupportfromFRELIMO.Onthepsychologicalside,in1966and1967theymountedpropagandacampaignsontheradioandthroughawide-scaledistribu:onofleaflets.TheseleafletswereingeneralaGrac:velyprintedonbrightlycoloredpaper,withaparalleltextinPortugueseandanAfricanlanguage,describingcondi:onsofstarva:onandmiseryinFRELIMOareas,andofaprosperous,comfortablelifeunderthePortuguese.Theycarriedoutlargepicturesillustra:ngthiscontrastorcaricaturingFRELIMOas‘livingitup'inexileattheexpenseoftherestofthepopula:on.Intheirpropagandatheyhavealsotriedtoexploitnaturaldivisionsinthepopula:on,accusingFRELIMOoffosteringonetribe'sambi:onsagainstitsneighbor.

ThedistancebetweenthePortugueseandtheAfricanpopula:on,however,greatlydiminishestheeffectofsuchcampaigns,sincewiththehighlevelofilliteracyandthelowmaterialstandardsprevailing,pamphletsandradiocannotbythemselvesreachawideaudience.Besidesthis,thefalsityofthecontentisnothardtosee;thepeoplerememberwellenoughthattherewasnoprosperityunderthePortuguese,andwhereFRELIMOhasbeenac:vetheywillhaveobservedthemselvesthatitsmembersandleadersaredrawnfromdifferenttribesanddifferentreligiousgroups.FRELIMOhasthevastadvantagethatitspoli:calworkiscarriedoutmostlythroughpersonalcontact,bywordofmouth,bymee:ngs,byexample,andisconvincinglyundertakenbymembersoftheordinarypopula:on.Moreover,thereisnoaGempttodistortthetruthbypromisingimpossibili:es:weadmitthatthewarmaybelong;thatitwillcertainlybedifficult;thatitwillnotbringprosperityandhappinessbymagic;butthatitisbringingsomeimprovementsandthatitistheonlywayofeventuallyachievingabeGerlife.ThemessageissuedtotheMozambicanpeoplefromtheCentralCommiGeeon25September1967,forexample,stated:

…Therearemanydifficul(es.Theguerillassome(meshavetospendwholedayswithoutea(ng,havetosleepoutinthecold,andsome(meshavetomarchdaysorevenweeksinordertocarryoutana7ackoranambush.…Thepeoplealsosufferinthisstageofthelibera(onstruggle,fortheenemyintensifiesitsrepressiontotrytoterrorizethepopula(onandpreventthemfromsuppor(ngtheguerillas.Thereare

manydifficul(es.Theba7leforlibertyisnoteasy.Butthatlibertywewanttogainisworthallthesesacrifices…

Theworkofmobiliza:onisdoneessen:allythroughdirectcontact,butitisbackedupbyliteratureandbytheradio.Statementsandmessagessuchastheonequotedaboveareduplicatedanddistributedinthecampsandatmee:ngs.Simpleduplicatedleafletsarealsocirculated,depic:ng,forexample,anexploi:ng‘boss'beingdrivenoutbyFRELIMO.Therearealsoregularbroadcasts,organizedthroughRadioTanzania,which,since1967,havebeenpowerfulenoughtoreachbeyondthesouthernborderofMozambique.Intheliberatedareas,wehavedistributedradiosetstohelpthepeoplehearthesebroadcasts.Programsinclude:newsinPortugueseandAfricanlanguages;reportsonthestruggle;messagesandpoli:caltalks;educa:onalprogramsonhygieneandpublichealth;revolu:onarysongs,tradi:onalandpopularmusic.

HavingobtainedveryliGleresultfromdirectpropaganda,thePortuguesehavebeentryingtodevelopmoreelaboratetechniques.In1967,forexample,theysetupapuppetAfricaninTeteProvinceasleaderofa‘na:onalist'partyandarrangedpublicmee:ngswhereheappearedwithPortugueseofficialsandassertedthatthePortuguesewerepreparedtograntindependencepeacefullytohispartybutnottothe‘FRELIMObandits'.Thiscampaignhadsomeini:alsuccess;butasexplana:onsfromFRELIMOmilitantswerebackedupbyalackofanysignsofgoodfaithonthepartofthePortuguese,thepeoplebecameskep:calandforthemostpartstoppedgoingtothemee:ngs.

Facedwiththefailureofbothmilitaryac:onand‘persuasion',thePortuguesehavebeenrelyingincreasinglyonterror,inanaGempttofrightenawaysupportfromFRELIMO.Seeingthelibera:onforceslivingamongthepeoplelikefishinthewater,theywanttoheatthewaterun:litcooksthefish.

Sincethewar,alloverMozambique,andnotjustwithinthefigh:ngareas,therehavebeendrivestoroundupna:onalistsympathizers,andthousandsof‘suspects'havebeenarrested.Themajorityofthesearepeasantsandmanualworkers,‘na:ves’byPortugueseterminology.Theyarenotbroughttotrial,notsentenced;theyareimprisoned,interrogated,torturedandnotseldomexecutedincompletesecrecy.Eventheirfamiliesarenottoldanythingdefinite:alltheyknowisthatthepersondisappears.

Amongthese‘suspects'therehavealsobeenafewintellectuals,peopletoowellknownbeyondMozambiquetobeallowedsimplytovanishwithoutcausinganinterna:onaloutcry.SuchhaveincludedthepoetsJoséCraveirinhaandRuiNogar;MalangatanaValente,thepainter;LuisBernardoHonwana,theshortstorywriter.ThePortugueseauthori:esbroughtjustthesefewprominentmentotrial,makingtheircasepublicandtryingtogivetheimpressionthatalltheirproceedingsagainstna:onalists,saboteurs,etc.,wereconductedinthesameopenlegalmanner.Butevensuchashowtrialdidnotconformtothestandardsoflegalitylaiddowninnon-fascistcountries.WhenitfirsttookplaceinMarch1966,asmanyasnineofthethirteenaccusedwereacquiGedforlackofevidence;butthegovernmentrefusedtoacceptthisverdictandorderedanewtrialbymilitarytribunal.Thistribunal,ac:ngunderprecisegovernmentinstruc:ons,convictedthosewhohadbeenacquiGedbeforeandlengthenedthesentencesimposedontheotherfour.Thesentencesthemselvesareinanycasemeaningless,becausetheyallincluded‘securitymeasures',whichmeanthatthetermofimprisonmentcanbeextendedindefinitely.Adelega:onofinterna:onaljuristsandallforeignjournalistswereforbiddentoaGendthissecondtrial.

YetthePortuguesesucceededtosomeextentintheirinten:ons,fortheinterna:onaloutcrydirectedspecificallyagainstthistrialandthefateofthosethirteenintellectualshelpedtodrawaGen:onawayfromtherealissue:themuchworsefateofthemanyundis:nguishedMozambicanswhohavenotbeengiveneventhesemblanceofatrial,buthavebeeneitherkilledorelseimprisonedunderverymuchmoreseverecondi:ons

Inthefigh:ngareas,thecampaignofterrorismorewidespread,andmoreindiscriminate,withreprisalscarriedoutagainstthepopula:onasawhole.Whereitcannotreachthevillages,thePortuguesearmyresortstoair-raids,butwherethesoldiersareabletogettothepeople,morepersonalformsofterrorandtortureareused.Thetypeofincidentwillbeonlytoofamiliartoanyonewhohasstudiedthemethodsoffascistarmieselsewhere.

Extremebrutality,however,doesnotasarulehavethedesiredresultbutconfirmsthepeopleintheirhos:litytothePortuguese,andinfactoaendrivesthemtodesperateactsofdefiance.

Suchapolicyisthusnotonlycruel;itistac:callyfoolish.TheFRELIMOarmy,incontrast,isfirmlyandconstantlyinstructedtoaGackmilitaryandeconomictargets.Thestatementsofmilitantsindicatehowtheyunderstandthispolicy.

JoaquimMaquival:…InourunitsandonourmissionswehaveoXencomeacrossunarmedPortuguesecivilians.Wedidn'tharmthem.Weaskedwheretheywerecomingfrom;weexplainedourstruggletothem,oursufferings;wereceivedthemkindly.Wedothisbecauseourstruggle,ourwar,isnotagainstthePortuguesepeople;wearestrugglingagainstthePortuguesegovernment,againstthosewhoturntheirweaponsontheMozambicanpeople;weareatwarwiththosewhoinjurethepeople.…WeknowthatitisnotallthepeopleofPortugalwhoexploitus,butonlyaminority,whichisalsoexploi(ngthePortuguesepeoplethemselves.AmongthePortuguesepeopletherearealsopeoplewhoareexploited.FRELIMOcannotfightthepeople,cannotfightagainsttheexploited.

MiguelAmbrósioCunumoshuvi(companycommander):WehaveneverthoughtofmurderingPortuguesecivilians;wedon'tterrorizethePortuguesecivilianpopula(onbecauseweknowwhowearefigh(ngandwhy.Forthatreason,wehaveneverplannedana7ackagainstPortuguesecivilians.Ifwewantedto,wecould;thecivilianslivenearus,wehaveeveryopportunity;butourobjec(ve,ourtargetisthearmy,thepolice,theadministra(on.

Ourprogram,ourstandingordersstateclearlythatwemustnota7ackanycivilian,onlythosepeoplewhoarewiththearmy,thatis,accompanyingandassis(ngit.TheonlyterroristsinMozambiquearethecolonialists.

Thispolicyhasimportanceforthefuture,whenweshallbetryingtoestablishasocietythatcanabsorbthedifferentpeoplelivinginMozambiquewithoutracialbiGerness;butitalsohasimmediateprac:caladvantages.Atthebeginningofthewar,forinstance,thePortugueseauthori:esdistributedarmstothewhitecolonatosandtradersincertainareasforuseagainstFRELIMO.Thesepeoplethensawthatunarmedcivilianswouldnotbeharmed,butthatthosewhocarriedarmsagainstuswouldbetreatedasanappendageofthearmy;andtheresultwasthatmostoftheciviliansrefusedtoacceptarms.The

failureofthePortugueseforcestounderstandthispolicyhasevensome:mesrousedthePortugueseciviliansagainstthem:inoneinstancethePortugueseforcesenteredavillagewheretheyknewthatFRELIMOhadbeen,andwhentheyfoundthatthePortuguesecivilianshadnotbeentouched,theyaccusedthemofcollabora:ngwithFRELIMOandarrestedandpunishedthem,theirownseGlers.

Teteandthenewoffensive

WhenFRELIMOmilitaryforceswithdrewfromTeteProvinceaaerthefirstphaseofthewar,undergroundworkersremainedtoconductpoli:calmobiliza:onandprepareforthe:mewhenthisfrontwouldbereopened.Bytheendof1967,whenthegainsmadeinCaboDelgadoandNiassahadbeenconsolidatedandourforcesinthosetwoprovinceswerepushingsouth,condi:onswerecreatedfortheextensionofthewarintoTete.Atlast,inMarch1968,thefirstmilitaryopera:onsbegan.

Thisnewphaseofthewarispar:cularlyimportant,becauseofthemilitaryandeconomicplanswhichthePortuguesehadmadeforthisarea.TeteisakeyregionofMozambique:thegreatZambeziriverpassesthroughthecenterofit;theprovincecontainsconsiderableeconomicresourcesandiscrossedbyimportantlinesofcommunica:on,includingthemainroadfromSalisburytoBlantyre;onanorth-southaxisitliesroughlyinthecenterofthecountry.

ThePortuguesehadoriginallyplannedtwolinesofdefense.ThefirstwastheNacala-Maniambaline,whichourtroopsbrokethroughwhentheyextendedopera:onstoMacanhelasintheextremesouthofNiassa.TheseconddefenselineistheZambeziriver.Thereisaheavyconcentra:onoftroopsalongtheriver,andinaddi:onthePortugueseplantoallocateonemillionseGlersinthevalleytoactasabarriertoourforces.ThusfromapurelymilitantpointofviewthewholelengthoftheZambezivalleyisextremelyimportant.

TheTeteareahasalsoacquiredconsiderableeconomicsignificanceasaresultoftherecentdevelopmentplanassociatedwiththeCaboraBassadam.TetecontainssomeoftherichestlandinMozambique,andagriculturethereisfairlywelldeveloped,par:cularlytheraisingofcaGleandotherlivestock.TherearealsoimportantdepositsofmineralswhichhaveasyetbeenveryliGleexploited.Theplanallowsforthedevelopmentofalltheseresources,largelybytheproposedPortugueseseGlerstobeplantedalongthedefenseline.Thedamitselfwillprovidepowerforavarietyofindustriesbasedontheproductsoftheregion,aswellaswaterfornewagriculturalproducts.TheCaboraBassasiteis,therefore,clearlyoneofthemostimportanttargetsinthisphaseofthewar.

ThisareaisalsocrucialinthewidercontextoftheSouthernAfricanalliance.Inthesouth,TeteprovincebordersonRhodesia,andthustheprogressofourstrugglehereisofconsiderableinteresttotheZimbabweanlibera:onforces.Ofmoreimmediateimportance,however,istheinvolvementofSouthAfricaherself.Sheistakingalargeshareintheexpenseofthedam'sconstruc:onandexpectstoabsorbaconsiderablepropor:onofthepowersupplied.HereinTete,then,forthefirst:mewearecomingintoconflictdirectlywithSouthAfrica.Sheisalreadysoworriedaboutherintereststhatshehassenttroopstohelpguardthedamsite.OurforceshaveobservedonebaGalionofSouthAfricantroopsinChiocoandseveralcompaniesinChicoa,MagueandZumbo.

TheSouthAfricanarmyisextremelywellequippedwiththelatestWesternweapons,andthepresenceofsuchtroopswillnodoubtmakethestrugglemuchharder.Butithasbeenclearforatleasttwoyears

nowthatthePortuguesewereanxioustoobtainmoredirectassistancefromSouthAfrica,andweknewthateventually,aswepressedsouth,thethreatfromSouthAfricawouldincrease.ThefactthatwearealreadyfacingSouthAfricantroopsisasignofhowrapidlythewarhasprogressed;itindicatesourstrengthandtheweaknessofthePortuguese.

Furthermore,thepresenceoftheSouthAfricanshasnotpreventedusfromtakingtheoffensiveinTete.On8Marchwemountedseveralopera:onssimultaneously:anambushnearKassuendavillage;ambushesinthezonesofFurancungo,FingueandVilaVascodaGama;anaGackagainsttheenemypostofMalavela.Intheseopera:onsatleasttwelvePortuguesesoldierswerekilled,includingasergeant;andatMalavelafourhouses,alorryandthewaterdepositweredestroyed.

8ThenewMozambique

Thepurposeofourstruggleisnotonlytodestroy.ItisfirstandforemostaimedatbuildinganewMozambique,wheretherewillbenohungerandwhereallmenwillbefreeandequal.Wearefigh(ngwitharmsinourhands,becauseintobuildtheMozambiquethatwewantwemustfirstdestroythePortuguesecolonialsystem…onlyaXerthiswillwebeabletouseforourselvesourlaborandthewealthofourcountry…

MessagefromtheCentralCommi7eetotheMozambicanpeoplefor25September1967,theanniversaryofthebeginningofthestruggle.

OneofthechieflessonstobedrawnfromnearlyfouryearsofwarinMozambiqueisthatlibera:ondoesnotconsistmerelyofdrivingoutthePortugueseauthority,butalsoofconstruc:nganewcountry;andthatthisconstruc:onmustbeundertakenevenwhilethecolonialstateisintheprocessofbeingdestroyed.Werealizedthisinprinciplebeforewebeganfigh:ng,butitisonlyinthedevelopmentofthestrugglethatwehavelearnedquitehowrapidandcomprehensivecivilreconstruc:onmustbe.Thereisnoques:onofmakingafewprovisionalarrangementsandwai:ngun:lwecontrolourwholecountrybeforedecidinghowtogovernit.WearehavingnowtoevolvestructuresandmakedecisionswhichwillsetthepaGernforthefuturena:onalgovernment.

Oneofthefirstresultsofthewaristheelimina:onofthecolonialstatewhereitsrepressiveforceshavedisappeared.Portugueselaw,administra:onandsystemsofeconomicexploita:onleaveinthewakeofPortuguesearms.

Ontheruinsofthecolonialstateanewtypeofpowerisemergingwhichcorrespondstotheforceswhichhavebroughtabouttherevolu:on.Beforethewartwoauthori:escoexisted:thecolonial,andthatofthetradi:onalchiefdomssubordinatedandintegratedintothecolonialsystembutretainingneverthelessacertainautonomy.Whenthecolonialpowerisdestroyedbyaguerillavictoryinagivenarea,thisleavesanadministra:vevoid.Thepoweroftribalchiefs,however,hasitsoriginsinthetradi:onallifeofthecountry,andinthepastwasbasedonapopularconcep:onoflegi:macy,notonforce.Forthefuture,thisthereforeposespoten:alproblemsoftribalismandregionalism.Initsprecolonialform,suchtradi:onalgovernmentoaenserveditspurposequitewellwithinalimitedarea,providinganadequateformoforganiza:onintheinterestsofthemajority;buteveninsuchcases,limitedinitsscopeandbasedonasmalllocalunit,itcannotformasa:sfactoryfounda:onfortheneedsofamodernstate.Inotherareas,suchpoweralreadyhadanelementoffeudalism,permiknganexploita:onofthepeasantrywhich,maskedbymetaphysicalandreligiousclaims,wasaccepted.Thesurvivalofsuchsystemsisobviouslyahindrancetotheprogressofarevolu:onthataimsatsocialandpoli:calequality.Theeffectofcolonialism,moreover,wastopervertalltradi:onalpowerstructures,encouragingorcrea:ngauthoritarianandeli:stelements.

InitssessionofOctober1966,theCentralCommiGeeofFRELIMOre-examinedtheproblemsoftribalismandregionalism,andvigorouslycondemnedthe‘tribalistorregionaltendenciesshownbycertaincomradesintheexecu:onoftheirwork,reaffirmingsolemnlythatsuchaktudesarecontrarytotheinterestsoftheMozambicanpeopleandimpedethesuccessfuldevelopmentofthepeople'slibera:onstruggle.ItemphasizesthatthebaGleagainsttribalismandregionalismisasimportantasthebaGleagainstcolonialism,suchabaGlebeingthesafeguardofourna:onalunityandourliberty'.

Certainly,wherethechiefshavealliedthemselveswithPortuguesepower,thereisliGleproblem.AVozdaRevoluçãorelatesoneinstance:

Certainchiefs,afraidoflosingtheirfeudalprivilegeswiththevictoryoftherevolu(onandtheinstalla(onofapopulargovernment,alliedthemselveswiththecolonialists…

ChiefNhpaleofMuturararegion(TeteProvince)wasoneofthese…

Thepopula(onreactedagainsthim,andtomarktheirprotestagainstthebehaviorofthechief,wentinalargebodytoseehim.TheretherégulowastoldthathewouldbepunishedandthatFRELIMOwouldbringhimtojus(ce…

TheleaderoftheFRELIMOunitthenspoketothepeopleandtotherégulosaying:

‘RéguloNhpale,wearemembersofFRELIMO.Wehavecomebecausewehaveheardthatyouleadthepeoplebadly'.Heturnedtotheassembledcompany:

‘Thisrégulohashadtwoinnocentpeopleburntalive,twopatriots.Doyouwanttokeepsuchachief'?

