the structural analysis of the hindi and south-east asian

ANTROPOLOGI INDONESIA 75, 2004 101

The Structural Analysis of the Hindi and South-EastAsian Versions of the Indian Epic, the Ramayana:

With Particular Reference to Hindi, Javanese, and Thai Versions

Ye-kyoum Kim

(Seoul National University)

Abstrak

Penulis membahas tiga versi Ramayana; dari India, Jawa dan Thailand. Ketiganya dikajidengan pendekatan strukturalisme Levi-Strauss yang melihat hubungan intrinsik dalam setiapversi narasi tersebut. Kemudian dilihat hubungan struktur di antara ke tiganya. Bertolakdari kajian itu, penulis menyimpulkan ada implikasi sosial-budaya di Asia Tenggara, yaitu 1)Ramayana dapat berperan sebagai mediator yang menghubungkan teks dengan konteksnya.2) Ramayana juga berperan sebagai stimulasi untuk menguatkan sistem nilai dan menyatukansecara intrinsik sistem-sistem nilai yang ada dalam berbagai kebudayaan di Asia Tenggara.

Rama and Sita as Described in the Hindi Version of the Ramayana

ANTROPOLOGI INDONESIA 75, 2004102

IntroductionThe Indian epic, the Ramayana, dates back

to about the fourth century BCE according torecent studies. It was composed by Valmiki inthe classical language of Indian Sanskrit. Al-most every individual living in India is awareof the story of the Ramayana, to some degreeor other. The Ramayana pervades their socio-cultural life in one form or another at all times(Narayan 1972:ix). Coming into South-East Asiawith Hinduism, the Ramayana has had diverseimplications for the cultures of the region. Hin-duism has mingled with other indigenous val-ues in the South-East Asian region, producinga complex socio-cultural syncretism which dif-fers from culture to culture in the region. Inthis context, the Ramayana itself has changedto accommodate the local culture and, in sodoing, developed into a number of variant sto-ries, while much of the original content hasremained common to all versions of the text.

Bearing in mind the development andcontextualisation of the Ramayana, the aim ofthis article is to analyse, using the structural

analysis (especially Claude Lévi-Strauss’s ideaof ‘bundles of relations’ and systemic analysismethods), the variant versions (Hindi,Javanese, and Thai) of the Ramayana and thento attempt to describe their socio-cultural im-plications in moulding the systems of value inSouth-East Asia. The reason why I choose theIndian version in Hindi, the Javanese versionillustrated in the Indonesian shadow puppetshow (wayang kulit), and the Thai version re-edited by King Rama I of Siam is on thegrounds that they are generally recognised asthe most pervasive and representative in eachcountry in the matters of language, the socio-cultural popularity of the shadow show, andthe editor respectively.

In the following part, I will introduce ClaudeLévi-Strauss’s structural interpretation ofmyths. Then, I will present the Ramayana(Hindi version, Javanese version, and Thaiversion) in general. This article will then pro-ceed to analyse their structures and contents.I will conclude by sketching the socio-culturalimplications of the Ramayana in the South-

Rama and Sinta as Shadow Image in the Javanese Shadow Puppet Show


East Asian context, in moulding systems ofvalue in South-East Asia.

Claude Lévi-Strauss’s structural inter-pretation of myths

In studies of myth, anthropologists, andalso folklorists, point out that myth is eitherstrongly structured and logical, or emotionaland pre-logical, traditional and primitive, or partof contemporary ideology. Dealing with suchconfusion, it may be suggested that studieson myth form two large classes: 1) ‘critical’theory of myth; and 2) ‘applied’ writing aboutmyth. The first class deals with the basic as-sumptions about myths, it chiefly prescribeswhat the concept of ‘myth’ is and how it should,therefore, be studied and used. The secondclass seeks primarily to use the ideas of myth.In this classification, the structural analysis ofClaude Lévi-Strauss may belong to the firstcategory (Strenski 1987:1).

Lévi-Strauss sees myth as a ‘universal’ and‘timeless’ dimension of operational modes of thehuman mind in the social world. As he puts it:

They (myths) made it possible to discover op-erational modes of the human mind, which haveremained so constant over the centuries, and areso widespread (....) that we assume them to befundamental and can seek to find them in othersocieties and in other areas of mental life, wheretheir presence is not suspected (Lévi-Strauss1981:627).

And,

A myth always refers to events alleged to havetaken place long ago. But what gives the mythan operational value is that the specific patterndescribed is timeless; it explains the present andthe past as well as the future (Lévi-Strauss1978:209).

Lévi-Strauss’s main methodological contri-bution to the interpretation of myth as a ‘uni-versal’ and ‘timeless’ dimension of operationalmodes of the human mind is surely a radicalshift from the ‘isolated-approach’ to the search

for common ground in the study of myth: notjust the study of ‘text’ but of ‘text’ in ‘context’on the basis of ‘bundles of relations’. As heconvincingly says:

The very core of our argument: The true con-stituent units of a myth are not the isolatedrelations but bundles of such relations, and it isonly as bundles that these relations can be putto use and combined so as to produce a meaning(Lévi-Strauss 1978:211).

To Lévi-Strauss, the meaning of the mythis thus internally linked to its textual ‘struc-ture’ in the given context. According to Lévi-Strauss, a myth consists of all its versions: thereis no one ‘authentic’ version (Lévi-Strauss1978:216-217). It follows from this that a struc-tural analysis should take them all into account,a view underpinned by the belief that when allthe versions, sub-versions and secondaryelaborations have been examined, a structurallaw common to them all will be the final out-come, and that this law is the governing law ofthe myth as a whole (Clammer 1978:25). In otherwords, Lévi-Strauss’s interpretation of mythsrelies on a sorting out and rearrangement ofthe narrative features in all the versions of themyth (Dorson 1972:36).

