The Struggle for Democracy in Britain, Mexico and Nigeria

The Struggle for Democracy in Britain, Mexico and Nigeria

Questions for ReflectionWhat do the histories of Britain, Mexico and Nigeria have to tell us about the capacity of established power to resist popular demands for democratization? Looking at these histories, do you think that we in Canada take our democratic institutions for granted?Democratization of Britain

Saxon Invasion 5th Century AD

Saxon Culture:The origin of British democratic practices?

The Saxons brought with them a tradition of Kings whose power was limited and who required the consent of the community to governMagna Carta 1215 ADArose from a conflict between King John and a group of rebellious feudal baronsEstablished that the Kings power is not arbitrary and must be subject to the laws of the land."No freeman shall be taken, imprisoned, disseised, outlawed, banished, or in any way destroyed, nor will We proceed against or prosecute him, except by the lawful judgment of his peers and by the law of the land."

Limiting SuffrageConcerned that county elections for the English House of Parliament were becoming crowded by many persons of low estate, in 1432 King Henry VI limits the right to vote to male owners of property worth at least forty shillings.This provision would remain in place until 1832

English Civil War (1642-1647)Reasons for the English Civil WarIn 1603, Elizabeth died. She never married, so there were no heirs to continue the Tudor DynastyMary Stuarts son James I became the King of England started Stuart Dynasty in England

Reasons for the English Civil WarQueen Elizabeth recognized the importance of working with ParliamentJames I did not; believed he should be absolute monarch because of Divine Right (God chooses royal families to rule); James I did not listen to ParliamentMajor problems between Parliament & King over issues of Authority, Money, & ReligionProblems between the King and ParliamentAuthorityJames I believed in divine right and absolutism; Parliament felt king should be limited by Parliament

MoneyJames I has to ask Parliament for money to finance government and life style

Problems between the King and ParliamentReligionPuritans were members of the Anglican Church who wanted all Catholic rituals removed; Puritans were active members of Parliament & were angered when James I arranged marriage of son (Charles) to a Catholic princess

Reasons for the English Civil WarWhen James I died in 1625, his son Charles I became kingCharles was worse than James:Charles believed in divine right & absolute monarchy; refused to discuss ideas with Parliamentonly called Parliament when he needed money

Reasons for the English Civil WarParliament got fed up with Charles I & refused to give him money unless signed Petition of Rights in 1628:King could not jail people without a good reasonKing could not make taxes without Parliament's approvalKing could not keep his soldiers in peoples homes & could not use army to maintain order during peacetimeCivil WarCharles I was really mad at Parliament & refused to call another Parliament for 11 years until he needed money to end revolts in Ireland & ScotlandConflict between supporters of King (Royalists/Cavaliers) & Parliament grew so bad that a civil war was inevitable

Civil WarWar between Cavaliers (Royalists) vs Roundheads (supporters of Parliament) lasted for 5 yearsRoundheads found a strong leader in Oliver Cromwell; Cromwell and Roundheads won & behead the king (1st public execution of a king)

After the Civil WarAfter the Civil War, a Commonwealth was createdtype of government with no king & ruled by ParliamentOliver Cromwell led the Commonwealth, but did not use democracy he became a military dictator

New CommonwealthLife in the Commonwealth was harsh because it was led by Cromwell & the Puritans; Forced strict religious rules on people of England:It was illegal to go to theaters & sporting events; merrymaking & amusement were illegalCitizens hated living this way & began to want to bring back a king again

The Restoration (1660)

RestorationPeople grew tired of the severe, religious rule of Oliver Cromwell & the Puritans; many wanted a king againIn 1660, Charles Is son became King of EnglandCharles II was called the Merry Monarch because he brought back theatres, sporting events, dancing & he got along with Parliament!!