ThepeopleansweredNO,and,encouragedbythepresenceoftheguerillas,putthechiefthroughasummarytrialandcondemnedhimtodeath…

Nhpalewasexecuted.

Inotherinstances,wherethechiefshaveremainedneutralorevencomeoutposi:velyonthesideofthestruggle,theprogressofrevolu:onarypowerhastheeffectthattradi:onalpowergraduallyfadesaway.Certainly,wherethetradi:onalpowerdoesnotac:velyupholdthecolonialstructureoropposetherevolu:on,thechangehastocomethroughposi:vedevelopments,theemergenceofnewformsofpower,ofnewpoli:calideas.Themainweaponinthisstruggleisgeneralandpoli:caleduca:on,achievedthroughprac:calexperienceaswellasinmee:ngs,discussionsandlessons.

Thearmy,wehavealreadyshown,isapowerfulvehicleofchange.EveryoneinthearmylivesandworkswithpeoplefromalloverMozambiqueinacompletelynewstructure.Thearmycanspreadideasandsetanexample.Heretoo,though,thereisanotherpoten:aldanger,whichwasalsodiscussedatthesameCentralCommiGeemee:ngofOctober1966.Inareportofthismee:ng,westated:

TheCentralCommi7eealsoconsideredthea�tudeofcomradeswhothinkthattherearetwotypesofFRELIMOmembers,thoseinthearmyandthoseincivillife;itconsideredthatsuchana�tudeshowsontheirpartagreatlackofunderstandingofthepopular,na(onalandunitarycharacterofthena(onallibera(onstrugglewhichisleadingtheMozambicanpeople,anditreaffirmedthatallmembersofFRELIMOmaybecalledupon_andmustthereforebeready_toaccomplishanytaskwhetherornotitbeofamilitarycharacter.

Hereagainthesolu:onmustlieineduca:onandprac:calorganiza:on.

Intheliberatedareas,thepoli:calstructureistheparty.Inthevillages,people'smili:asarecreatedwhicharedependentonthelocalpartyorganiza:onandonthemilitaryleadershipofthezone;theirpowerrestsonthena:onalistandrevolu:onaryforces.Besidesthis,economiclifeisorganizedsothattheproducersworkincoopera:vesunderthedirec:onofthelocalparty;thistakesawayfromthechiefhistradi:onalroleasorganizeroftheeconomiclifeandatthesame:meputsanendtotheexploita:onofthepeasantrybyanyprivilegedgroup.Itshouldalsobestressedthatthisprocessisnota‘dictatorshipoftheparty':thepartyisanopenorganiza:on,anditsmembersaredrawnfromthewholepopula:on,withthemajoritybeing,asisthemajorityofthepopula:on,peasants;itsroleistoprovideapoli:calframeworkabovethelocallevel.Thereisnodeepdis:nc:onbetweenpartyandpopula:on:thepartyisthepopula:onengagedinpoli:calac:on.

Publicmee:ngs,heldthroughthelocalparty,areanimportantpartoflifeintheliberatedareas.Atthese,non-partymemberscanhearmoreaboutFRELIMOandaboutthestruggle,canvoicetheiropinions,askques:onsandenterintodiscussion.Theworkofpoli:caleduca:on,theexampleandexplana:onsgivenbythe‘responsible'membersandthepoli:calcommissars,andthefactthatthestruggleisledbyelementsoftheworkingmasses,allgotocreatecondi:onsforthedisappearanceoftradi:onaltribalandoaensemi-feudalpowerandforitsreplacementbynewformsofpower.Atthepresent:metheadministra:velifeofvillagesisbeingreorganizedonthebasisofpeople'scommiGeeselectedbythewholepopula:on,andthewayisbeingpreparedfortheextensionofthissystemtothedistrictlevel.

Thevoidleabythedestruc:onofthecolonialstateposedaprac:calproblemwhichhadnotbeenclearlyenvisagedbytheleadership:aseriesofservicesdisappearedalongwithPortugueserule,par:cularlyservicesofacommercialnature,whilethepeoplecon:nuedtoexistandtorequiresuch

services.Theinadequacyofthecolonialadministra:onmeantthattherewerealsomanysocialneedsthathadneverbeenmetbutwhichwereneverthelessstronglyfeltbythepopula:on.Thus,fromthe:meofthefirstvictoriesinthewar,agreatvarietyofadministra:veresponsibili:esfellonFRELIMO.Apopula:onofsome800,000hadtobeserved.Firstandforemost,theirmaterialneedshadtobesa:sfied,anadequatefoodsupplyassured,andotherimportantar:clessuchasclothes,soap,ormatchesprovided;thenmedicalandeduca:onalserviceshadtobeestablished,andadministra:veandjudicialsystemsorganized.

Fora:metheproblemwasacute.Wehadbeenunpreparedfortheextentoftheworkbeforeus,andwelackedexperienceinmostofthefieldswhereweneededit.Insomeareas,shortageswereveryserious;andwherethepeasantsdidnotunderstandthereasons,theywerewithdrawingtheirsupportfromthestruggleandinsomeinstancesleavingtheregionaltogether.Duringthetwoyearsaaerthestrugglebegan,thebaGletobuildupservicesintheliberatedareasandtoeducatethepopula:onwasatleastasimportantasthemilitaryone.By1966thecrisiswaspast.Theworstshortageshadbeenovercome,andembryonicstructureshadbeenformedforcommerce,administra:on,healthandeduca:on.TheNewMozambiquewasbeginningtotakeshape.

Poli:calstructure

Theemergingpoli:calstructurefollowsthecharacteris:cpaGernofonepartydemocracy;andFRELIMO,aswellasbeingthedrivingforcebehindthelibera:onstruggle,isbecomingthegovernmentintheliberatedareas.Theessen:alstructureofthepartywasformulatedin1962,atthefirstCongress;butsinceatthat:metherewasnoliberatedterritoryandnopossibilityoflegalpoli:calac:vityinMozambique,theoriginalpaGernwasorientatedtowardsundergroundorganiza:on.Thisstructurehassubsequentlydevelopedtofulfileffec:velythefunc:onofalegalgovernmentintheareaswhichhavecomeunderourcontrol.

TheCongressisthesupremeorganofFRELIMOandisformedofelectedrepresenta:vesofthepeople.Thedelegatestothe1962Congress,ofcourse,werenecessarilyelectedonlybyaverysmallminorityofthepopula:on,whowereincontactwiththevariouspoli:calorganiza:onsandwhowereable,eitherbyworkingunderground,orbecausetheywerelivingabroad,toescapethesurveillanceofthesecretpolice.TheCongresselectedaCentralCommiGeeoftwentymembersanddelegatedtothiscommiGeethetotalresponsibilityfordirec:ngthelibera:onstruggle.TheCentralCommiGee,therefore,combinedlegisla:ve,judicialandexecu:vepowers_asitua:onwhichbegantocreateproblemsasthepartygrewintothelargeandcomplexorganiza:onitisnow.

OneofthefirsttasksoftheCentralCommiGeewastoestablishapoli:calstructureinsideMozambique.Un:l1964,allac:vityhadtobeclandes:ne,whichmeantthats:llonlyasmallminorityofthepopula:on,themostpoli:callyadvanced,couldbeinvolved.Oncesomeareaswereliberated,however,thepartycouldcomeintotheopenthereasapubliclegalbody,withmembershipopentoeveryadultMozambican.Here,thepartyprovidesacoherentstructureformassrepresenta:on.

Thesmallestpartyunitisthecell,whichconsistsofallthemembersinapar:cularlocality.Atthenextlevelisthedistrictcouncil,whichconsistsofrepresenta:veselectedbythemembersofallthecellsinthedistrict.Thedistrictcouncilthenelectsrepresenta:vestotheprovincialcouncil,andtheprovincial

councilsintheirturnelectthedelegatestotheCongress.Ateachlevel,decisionsarereachedthroughdiscussion,andifthereareirresolvabledifferencesofopinion,theissueisdecidedbyavote,withtheminorityheldtothemajoritydecision.

Aswellascontribu:ngtona:onalpolicy,thelocalorgansofthepartyhaveresponsibilityforlocalgovernment.Theexactstructureofthisvariesfromregiontoregion,asexis:ngpara-poli:calstructures,tradi:onalandmodern,havebeenincorporatedinthestructureofthelibera:onmovement.Inareaswherecoopera:veshavebeenestablished,thecoopera:vecommiGeestakeoverseveralfunc:onsofalocalgovernmentbody,andthissystem,whichisspreadingrapidly,islikelytobecomeanimportantfactorinlocalgovernmentofthefuture.Meanwhile,avarietyofsystemscoexist,eachonegearedtothespecificcondi:onsprevalentinthepar:cularlocality.

AttheleveloftheCentralCommiGee,theworkofthepartybothasalibera:onforceandasaprovisionalgovernment,wasorganizedintoanumberofdepartments.TheDepartmentofAdministra:ontookovertheday-to-dayproblemsoforganiza:on:thetransporta:onofmaterials;thebuyingandselling,theimportandexportofgoods:prepara:onanddistribu:onofFRELIMOmembershipcards,andthemaintenanceofanup-to-datelistofmembers;controloverthemovementofFRELIMOcivilians,withthearrangementoffood,clothesandaccommoda:on,andtheissueofmoneyand,wherenecessary,traveldocuments.

TheDepartmentofExternalAffairstookresponsibilityforrela:onswithforeigngovernmentsandorganiza:ons.Itarrangesforrepresenta:vestogoabroad,toaGendconferencesorsimplyvisitothercountriesandexplainourposi:onanddiscussourproblems.ItisinchargeofthepermanentcentersinDaresSalaam,Lusaka,Algiers,CairoandNewYork.Itdealswithques:onsofaidanddiploma:csupportfromabroad.

TheDepartmentofFinanceisresponsibleforadministeringthefundsoftheorganiza:on.Theassetsoftheorganiza:onarederivedpartlyfromMozambique,frommembershipsubscrip:ons,dona:ons,levies,andtheproceedsofexports;partlyfromabroad,fromdona:onsgivenbyforeigngovernmentsandbyforeignorinterna:onalorganiza:ons.Fromthesefunds,alltheprogramsofthepartyhavetobefinanced.

TheDepartmentofInforma:on,PublicityandPropagandaisconcernedfirstofallwithkeepingthepeopleofMozambiqueinformedabouttheworkandaimsofFRELIMO,aboutthesitua:oninMozambiqueanditscontextintherestoftheworld;andincounteringenemypropagandacampaigns.ItalsoshareswiththeDepartmentofExternalAffairsthetaskofinformingtherestoftheworldaboutMozambiqueandourstruggle;itpreparesandcirculateswriGeninforma:on,maintainingcontactwiththeinterna:onalpress,libraries,academicbodiesandotherinterestedindividualsandorganiza:ons.

TheDepartmentofSocialAffairswasoriginallyconcernedwiththerefugeeswhohadcomefromMozambiquetoTanzania;mainlywithtryingtocollectanddistributetothemthebasicnecessi:esoflife.Oncethewarbegan,however,itextendeditsac:vi:esinsideMozambique,dealingwiththeproblemsoflargesec:onsofthepopula:onwhohadhadtomovetheirhomesbecauseofthefigh:ng,orwhohadhadthemdestroyed.Inthefirstplace,thisinvolvedsupplyingthemwithfoodandclothes,andtryingtoorganizebasicmedicalservices.Inthelongrun,though,itmeanshelpingthemtoreseGleandbuildnewhomes;tobecomeself-sufficientagainasquicklyaspossible.Andwiththewarinprogress,workamongtherefugeesoutsideMozambiquehasbeenreoriented,towardspersuadingandhelpingthemtoreturntoliberatedareas,torebuildvillagesthereandtakepartinthestruggle.

Similarly,theDepartmentofEduca:onwasconcernedattheoutsetmainlywithorganizingcoursesabroadforthosestudentswhohadmanagedtoescapefromMozambique.Then,withthecrea:onoftheliberatedareas,itsprimaryobjec:vebecametheestablishmentofschoolsandtrainingcoursestoservethepopula:oninsidethecountry.

Theeffectofthewarandtheprogressmadeinthefirsttwoyearsaaer1964rapidlyoverextendedthepoli:calandadministra:vestructuresetupin1962.Thepartydevelopedtomeetthenewcircumstances;newdepartmentswereformedandtheoriginaldepartmentsexpandedtheirac:vi:es.Butsomeessen:alchangeswerenecessary,changeswhichonlytheCongresshadthepowertomake.

Accordingtothepartystatues,aCongressshouldhavebeencalledin1965;butvariousproblemsforcedustopostponethisun:l1968.Bythen,however,theachievementsofthestruggleweresuchthatitwaspossibletoholdtheCongressinsideMozambique,inaliberatedareaofNiassaprovince,anddelegateswereabletocomefromeveryprovinceofthecountry,evenfromLourençoMarquesandGazaprovinceintheextremesouth.ThedelegatestothisCongresshadbeenelectedthroughthelocalpartynetwork,opera:ngopenlyintheliberatedareasandsecretlyintheareasunderPortuguesecontrol.Ineitherevent,however,theywereelectedintheareathattheyrepresentedbypeoplefromthearea.ThusthisCongresswasfarmoredemocra:cthanthefirstandcamefarclosertobeingafullyrepresenta:vena:onalbody.Thedecisionsmadebyitwereinkeepingwithitscomposi:on;theysignifiedamovetowardsamoredemocra:cstructureandashiaofpoli:calinfluencetowardsthepartyinsideMozambique.

Thechiefcons:tu:onalchangemadetobringthepartystructureuptodatewasjnthecomposi:onandroleoftheCentralCommiGee.Previouslyithadcontainedonlytheheadsofdepartmentsandtheirassistants,andithadcombinedlegisla:ve,execu:veandjudicialpowers.TheCongressexpandeditsmembershiptoabout40,toincludeaswellprovincialsecretaries,memberselectedbytheprovinces,memberselectedbytheCongress,andrepresenta:vesofmassorganiza:ons;andnearlyallthesenewmemberswerepartyleaderspermanentlyresidentinMozambique.Italsorestrictedthefunc:onofthenewCentralCommiGeetothelegisla:ve.Totakeovertheroleoftheexecu:ve,aneworganwascreated,theExecu:veCommiGee,formedbythePresident,Vice-President,andsecretariesofdepartments.

Apoli:calandmilitarycommiGeewascreatedtodealwithurgentproblemsthatmightarisebetweentheordinarymee:ngsoftheCentralCommiGee.ThisconsistsofthePresidentandVice-President,theprovincialsecretaries,andtheSecretariesofDefense,Security,InternalOrganiza:onandthePoli:calDepartment.

Theprocedureforelec:ngthepartyofficerswasclarified.ThePresidentandVice-PresidentareelectedbytheCongressuponproposalbytheCentralCommiGee,andtheirtermofofficelastsun:lthenextCongressiscalled.TheCongressshouldtakeplaceeveryfouryears.

Regionalgovernmentwasdiscussedandsystema:zed.ItwasconfirmedthateachprovincehasaprovincialcouncilandaprovincialcommiGee.

Economicorganiza:on

Produc:onisofextremeandimmediateimportance,sinceitisnecessaryforthesurvivalofthepopula:on,ofthearmyandofanycivilianservices.Inthiscontext,foodisobviouslythefirstneed.

Withtheoverthrowofthecolonialsystem,thecompanieswhichhadimposedtheproduc:onofcashcropseitherthroughplanta:onsorthesystemofforcedcul:va:on,withdrew.Thepeoplewerefreetoorganizeagricultureastheywishedandtoconcentrateontheirownneeds.Asaresult,aaerthewarliberatedaregion,therewasareturntotheproduc:onofsuchbasicfoodcropsasmaize,cassava,millet,beans,andgroundnuts.Butthewarimposedaddi:onaldemandsonfoodproducers.Althoughthemilitarygrowtheirownfoodwhereverpossible,thereareinevitablylargesec:onsofthearmywhichcannotbeself-sufficient;also,toavoidreprisalsfromthePortuguese,ithasbeennecessaryinmanyareastoevacuatepeasantsandinstalltheminnewvillages,wheretheyneedtobesuppliedwithfoodun:lthefirstharvestfromtheirnewfields;insomeareasapartofthecropsisregularlydestroyedbyPortugueseac:on.Merelytosa:sfyfoodrequirementsovertheliberatedareas,therefore,itisnecessarytoproduceasurplus.

Thepeopleareconstantlyencouragedtoclearmorelandforcul:va:onandtogrowmorefood,andthiscampaignhasbeensosuccessfulthat,despitethehazardsandupheavalsofthewar,morelandisactuallyundercul:va:ontodaythantherewasduringthecolonialadministra:on.Evenaaerthefirstyearofwar,morefoodwasbeingproducedthanbefore.Nowinsomeareas,asatNgazela,80percentofthelandcul:vatedhadnotpreviouslybeenproduc:ve.

Thegreatestimpetustoproduc:onhasclearlycomefromtheaboli:onofthecompanies,andfromthefactthatthepeoplenowthemselvesprofitfromtheirwork.Twootherfactorsarealsoimportant.Oneistheworkofthepartyinadvising,encouraging,andexplainingtheneedsofthestruggle,andinprovidingessen:alpiecesofequipmentlikehoesandpangas.Theother,linkedwiththis,isthedevelopmentofnewmethodsoforganiza:on,principallythecoopera:ve.Inareaswheretherehadbeenacoopera:vemovementbeforethestruggle,theorganiza:onreappearedrapidlyandspontaneouslyaaerthecolonialforceshadbeenexpelled.Inotherareas,theideahasbeenintroduced,andpartymembershavehadtohelpthepeoplegetthemstarted.Instruc:oninbook-keepinghasbeenapar:cularlyimportantaspect.Betweentheliberatedareas,thereareconsiderabledifferencesinthestageofdevelopmentthatthecoopera:vesystemhasreached.Insome,allproduc:onmaybeorganizedcollec:vely;inothers,thepeopleworkshambasindividually,tosupplytheirownfamilyneeds,butthevillageasawholeworksothershambascoopera:vely,toproduceasurplusforthearmyorothergroupsunabletoproduce.Insomeareasthepeoplehavenotformedcoopera:vesatall,mainlybecausetheylackthenecessaryknowledgeofhowtoorganizethemandkeeptheaccounts,andinsuchcasesasurplusisproducedbyasystemwherebymanyofthevillagersindividuallycul:vateanextrashambatoproducefoodforcollec:veneeds.

