the structure and function of macromolecules chapter 5
TRANSCRIPT
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The Structure and Function of
MacromoleculesChapter 5
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• Macromolecules - larger molecules made from smaller ones.
• 4 major classes of macromolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
• 3 of these are polymers because they are made from individual building blocks called monomers.
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• Monomers - joined together through condensation or dehydration reaction (form macromolecules)
• Requires energy; uses covalent bonds (links together monomers)
• Water produced.
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Water produced as by-product
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• Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers.
• Water added to polymer; breaks bonds, creates monomers (i.e. digestive process in animals)
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Carbohydrates
• 1Carbohydrates - sugars (monomers) and polymers.
• AMonosaccharides - simple sugars.• BDisaccharides - double sugars
(monosaccharides linked together)• CPolysaccharides - polymers of
monosaccharides.• Sugars named with –ose.
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• Monosaccharides needed for cellular work.
• Help to synthesize other macromolecules.
• 2 monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage to form disaccharide via dehydration.
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• Maltose - 2 glucose molecules.• Sucrose - 1 glucose, 1 fructose.
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• Polysaccharides - energy storage.
• Starch - energy storage polysaccharide for plants.
• Starch stored in plants plastids.• Herbivores access starch for
energy.
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• Animals store energy as glycogen.• Humans - in liver and muscles.• Cellulose – polysaccharide; plant
cell walls.• Many herbivores cannot digest
cellulose (develop relationships with microbes)
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• Chitin - polysaccharide - makes up exoskeleton of arthropods (like crustaceans).
• Chitin - found in fungi; functions as structural support.
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Chitin is used in surgery
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Lipids• Lipids - no polymers (exception)• Lipids nonpolar (no affinity for
water)• Fat made from glycerol and fatty
acids.• Glycerol - 3 carbon molecule with
hydroxyl group and fatty acid; consists of carboxyl group attached to long carbon skeleton.
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• The 3 fatty acids in a fat can be same or different.
• No carbon-carbon double bonds, molecule is saturated fatty acid (hydrogen at every possible position)
• Form bad fats - solid at room temperature (butter, lard)
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No double-double bonds
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• 1+ carbon-carbon double bonds - molecule is unsaturated fatty acid - formed by removal of hydrogen atoms from carbon skeleton.
• Form good fats - liquid at room temperature (oils)
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• Purpose of fat - energy storage. • Gram of fat stores 2X as much
energy as gram of polysaccharide.
• Fat also cushions vital organs.• Layer of fat can also function as
insulation.
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• Phospholipids - 2 fatty acids attached to glycerol, phosphate group at 3rd position.
• Fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, phosphate group and attachments form hydrophilic head.
• When phospholipids added to water, self-assemble with hydrophobic tails pointing toward center, hydrophilic heads on outside.
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• Phospholipids in cell form bilayer; major component of cell membrane.
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Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic
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• Steroids - lipids with carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused carbon rings.
• Cholesterol - component in animal cell membranes.
• Cholesterol – also forms hormones (i.e. testosterone, estrogen)
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Cholesterol
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Proteins
• Proteins - support, storage, transport, defenses, and enzymes.
• Made in ribosomes in cell.• Proteins - amino acids linked
together to form polymer.• 20 different amino acids that can
be linked together to form thousands of different proteins.
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• Amino acids link - polypeptides - combine to form proteins.
• Amino acids made of hydrogen atom, carboxyl group, amino group, variable R group (or side chain).
• R group makes amino acids different from one another.
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• Amino acids joined by peptide bonds when dehydration reaction.
• Shape of protein determines function.
• Shapes - 3 dimensional - determined by sequence of amino acids.
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• Primary structure of protein - linear sequence of amino acids.
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• Secondary structure - hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along polypeptide backbone.
• Two shapes are usually formed: alpha coils or beta sheets.
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• Tertiary structure determined by the interactions among R groups.
• Interactions include hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and ionic bonds.
• Disulfide bridges help stabilize form.
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• Quarternary structure - joining of 2+ polypeptide subunits.
• Collagen and hemoglobin examples.
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• Protein’s shape can change due to environment.
• pH, temperature, or salinity (salt concentrations) change - protein can denature (starts to fall apart)
• Some proteins can return to functional shape after denaturation, others cannot, especially in crowded environment of cell.
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Nucleic acids
• Amino acid sequence of polypeptide programmed by a gene (regions of DNA, polymer of nucleic acids)
• 2 types of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
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• DNA gives information so RNA can create proteins.
• Flow of genetic information - DNA -> RNA -> protein.
• Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes.
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• Monomers of nucleic acids - nucleotides.
• Nucleotides made up of 3 parts: nitrogen base, five-carbon sugar, and phosphate group.
• Nitrogen bases, rings of carbon and nitrogen, come in 2 types: purines and pyrimidines.
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• Pyrimidines - cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U in RNA only).
• Purines - adenine (A) and guanine (G).
• Pyrimidines - single six-membered ring; purines - five-membered ring.
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• In RNA - sugar is ribose; DNA - sugar is deoxyribose.
• Difference between sugars is lack of oxygen atom on carbon two in deoxyribose.
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• RNA single-stranded - linear shape.
• DNA forms double helix.• Sugar and phosphate forms
backbone of double helix while nitrogen bases form connection between backbones.
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• Adenine (A) always pairs with thymine (T) guanine (G) with cytosine (C).
• Know sequence of one side of double helix - figure out other.
• Two strands are complementary.
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• DNA used to show evolutionary similarities between species.
• Two species that appear to be closely-related based on fossil and molecular evidence also more similar in DNA and protein sequences than more distantly related species.
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