RestorationCharles II learned from the lessons of his father & grandfather:Did not try to rule by Divine Right & did not threaten Parliaments authorityPassed Habeas Corpus Laweveryone guaranteed a trial after arrest; cannot be held in jail foreverAnglicanism was official religion, but treated Puritans & Catholics equallyRestorationDuring the Restoration, Parliament strengthened the Church of Englandonly Anglicans could attend universities, serve in Parliament, be priests in Anglican Church Parliament created Constitutional Monarchy based on Magna Carta & Petition of Right (Guaranteed rights of people & limited king)RestorationBUT, there were problems:Charles II needed more money than Parliament was willing to give; so he made a secret agreement with Louis XIV of France to convert to Catholicism in exchange for moneyCharles II had no children; when he died, his openly-Catholic brother James II will be king (Parliament's worst fear!!)This is James II

Glorious RevolutionJames ignoring Parliaments religious laws, James appointed Catholics to government and university positions.Parliament was worried the throne would go to James II son who was to be raised Catholic.Encouraged William of Orange (ruler of the Netherlands who was married to James II daughter Mary) to invade and take over.

Glorious Revolution (Cont)James II fled to France when he realized he had little support from England.This peaceful transfer of power was called the Glorious Revolution.William and MaryWilliam and Mary swore an oath that they would govern the people of England.Parliament passed the Bill of Rights.This passage made it clear that Parliament was in control.Thus was created what is considered the first modern state.

The Gradual March to Universal SuffrageReform Act 1832 - extended voting rights to adult males who rented propertied land of a certain value, so allowing 1 in 7 males in the UK voting rights Reform Act 1867 - enfranchised all male householdersRepresentation of the People Act 1884 - amended the Reform Act of 1867 so that it would apply equally to the countryside; 40% of males were still disenfranchised, whilst women could not vote Representation of the People Act 1918 - Property restrictions for voting were lifted for men, who could vote at 21; however women's votes were given with these property restrictions, and were limited to those over 30 years old. Representation of the People Act 1928 - this made women's voting rights equal with men, with voting possible at 21 with no property restrictions Representation of the People Act 1969 - extension of suffrage to those 18 and olderThe Struggle for Democracy in Mexico

Colonial EraSlaughter and enslavement of indigenous people by SpanishDispossession of indigenous communal lands by Spanish settlersBartolom de las Casas

Colonial EraFrom an eyewitness account in Carib Islands 1519: Some Christians encountered an Indian woman, who was carrying in her arms a child at suck; and since the dog they had with them was hungry, they tore the child from the mothers arms and flung it still living to the dog, which proceeded to devour him before the mothers eyesColonial Era: Caste SystemPeninsulares: the permanent residence colonists born in SpainCriollos: people of pure or mostly Spanish ancestry born in the coloniesMestizos: people of mixed Spanish and Amerindian or African heritageAmerindiansAfrican SlavesMexican War of IndependenceWhile Spain is distracted with Napoleon's invasion, Criollos unhappy with Spanish rule see an opportunityMiguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a local priest and member of a group of educated Criollos in Quertaro began to assemble a revolutionary army in 1810Declared independence from the Spanish crown with the Cry of Dolores

Mexican War of IndependenceAfter some initial victories against the Spanish, Hidalgos army was defeated attempting to capture Mexico City.Hidalgo was captured and along with other rebel leaders was executed and had his body publicly mutilated.

Mexican War of IndependenceFollowing Hidalgos death another RC Priest, Jos Mara Morelos took over the revolutionary forces attempting to establish a Mexican republic.Following the restoration of the Spanish King by Napoleon, the Spanish were able to fight backMorelos captured and killed for treason in 1815

Mexican War of Independence

1815-1820 Civil War between rebel republicans and conservative monarchists.Conservative forces lead by Agustn de Iturbide

Mexican War of IndependenceIturbides forces were on the edge of finally crushing the rebels when a coup detat in Spain dethroned the King and established a liberal constitution.Iturbide and the Mexican conservative monarchists were horrified at this turn of events. They proposed an alliance with the rebels based on 3 elements for independent Mexico: an independent constitutional monarchy, a religious monopoly for the Catholic Church, and equality for Spaniards and creolesMexican War of IndependenceMexican independence was achieved in 1821 with the signing of the Treaty of CordobaAs the Spanish monarchy had been restored Iturbide crowned himself EmperorThis controversial move kicked off a 40 year period of political instability that say 50 changes in government

Post IndependenceContinued confiscation of Indigenous communal lands by wealthy land ownersElection of Benito Juarez in 1861, Mexicos 1st and only indigenous President did not change this trend.