FRELIMOisatpresentstudyingvariouswaysofdevelopingagriculture,toimproveyields,promotevarietyanddeveloptheproduc:onofcropsforexport.ThehighplateauofNiassaisideallysuitedformarketgardening,andwearehopingtointroducetheremanytypesoffruitandvegetablewhichwillimprovethedietofthepopula:onandeventuallyprovideasourceofincomeforthem.

Apartfromthesurpluswhichmustbegrowntosa:sfyourownneeds,afurthersurplusmustbeproducedforexport,toprovideuswiththemeansofimpor:ngessen:alssuchasclothwhichwecannotforalong:mehopetoproduceourselvesonanysignificantscale.Wehavealreadybeenabletoexportafewitemsin1966:

Tons

Cashewnuts:500

Sesameseed:100

Groundnuts:100

Castoroilseed:10

Wearetryingtoexpandtheproduc:onofoilseedforexportandatthemomentsomeofthecoopera:vesareexperimen:ngwiththereintroduc:onofcoGonasacashcrop.Tobaccoisgrownfairlyextensivelyinsomeoftheliberatedareas;butuptonowwehavelackedthetechnicalknowledgetocuretheleafproperly,andithasbeenusedonlyinaroughformforhomeconsump:on.Wehavenow,however,sentsomepeopleabroadtotraininthisfield,andwehopeshortlytoaddtobaccotoourexports.OverthelasttwoyearswehavealsobeenresearchingintothevarioustypesofrubberwhichgrowinNorthernMozambique,withaviewtomakingthisintoanothersourceofincome.

TheothersidetothisaGemptatproducinggoodsforexportisthestruggletoreduceimports.Exceptwherethewarhadbadlydisruptedproduc:on,thepopula:onis,orcanbemade,self-sufficientinfoodstuffs;butclothes,agriculturalimplements,salt,soap,andothersucheverydayproductsmustallbesupplied.Atpresent,weareimpor:ngtheseitemsincarefullylimitedquan::es,fordistribu:onthroughtradingcoopera:ves,formedtotakeovertheworkofthetradenetworkwhichvirtuallycollapsedwhenthePortugueseleathearea.Becauseofourinadequateresources,however,andtheproblemsoftransport,itisnotpossibletomaintainadequatesuppliesinthisway,andweareresearchingintomethodsofproducingsuchgoodsinsidethecountry.Saltisalreadybeingextractedinthenorth-east.Soapcouldbemanufacturedfromoilseedifwecouldobtainthenecessaryplantandhavesomeofourpeopletrainedintheprocess.Tradi:onalcraasarebeingencouragedtosupplytheimmediateneedforhouseholdandsimpleagriculturalimplements.

Thesecraashavealsobecomeanothersourceofexports.TheMakondepeopleinpar:culararefamousfortheirwoodcarvingandsculpture.UndertheinfluenceofthePortuguese,thetradi:onhadbeensomewhatbastardized,boththroughthepressureofmissionariesonar:ststoproduceimita:onsofEuropeanreligiousworksandthroughtradersdemanding‘assemblyline'produc:onofcuriosforthetouristmarket.In1967,whenFRELIMOfirstorganizedtheexportofseveralhundredwoodcarvingsfrominsideMozambique,themajoritywereofthisstereotypednature;buttherewerealsoseveraloriginalpiecesofveryconsiderablear:s:cmerit.Wetriedimmediatelytoencouragethear:stswhohadproducedthemandexplaintoothersthatworkofthattype,althoughslower,wasfarmorevaluablethantheproduc:onofmerecurios.WealsoexploredwaysofsellingsuchworkstogenuinecollectorsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,andaretryingtoorganizetheproduc:onandsaleofthesepiecessothattheproducersthemselvesmaybenefitfairly.

Educa:on

WhenFRELIMOwasfirstformed,wegavetoppriorityjointlytotwoprograms:themilitaryandtheeduca:onal.WehavealwaysaGachedsuchgreatimportancetoeduca:onbecause,inthefirstplace,itisessen:alforthedevelopmentofourstruggle,sincetheinvolvementandsupportofthepopula:onincreaseastheirunderstandingofthesitua:ongrows;inthesecondplace,afutureindependentMozambiquewillbeinverygraveneedofeducatedci:zenstoleadthewayindevelopment.

ThePortuguesesystemofeduca:onhasbeenhopelesslyinadequate,notonlybecauseithasinvolvedsoveryfewAfricans,butalsobecausetheinstruc:ongiventothosefewwassounsuitedtotheneedsofMozambique.Wehavehadtostartworkingfromscratch,notonlyinprovidingthestructurebutinworkingoutthecontent.

SchoolinginmostAfricancountriesusesasystemdesignedtomeettheneedsoflatenineteenth-centuryEurope.ItisnowrecognizedeveninEuropethatthissystemisoutofdateandthatmuchofitisirrelevant.InAfrica,itneverdidandcertainlydoesnotnowanswertherealneedsofthepopula:on.Allcolonialeduca:onwasdesignedessen:allytoproduceasmallEuropeanizedélitewhowouldeitherserveortakeoverfromthecolonialgovernment,topreserveitsvalues.Everyeffortwasmadetocutthesepeopleofffromtheirorigins,partlybecausemostEuropeansdespisedeveryaspectofAfricancultureandpartlybecausetheélitewouldthuspresentlessofathreattoEuropeangovernment.Thecolonialrégimescompletelyignoredexis:ngindigenousmethodsofeduca:onandactedasiftherehadbeennoeduca:onatallbeforetheEuropeansopenedschools.

Itisrealizednow,evenoutsideAfrica,thatthiswasanextremelynarrowconcep:onofwhateduca:onis.Theoristsnowgenerallydivideeduca:onintotwotypes,theformalandtheinformal,andallsocie:eshavealwaysusedbothtypesindifferentdegrees.Informaleduca:onconsistsinoverttrainingbyelders,intheemula:onofolderchildrenbyyoungerones,inobserva:onatceremonies,inlisteningtostories,inwatchingandhelpingadultsgoabouttheirdailytasks.Thistypeofeduca:onincludestheinculca:onofmoralvaluesandproperconduct,bycorrec:nginfringementsoftheacceptedcode,byadmoni:on,ridiculeorpunishment,andinthepraiseofadmiredbehavior.

Insimpleruralcommuni:es,thissystemofeduca:onisadequateinpreparingtheyoungadolescenttofitintotheday-to-daylifeofhissociety.Butassocietygrowslargeandsimplemeansofproduc:onbecomeinadequate,itisnecessarytodevelopmoreformalsystemsofeduca:ngtheyoung.IndifferentpartsofAfrica,thissitua:ondevelopedseveralthousandsofyearsago.Theearliesttypeofformalsystemistheso-calledini:a:onschool,commoninsomanyAfricanareas,withthe‘secretsocie:es'performingsimilarfunc:ons.Everysecretsocietyprovidesinitsini:a:onritesacertainamountofsocialknowledgeandinstruc:onwhichenablestheindividualtocopewithhisimmediateenvironment.The‘bush'schoolsofthePoroandSande,forexample,arehighlydevelopedins:tu:ons,wheretheini:ateistrainedunderstrictdisciplineforobediencetotherulesofsocietyandtothesocialregula:onsofthelargecommunity.Heisputthroughaseriesoftoughsitua:ons_includingliGlesleep,hardlabor,longwalksanduncomfortablelivingquarters_which,liketheEuropean‘outwardbound'schools,areintendedtoteachbothmoralquali:esandprac:calskills.Trainingmayincludesometradi:onallawandcustom,illustratedbymockcourtsandtrials;andoaenarts,craas,agriculturalorhun:ngtechniques.Singinganddancingingroupsusuallyplaysanimportantpartinthelifeoftheseini:a:onschools.

ThegreatvirtuesofthisprecolonialAfricaneduca:onwerethatitwasdirectlygearedtotheneedsofthesociety,thatitwastotallyintegrated,andthatitextendedtoeveryoneequally.Therewerecasesofspecialini:a:oncoursesforpar:culargroups,likeseers,witch-doctors,craasmen;buttheseexistedsidebysidewithauniversalsystem,ofwhichtheywereonlyaspecializedpart.

Thesocie:esinwhichsuchsystemsevolved,however,wereconfinedtosmallareasandbasedonafairlysimpleeconomy.Asnewcomplexi:eswereintroducedtheybecameinadequate;fornewtypesofknowledge,newskillswereneeded.Theschoolsofmissionariesandcolonialgovernments,foralltheirfaults,offeredAfricanstheopportunityoflearningsomeoftheskillsneededtocopewiththenewcondi:ons.Inreturn,however,theAfricanswereforcedtosacrificetheirsocialvaluesandcustoms,torejecttheirpast.Thiscausedextremetensionbothintheindividualandinthesociety.

If,toalargeextent,thissplitwassimplyacceptedorelsetheEuropeanculturealtogetherrejected,thereweresomeAfricanswhorealizedthatEuropeanskillswerenotinseparablefromEuropeanvalues.AnearlyaGempttoactonthisrealiza:onwastheestablishmentoftheKikuyuIndependentschoolsinKenya,aaerthemissionschoolsrefusedtoacceptcircumcisedgirls.ButthesenewschoolsdidnomorethantrytocombinetheEuropeancurriculawithtradi:onalKikuyusociety.

Whatisneededismorethanastraightcombina:on.Anewfactorisinvolved:thedevelopmentoftheindependentna:onalstate.Forneitherthetradi:onalnorthecolonialsystemofeduca:onisdesignedtofittheneedsofthisnewen:ty.Anewdepartureisrequired.Butadeparturemustbeginsomewhere.Wecanlearnfromothercultures,includingtheEuropeans,butwecannotgraathemdirectlyontoourown.Itisforthisreasonthatacertainunderstandingofourownculturesandourownpastisessen:al.Muchofourtradi:onaleduca:onisobsolete;butsomeaspects_theartandsomeofthemoralvalues,forinstance_canhelpformabasisforthenewsocietywearetryingtobuild.AsJahnputit:‘Onlywheremanfeelshimselftobeheirandsuccessortothepasthashethestrengthforanewbeginning'.

Theimmediatecontextwithinwhichweareworkingisthatofthena:onallibera:onstruggleandtheaccompanyingsocialrevolu:on.Itisthiswhichmustmoldthenewaspectsoftheeduca:onalservicewearedeveloping.Associetyischangingwiththestruggle,somustwebepreparedforeduca:ontochange.Intheshortrun;though,thereareurgentprac:calpurposeswhichmustbeserved:weneededucatedcadresatalllevelsandinalldisciplines;weneedtoraisetheabysmallyloweduca:onallevelofthegeneralpopula:on,tofightilliteracyandignorance.Wemuststartworkingonthisnowwithwhatwehaveavailable,anddevelopourtheoryandsystemaswework.

Assoonasthewarhadliberatedsomeareas,smallprimaryschoolswerestartedwithveryrudimentaryequipment.By1966therewere100oftheseschoolsinCaboDelgadoalone,cateringforabout10,000childrenandwithateacherra:ovaryingfrom250:1to25:1.Towardstheendof1967,tenteachersstartedworksekngupschoolsinNiassa,andbytheendoftheyear2,000childrenwerereceivingeduca:onthere.Becauseofthetremendousshortageoftrainedpersonnelmanyoftheteachersthemselveshavestudiednofurtherthanprimaryschool,andtheeduca:ongivenintheseschoolsisthusnecessarilyofaratherrudimentarynature.Butitisatleastgearedtotheneedsofthechildreninthecontextoftheirowncultureandthena:onalstruggle.TheylearnPortuguese,sincethisisourcommonlanguage,butalsothehistoryandgeographyofMozambique.Reading,wri:ng,arithme:candcivicsarethemainsubjectstaught.Incivicstheylearnaboutourcountryanditsbackground,aboutthewarandtheaimsofFRELIMO,andsomethingabouttherestofAfricaandtheworld.Theneedtobeself-sufficientandatthesame:metoworkwithotherpeopleforacommongoodislearntasmuchthroughprac:calworkasintheformalclasses.Asfaraspossibletheschoolscul:vatetheirownfields,andmaketheirownclothesandequipment,whiletohelpovercomethelackofteachers,moreadvancedchildrenmaybeaskedtohelpthelessadvanced,joininadultliteracycampaigns,orundertakeothertasksinareaswheretheirschoolingqualifiesthem.

TheprimaryschoolprogramisonlypartoftheworkdonebytheDepartmentofEduca:on.Aswellasfacingtheproblemofmassilliteracy,wesufferfromanalmosttotallackoftrainedpeopleinalmosteveryfield.TheDepartmentofEduca:onhastotryandremedythisbyarranginghighereduca:onandvariousspecializedcoursesforselectedyoungpeoplewhohavealreadyhadsomebasicschooling.SomeofthisisachievedthroughtheMozambiqueIns:tutewhichs:llfunc:onsinDaresSalaam,althoughthescopeandnatureofitsworkhavechangedconsiderablysinceitwasfirstfoundedin1963.Establishedoriginallyasatutorialcenter,whichrapidlydevelopedintoasecondaryschoolforMozambicanrefugees,theIns:tutewasatfirstfinancedbyaFordFounda:ongrant;butasthiswaswithdrawnthefollowingyear,ithadtoraiseitsfundsfromothersourcesandisnowsupportedfromavarietyofcountriesandorganiza:ons,withthelargestsumsatpresentcomingfromScandinavia.

Earlyon,theIns:tutebecamefinanciallyresponsibleforprimaryschoolsaswell,setuptoprovideeduca:onatthislevelforMozambicanrefugeesinTanzania.Itwasthereforenaturalthat,whenthewarstarted,theIns:tuteshouldbecalledontofindfundsforthenewprimaryschoolsinMozambiqueandforothernewprogramsmadenecessarybythewarandthecrea:onofliberatedareas.TheselastincludedanumberofnewcoursesorganizedbyFRELIMOinassocia:onwiththeIns:tuteandrunwiththehelpofsomeIns:tutestaff.Thefirstwasacoursefornurses,preparingthemtotakepartinthenewmedicalprogramforMozambique.Thiswasfollowedbytheestablishmentofapoli:calandadministra:vecourseforthoseworkinginlocalgovernmentinthenewlyliberatedareas.In1968acourseforprimaryschoolteacherswasadded.

ThisisasfarasFRELIMO'sowneduca:onalserviceshavebeenabletogouptonow;but,inaddi:on,FRELIMOandtheIns:tutecooperateinorganizingscholarshipsabroadforMozambicanssothattheycantakeacademicandtechnicalcoursesatamoreadvancedlevel.Ithasbeenourfirmpolicysincethebeginning,however,thatalleduca:onarrangedbyFRELIMO_whetherittakesplaceinsideMozambique,inneighboringTanzania,inaMozambicancommunity,orabroadinaforeigncollegeorins:tute_mustbeanintegralpartofthena:onalstruggle;allstudentsmustregardtheirtrainingasameansoffikngthemtoworkinMozambique,andtheymustbereadytoreturnatany:methattheyshouldbecalledupontodoso.Therehavebeenconsiderableproblemswithstudentswhopretendnottounderstand,orwhorefusetoacceptthispolicy.Thisispartlyduetothefactthattheeduca:onalprogrambeganbeforethearmedstruggle,andsomeofthestudentsnowstudyingabroadorinthesecondaryschoolhavenoexperienceofthewaroroflifeintheliberatedareas,sothatitappearseitherfrighteningorunrealtothem.Severalstudentssentabroadin1963haverefusedtoreturnattheendoftheircourses,andanumberofstudentsfromthesecondaryschoolobjectedviolentlyagainstgoingbacktoworkinMozambique,demandingthattheyshouldbesenttocon:nuehigherstudiesimmediately.Thesedifficul:eshavecausedustoloseanumberofeducatedpeoplewhocouldhavegivenusefulservice.Butithasalsoledtoanevenfirmerandmorerealis:cpolicyoneduca:on;togreatereffortsatintegra:ngstudieswiththestruggleandatpreven:nginthefuturetheforma:onofgroupswhodemandspecialprivilegesattheexpenseofthegeneralpopula:on.Severalprac:calchangesareplannedforthefuture.Asfaraspossible,youngpeoplewillbeselectedforfurtherstudiesoutsideMozambiqueonlyaaertheyhavespentsome:meworkingeitherinthearmyorinthecivilianservices.Secondly,moreemphasiswillbeplacedonshortcoursesinspecificskills,suchasthenursesandadministrator'scoursesinTanzaniaorshorttechnicalcoursesabroad.Thirdly,allstudentswillberequiredtoreturnforatermofserviceaaertheirschoolingisfinished.Moreeffortwillbemadetokeepintouchwiththoseengagedabroadonlongcourses,andtoencouragetheminsuchworkforthestruggleastheyareabletodotherebyspreadinginforma:onandinteres:ngpeopleinMozambique.

Mostimportantofall,anevengreatereffortwillbemadetoimprovefacili:esinsideMozambique,sothatmorepeoplecanreceivetheireduca:ononthespot.

Health

LikemostofthecountriesofAfrica,Mozambiquehasveryseriouspublichealthproblems:tropicaldiseaseslikemalaria,bilharzia,sleepingsicknessandyawsareendemic,andthereareperiodicepidemicsofsmallpox,typhoid,yellowfeverandotherhighlyinfec:ousdiseases.ThePortuguesehealthservicesdidveryliGletoimprovethissitua:on.Outsidethetownstherewereprac:callynohealthcenters;vaccina:oncampaignswereinadequateandrarelyevenaGemptedinthemoreisolatedruralareas;nearlyallthehospitalsandqualifieddoctorswerelocatedinthefewmajortowns,totreatpayingpa:entsandsoineffectonlytheEuropeanpopula:onandafewothers.Anindica:onofthePortugueseachievementisthatMozambiquehasoneofthehighestratesofinfantmortalityinAfrica.

Theimmediateeffectofthewarwastomakethesitua:onevenworse.SuchhealthcentersasthePortuguesehadsetupinthenorthwereimmediatelywithdrawn;therapidpopula:onshiasandthecrea:onoflargenumbersofrefugeesmadethepeopleapreytoepidemics,whilethefigh:ngandPortugueseairraidsaddedwarcasual:estothemanyalreadyinneedofmedicalaGen:on.

FRELIMOhadtoorganizeitsownhealthservice,star:ngpreGywellfromscratch.Theproblemswere,ands:llare,enormous.Therewasneitherthemoneynorthetrainedpersonnel.Asaresultofthepooreduca:onprovidedbythePortuguese,thereisnotasingleAfricanqualifieddoctorinthewholeofMozambique,andtherearefewmedicalaidesandnurses.Thusthemedicalprogramhadtotackletwotasksatonce;ithadimmediatelytoorganizesomesortofmedicalreliefinsideMozambiquewithwhatfewresourcescouldbefound,andatthesame:mearrangerapidlytotrainmoremedicalstaff.

Anadministra:vestructurewasdevisedwherebytheliberatedareasaredividedintomedicalregionsanddistricts.Ineach,thereareanumberofhealthcenters,varyingfromsimplefirstaidpoststosmallclinicswhereminorsurgeryandligaturescanbedone.Thesecentersarelinkedwithoneanother,sothatwhennecessaryacasecanbetransferredfromasmallerunittoalargerandbeGerequippedone.Drugsandequipmentares:llindesperatelyshortsupply,andsomeofthefirstaidpostsperiodicallyrunoutofevenbasican:sep:candbandages.Allthesame,thebulkofthepopula:onisnowbeGerservedthatiteverwasunderthePortuguese,whentherewasnoorganizedfreemedicalservice.

AnotherfieldwhereFRELIMOhasalreadyachievedmorethanthePortugueseisthatofpreven:vemedicine.Fromthebeginningthiswasconsideredahighpriority,andgreateffortsweremadetoobtainvaccines.By1967anumberoflocalizedcampaignsagainsttyphoid,tetanusandtuberculosishadbeencarriedout,andamasscampaignagainstsmallpoxwasunderwayinwhich,bySeptember1967,100,000peoplehadbeenvaccinated.Themainproblemhasbeen,ands:llis,thatofgekngenoughvaccine.Administra:vely,thehealthservicehasthegreatadvantageofworkingwiththepartystructure,throughwhichsuchcampaignsandtheirpurposecanbeexplainedtothewholepopula:on.Givenadequatesuppliesofvaccine,itwould,forthisreason,bepossibletovaccinatethewholepopula:oninarela:velyshortspaceof:me.

Anotheraspectofpreven:vemedicineishealtheduca:on,andinthis,also,theservicebenefitsfromcloseintegra:onwiththeparty,thearmy,andtheeduca:onalservice.Healtheduca:onistaughtin

schoolsandinthearmy,withteachersandmilitantshelpingtospreadabasicknowledgeofhygieneamongthewholepopula:on.

Aswellasworkingtoimprovecondi:onsinthepresent,themedicalservicehasbeenstudyingthehealthproblemsofthepeopleandcollec:ngitsownmedicalsta:s:cs(sincethosegatheredbythePortuguesehavebeenfoundveryinaccurate)soastohelpinplanningforthefuture.

Personnelaswellasequipmentiss:ll,andwillcon:nuetobe,agreatproblem.Thenurse'scourse,runinassocia:onwiththeMozambiqueIns:tute,hasgraduatedtwoclasses,andanumberofstudentsareabroadstudyingmedicine.TwowhiteMozambicandoctorsworkingwithFRELIMOtookaveryimportantpartintheplanningofthehealthserviceandthetrainingprograms,butthereiss:llnotonequalifieddoctorintheliberatedareasofMozambique.Inthis,asineveryotherfield,theshortageofpeoplewiththebasicqualifica:onstostartspecializedcoursesimpedesprogresstremendously,andinthisrespectthefutureofthemedicalprogramwilldependonthesuccessoftheworkdoneineduca:on.Atleastnowthereexistsastructureandaprogramwhichwillensureagradualimprovementinthesitua:on,andwhichcandeploysuchqualifiedpeopleasbecomeavailable.

Socialandculturaldevelopment

Alreadyasaresultofthestruggle,profoundchangeshaveoccurredinthelifeofthepeopleinliberatedandsemi-liberatedareas.Thesechangescomprisemuchmorethantheremovalofthecolonialstructureanditsinfluence;formsofgovernment,ofsocialandeconomicorganiza:on,havebeenintroducedwhichareessen:allynew,owingtheiroriginonlymarginallytoAfricantradi:onallifeandnotatalltothecolonialsystem.

Inculture,perhaps,thetradi:onalelementsarestrongest,sinceinthisfieldtheyarenotinconsistentwiththegrowthofthena:on.ThePortuguesegovernmentaGemptedtoclampdownnotonlyonthepoli:callifeoftheAfricanbutalsoonallothertradi:onalaspects,hisart,hislanguage,hiscustoms.Thisdidnotmeanthatthetradi:onalwayoflifedisappeared;itsurvivedasasomewhatsubdued‘underground’culture,frowneduponandopenlydespisedbytheauthori:es.WiththeexpulsionofthePortuguese,therehasbeenanaturalresurgence,whichinsomedirec:onshasbeenencouragedbytherevolu:on;intheschoolsandinthemilitarycamps,tradi:onalsongsanddancesareprac:ced.Intheproducer'scoopera:ves,theartsandcraasaredeveloped.Yetevenwithinthistradi:onalframework,thereareanumberofnewdevelopments.Forinstance,inthecamps,theyoungpeoplearenotonlyprac:cingthesongsanddancesoftheirowntribe,butlearningthoseofothers,whileinthefieldsofproduc:onnewideasandtechniquesarebeingintroducedbothfromdifferentareasofMozambiqueandfromoutside.Then,thestruggleitselfismakingitsmarkintheformofnewthemesforsongsandnewthemesinart.ForexampletheFRELIMOguerillahasappearedamongthemanyfigureswhichtheMakondesculptorscarve.

Apartfromencouragingtradi:onalAfricanarts,FRELIMOhasalsoproducedaflowofideasfromavarietyofothercultures.ThePortuguese,asfarastheybroughtnewideastoAfrica,broughtonlythoseoftheirowncountry.Nowthesourceismuchwider:inthecampsmilitantsmaylearnthesongsoftheRussianrevolu:on,readmagazinesfromCuba,seepicturesoflifeinVietnam.AttheMozambiqueIns:tuteandatcampswhereitispossible,documentaryfilmsareshownfromallovertheworld.Inthe

courseoftheireduca:onandtraining,studentmilitantsaresenttoawidevarietyofcountries,fromtheUnitedStatestothePeople'RepublicofChina,andtosomeextentspreadtheirknowledgeofthesecountriesamongtheircompanionswhentheyreturn.Atthemoment,inthecondi:onsofwar,withthelackofandfacili:esandthelackofeduca:on,thesedevelopmentshavehadliGleeffectbeyondtheschoolsandthearmy;butinthosesectorsalready,peopleknowsomethingmoreabouttherestoftheworldthantheydidbeforethestruggle.

Beforethestruggle,wri:ngandreadingwereaspectsoflifevirtuallyunknowntothepopula:onoutsidethemajortowns.Neitherliteracycampaigns,northeproduc:onandsupplyofliterature,havedevelopedfarenoughtohavechangedthissignificantlyasyet.Thepopularaktudehasbeguntochange,however.TheschoolsandworkinadultliteracyhaveshownthatthewriGenwordissomethingthatcanandwillbelongtotheworldofordinarypeople,tothecountryaswellasthetowns,andthereisnowagreatdesiretolearn.Amongthemilitants,thisdesireisfastbeingsa:sfied.Manys:llcannotread,writeorcopewithPortuguese;butsomecan,andofthesenotafewareusingtheirabilitycrea:velyaswellasforprac:calpurposes.Thereisamagazineproducedbythemilitantsforthemilitantscalled25deSetembro,towhicheveryoneisfreetocontribute.Init,poems,storiesandpoli:calanalysesarepublished;theopportunitygiventoawiderangeofpeopletohavetheirworkprintedanddiscussed,s:mulatesanddevelopstheirabili:es.

Suchac:vi:eshavealsogivenanewsignificancetotheworkofthemoresophis:catedwriters.WhenCraveirinhaandNoémiadeSousawerewri:ngtheireloquentdenuncia:onsofPortuguesecolonialism,theywerenotreadbythepeopletheywerewri:ngforandabout.NowtheworkofagoodpoetinFRELIMOwillbereadinthecampsbythemilitants,bypeopledrawnfromtheexploitedmasseswhointhepastweresimplythesubjectsofpoemsbypoetstheyhadneverheardof.Nowthosewhocanread,readaloudforthosewhocannot,andawealthofliteratureisinreachifallthosewhohaveaminimumgraspofPortuguese.Thegapbetweentheintellectualandtherestofthepopula:onisclosing.Andthisinturnhasbroughtanewdimensiontopoli:calpoetry,whichhaslostitstoneoflamentandgainedanewrevolu:onaryfire,asinthepoemsofMarcelinodosSantos,JorgeRebelo,ArmandoGuebuza,SérgioVieira.TheessenceofthisnewdimensionissummedupintheseextractsfromJorgeRebelo's‘poem',inwhichhecallsonacomradetospeakof‘dreamsofrevolt’andof‘thesedreams[which]becomewar',forthenhewill

…forgesimplewords

Thateventhechildrencanunderstand

Wordswhichwillentereveryhouse

Likethewind

Andfall,likeredhotembers

Onourpeople'ssouls.

For,asthepoetends,

Inourland

Bulletsarebeginningtoflower

Thecultureoftherevolu:onisgrowingonlyslowlyandtakingitsplacealongsidetradi:onalculture;butthesocialchangeswhichareitsbaseareproceedingmuchmorerapidly.Withthegrowthofen:relynewpoli:calandeconomicstructures,livesandoutlookshavechangedfundamentally.

Theposi:onofthewomanisoneofthemoststrikingaspectsofthis.InAfricansociety,asinPortuguese,thewomanhasheldamoreorlesssubjectposi:on.Theextentandnatureofsubjec:onhasvariedverymuchfromregiontoregion:insomeinstances,asRenéDumontpointsoutinhisdiscussionofpresent-dayAfricanproblems,FalseStartinAfrica,shehassufferedatypeofeconomicexploita:on,havingtobearthebruntofthelabornecessarytosupportthewholesociety;inothers,shehassufferedfromsocialrestric:onsandbeendeniedaplaceofanyinfluenceinthefamilyorinthelargercommunity.Nowthedrivetoproducemoreisforcingeveryonetotakeafairshareofthedailywork,andthepartthatwomenareplayingintheMozambiquelibera:onarmyandthepartyischangingaktudestowardsthem,bringingmentorespectthemandgivingthemanewvoiceintherunningofaffairs.JosinaAbiatharMuthemba,awomanmilitant,describesthis:

Beforethestruggle,eveninoursocietywomenhadaninferiorposi(on.TodayinFRELIMOtheMozambicanwomanhasavoiceandanimportantroletoplay;shecanexpressheropinions;sheisfreetosaywhatshelikes.Shehasthesamerightsanddu(esasanymilitant,becausesheisMozambican,becauseinourpartythereisnodiscrimina(onbasedonsex.(F.I)

Thisdevelopmenthasinnowaybeenforcedonwomenfromabove.Itisverylargelyduetotheirownac:onnowthatitiscon:nuing.Forexample,whenIaddressedamee:nginMozambiqueearlyin1968,andthepeoplebeganaskingques:ons,awomaninoneofthewomen’sunitsgotupandcomplainedthatwomenwerenotbeingtrainedasofficers,sothatalltheofficersweremen.Whywasthis,shedemandedtoknow.Thereasonwasthatnobodyhadthoughtofmakingwomenofficers.Asaresultofhercri:cism,however,adecisionwastakenthatinthefuturewomenwouldbeabletobecomeofficerswhentheyhadsuitablequalifica:onsandexperience.

ThisexampleillustratesthegeneralpaGernofsocialchangeinotherspheresaswell.Thestruggleistheini:alimpetus,andwhiletheleadershipisoaencalledupontoprovidethemeanstopromotenewdevelopments,themovementcomesverymuchfromthepeople.Atthatsamemee:ng,therewasanotherinstanceofthis.Wewerediscussingproduc:on,andthevillagersdescribedwhattheyweredoingtoincreaseit.Theyhadnotorganizedacoopera:vebutwerecul:va:ngaddi:onalindividualshambastoproduceasurplus.Theytoldusthattheyhadwantedtoorganizethemselvescoopera:vely,buttheywereunabletodosobecausenooneknewanythingaboutbook-keeping;theyaskedthepartyleaderstoprovidethemwithsomeonewhocouldteachthemwhattheyneededtoknow,sothattheycouldtakethisstepthemselves.

Thechangeintheposi:onofwomenisalsoindica:veofthemoregeneraltransforma:oninaktudes.Thecustoms,beliefsandsupers::onswhichusedtosanc:onvariouskindsofinequalityand

exploita:onaregraduallybeingshedtogetherwiththeprac:cestheyencouraged.Thefirstcondi:onforthishasbeenthedestruc:onofcolonialgovernment,themainperpetratorofinequalityandexploita:on,andthishasbeenachievedinafiahofthecountry.Intheseareas,thepeoplewilltes:fytotheimprovementswhichhavetakenplace,despitethehardshipsimposedbythewar.Thisishowthreeordinarymilitants,whohavebeenfigh:ngoverwideareasofthecountry,putit:

GabrielMaurícioNan(mbo:Nowthereisthewar.IfIcomparethepresentwiththepast,Iseethatinmyregionthepeoplehaveabe7erlife.Therearedifficul(esbutit'sdifferent.Whenthepeopleproducecropsnow,theyeatbe7er;thecompaniesdon'tcometorobthem;thereisnoforcedlabor;ourpeoplearefree;butwecansaythatthewarislibera(ngthepeople.

JoaquimMaquival:Thewarhaschangedthepeople’ssitua(on.Wherethewarhasalreadybrokenout,thepeoplearenolongerbeaten,therearenolongertaxeswhichexploitthepeople,thepeoplearenothumiliated.Therearehardshipsbutthisisthepriceofvictory.

RitaMulumbua(woman):Therevolu(onistransformingourlife.BeforeIwasignorant,whilenowIspeakinfrontofeveryoneatmee(ngs.Weareunited.Wediscussourproblemsamongourselvesandthatreinforcesourunity.

TheSecondCongress

TheSecondCongressofFRELIMO,heldinNiassaprovinceinJuly1968,wasclearevidenceofthevariouschangesalreadydescribed;thedecisionsmadeatitaretheguaranteethatthesechangeswillcon:nue.

ThefactthattheCongresscouldbeheldatallwasproofofthesuccessachievedbythemilitaryprogram.Fortheeventtookmonthstoprepare,itwasannouncedpubliclyinadvance,itinvolvedthepresenceinoneplaceofthewholepartyexecu:veandmilitaryleadership,andyetitpassedwithnointerferencefromthePortuguese,interritorywhichthePortugueses:llclaimtocontrol.

Theaccomplishmentsofourpoli:calorganiza:onwereshownbythepresenceofdelegatesfromalloverMozambique,evenfromthefarsouth.Hereforthefirst:meinourhistoryMozambicansfromalloverthecountryweregathered,todiscusstogethertheproblemsofthewholena:onandtakedecisionswhichwillaffectitsfuture.Delegateswerefromdifferenttribesanddifferentreligiousgroups,andtherewerewomenpar:cipa:ngaswellasmen.Thisinitselfisanindica:onofthedistancewehavecomeinthelastfouryears.

AlthoughwewereholdingtheCongressinsideMozambique,wewereevenabletoinviteanumberofforeignobservers.Thereweretworepresenta:vesoftheAfro-AsianSolidarityOrganiza:on,arepresenta:veofthePeople'sMovementfortheLibera:onofAngola,arepresenta:veoftheAfricanNa:onalCongressofSouthAfrica,andarepresenta:vefromZAPU(theZimbabweAfricanPeople'sUnion).

Apartfromelec:ngofficialsandmakingthecons:tu:onalchangesdescribedearlier,theCongressdiscussedeveryaspectofthestruggle,clarifiedques:onsofpolicyandmadenumerousdetaileddecisions.Thedelegatesfromeachregionandtheheadsofdepartmentspresentedreportsdescribingtheirworkoverthelastfewyearsandoutliningplansforthefuture.Thesethenbecamethebasisforanopendiscussiononeachtopic,inwhicheverydelegatewasabletoaskques:onsandmakecri:cismsandsugges:ons.Aseriesofresolu:onswerethendraaedandputtotheCongress.Thesegiveaclearoutlineofourpolicyandaimsforthenextfouryears.Essen:allytheseresolu:onsre-affirmtheneedforanarmedstruggleandtheimportanceofsimultaneouslydevelopingthoseareaswhich,asaresultofthearmedstruggle,comeunderourcontrol.Theyalsoindicateanewdrivetoincreasetheefficiencyoforganiza:onandadministra:onbysekngdownprecisepaGernsforadministra:vestructureandclarifyingthefunc:onsofdifferentbodies.Butthegroundcoveredwassowidethatanadequatepicturecanonlybegainedfromci:ngsomeoftheresolu:onsthemselves:

Resolu:onsonthearmedstruggle

1. ThePortuguesegovernmentisacolonialist,fascistgovernmentthats(llmaintainsthemyththatMozambiqueisaPortugueseProvince,and,consequently,‘partandparcelofPortugal'.Its(lldoesnotrecognizetherightoftheMozambicanpeopletotheirna(onalindependence.

Na(onalistdemonstra(onsareviolentlyrepressedwithmassacres,jailings,tortures,assassina(ons.

Underthesecondi(ons,andinordertofaceallformsofcolonialistoppressionandrepression,theMozambicanpeoplehavedecidedtofollowresolutelythewayofarmedstruggle,byfigh(ngadecisivewarofindependenceordeath.

2. ThePortuguesecolonialistshavedominatedandexploitedtheMozambicanpeopleforaverylong(me.Today,theys(llhavethecontrolofthemeansofproduc(oninthoseregionsofMozambiquewheretheyexerttheirdomina(on.

Theirmilitaryforceisapowerfulone.Besidesthearmy,theyhaveanairforceandnavy.Despitetherapidgrowthofourmilitarypower,thePortuguesecolonialistarmyisevenstronger.Ontheotherhand,wes(llhavegreatmaterialneeds.Weneedweapons,medicines,meansoftransport,etc.,which,atthisphaseofourstruggle,wehavetogetfromabroad.Wealsoneedtechnicians.Sothat,withrespecttothesupplyofmaterialandtrainingoftechnicians,weshallcon(nueforsome(metodependonexternalaid.

Furthermore,thegeographicalandpoli(calsitua(onofourcountry,aswellasthepoli(calsitua(onoftheneighboringcountries_Swaziland,SouthAfrica,Rhodesia,Malawi_makesitdifficulttoextendthewarfurthertothesouth.TocarrywarmaterialintoZambézia,Moçambique,ManicaeSofala,Inhambane,GazaandLourençoMarquesProvinces,wehavetoovercomemanydifficul(es.

Allthesefactorsputtogetherbuildtheexis(ngimbalanceofforcesbetweenusandtheenemy.Thoughpoli(callystronger,weares(llmilitarilyweak.Inordertogetourvictory,wehaveno

otherwayoutbuttochangethedirec(onofthisimbalance;wewilldoit,butforthatagreateffortisrequiredfromus.Ourwarwillthereforebeahardandlongone.

3. Ourstruggleisapeople'sstruggle.Itrequiresthetotalpar(cipa(onofallthemassesofthepeople.Forthisreasonitisnecessarytointensifythemobiliza(onandtheorganiza(onofthemassesintheliberatedzones,aswellasintheregionswherethearmedstrugglehasnotyetstarted.