Stability and Dictatorship

The 1876 election of Porfirio Daz began a 30 year period known as The PorfiriatoThis period was marked by fixed elections, cronyism, industrialization and the continued encroachments on indigenous lands Strong links established with foreign investors including British Petroleum and Standard Oil

The PorfiriatoDiaz won his first campaign on the slogan no re-election, a principal he would violate again and again by running for re-electionIn 1908 Diaz made public statements that Mexico was ready for democracy Francisco Madero, a wealthy land owner from the North emerged as a popular political rival.Diaz had him imprisoned (he later escaped to Texas) and then proceeded to fix yet another election.

Mexican RevolutionTired of Diaz revolutionary peasant movements demanding land reform are formedEmiliano Zapata organized peasants from southern MexicoFrancisco Pancho Villa organized peasants from northern MexicoUnderstood new technologymachine gunsUnderstood role of media better than most

Mexican RevolutionFrancisco Madero returned as a political rival to DiazWith the Zapatista and Northern Villa armies surrounding Mexico, Madero negotiated Diazs surrender. Elections were then held which Madero won with the support of Zapata and Villa

Mexican Revolution

Following his election Madero turned his back on commitments for land reform and betrayed Zapata and Villa by reappointing several Diaz menZapata and Villa then returned to hostilities against the governmentMexican RevolutionIn the ensuing chaos conservative constitutionalist forces regrouped with US arms on the coast at VerracruzThey captured the capital, installing Venustiano Carranza as leader.

49Mexican Revolution

To consolidate his power Carranza accepted concessions to the 1917 constitution which would grant rights to organized labour, limit the power of the Church and begin a process of land reform.However the new constitution would concentrate enormous power in the executive branch of governmentMexican RevolutionCarranza was succeeded by Obregon and Calles who continued the trend towards liberalization while consolidating power and attacking revolutionary movements

Birth of the PRI

In 1929 Calles ran with National Mexican Party (PNM) which would later be renamed Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI)Through its connections with wealthy land lords and industrialists and its control of organized labour and peasant groups, this party would monopolize all branches of Mexican government, often through corrupt and violent means until 1988The PRI claimed itself to be the only party with a legitimate connection to the Mexican RevolutionUniversal SuffrageWhile all men were granted the right to vote in 1917, full universal suffrage involving men and women was not achieved until 1953Democratization and Decolonization in Nigeria

The Scramble for Africa 1881-1914

The Scramble for Africa 1881-1914

Colonial Era

Ethnic Map of Nigeria

Ethnic Map of Nigeria

Colonial Map of Nigeria

Colonial EraIn 1914 the British united the territory of Nigeria under their ruleThey then divided Nigeria into a Northern and Southern territoryThe Southern province was the territory of the Yoruba and Igbo people.This province was ruled directly by the BritishThe British attempted to Westernize and Christianize the people of Southern NigeriaThey also permitted a limited form of representative democracy in the South

Colonial EraThe Northern territory was ruled indirectly by the British, relying on the traditional political structures to control the territory. They did this by co-opting local community leaders know as EmirsThe differences in how the British governed the North and South aggravated pre-existing ethnic tensions and set the stage for the decades if political instability that would follow independence Gradual Democratization from AboveFollowing WWII a wave of anti-colonial movements swept Africa, Asia and Latin America. These movements were centred on demands for sovereignty and political and economic equality.Wanting to avoid the emergence of a radical movement that would threaten its economic interests, the British began a gradual process of democratization in Nigeria

Gradual Democratization from AboveThe Clifford constitution of 1922 created a legislative assembly for the South but not the NorthThe Richards constitution of 1946 extended the legislative assembly to the NorthThe Macpherson constitution of 1950 created a federal system whereby the various regions of Nigeria enjoyed a degree of regional autonomy. Only the Igbo enjoyed universal suffrage for men.