Thedirectpar(cipa(onofallinthearmedstruggleis,therefore,oneofthemainobjec(vesofthepeople'smobiliza(oneffort.

Inthepresentphaseofourstruggle,ourmainarmedforcesaremadeupoftheregularguerillaforces,butpeople'smili(asdoalsoplayaveryimportantrole.People'smili(asarepartandparcelofthepopula(on.Theyaresupplementarytotheguerillaforcesandtheyarefixedintheterritoryinwhichtheywork.Allthepeople_old,young,womenandmen_whoarenotpartoftheguerillas,mustbepartofthemili(as.

People'smili(asshouldatthesame(mesa(sfytheneedsofproduc(on,vigilanceanddefense.Intheliberatedareasandsemi-liberatedzones,people’smili(asdoinpar(cularthefollowingwork;

(1) Transportofmaterialandthesick;

(2) Reconnaissanceandpatrolofthezonesinwhichtheyworkagainsttheinfiltra(onofenemytroopsandagents;

(3) Figh(ng,whentheenemyinvadestheregion.

People'smili(asdotakepartinheavyfigh(ng,whenthatiscalledfor.

Theorganiza(onofpeople'smili(asisanimportantformofintegra(ngthemassesintothearmedstruggle.Inthisway,ateveryplace,sufficientandmilitarilypreparedforcesarecreated.People'smili(asarethereforereserveforces.

4. Inordertorealizemorecompletelyandefficientlythepar(cipa(onoftheMozambicanwomeninthestruggle,awomen'sdetachmenthasbeencreatedwhosemainfunc(onsare;

(1) Mobiliza(onandorganiza(onofthemasses;

(2) Recruitmentofyoungpeopleofbothsexestobeintegratedintothearmedstruggle;

(3) Produc(on;

(4) Transportofmaterial;

(5) Militaryprotec(onforthepopula(ons.

5. Thephenomenonofdeser(onisnotaspecificcharacteris(cofthestruggleforlibera(onofMozambique.Therearedeser(onsinmostcountries,evenintheabsenceofwar.

InthemovementforNa(onalLibera(onofMozambique,deser(onshavemanycauses.

Manycomradesareengagedinthestrugglebecausetheyreallyhaveana(onalist,poli(calconscience.Buttherearesomewhosena(onalfeelingisveryweak.Thereareotherswho,aXercommi�ngtransgressions,fearpunishmentbythePortugueseauthori(es.Then,toescapefrompunishment,theyengagethemselvesinthena(onalistmovement.PersonswithsuchabehavioroXenfail:theyareunabletowithstandthedifficultguerilla'slife,andtheycanhardlyacquirena(onalist,poli(calconscience.Sotheydesert.Andonceoutofthemovement,theygivethemselvestoinven(ngexcusestojus(fythemselves.Somespreadeverykindofrumorinordertodiscredittheleaders,divorcethemfromthemasses,anddisintegratethestruggle.OthersgivethemselvesuptothePortuguese.Deser(onsaregravecrimes.DesertersareenemiesoftheMozambicanpeople.

6. Prisonersofwarhaveapoli(calimportanceforus.Weshouldtreatthemwell.Throughthem,wecanobtaininforma(onontheenemy.Weshouldre-educatethemasmuchaspossible,andaccordingtoourinterests,eventuallyletthemfree.

WemayalsouseprisonersashostagestobeexchangedforourcomradeswhomaybeinthePortuguesecolonialprisons.Inthisway,wewouldbeshowingtotheworldthatwearefigh(ngagainstPortuguesecolonialismandnotagainstthePortuguesepeople;wewouldbebreakingthefigh(ngmoraleoftheenemy'sarmy,andencouragingitssoldier'sdeser(ons.

TheSecondCongressdecides,therefore,thatFRELIMOshouldcon(nuetoapplythepolicyofclemencywithregardtocapturedenemysoldiers.

7. Ourwarisessen(allyapoli(calwar,anditsdirec(onisdefinedbytheparty.Thepeople'sarmyispartandparceloftheparty,anditsstrategicplansaremadebythetopleadershipoftheparty.

Inordertoconductcorrectlythestruggle,alltheleadersshouldbeinvolvedinthearmedstruggle.Onlyinthisway,followingthestrugglestepbystep,theleaderscanbeabletosolveallthecomplexproblemsarisingdaily.Thepeople'sarmyperformsitstasksinaccordancewiththepolicydefinedbyFRELIMO.

Resolu:onsonadministra:onoftheliberatedzones

1. Theadministra(onoftheliberatedzonesaimsatestablishingthepeople'spower.Onlythroughanadequateadministra(onwillitbepossibletoconsolidatethedefenseoftheliberatedzones,topromoteitsgrowthandtheeconomicandsocialprogressofthepeople,andthustolaythebasisforavictoriousdevelopmentoftherevolu(onary,armedstruggleforna(onallibera(on.

Thedirec(onoftheadministra(onintheliberatedzoneswillbeundertakenbycommi7eesattheseveralorganiclevelsofFRELIMO,Provincial,District,Local,etc.,_asstatedinthegeneralregula(ons.

People'smanagementcommi7ees,electedbythepeoplethemselvesshallbecreated,whereverpossible,tosupervisegeneraltasks.

TheProvincialCommi7ee,theDistrictCommi7eeortheLocalCommi7ee,eachatitslevel,shalldirecttheestablishmentofthesepeople'smanagementcommi7ees,andshallrenderthem,wheneverneededandasmuchaspossible,thenecessarytechnicalassistance.

2. TheSecondCongressmaintainsthatonlywhentheprovincialstructuresarefunc(oningconveniently,willitbepossibletoadministercorrectlytheliberatedzones.ForthisreasontheSecondCongressrulesthat:

(1) Clearguidanceshallbegiventothevariousprovincialorgans,sothattheymayrealizecompletelytheirfunc(ons.

(2) Adequatecontrolsystemfortheprovincialorgansshallbeorganized.

(3) LeadersofFRELIMOshallmakefrequentvisitstotheprovinces.

(4) Thevariousposi(onsineachoftheprovincialorgansshallbeconvenientlyandeffec(velyfilled.

(5) Necessarysec(onsshallbeestablishedwhichshallfunc(onundertheprovincialadministra(on.

(6) Trainingoftechnicalcadresneededbytheprovincesshallbeaccelerated.

3. FurthermoretheSecondCongressrulesthat:

(1) Provincialbudgetsshallessen(allydependontheproduc(onoftheprovince.

(2) AllnecessaryeffortsshallbemadesothatMozambicanswhohavesoughtrefugeabroadmayreturntoMozambique.

(3) Judicialcommi7eesshallbecreatedwhichshalllookovertheexecu(onofthelaws.

Resolu(onsonna(onalreconstruc(on

1. TheSecondCongressnotesthatthebuildingofanewlifeintheliberatedzonesisarequirementofthestruggleforna(onallibera(on.Theliberatedzonesshallcons(tutethematerialbasisforgrowthofourrevolu(onaryarmedstruggleforna(onallibera(on.Inthatsense,thegrowthofproduc(onassumesspecialimportance.

Itisnecessaryforustoproduceprogressivelythematerialgoodsweneedforthegrowthofourarmedstruggle.Weshouldpromotethedevelopmentofagriculture,industry,co7ageindustries,alwaysdirec(ngourac(vi(estowardsthemee(ngoftheinterestsofourpeople'srevolu(on.

Handinhandwithproduc(on,weshalldevelopcommerce,bothinternalandexternal.Weshouldalsopromotethedevelopmentofeduca(onandhealthservices.Atthesame(me,weshouldpromoteourna(onalculturebydevelopingtheposi(vevaluesofourregionalcustomsnowenrichedbyourefforttocreateanewreality:aunitedandfreeMozambique.

Alltheseaspectsofoureffortsforna(onalreconstruc(onarecloselyconnected,andforefficiencyofwork,itisimpera(vethatallsectorsofourac(vitybeperfectlycoordinated,withoutwhich,alloureffortswillbeuseless.

Tocarryonourwork,wehavetoovercomevariousdifficul(esandsolvemanyproblems,someverypressingones,suchaspopula(ondispersionintosmallse7lementsseparatedbylargedistances,thelackofmeansofcommunica(on,thescarcityofcadres.Inordertofacetheseproblems,measuresshallbetakenwithaviewto:

(1) Promo(ng,wheneverpossible,therese7lementofthepopula(on;

(2) EncouragingMozambicanrefugeesinneighboringcountriestoreturntoMozambiqueinordertotakepartinna(onalreconstruc(ontasks;

(3) Intensifyingthetrainingofcadresnecessaryfortheexecu(onofthevarioustasksdictatedbytheRevolu(on.

Wheneverdeemednecessaryandindispensable,foreigntechniciansshallberecruited,whoaccepttofollowthepoli(callineandtheprogramofFRELIMO.

2. Morespecifically,theSecondCongressofFRELIMOrulesthat:

Onproduc(onandcommerce

(1) Agriculturalproduc(onshallbedeveloped,suchthatwemaygetallweneedforfoodaswellastherawmaterialsforproduc(onofsoap,fabrics,etc.

(2) Technicalandscien(ficlevelofproduc(onshallbepromoted.

(3) Defenseofagriculturefieldsshallbemoreandmoreconsolidated.

(4) Organiza(onofagricultural,commercialandindustrialcoopera(vesshallbedeveloped.

Oneduca(on

(1) Developmentofprimaryschoolsshallbeaccelerated.

(2) Teachertrainingprogramforprimaryschoolsshallbedevelopedinordertoraiserapidlyitsnumbersanditstechnicallevel.

(3) Intensiveliteracycampaignsamongthemassesofthepeople,men,women,oldandyoungshallbepromoted.

(4) Specialcoursesforraisingrapidlythelevelofknowledgeofthemilitantsshallbeorganized.

(5) YoungMozambicanwomenshallbeencouragedtocompleteatleastprimaryschooleduca(on.

(6) Produc(oncentersshallbecreatedateveryschoolplaceforself-maintenance.

(7) Asystemshallbeestablishedwhichshallmakeitpossibleforthestudentstointerrupttemporarilytheirstudiesinordertopar(cipateinteachingandliteracycampaigns.

(8) ItshallbethedutyofallMozambicanstudentstotakepart,wheneveritmaybedeemednecessary,inthevarioustasksofthestruggleforna(onallibera(on.

(9) Developmentofschoolsofpoli(caltrainingshallbepromoted.

Onhealth

(1) Intensivecampaignsshallbepromotedforobtainingmedicinesandmedicalsupplies,throughouttheworld.

(2) Establishmentofmedicalcentersshallbepromotedintheregionsthatwillbesuccessivelyliberated.

(3) Organiza(onoftransportofmedicinesandmedicalsuppliesshallbeorganizedforthevariousregions.

Resolu:onsonsocialaffairs

ThegrowthoftheMozambicanRevolu(onrequiresthatpar(culara7en(onbegiventothesocialcondi(onsofthemasses.

Acorrectdirec(onthatwillpromotethesa(sfac(onofthesocialneedsofthemasseswillalsoraisetheirrevolu(onaryspirit,andwillatthesame(meavoidthatthedifficul(es,normalinawarsitua(on,mayturnintoseriousobstaclestotheprogressofthewarforna(onallibera(on.

So,therefore,theSecondCongressrulesthat:

(1) Necessarymeasuresshallbetakentoimprovethematerialcondi(onsofthemassesinthewarzones,par(cularlywithrespecttosa(sfac(onofprimaryneeds,suchassalt,soap,clothing.

(2) Ins(tu(onsforsocialassistance,aswellasforstudyandsugges(onofsolu(onstoproblemsonsocialrela(onships,par(cularlythoseconcerningmarriage,shallbecreatedattheprovinciallevel.

(3) Par(culara7en(onshallbegiventothewivesofmilitants,seeingtoitthatwheneverpossible,theyarefixedintheprovinceswheretheirhusbandsarefigh(ng,andencouragingthoseoutsidethecountrytoreturnhome.

(4) Wheneverpossible,pregnantwomenandthosewithli7lebabiesshallbese7ledinzonesofgreaterstability.

(5) FRELIMO,incoopera(onwithLIFEMO,shallestablishthewaysinwhichthela7ershalltakecareoftheorphanchildren;thesamecareshallbegiventothechildrenofunmarriedwomen,inordertogiveachancetothela7ertocontributetothestruggle.

(6) Condi(onsforassistanceandrehabilita(onofthewardisabledshallbecreated.

Resolu(onsonforeignpolicy

1. TheMozambicanpeopleareengagedinanarmedstruggleagainstPortuguesecolonialismandimperialismfortheirna(onalindependenceandfortheestablishmentofasocial,democra(corderinMozambique.

Thisstruggleispartoftheworld’smovementfortheemancipa(onofthepeoples,whichaimsatthetotalliquida(onofcolonialismandimperialism,andattheconstruc(onofanewsocietyfreefromexploita(onofmanbyman.

Forthisreason,FRELIMOhascreatedanddevelopedsolidarityandfriendlyrela(onswithpeoples,organiza(onsandgovernmentsfigh(ngfortherealiza(onoftheseobjec(ves.FRELIMOhasestablishedrela(onswithna(onalistorganiza(onsofthePortuguesecolonies,andwithna(onalistorganiza(onsofotherAfricancountriess(llunderforeigndomina(on.

FRELIMOhasrela(onswithprogressiveorganiza(onsofAsian-AfricanandLa(nAmericancountries.FRELIMOhasrela(onswithallsocialistcountries,andwithprogressivecountriesofthewest.FRELIMOisamemberofthefollowinginterna(onalorganiza(ons:

(1) CONCP_ConferenceofNa(onalistOrganiza(onsofthePortugueseColonies;

(2) OAU_Organiza(onofAfricanUnity;

(3) OSPAA_Afro-AsianPeople'sSolidarityOrganiza(on;

(4) OSPAAAL_Afro-AsianLa(nAmericanPeople'sSolidarityOrganiza(on;

(5) WCP_WorldCouncilofPeace

TheSecondCongressdeclaresthatFRELIMOandtheMozambicanpeopleshallcon(nuetodevelopandconsolidatetheiralliancesandtogivetheirmaximumcontribu(ontotheworldpeople'smovementagainstcolonialismandimperialismforeconomic,poli(cal,socialandculturalemancipa(onofpeoplesandfortheconstruc(onofanewsocietyfreefromexploita(onofmanbyman.

2. ThestruggleinwhichtheMozambicanpeople,undertheleadershipofFRELIMO,areengagedinagainstPortuguesecolonialismandimperialism,enjoystheworld’ssympathyandsupport.

TheSecondCongresshighlyappreciatestheaidgiventhepeople'sorganiza(onsandgovernmentsofAfricancountriestothelibera(onstruggleoftheMozambicanpeople,inpar(cularthroughtheAfricanLibera(onCommi7ee.

TheSecondCongresspointsoutinpar(culartheaidgivenbyTANU,thepeopleandgovernmentofTanzania,undertheleadershipofPresidentMwalimuJuliusNyerere,tothean(-colonialist,na(onallibera(onstruggleoftheMozambicanpeople,directedbyFRELIMO.

AmongtheAfricancountries,theSecondCongressstressesalsothehighcontribu(ongiventheMozambicanpeople’sstrugglebyAlgeria,theUnitedArabRepublicandZambia,eitherthroughtheOAUorbilaterally.

TheSecondCongresshighlyappreciatesandhailstheaidgiventheMozambicanpeoplebysocialistcountriesofEuropeandAsia,whichaidhasbeenagreatcontribu(onforthesuccessoftheMozambicanRevolu(on.

TheSecondCongressappreciatestheaidgiventotheMozambicanpeople’sstrugglebytherevolu(onarypeopleandgovernmentofCuba.

9Interna:onalrela:ons

WeareinAfricabecauseitisourright;ourdutyandourinterest.ButweareinAfricabecausethatisalsothegeneralinterestofthefreeworld.

AlbertoFrancoNogueira,PortugueseForeignMinister

InAfricathedividinglinebetweenthewhitedominatedSouthandtheindependentstatestothenorthishardening.InSouthAfricathepolicyofapartheidisbeingruthlesslypursued,withtheopera:onsofpolicestateexpandingtoenforceit.Thelongperiodofpassiveresistancetherehasvirtuallycometoanend,killedbytheincreasingviolenceofrepression.TheSouthAfricanstatehasalso,indefianceoftheUnitedNa:on,:ghteneditsgriponSouthWestAfrica.InRhodesia,thewhiteseGlerrebellionhasbroughttheterritoryfirmlyintoSouthAfricansphereofinfluenceandputanendtohopesofdemocra:cprogresstowardsmajorityrule.Portugueseauthoritywhichhasforalong:meappearedsomewhatisolated,consideredasbackwardandinefficientbytheotherwhitepowers,hasnowestablishedclosepoli:cal,militaryandeconomiclinkswiththeotherminoritygovernmentsofSouthernAfrica.

Opposi:onmovementshaverecentlybeenundergoingimportanttransforma:on.Peacefulandcons:tu:onalmethodsofagita:onarenowofficiallydeniedthem,andasaresulttheyareturningtoundergroundac:vityandthetechniquesofarmedrevolu:on.

ThesemovementsnaturallylooktowardsindependentAfricaastheirallyinthestruggle.Ifassistanceisgiven,though,thiscourtsreprisalsfromthewhitegovernments.Zambia,inpar:cular,iscri:callyplaced,borderingasshedoesonMozambique,AngolaandRhodesia;shehasalreadysufferedanumberofairaGacksbyPortugueseforcesonbordervillages,andhasbeenopenlythreatenedonseveraloccasionsbytheRhodesianandSouthAfricanauthori:es.

Astateofoverallconfronta:onisdevelopingwhichcannotbecontainedwithinAfrica.Ashos:li:esescalate,suddenandimportantpoli:calchangesbecomepossible;themajorpowersaredrawnin,andthestrugglebecomesaworldissue.

Asanumberofjournalistsandpoli:cianshavepointedout,thereturnoftheCaperoutetotheforegroundwiththeclosingoftheSuezCanalhashighlightedtheinterna:onalsignificanceofSouthernAfrica,butthisisonlyonefacetofthesitua:on.EuropehadeconomicinterestsinAfricaevenbeforethedaysofpoli:calexpansion,andduringthecolonialperiodthesegrewtoconsiderablepropor:ons.Themovementforindependencehasonlymarginallyaffectedtherela:onship.FranceandBritains:llhaveextensiveinvestmentsintheirformercolonies,andinsomeinstancesarebusilyincreasingthem.Notseldom,independencehasmadeiteasierforothercountriestomakeeconomiccontacts,andrecentlyboththeUnitedStatesandJapanhavetakenextensiveadvantageofthis,ashavemanyWesternEuropeanpowers.Westerncompanieshavepar:cularlylargesumsinvestedinSouthernAfrica.In1965foreigninvestmentinSouthAfricaalonetotaled$4,802millionofwhich61percentwasBri:sh,andthe

nexttargetshare,11percent,American.Inaddi:ontothesefinancialinvolvements,therearepoli:calandstrategicinterests.Alongwiththerestofthedevelopingworld,Africanstatessufferfromtheconflictsofthemajorpowers,whotendtointerpreteventseverywhereinthecontextofthecoldwar.Thisleadstosomeabsurdmisinterpreta:ons.Journalistsandpoli:ciansdescribeAfricanaffairssimplyintermsofashiatoorawayfromoneworldpowerbloc.TheWestregardswithexcessivesuspicionanydeparturefromtradi:onalcapitalism;acommunistplotisseenbehindeveryactofna:onaliza:on,everyprogramforsocialjus:ce.