IndependenceGranted by the British1st Prime Minister Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (Haussa):Words cannot adequately express my joy and pride at being the Nigerian citizen privileged to accept from Her Royal Highness these Constitutional Instruments which are the symbols of Nigerias Independence Each step of our constitutional advance has been purposefully and peacefully planned with full and open consultation, not only between representatives of all the various interests in Nigeria but in harmonious cooperation with the administering power which has today relinquished its authority. The First Republic1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and former Governor General Nnamdi Azikiwe (Igbo) became the country's first President.Prior to the elections of 1965 the leader of the main opposition party (Yaruba) was imprisonedThis discredited the elections which were won by a coalition between the party representing Muslims in North and Southwest.Military Rule and Civil WarFollowing the corrupt election of 1965 a group of Igbo generals overthrew the government.The Igbo territory then declared independence leading to the outbreak of a civil war that became know as the Biafra warDecades of DisfunctionREPUBLIC 1: PARLIAMENTARY FEDERALISM1960-1966___________________________

Military Authoritarianism1966 1966-1973 CIVIL WAR 1967-19701973-1979_____________________________________

Republic II: PRESIDENTIALISM 1979-1983____________________________________

MILITARY AUTHORITARIANISM1985 1998________________________________________

REPUBLIC III: PRESIDENTIALISM 1999 FORWARD

The Second Republic 1979-1983Oil was discovered in Nigeria in 1950During the second republic there was a sharp spike in global oil prises.Struggles to control the newfound oil wealth lead to growing corruption and the overthrow of the second republic and the return to military rule

Coup DEtat 19831983 General Muhammadu Buhari overthrows the governmentClaims this is to clean up corruption and improve the economyDeclared War Against Indiscipline, which resulted in the arrest, detention, and jailing of a number of politicians and later journalists.

Coup DEtat 1983The constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979) has been suspended The change became necessary in order to put an end to the serious economic predicament and the crisis of confidence now afflicting our nationIt is true that there is a worldwide economic recession. However, in the case of Nigeria, its impact was aggravated by mismanagement The last general election was anything but free and fair. The only political parties that could complain of election rigging are those parties that lacked the resources to rig The economy will be given a new impetus and better sense of direction.Corrupt officials and their agents will be brought to book This generation of Nigerians, and indeed future generations, have no country other than Nigeria. We shall remain here and salvage it together.

Coup DEtat 1985In 1985 Buhari was overthrown by General Ibrahim Babanigida who wanted to restore civil liberties and bring in a democratic constitutionBehind the scenes he acted to undermine democracy and keep his control

Coup DEtat 19851992 Babanigda cancelled presidential elections 1993 Free and fare presidential elections held but Babanigda annulled the results before they were made public

Coup DEtat 1993Through a series of bloodless coups and military threats, General Sani Abacha seized control of Nigeria from 93-98Abacha's regime demolished any semblence of democratic institutions put in place by his predecessors and was accused of multiple human rights violations Execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa (a journalist and an activist) Imprisonment of former President and Nigerian Army General Olusegun Obasanjo (for treason; would later serve as President again from '99-'07)

The Third RepublicAbacha died of a heart attack in June 1998 leaving General Abdulsalami Abubakar to take officeNew constitution for the Federal Republic of NigeriaMulti-party elections that mandated some sort of party affiliation for elligibility of office (a way of keeping military leaders who have no political affiliations from becoming legitimate)1999 Olusegun Obasanjo elected President

The Third RepublicObasanjo (Yoruba) served two term limit, 1999-2007

Obasanjo handed over power to Yar Adua 2007 after an election widely recognized as corrupt

A Future of Goodluck?Yar Adua died in 2010 causing his Vice president Goodluck Jonathan to assume the PresidencyIn 2011 Goodluck Jonathan was elected in an election that was recognized by international observers as free and fair.