Inthe‘Portuguese’territories,thesitua:onisaggravatedbyPortugal'sownposi:oninEuropeandintheWesternAlliances.ForPortugalherselfistherecipientofmassiveforeigninvestment;sheisformallyamemberofEFTAandofNATO.

Thiswholecomplexsitua:onisexploitedtothefullbythePortuguesegovernment.AtapressconferenceinMarch1968theforeignminister,AlbertoNogueira,madealengthystatementcontainingthemainpointsofPortuguesepropagandatotheWest:

Russia'snavalpenetra(onintheIndianOceanwilloccupyagreatdealofwhatisabandonedbyBritain,andmanybasesandportswillbedeniedtheWest.

WeareinAfricabecausethatisourright,ourdutyandourinterest.ButweareinAfricabecausethatisalsothegeneralinterestofthefreeworld.

IfthebasesandtheislandsandtheportsandairportsandthecoastlineswerenotinfirmPortuguesehands,onecanask,inwhosehandswouldtheybe?ButinanycasethosenewmasterswouldnotoffertotheWesttheguaranteeswhichwe,ifwewantto,willbeinaposi(ontooffer.

Nogueirahasdevelopedthisthemeextensivelyinhisbook,Thethirdworld.Inbrieftheargumentrunsthatindependenceincolonialterritoriesisfollowedbychaos,andthethreatofcommunist‘take-over';thatPortugal’sAfrican‘provinces’cons:tuteoneofthelastbas:onspreserving‘westernciviliza:on'inthatpartoftheworld,andthatitisthereforeintheinterestoftheen:reWesttohelpPortugalstayinAfrica.ThisisastraightpleaformoreWesternbackinginPortugal'scolonialwars.Indeed,thissearchforsupporthasbeenthemajorinfluenceonPortugal’sforeignpolicyfromthe:meofthefirstoutbreakoffigh:nginAngolain1961.Sincethen,foreigninvestmentinthecolonieshasbeendeliberatelyandac:velyencouraged;bondshavebeen:ghtenedwiththeotherwhiterégimesinAfrica;andtheWesternallieshavebeenencouragedtoextendtheirmilitarycommitmentsinmetropolitanPortugal.Asherposi:oninAfricabecomesmorecri:cal,herstatementsandappealshavebecomeprogressivelyblunter.Thereexistsacertaindoubt,though,abouthowbesttoaGractforeignsupport;whethershemustinspireconfidenceinherabilitytoprevail,orwhethersheshouldthreatenfailure.Thismustdependtoalargeextentonhowfarhervariousalliesacceptherpredic:onsofageneraldisasterfollowingherwithdrawal,oronhowfartheybelievethatthePortuguesepresenceservestheirownpar:cularinterests.

ItisnotsurprisingthatherpolicyhasbeenmostsuccessfulwiththeotherminoritygovernmentsofSouthernAfrica.AlthoughthePortuguesetheoryof‘assimila:on’differsfromtheSouthAfricandoctrineof‘separatedevelopment’,theprac:cesofthetwogovernmentsareverysimilar.DrNogueirahimselfstated,aaeravisittoSouthAfrica:‘weshareandfightforthesameprinciples’.Thethreemain‘white

powers'_SouthAfrica,RhodesiaandPortugal_areclearlylinkedtogetherinamilitary,poli:calandeconomicalliance,whichmaybeinformalbutisrapidlybecomingoneofthemostimportantelementsintheoverallsitua:on.

Ofthesethreecountries,SouthAfricaisinthestrongestposi:on;sheisbyfartherichestcountry,hasthebestequippedarmyandpoliceforce,andisatpresentshieldedbytheothercountriesfromanindependentAfricawhichmightassistherownlibera:onmovements.PortugalandRhodesiaareclearlythepoten:al‘takers'inthealliance.ButSouthAfricahasgoodreasontogive.Withouttheprotec:onofthesewhitebufferstates,herownposi:onwouldbemuchmoredifficulttomaintain.Hereconomicinterestsarealsoservedbymaintainingfriendlygovernmentsintheseneighboringcountries.

Mozambique,althoughnotindispensable,isthusimportanttoher.Foroverfiayyears,alargepartofherminelaborhasbeendrawnfromMozambique,andherrichgoldindustryisdependentforitscon:nuedprofitabilityonsuchasourceofeasilycontrolledcheaplabor.PerryAndersoninPortugaletalfindel'ultracolonialisme,statesthereasonforthis:

Itistheirra(onalnatureofthegoldindustryinSouthAfricawhichmakesthisprocess(contrac(ngofimmigrantlabor)necessary.TheoreontheRandhassuchalowgoldcontentandisnowonlytobefoundatsuchdepthsthatundernormalcondi(onsitsextrac(onwouldbeafarfromeconomicallyviableproposi(on:togetonetonofgold,itisnecessarytoworkabout160,000tonsofore.MineswheretheoreisricherandmoreaccessiblehavebeenabandonedinAustraliaandtheUnitedStates.

SouthAfricagainsagreatdealofherpoli:calstrengthfromthefactthatsheistheworld'sgreatestgoldproducer.Althoughhereconomywouldnotbeoverwhelmedbythelossofhergoldexports,anythreattohergoldindustrymustberegardedasaseriousthreattoherdelicatepoli:calposi:on.EvenifshecouldreplaceMozambicanlaborintheeventofitsbeingcutoff,shewouldthenbecomeverymuchmoredependentontheremainingsources,andmorevulnerabletopoli:calchangesinthecountriesoforigin.

TheeconomicinterestswhichSouthAfricanowhaswithinMozambiquearealsoconsiderable.ThemostimportantoftheseiscertainlytheCaboraBassadam,whichwillyieldhighreturnsonherlargecapitalinvestment,iftheprojectisevercompletedunderthepresentterms.

HereconomicinterestsinAngolaaremorevariedandoflongerstanding.Alsobecauseofhergeographicalsitua:on,Angolaisinaposi:ontoaffectsignificantlytheques:onofSouthWestAfrica,whereextremelyimportantresourcesare,atthemoment,altogetherunderSouthAfricancontrol.

Itishardlysurprising,therefore,thatinthepresentsitua:on,SouthAfricaisbecomingincreasinglyinvolvedinthestrugglesofherneighbors.

Therela:onshipbetweenMozambiqueandRhodesiaismuchmoreoneofmutualdependence.SinceUDI,theexistenceofafriendlygovernmentinMozambiquehasbeenacrucialfactorintheabilityoftheSmithgovernmenttoevadesanc:ons.ThenaturalrouteforRhodesiantraderunsthroughMozambique;BeiraisthenearestporttoSalisburyandBulawayo;themainriver,roadsandrailwaysofRhodesiareachthecoastthroughMozambique.Mozambique,onherside,profitsfromallthis;10percentofhergrossna:onalincomeisderivedfromtransitservicestoandfromRhodesia.

Coopera:onbetweenthegovernmentsofSouthernAfricahascertainlybeenincreasingsincena:onalismbecomeamoreimmediatethreattothecon:nueddominanceofwhiteminori:esthere.Evenbefore1964,thePortuguesetendedtoassumethatSouthAfricawouldhelptheminasitua:onofrealdanger.In1964WilfNussy,repor:ngintheZambianNorthernNews(24August1964)onavisittoAngola,saidthathehadheardfrequentlyfromthePortuguesetherethecomment,‘Ofcourse,ifwehavearealwar,thentheSouthAfricanswillcomeandfightforus'.Inthesameyear,justaaertheoutbreakofthewarinMozambique,Portugalwasseekingsomediploma:cagreementtosubstan:atethisassump:on.TheJohannesburgStarreported,on6October1964:‘PortugalisreadytosignanagreementwithSouthAfricacoveringtherela:onsbetweenthetwocountries,accordingtoreliablesourcesclosetothePortugueseForeignMinister,DrAlbertoFrancoNogueira’.

In1965acommercialagreementbetweenRhodesiaandPortugalwasannounced,andthiswasfollowedbyafurtherseriesofmovesaimedatincreasingeconomicrela:onsbetweenthetwocountries.In1965tradewasrela:velyunimportant;Rhodesiaaccountforonly1.9percentofMozambique'simportsand3.1percentofherexports.Butthefollowingyearshaveseenaconcertedeffortbybothgovernmentstoexpandit.In1966amissionofPortuguesebankersandindustrialistsvisitedRhodesia,andinthesameyearB.HMuseGe,theRhodesianMinisterofCommerceandIndustry,madeaspeechattheMozambiquetradefaircallingfor‘amajorincreaseineconomicrela:onsbetweenMozambiqueandRhodesia’.Duringthesameperiodavigorouseffortwasmadetoforgestrongerpoli:callinks:inJune1965CliffordDupont,thethenRhodesianDefenseMinister,visitedtheGovernor-GeneralofMozambique,CostaAlmeida.TwomonthslaterAlmeidareturnedthevisitandcommented:‘Inalltheeventsontheofficialprogramforthevisit,therewasaclearinten:ontounderlinethegoodrela:onswhichexistbetweenMozambique,provinceofPortugal,andRhodesia,andonalloccasionsIreceivedunequivocalproofsofconsidera:onandsympathy'.(DiáriodeMoçambique,23August1965.)

In1965,representa:vesofallthreecountriescametogetherforpoli:caldiscussions,andLeMondereportedon14September:‘Accordingtoinforma:ondrawnfromdiploma:ccirclesinLisbon,asecretagreementhasbeensignedbetweenPortugal,SouthernRhodesiaandSouthAfricaforthedefenseofwhiteAfrica,thatisthesouthernpartoftheAfricancon:nentwhereEuropeandomina:onhassurvived.…Thisagreementallowsfortheorganiza:onofacommondefenseforSouthernAfricaagainst“na:onalistandcommunistsubversion”.Linkshavebeen:ghteningsince:1967sawthefinalagreementbetweenSouthAfricaandMozambiqueontheCaboraBassadam;and,onthepoli:calfront,theSouthAfricanDefenseMinister,MrPietBotha,visitedPortugalinAprilfordefensetalks.

Theseagreementshavealreadybornesomefruit.Rhodesiaiscertainlygaininghelpinevadingsanc:onsthroughheralliancewithMozambique.MozambiqueacceptsRhodesiancurrencyandRhodesianpassports,and,accordingtoareportintheManchesterGuardianweeklyof12December1967,halfRhodesia'soilrequirementsreachherthroughLourençoMarques.ItisnosecretthatthereareSouthAfricantroopsandaircraainRhodesia,andthereisplentyofevidencethatinasmallerwayMozambiqueisreceivingmilitaryassistancefromher.Fromearlyoninthewar,wehaveseenandheardofSouthAfricansfigh:ngwiththePortuguese,andoneguerillaunitaaerabaGlefoundadeadsoldierwithaniden:fica:onchainonhiswristwhichshowedhimtobefromSouthAfrica.ThePortuguesedeserter,AfonsoHenriquesSacramentodoRio,statedthathehadseenaSouthernRhodesiancommanderwhohadcometostudyan:-guerillawarfareinthePortuguesearmy.

TherearesomepressuregroupsinSouthAfricaurgingcloserinvolvements:llinthewarinMozambique.TheDurbanSundayTribune,forexample,haspublishedaseriesoffeatureson

Mozambique,tryingtosolicitsympathyforthePortuguesecauseandestablishingafundtoprovide‘comforts'forthePortuguesesoldiers,soastoshow‘ourcommonaimsandpurposetomaintainciviliza:oninSouthernAfrica'.(AidaParker,31December1967.)

MrVorster,SouthAfrica'sPrimeMinister,madeasignificantremarkinthecourseof1967,whenques:onedonhispolicytohisnorthernneighbors:

‘WearegoodfriendswithbothPortugalandRhodesia.Goodfriendsdonotneedapact.Goodfriendsknowwhattheirdutyiswhenaneighborshouseisonfire'.

ThiswasmademuchinthesameTribunear:cle:

Goodswords,wellspoken.

NowletuslookatourneighborMozambique,aneighborwhosehouseiscertainlyonfireinthefarnorth.

Upthereinthenorth45,000Portuguesesoldiersarefigh(ng,somedying,toholdbacktheredequippedterroristsseepinginfromTanzania.

TheSouthernAfricancountriesareclearlythosemostimmediatelyconcernedabouttheoutcomeofthestruggleinthePortugueseterritories.BetweenPortugalandthesecountries,however,thereis,asyet,noofficial,formalalliance.AsaEuropeanpowerontheotherhand,Portugalhasanothersetofneighbors,andwiththeseshehasanofficialpoli:calandmilitaryalliance:NATO.ItistotheNATOareathatmuchofPortugal'sdiplomacyandpropagandaisdirected.

IntheoryPortugal'smembershipofNATOshouldnotaffectherAfricanwars,sinceaccordingtothepresenttermsofthetreaty,NATOequipmentandfinanceareforuseonlywithintheNATOarea,ofwhichthecoloniesarenotapart.InfactPortugaldoesgainbothdirectlyandindirectlyfromthealliance.Firstofall,thecostofthePortuguesearmyinPortugaliscoveredbyNATO,soleavingherfreetodevoteherownmilitaryresourcestoAfrica;secondly,herofficersaretrainedbyNATO,andthereisnobanonsuchforcesgoingtofightinAfrica.Apartfromthis,intheabsenceofanyefficientcheck,itisquitepossibleforher,albeitillegally,tosendconsiderablequan::esofNATOweapons,par:cularlysmallarms,toAfrica;andthereisgoodevidence,providedbytheexamina:onofcapturedweapons,thatshedoesthis.

Indirectly,membershipofNATOhelpsPortugalinestablishingunilaterallinkswithothermembercountries,whichsellarmstoherorhelphertomanufacturetheminPortugalunderlicense.SincethemuchpublicizedPortugueseatroci:esinAngolain1961,thesearmsagreementshavebeencri:cizedbyliberalopinioninthecountriesinvolved,andinsome,governmentshaveofficiallybannedtheexportofarmsforuseinAfrica.In1961,theBri:shPrimeMinister,answeringaques:oninparliament,stated:

Indecidingwhethertonego(ateasaleortograntalicensefortheexportofmilitaryequipmenttoPortugal,wehavetoconsiderherreasonablemilitaryrequirementsasaNATOally.ButsuppliesofequipmenttoPortugueseoverseasterritoriesareinadifferentcategory,andapplica(onsinthesecasesareforthe(mebeinginsuspense.

Hedidnot,however,expandonhowtheBri:shgovernmentwastoensurethatequipmentsuppliedtoPortugalwouldnotbeusedinAfrica.

Similarly,in1966,theWestGermanMinistryofDefensestated:

TheFederalRepublicofGermanyhassoldtoPortugalfortysurplusplanesofthetypeFiatG91.ThesaletookplaceonthebasisoftheprincipleofmutualaidbetweenNATOpartners.Thedeliveryissubjecttoaclausethat...theplanesaretobeusedexclusivelyinPortugalfordefensepurposeswithintheframeworkoftheNATOpact

WhateveraBri:shorGermangovernmentreallyintendsbysuchstatements,itisclearthatthePortugueseauthori:esdonottaketheminthesamespiritastheBri:shorGermanpublicismeantto.Onthe1966saleofFiats,aspokesmanforthePortugueseMinistryofDefensecommented:

Thetransac(onwasagreedwithinthespiritofNATO.ItwasagreedthattheplaneswouldbeusedonlyfordefensivepurposeswithinPortugueseterritory.PortugueseterritoryextendstoAfrica,AngolaMozambique,PortugueseGuinea.

(FlyingReviewInterna(onal,April1966)

NATOitselfissomewhatambivalentontheissueofwhatpreciselycons:tutestheNATOarea.AcommuniquéfromtheMinisterialmee:ngoftheNATOCouncilinDecember1957reported:

Weexpressourinterestinthemaintenanceofpeaceandcondi(onsofstabilityandeconomicandpoli(calwell-beinginthevitallyimportantcon(nentofAfrica.Wehopethatthecountriesandpeoplesofthatcon(nentwhoaredisposedtodosowillcooperatewiththefreeworldineffortstopromotethesepurposes.…Historic,economicandotherfriendly(esbetweencertainEuropeancountriesandAfricawouldmakesuchcoopera(onpar(cularlydesirableandeffec(ve.

Readingbetweenthelinesofthisstatement,onewouldscarcelyberashinassumingthatsomeelementsintheNATOadministra:ondonotexaminetoocloselywhatPortugaldoeswiththearmsshereceives.

EveniftheNATOpowersdonoten:relyshareNogueira'sopinionofthestrategicvalueofPortugal’sworkinAfrica,theycertainlyseemtobeswayedbythestrategicvalueofPortugalherself.France,WestGermanyandtheUnitedStatesallhavebasesonPortugueseterritoryandareexpandingmilitarycommitmentinthearea.Twonewspaperreportspointtoaconnec:onbetweenthisandmilitaryaid:

France,whichsellsPortugaltheAloue7ehelicopterusedinAfricaandisbuildingfrigatesforher,hasbeengrantedamissiletrackingsta(onontheAzores.(TheTimes,24March1966)

TheretreatfrompolemicsbetweenAmericansandPortugaloverAfricahascontributedtoatacitunderstandingonquiteanotherma7er_keepingAmericanairbasesintheAzores…theinstalla(onsandpersonnelputabout$5millionperannumintothelocalAzoreseconomyandsince1957Portugalhasreceived$300millioninUSmilitaryaid.…TheSalazargovernmentwillnothesitatetoleaveNATOandbreakthelinkwiththeUSifPortugueseinterestsinAfricaarenotupheld.(GeorgeShermanintheWashingtonEveningStar,20August1965)

Apartfromherconnec:onthroughNATO,Portugalhasotherclose:eswithWesternEurope.Her‘specialrela:onship'withEnglandgoesbackasfarastheTreatyofWindsorin1386.Sheiss:llreckonedBritain'soldestally,andtradi:onallyalargepor:onofhertradehasbeenwithBritain.MuchofPortugal’sexis:ngnetworkofcommunica:onswasfinancedbyBri:shcapital_theLisbonElectricTramwayCo.,withacapitalreserveof£7,900,000,isjustoneexample_andaverylargepartofherindustryispartlyorwhollyBri:showned.Thecrea:onofEFTAandPortugal’sadmissionasamemberservedtostrengthentheexis:ngeconomic:eswithBritain,andinpar:cularhaveboostedPortugueseexportsthere;whilein1960Britaintook13.6percentofPortugal'sexports,in1964shewastaking15.8percent.

ForPortugal,EFTA'smainimportancemayhavebeeninstrengtheningthisexis:nglink;butithasalsoservedtobringPortugalintoclosercontactwiththeothermemberstates.TradewithSwedenhasincreasedsignificantly,andevenmoreimportant,aflowofSwedishinvestmentandtechnicalassistancehasbeenfacilitatedbytheEFTAmachinery.

TheEFTAcountriesarenot,however,theonlyEuropeanpowerswithimportanteconomicinterestsinPortugal.InrecentyearsWestGermanyhasbeenapropofincreasingsignificance.Beforethecrea:onofEFTA,WestGermanyhadalmostoutstrippedBritaininthepropor:onofPortuguesetradeshetook.Inthemoremodernindustries,GermancapitalisatleastasimportantasBri:sh;theGrundigfactoryatBragaandthefiberfactoryOportoindicatethekindofindustrythatGermaninvestorsaresuppor:ng.Paralleltothisrecentandrapidexpansionofinvestment,therehasbeenasharpincreaseofGermanmilitaryinvolvementinPortugal,exemplifiedbythe£25millionair-forcebaseatBeja,whichis75percentfinancedbyGermanyandwhichistohouseGermantroopsandaircraa.Theeconomicassistanceitselfisinsomecasesdirectlyrelatedtomilitaryaid;oneofthemoreimportantGermanfactoriesisanarmamentsplantatBraçodePrata.

Evenwherethereisnodirectlinkwithmilitaryneeds,theeffectofalleconomicassistanceonthewarisconsiderable.Portugal,withoneofthelowesteconomicratesinEurope,alowpercapitaincomeandaconstantshortageofdomes:ccapital,wouldnothavebeenabletostandtheeconomicstrainofthewarwithouttheconstantinjec:onsofforeigncapital.

Anovertlyfasciststate,withanoutdatedadministra:onandanobviouslyrepressivecolonialpolicy,Portugalmayat:mesbeanembarrassingallyfortheWest;butatinterna:onalgatheringstheys:lltreatherasanally.Assuchshegainsnotonlymaterialassistancebutalsodiploma:csupport.Whentheques:onofhercolonieshasbeenraisedattheUnitedNa:ons,alltheWesternPowers,since1961,haveconsistentlyvotedwithher,againstthemajorityofmemberstates.SomeofthestatementsmadebyWesterndiplomatsspecificallypointtoalinkbetweenthispoli:calsupportandtheeconomiccommitmentsalreadydescribed.In1967MrGarciafortheUnitedStatessaidofthedraaresolu:onbeingpresentedtotheUNGeneralAssembly:

Mydelega(on…hasstrongreserva(onsregardingtheemphasisplacedinthedraXresolu(ononfactorsotherthantheoutmodedPortuguesepolicy.Inpar(culartheUnitedStatesisconcernedaboutthestressontheac(vi(esofforeigneconomicandfinancialinterests.

Itisworthno:ngthatbefore1961,theUnitedStateshadnotvotedwiththeotherWesternallies,buthadsupportedmo:onscondemningPortugal'scolonialpolicy.1961wastheyearwhenPortugal'snew‘opendoor'policytowardsinvestmentsinthecolonieswasbeginningtoshowresults.

Ifthe,asyet,rela:velymodestscaleofinvestmentinthePortuguesecoloniescanaffectpolicytothisextent,itisnotsurprisingthatthemuchlargersumsinvestedinSouthAfricabiastheWestevenmoreagainstmovementsseekingradicalpoli:calchangeinthatregionofAfrica.SincethefutureofSouthAfricacouldbeaffectedbychangeinthePortuguesecolonies,theseimportantholdingsinSouthAfricabearonWesternpolicytowardsPortugalherself.

WesternpolicyonSouthernAfricaiss:llmarked,however,withambigui:esanddivisions.Therearepoli:cianswhohavearguedthat,inthelongrun,anaGempttopreservethestatusquoinareasofsuchextremeracialandsocialinequalitywillnotbenefittheWest:ontheonehand,itcouldleadtoviolenceanddestruc:ononsuchascalethattherewouldbeliGleleaforanyonetosalvage;ontheother,theul:matefailureofapartheidandfascismbackedbythe‘democra:c'West,wouldmeanamajorsetbackinWesterninfluencethroughouttheworld.Therearealsoindividualsandgroupswhosuggestthatmoralconsidera:onsshouldbegivensomeweight,andwhopointoutthatbysuppor:ngPortugalandSouthAfrica,theWestmustforfeitallrighttoposeasachampionof‘freedom'and‘democracy'.Amongthesearesomechurchorganiza:ons;bodiesliketheAmericanCommiGeeonAfrica;theBri:shandScandinavianAn:-Apartheidmovements;andvariousliberalandsocialistpressuregroups.Ontheotherhand,anumberofleadingpoli:cianshaveopenlyandexplicitlystatedthecaseforbackingtheexis:ngrégimes.SirAlecDouglass-Home,formerBri:shPrimeMinister,visitedSouthAfricaearlyin1968andshortlyaaerhisreturnmadeaspeechinwhichhesaid:

ImadenobonesaboutitthatthemainpurposeofmyvisittoSouthAfricawastoadvancethefollowingthesisanddosoin(me.

First,thatthebalanceofinfluenceandpowerintheMiddleEast,thegatewaytoAfrica,waschanging.

Secondly,thattheSovietUnionwasadop(nganewoceanicnavalstrategy,whichwouldbringherintotheWestIndianOcean;andthirdly,thatinthosecircumstancesBritainandSouthAfricahadajoint

interestinensuringthatthetraderoutesroundAfricawerekeptopenandfree.ThattheSimonstownAgreementwastheinstrumentreadytohandbywhichtoguaranteethatsecurity…(SpeechtotheSouthAfricaClubdinner,21May1968)

Officialgovernmentstatements,however,aremorecau:ous.Westerndiplomacypayslip-servicetomul:-racialismanddemocracy,whilethegovernmentsquietlycon:nuetoactagainstboth.BritainreaffirmsheralliancewithPortugal;shestopssellingarmstoSouthAfrica,butmakesnoaGempttoreduceothertypesoftrade;shecallsforsanc:onsagainstRhodesia,butrefuseseventothreatenmilitaryac:onandinvokestheBri:shinterestsatstakeinSouthAfricaasanexcuse;sheprofessesadesiretoseemajorityruleinRhodesia,butwillnotevendiscussgivingassistancetotheAfricanorganiza:onswhoarefigh:ngforexactlythis.FrancestepsintoreplaceBritainasarmssuppliertoSouthAfricaandsendsoiltoRhodesia,whiledeGaulleproclaimshimselfthechampionoftheThirdWorld.TheUnitedStatessendsarmstoPortugal(in1966theCIAprovidedPortugalwithsevenB26bombers);WestGermanyhelpshertomanufactureherownarms;theUnitedStates,FranceandWestGermanyallhavebasesonPortugueseterritory;allthesecountrieshavelargeenterpriseswhichareinves:ngvigorouslyinSouthAfrica,inPortugal,inMozambiqueandAngola.Clearly,whateverdiplomatsmaysay,theweightoftheWesternallianceisbeingthrownbehindwhitedictatorship,againstthelibera:onmovements.

FacedwiththeallianceoftheSouthernAfricangovernmentsbackedbytheWesternpowers,libera:onmovementsmustconsolidateallforcesopera:ngintheirfavor.

Thefirstandmostlas:ngassetofalibera:onmovementisthepopula:onofthecountrywhereitworks.Thefirsttaskistoensureunitywithinthemovementandamongthepopula:on.FRELIMO'ssuccessesoweagreatdealtothefactthatthereisonlyonelibera:onmovementinMozambique,andthatwithinitthepeoplehavebeenabletouniteacrosstribal,religiousandotherdifferences.Beyondthis,however,unityofac:onisnecessarybetweenallforcesfigh:ngthesameenemy.InthecaseofFRELIMOthismeans,firstandforemost,alliancewiththelibera:onmovementsintheotherPortuguesecolonies:theMPLAinAngola,andthePAIGCinGuineaBissau.Theconceptofsuchcoopera:ongoesbackasfaras1920,whentheLigaAfricanawascreatedinLisbonamongAfricanradicalintellectualsofalltheterritories.Bythelatefiaies,whenitwasbecomingclearthatmilitaryac:onwouldbetheonlypossibleroadtolibera:on,adifferenttypeofmovementwascalledfor,andin1961theConferenceofOrganiza:onsofthePortugueseColonies(CONCP)wascreated;FRELIMOjoinedaaeritsforma:onin1962.

The‘Direc:onCommiGee'oftheCONCPiscomposedofthesupremeleadersofeachparty,anditmeetseverysixmonthstoarrangetheworkoftheotherbodiesintheCONCP,theexecu:vesecretariatandanumberofpermanentspecialcommissions.Aswellasprovidingaforumfordiscussionandcoopera:on,theCONCPcarriesoutworkonbehalfofthememberpar:esinthefieldsofresearch,diplomacyandinforma:on.ItpublishesregularreportsonthePortuguesecoloniesandontheprogressofthestruggleineach.Itcoordinatesthediploma:ceffortsofthepar:es,enablingtherepresenta:vesofonetospeakforthewholemovementasinterna:onalconferencesandwithininterna:onalorganiza:ons.

Thewarisbeingfoughtagainsttheexis:ngrégimeinPortugal,andthisrégimeisinnosensedemocra:correpresenta:veoftheordinaryPortuguesepeople.Thereisstrongundergroundopposi:ontothegovernmentwithinPortugalitself,andthisprovidesanotherfieldforcoopera:on;theforcesopposing

dictatorshipinthecoloniesandtheforcesopposingdictatorshipwithinPortugalarefigh:ngacommonenemy.ThePortugueseLibera:onFronthasanofficeinAlgiers,asdoestheCONCP,andcontactismaintainedbetweenthem.Ifagovernmentofaradicallydifferentnaturewereabletoreplacethedictatorship,itwouldbepossibletogainindependencethroughpeacefulnego:a:on.

Portugal'smostimmediatealliesareSouthAfricaandRhodesia,andthusthenextstageofunitymustbeunitybetweenthemembersofCONCPandtheforceswhicharefigh:nginthesecountries.TheLibera:onCommiGeeoftheOAUprovidesapointofcontactforallthelibera:onmovements;butasyetthereisnocloser,overallorganiza:onallink,althoughtheinterrela:onofthena:onaliststrugglesinSouthernAfricaisbeingincreasinglyrecognized,andclosercoopera:onisbeingachievedbetweenthemovementsinvolved.ThebestexampleofthisisthejointmilitarycampaignbeingundertakeninRhodesiabytheZimbabweAfricanPeoplesUnion(ZAPU)andtheAfricanNa:onalCongressofSouthAfrica(ANC).

BecauseoftheimportantpartplayedbytheOAUandtheindependentstateswhichborderontheareasoffigh:ng,thisques:oninvolvesthewideroneofgeneralAfricanunity.Theneedforthisunityandthefactorsac:ngagainstitraiseques:onstoocomplexforthescopeofthisbook;butintermsoflibera:on,therehavebeensomedevelopmentsworthcomment.Inrecentyearstheconcep:onoftheroletobeplayedinthestrugglebyindependentAfricahaschanged.Duringtheearlyyearsofindependence,someofthenewAfricanleaders,inpar:cularKwameNkrumah,didinvaluableworkinpropaga:ngtheidealofastrongunitedindependentAfricawhichwouldposeaformidablethreattoremainingminoritygovernments.Atthat:me,however,internalproblemsandtheextentofoutsideopposi:onwasnotfullyrealized.Astheindependentstateshavebeengekngtogripswiththeformidabledifficul:eswhichfacethem,amorerealis:c,ifapparentlylessambi:ous,approachhasdeveloped.Ithasbeenrecognizedthatanall-outoffensiveagainstSouthernAfricaisnottheanswer.Thestruggleisonethatmustbefoughtfromwithin,makinguseofguerillatac:csandbasedonapervasiveandpopularundergroundmovement.Theindependentstatescannothelpbydirectmilitaryinterven:onbutcangivemuchmorevaluableassistanceintheformofmaterialanddiploma:csupport.Thedevelopmentofpoli:calthoughtincountriessuchasTanzania,Guinea,theUARandAlgeriahashelpedthemtakeastrongleadinthisdirec:on.BoththeOAUandindividualstateshavealsodoneimportantworkinassis:ngtheachievementofunitywithinthelibera:onmovementsthemselves:therefusaltorecognizesplintergroups,andtheeffortsmade,wheremorethanonemajormovementalreadyexists,toencouragethesetocooperate,havecontributedconsiderablytothestruggle.Moreworkneedstobedonealongtheselines,butalreadythereareinstanceswherefragmenta:onhasbeenpreventedbysuchac:on.TheOAUalsohelpsthelibera:onmovementstogetrecogni:onandestablishcontactswithotherpartsofAfrica.Asanorganiza:onofgovernments,theOAUofficiallyexcludeslibera:onmovementsfromitsproceedings,buttheprac:ceofadmikngthemasobservershaspar:allyovercomethisdifficulty

ThebigpowerswhohaveassociatedthemselveswithPortugalandSouthAfricaalsohaveinterestsovertherestoftheworld,andsoallcountrieswhichfeelthemselvestosomeextentthreatenedbytheseinterestsarenaturalalliesforthelibera:onmovementsofAfrica.Thismeansprimarilytherestofthedevelopingworld.FRELIMOandtheothermembersoftheCONCP,therefore,haveestablishedlinkswiththeorganiza:onsoftheThirdWorld.Theyallbelongtotheexecu:vecommiGeeoftheAfro-AsianPeople'sSolidarityOrganiza:on,andtheMPLAisalsoamemberoftheSecretariat.FRELIMOandotherCONCPmembersareonthesecretariatoftheTricon:nentalCongressandontheexecu:vecommiGeeoftheWorldCouncilofPeace.Wehavealsoestablishedrela:onswithmanyofthecountriesindividually.Apar:cularlyfer:leexchangeofideasispossiblewiththosecountrieswhich,likeNorth

Korea,NorthVietnamandCuba,sharetheproblemsoftheThirdWorldandhavealsohadtofight,orares:llfigh:ng,fortheirna:onaliden:tyaswearedoing.

Thesocialistcountriesarefirmsupportersofthelibera:onmovements.FRELIMOhascordialrela:onswithmostofthemindividually,andhasreceivedconsiderablematerialhelp.

AlthoughmostoftheWesterngovernmentsarenotwelldisposedtowardsourstruggle,manypeopleintheWestsympathizewithouraims,andwemakeeveryefforttoestablishcontactandcooperatewiththese.InAmericaandWesternEurope,organiza:onsconcernedwiththeThirdWorldandchurchbodiesalsohavehelpeduswithoureduca:onalandmedicalprograms.EvenamongWesterngovernmentsthereareexcep:ons:theScandinaviancountriesinpar:cularhavemadeconsiderablecontribu:onstoeduca:on.

Apartfrommaterialaid,diploma:cgainsarethemostimmediateadvantagestobegatheredfromworld-widecoopera:on.InthisfieldFRELIMO'saimsareobviouslytoisolatePortugalandtowinrecogni:onforthelibera:onmovement.Somesuccesscanbeclaimedalready,par:cularlywithinAfricaitself:theAfricanOrganiza:onofTelecommunica:onsandtheEconomicCommissionforAfricahavedecidedtoexcludePortugalandtoadmitinsteadMozambique,GuineaBissauandAngola.TheOAUhasdecidedthatthesecountriesshouldberepresentedbytheirlibera:onmovements,thusgivingthesefurtheropportuni:esofworkingwiththerestofAfricaoncommonproblems.

TheUnitedNa:onsisobviouslyanimportantforumfordiploma:cpressure,and1960wasanextremelyimportantturningpointinourrela:onshipwiththeorganiza:on.ForinthatyeartheGeneralAssemblydecidedthatthePortuguese‘OverseasProvinces'shouldbeclassifiedasnon-self-governingterritories.

PortugalhadoriginallybeenadmiGedtotheUNin1955,whentheGeneralAssemblyhadacceptedherasser:on,basedontheconversionofhercoloniesintoprovinces,thatshehadnonon-self-governingterritories.Sinceitsforma:on,FRELIMOhasregularlype::onedbeforetheCommiGeeofTwenty-Fouronnon-self-governingterritories,andthecommiGeehassubmiGedmo:onscondemningPortugal,callingforsanc:onsagainstherandforsupportfortheworkoflibera:on.Thesemo:onshavebeenpassedbyoverwhelmingmajori:es,buttheopposi:onoftheWesthasmadeitimpossibletoimplementtheirrecommenda:ons.Despitethis,thedebateshaveatleasthelpedtodisseminateinforma:ononthesitua:onandtobringusunilateralaidfromavarietyofcountries.TheUNisalsoanotherfieldwherethebaGleforrecogni:onisbeingfought.In1966MárioAndrade,inhiscapacityasExecu:veSecretaryoftheCONCP,putittotheCommiGeeofTwenty-fourthatPortugalshouldberegardednotasana:onrefusingtoimplementResolu:on1514onnon-self-governingterritories,butasaforeignpowertryingtoprevent,withmilitaryforce,apeoplefromexercisingtheirrighttoindependence.Theacceptanceofthatproposi:onwouldmeanthatUNsanc:onscouldbeorderedagainstPortugalasanaggressor.In1967theSpecialCommiGeemadeanumberofrecommenda:onswhichweredesignedtoenablethebodiesoftheUNtogiveassistancetolibera:onmovementswheretheseareengagedingoverninganddevelopingapartoftheirna:onalterritory.AssociatedwiththisistheefforttopreventPortugalfromreceivingassistancefrominterna:onalorganiza:ons.Inpar:cular,theWorldBankhasbeenurgednottocooperatewithPortugal.

Inconnec:onwiththis,theques:onisperiodicallyraisedofwhetherlibera:onmovementsshouldcons:tutethemselvesasgovernmentsinexile,whichmightremovesomeofthemechanicalbarrierstorecogni:onandmembershipoftheinterna:onalbodies.FRELIMO,however,hasopposedthisview,onthegroundsthatitobscurestheessen:alplaceoflibera:onmovementsinworldaffairs.‘Governmentin

exile'isalsoamisleadingandcontradictory:tle.IntheliberatedareasofMozambique,FRELIMOisinfactthegovernment,agovernmentopera:ngwithinitsna:onalterritoryandnotagovernmentinexile.AndFRELIMOwillnotclaimtobethegovernmentofthewholeofMozambiqueun:lallMozambicanna:onalscanpar:cipateintheprocessofelec:ngthatgovernment.TheSecondCongressshowedthatwehavegonealongwaytowardsfulfillingthiscondi:on;butthisinitselfshouldgiveusgreaterauthorityininterna:onalcircleswithoutourhavingtoclaimalegallyconfusing:tle.

10TheFuture

Whenmilletsproutsupinourfields,itisbecausewehadpreviouslypreparedthegroundandwateredtheseedwiththesweatofourownwork.Thefutureisalwaysbuiltontheeverydayworkofourhandsandminds.

1968NewYorkmessagetoFRELIMOmilitantsfromtheCentralCommi7ee

ThedisappearanceofDrSalazarasPrimeMinisterinPortugalcausedagreatdealofspecula:onintheWestaboutthefutureofPortugal'spolicyinAfrica.Manycorrespondentssuggestedthatthechangemightopenthewaytosomekindofpeacefulsolu:on.Weneversharedthisop:mism.For,althoughithadalltheappearancesofapersonaldictatorship,theSalazarrégimewasreallyanoligarchy.The

personalityofthedictatormoldedtheexternalappearanceofthegovernment;butthepowerbehindwasthatofasmallgroupofbiglandowners,industrialistsandmilitaryleaders.Caetano’sauthorityasSalazar'ssuccessorrestsonthissamebase,andthereforeevenifhewishedto,hewouldfinditvirtuallyimpossibletomakemajorchangesinadirec:onwhichwouldjeopardizetheinterestsofthispowerfulminority.InfacttherewasliGleinCaetano'spoli:calrecordtosuggestthathewouldwishtochangetheexis:ngstructureinanyofitsessen:als.HehimselfhadtakenanimportantpartinthebuildingoftheSalazarstate;hehadbeenthetheore:cian,thelegalmindbehindit,andoneofthemostinven:veapologistsforPortuguesecolonialpolicy.OurjudgementwasconfirmedwithinthenextfewmonthsbytheannouncementthatyetmoretroopsweretobesenttoGuinea,followedshortlybyaclearstatementfromCaetanothatpolicyinAfricawouldremainunchanged.

Somejournalistshavealsosuggestedthat,eventhoughthesuccessionofCaetanomaynotbringaboutachangeofpolicybytheexis:nggovernment,itmayprecipitateviolentupheavalsinPortugalitselfwhichwouldaffectthesitua:oninAfrica.EvenunderSalazar,thePortuguesestatewasnotasmonolithicasitappeared.Therewerefac:onswithinthegovernment;Moreira’smovementintheearlysix:eswasjustoneinstancethatwasnoten:relyhiddenfrompublicview.Therehasalwaysbeen,too,amoreradicalopposi:onbyillegalan:fascistpar:es,opera:nginexileandundergroundinPortugal.Ifthepresentmachineryofoppressionwereseriouslyweakened,thesewouldcertainlytrytotakeadvantageofthesitua:on,andiftheycouldsucceedingainingpower,weareconvincedthattheywoulddiscusstheques:onofindependencewithus.Unfortunatelysuchanoutcomeseemstous,atthemoment,highlyimprobable,becauseoftheimmensestrengthofthearmyandthepolice:ifmajordivisionsdiddevelopwithintherulinggrouptheywouldbemorelikelytoresultinanewarmycoupandintheestablishmentofanemergencymilitarydictatorship.

Wecan,therefore,seenoalterna:veinthenearfuturetocon:nuingthewar.Theques:onis,forhowlong.PortugalisoneofthepoorestcountriesinEurope,andshehasapopula:onofonly9million.Alreadyshehas150,000troopsoverseasandspendsnearlyhalfherrevenueonthewar.Boththenumberoftroopsbeingsentabroadandthedefensebudgethavebeenincreasinglyrapidlyinthelastfewyears.TheeffectsofthewararebeingfeltmorethaneverinsidePortugal.Apartfromtheextensionofna:onalserviceandtheincreaseintaxa:on,whichhitmostheavilythepoorestandleastpowerfulsec:onofthepopula:on,therehasbeenageneraleconomicset-backwhichiscausingconcernamongtopLisbonbusinessmenandindustrialists.Uptoabout1966,thewarhadhadtheeffectofapparentlys:mula:ngtheeconomy,butby1967therealposi:onwasbeginningtoshow.Theincreaseinna:onalincome,no:ceableintheearlysix:es,wasduepartlytothegovernment'sintensivedriveforforeigninvestmentandpartlytothenormalimpactofawarincrea:ngasuddenincreaseofdemand.InacountryasunderdevelopedasPortugal,however,muchofthisdemandcanonlybemetbyforeigngoods,andtheincreasingpressureonhomeproduc:onexercisedbytheunproduc:verequirementsofwar,isbeginningtotell.

Addedtotheeconomicstrainofthewar,isthefactthat,despitetheenormouseffortsheismaking,Portugalisslowlylosing.MostofGuineaisnowcontrolledbythePAIGC,andfigh:ngisslowlyspreadinginAngolaandMozambique.

Thesefactorshavecreateddoubtatthehighestlevel.SalazarhimselfadmiGed,aboutsixmonthsbeforehisstroke(11January1968):‘Ifthetroublesthere(intheAfricanProvinces)con:nueverymuchlonger,theywilldiminishourabilitytocarryon'.Yetthedetermina:ontocarryonisunchanged.TheForeignMinister,Nogueira,statedunequivocallyinTheThirdWorld:‘Intheen:reworld,evenamongour

adversariesandcri:cs,nooneexpectsustoalterourpolicy,noonebelievesthatweshallalterit,andourposi:onisconsideredtobefirmandfinal'.Thedivisionswithinthegovernmentarenotbasedonwhethertocon:nuethewar,butonhowtocon:nueit,andthisboilsdowntotheproblemofaid.WithouttheeconomicandmilitarysupportwhichPortugalreceivesfromtheWestandinpar:cularfromSouthAfrica,Portugal'swareffortwouldprobablyhavecollapsedalready.Ofhervariousallies,SouthAfricaisthemostpromising,sincethefutureofMozambiquemightwellaffectthefutureofSouthAfrica'sownapartheidpolicy.YetthemorethatPortugalreliesonSouthAfrica,themoreinfluenceSouthAfricagainsoverherandherAfricanterritories.Althoughbotharepolicestates,thetwocountrieshaveliGleincommonbeyondthisandtheirshareddesiretocon:nuetheirdomina:onovertheblackAfrican.BothinPortugalandinSouthAfricathereisnoconsensusabouttheextentandnatureoftheassocia:onbetweenthetwocountries.

Lisbonalsohastofaceacertainpressurefromthewhitesinthecolonies,apressurenowrelatedtotheissueofSouthAfricaninterven:on.

Evenamongthewhitesinthecoloniestherearefac:ons.Foralong:metherehasbeenabodyofopinionwhichresentedthe:ghtcontrolexercisedbytheMetrópoleoverits‘overseasci:zens'andaboveallthehightaxeswhichhavetobepaidtotheCentralGovernment.NowthattheyneedthePortuguesearmytoensurethecon:nua:onoftheirprivileges,suchdissidentshavekeptfairlyquietrecently;butifthePortuguesearmyshouldproveinadequatetothetask,theymightpressforsomealterna:vesolu:on,likeacloseassocia:onwithSouthAfrica.Thentherearethosewhohavebeenadvoca:nganeo-colonialsolu:on,independenceunderapuppetAfricanleaderwhowouldleaveprivilegesandeconomicinterestsuntouched.Thepoli:cianCunhaLeal,amemberofthe‘legalopposi:on'inLisbon,hasbeenpressingthispointofview.ThereisliGleprospect,though,thatasolu:onwillcomeoutofanysuchgroupsalone.

Certainly,therewaslogicinSalazar'sstandagainstthe‘legalopposi:on'.Forwithherweakeconomy,Portugalwouldbeunabletomaintainherinterestsinaneo-colonialsitua:on;thepastpaGernofcolonialgovernmenthasnotcreatedastrongAfricanprivilegedmiddleclasswhocouldsecurelytakeover;thelossoftheAfricanterritorieswouldunderminethepoli:calandeconomicbasisofthepresentstate.PuppetAfricanleadershavealreadybeenusedtotrytounderminetheauthorityofFRELIMOincertaindistricts,andwecanexpecttoseethistechniqueappliedmorewidelyyet;butitisveryunlikelythatLisbonwouldgoasfarastograntnominalindependencetothewholecountry.

Ontheotherhand,thelinkswithSouthAfricawillalmostcertainlygrowstronger,andtherealextentofthemwilldependmoreonSouthAfrica'sviewofthesitua:onthanonPortugal's.IncreasingmilitaryaidfromSouthAfricacannotbutmakeadifferencetotheprogressofthewar,butwedonotbelievethatitwillaltertheul:matecourse.SouthAfrica'sarmyiswelltrainedandwellequipped;butitisconsiderablysmallerthanPortugal'sAfricanarmy,andalargepartofitispermanently:eddowninSouthAfricaandSouthWestAfrica,whileatpresentapartofitisbusyhelpingtheRhodesianarmy.OurguerillasarenowsufficientlywellorganizedtomeetthethreatoflimitedSouthAfricanpar:cipa:oninthewar,andSouthAfricaisnotinaposi:ontoconcentrateherfullarmedstrengthinMozambique,evenifshewishedtodoso.

Althoughwearegraduallywinningthewarandhaveeveryreasontobelievethatwewillgoonwinning,wearewellawarethatfinalvictoryisalongwayoff.ForPortugaldoeshaveanumberofadvantages.Shehasahugearmyequippedwithmodernweapons;inMozambiquethereareatleast60,000fullyarmedPortuguesesoldiers,asagainstourpresentarmyofabout8,000guerillas,manyofwhomare

providedwithonlythebareminimumofequipmentandwithinadequateweapons.PortugalenjoysthefullsupportofSouthAfrica,therichestcountryonthecon:nent,andgetsusefulaidandsupportfromalltherichcountriesofthewest.

Certaingeologicalandsocialfactorsalsocountinherfavor.Mozambiqueisahugecountry,andasweliberatemoreareasandextendthefigh:ngregions,communica:onbecomesincreasinglydifficult.Thisisonereasonwhywecanpressonslowly.Forasthefron:erofac:onispushedforward,supplylinesmustbeproperlyorganizedbehindit.Inthisandeveryothersphere,thelackofeducatedpersonnelhitsus.Inefficiencyisoneofourbiggestproblemsandarisesbothbecausepeoplehavenothadorganiza:onaltrainingandbecausetheyhavenothadthepoli:caleduca:ontounderstandwhycertainthingshavetobedone.Thus,beforewecanoperatewithaminimumofefficiencyinanewregion,amajoreduca:onaldrivehastotakeplace.

Paradoxically,thefactthatthewarwillbedrawnoutinthiswaymayinthelongrunbeanadvantagetoourul:matedevelopment.Forwarisanextremeofpoli:calac:on,whichtendstobringaboutsocialchangemorerapidlythananyotherinstrument;andinacountryasbackwardasMozambique,rapidsocialchangewillbeessen:alaaerindependence.

Yetforthepresent,thewarisanagony;itmakespeoplehomeless,causesfamines,divertsenergyandtalentawayfromdevelopmentprojects;becauseofit,peopledieandareinjured.Wedonotchoosewarasourpathtona:onalindependence.Warwasforcedonus.Butsinceatthepresentmomentwehavenochoice,itisworthrecognizingandtryingtoexploittheconstruc:veaspectsofarmedstruggle.

Libera:onistousnotsimplyamaGerofexpellingthePortuguese:itmeansreorganizingthelifeofthecountryandsekngitontheroadtosoundna:onaldevelopment.Takingpoli:calpoweroutofthehandsofthePortugueseisanecessarycondi:onforthis,sincethePortuguesehaveconsistentlyopposedsocialprogressandhaveencouragedonlythoseeconomicdevelopmentswhichcouldbenefitasmall,almosten:relyforeignélite.Butthelibera:onmovementwillnotbeabletoclaimsuccessun:l,throughit,thepeopleachievewhatthePortuguesedeniedthem:atolerablestandardofliving;educa:on;thecondi:onsforeconomicandculturaldevelopment;theopportunitytopar:cipateintheirowngovernment.Thustheques:on‘Howlongwillthearmedstrugglelast?)isnotasimportantasitseemstobe.Whateverhappens,whetherwehavetogoonfortenortwentyyears,figh:ngourwayinchbyinchtoLourençoMarques,orwhetherthePortuguesegiveupandmovewithinthenextfewyears,ourproblemswillnotendwithindependence.Ifthewarhasbeenlong,however,thesemaybelessacute.Fortheachievementofindependenceinitselfdoesnotchangeovernighttheaktudesofthepeople,andcolonialruleessen:allydiscouragesallthequali:eswhichmakeforsuccessfuldemocracy.Amongtheuneducated,authoritarianrulediscouragesini:a:ve,asenseofpersonalresponsibility,andbreedsinsteadanaktudeofnon-coopera:onwithgovernment;amongtheeducatedfew,itencouragesaneli:smimitatedfromtheelaboratehierarchyofcolonialgovernment.Intheliberatedareas,thesearethesortofinfluenceswehavehadtocombatatthesame:meascampaigningagainsttradi:onalproblemssuchastribalism,supers::onandthegenerallowlevelofpoli:calandeconomicunderstanding.Theurgencyproducedbywarcondi:onshasforcedustorecognizetheseproblemsveryearlyandshownustheenormousimportanceofpoli:caleduca:on.Asaresult,aktudesarebeginningtochangeintheliberatedareas.Thereares:lllocaldivisions,misunderstandings,somecorrup:on,andagreatdealofsheerinefficiency;butthesearedecreasing.Peoplearebeginningtorealizethattheirfutureisnowintheirownhands.Thisiswhywecanviewthelongwaraheadofuswithreasonablecalm.IfthePortuguesegovernmentweretohandoverMozambiquetomorrow,thisworkwoulds:ll

havetobebeguninalltherestofthecountry;iftheyhangonforanotherfiveyears,anotherten,ormore,itwillhavegonemuchfurther.

SincethepointofthewaristobuildanewMozambique,notjusttodestroythecolonialrégime,wemustallhaveideasabouthowthefuturena:onshouldbeorganized;buttheissueistoofarinthefutureforustobeabletodiscussitformallyatthisstage.Ourpolicyonimmediateques:onscangivesomesortofindica:onforthefuture.ThestructureofFRELIMOcanalsoberegardedastheprecursorofana:onalpoli:calbody.Itistheessenceofthisstructure,however,thatideasshouldcomefromthepeople;thatthepersonneloftheexecu:veandCentralCommiGeearefreelyelectedandmaythereforechange.Theelectorateisgrowingallthe:measnewareasareliberatedandnewleadersareemergingatalllevels.Intenyears':me,thewholeexecu:vebodymayhavechanged.Thus,indiscussingthefutureanyfurther,Icanonlyvoicemyownprivateconvic:ons;IcannotpredictwhatwillbedecidedbyaCentralCommiGeewhichdoesnotyetexist.

Thegovernmentofanydevelopingcountryhasasitsofficialaimtheachievementofbroadlybasedeconomicandsocialprogress.Ibelievethatoneofthenecessarycondi:onsforthisistoeliminatesocialandeconomicforceswhichfavorminori:es.BythisImeannotjustracialminori:es:thesewillautoma:callylosetheirspecialprivilegeswiththeestablishmentofanAfricanstate.Inmanyrespects,agreaterdangerliesintheforma:onofnewAfricanprivilegedgroups;theeducatedasopposedtotheuneducated,factoryworkersasopposedtopeasants.Paradoxically,topreventconcentra:onofwealthandservicesinsmallareasofthecountryandinthehandsofafew,strongcentralplanningisneeded.Thiswouldmakeitpossibletodistributeteachersanddoctorsthroughoutthecountrysimplybynotallowingtoomanyjobopportuni:esinanyonearea.Similarly,industrialplannerscouldbeforcedtotakeintoaccountthelaborforce,notjusttheconvenienceofmaterialtransport;newindustrieswouldbespreadoverthecountrywheretherearepeopletoworkinthem,ratherthansitedinexis:ngtownswhicharealreadyyearsinadvanceoftheruralareas.Pricesandwagescouldberegulatedoverthecountryasawhole.Thesemeasuresinthemselveswouldhelptoevenoutthedistribu:onofincome.But,inaddi:on,itwouldbenecessarytokeepalowceilingonsalaries.Thisispar:cularlyimportantinthecaseofgovernmentpersonnel.For,oncethepeoplewithpowerinacountryenjoyaprivilegedeconomicposi:on,theyceasetosharetheproblemsthattheyareresponsibleforsolving.

Rapideconomicdevelopmentwillbenecessaryinordertorealizeanyofthesocialplans.Agriculturewillhavetobeimproved,andnumeroussmallprocessingindustriesstarted,sothatwecansa:sfyourownessen:alneedsandreduceimports.However,Idonotthinkthatthishastotakeprecedenceplansformineralextrac:onandtheestablishmentofheavyindustry.Thesemaybeslowedtobeginwithbythenecessitytoplansothatthebenefitswillbeproperlydistributed,andtheywillalmostcertainlybehamperedbyourlackoftrainedpersonnel;buttheywillnotbeneglectedbecauseofanytheoryabouttheprimacyofagriculturaldevelopment.

Ineduca:on,also,twoparallelprograms,Ibelieve,willbeneeded.Ontheonehand,thereshouldbeamassivecampaigndirectedatadultsaswellaschildrentogivethewholepopula:onaminimumstandardofeduca:on.Publichygiene,basicpoli:cs,economicsandliteracywouldformthemaincontentofthisprogram.Ontheotherhand,itwillbeessen:altoprovidespecializedtechnicalcoursesforafewpeople,inordertotrainthepersonnelneedforrunningthevariousdevelopmentprojects.Theimportantthinghereis,firstofall,thatthecoursesshouldbecloselyrelatedtotheneedsofMozambique;and,secondly,thatthefewselectedtostudytothislevelshouldnotbepermiGedotherspecialprivilegesoverandabovetheclearprivilegeofhighereduca:on.

Itwillnotbeeasytorealizethetypeofprogressdescribed,andIhavesetdowntheseideasonlyasaroughguideofhowImyselfseeourstrugglecon:nuingaaerwehavewonthewar.

Now,inthepresent,mostofourenergieshavetobedirectedtowardswinningthiswar.Onethingiscertain:thattheclockcannotbeturnedbacknow.Thechangesthathavetakenplaceinthenorthcannotbereversed;and,eveninthesouth,wherewearenotyetphysicallyfigh:ng,themythofPortuguesestrengthhasbeendestroyed.Theveryfactthatinoverafiahofthecountrythecolonialstatehasbeeneliminated,hasalreadyradicallychangedprospectsforthewholeofMozambiqueandperhapseveninthelongrunforthewholeofSouthernAfrica.