For the purpose of this article, I will employthe structural properties of Lévi-Strauss’s in-terpretation of myths, especially the idea of‘bundles of relations’ and ‘systemic analysisof various versions of the myth by sorting outand rearranging’. First of all, in the followingsection, I will present variant versions of theRamayana.

Hindi version of the ‘Ramayana’(Mackenzie 1910:1-180)Prelude [H-?]

Once upon a time, there were two mighty king-doms in sun-bright Hindustan. These wereKosala, whose King was Dasaratha, father ofRama, and Mithila, which was ruled over byJanaka, the father of beauteous Sita. Kosala was


full of glory, prosperity and happiness. Therealso lived Ravana, the monarch of demons, inLanka. He oppressed all gods and obstructedsacrifices and despoiled the Brahmans. So Vishnusaid gods to go toward the earth and assume theguise of apes, and Vishnu divided himself intofour parts and was incarnated in the four sonsof Dasaratha: Rama, Bharata, Lakshmana, andSatrughna. Rama was once sent to kill a demon,Taraka. After the mission a hermit took Rama tothe court of Janaka, where Rama surpassed allhis rivals in an archery contest and won thebeautiful princess Sita for his bride.

Rama banished [H-?]Dasaratha was growing old. So he appointedRama to Yuvarajah [Young Raja]. But while thecoronation was being prepared, Kaikeyi, motherof Bharata, reminded Dasaratha that he hadvowed to grant her two boons, and demandedthe fourteen-year banishment of Rama and theinstallation of Bharata as Yuvarajah. In the end,Rama, Sita and Lakshmana took their departuretoward the jungle of Chitra-kuta. Soon after,Dasaratha died in great grief.

Sita abducted by Ravana [H-?]One day, in the jungle Sita was abducted byRavana and was taken to Lanka. On the way,Jatayus, Monarch of Vultures, tried to rescueSita, but only to sacrifice his life.

Rama and his ally search for Sita [H-?]Rama and Lakshmana started his vain search forSita. On Rishyamukha mountain, they metSugriva, King of the Vanars, and Hanuman, acounsellor of the Ape King. They then gainedarmies of apes in countless numbers. At first,Hanuman resolved to visit Lanka to discoverwhere Sita had been hidden. On his return fromLanka, preparations were at once begun to res-cue Sita. But they faced a vast sea between themain land and the island of Lanka. So, with hisCelestial weapons, Rama demanded that theKing of Ocean allow them to construct a bridgeto Lanka. After that, in five days the strait wasspanned.

Rama defeats Ravana and returns to Kosalawith Sita [H-?; ?]

In the end, after the great battle with Ravana,Rama and his allies rescued Sita. Then Ramaand his wife returned to Kosala. Rama wascrowned on the morrow amidst the rejoicing ofthe people, and prosperity returned once againto the kingdom.

Sad ending [H-?]Time went past, but the sorrows of Sita werenot ended. The people whispered against theinnocent queen, doubting her virtue, because shehad been taken away by Ravana. At length Ramabanished Sita from the kingdom. Sixteen yearslater, in the hermitage of Valmiki, Rama cameacross Sita with his two sons. But Sita refusedto come to Rama and disappeared before theeyes of people. Then Brahma appeared and said“well thou knowest that life is but a dream, abubble of water.”

Eventually Rama ascended to heaven, and asVishnu, found Sita, who was the goddessLakshmi.

Javanese version of ‘Ramayana’(Haditjaroko 1988:64-71)Prelude [J-?]

Once upon a time, there was once a vast coun-try, called Kosala, which was known far andwide as a great and glorious land. This happyand prosperous country was governed by anoble king Dasarata, who always put his sub-jects’ interests before his own. He had four chil-dren: Rama, Barata, Lesmana and Satrugna.

Rama banished [J-?]

In consultation with his people, the aged kingDasarata appointed Rama his heir. While prepa-rations for Rama’s coronation was begun, how-ever, the king’s other wife Kekayi, remindedhim of a vow made to her long ago, in whichDasarata had promised to fulfil anything shemight wish. Kekayi demanded the banishmentof Rama and the coronation of her own sonBarata. Eventually, Rama honoured his father’sobligation and went into exile, in the forest ofDandaka, followed by his wife Sinta and hisbrother Lesmana. The banishment of Rama wassoon followed by Dasarata’s death in sorrow.

Sinta kidnapped by Rawana [J-?]

One day, Sinta was kidnapped by the king ofdemons, Rawana, who ruled Alengka. Rawana


took Sinta to his kingdom. On the way Jathayu,king of birds, tried in vain to rescue Sinta byattacking Rawana in flight, Jathayu was mor-tally wounded in the fight and only managed totell Rama of Sinta’s abduction before dying.

Rama and his ally cooperate to search for Sinta[J-?]

The great search began. Wandering withLesmana through the dense and dangerouswoods and in the Reksamuka mountain, Ramain vain sought some traces of Sinta. In the moun-tain, eventually, Rama gained powerful allies:the king of the Wanaras, Sugriwa, Hanuman andso on. As the first step towards rescuing Sinta,Hanuman volunteered to investigate Alengkawhere Sinta was captive. After Hanuman’s re-turn, Rama and his allies left for Alengka, keep-ing in mind the saying: ‘By mutual confidenceand mutual aid! Great deeds are done and greatdiscoveries made!’

Happy ending [J-?; ?]

In the end, they defeated Rawana and rescuedSinta. Then Rama and Sinta returned to theirnative land Kosala. Under Rama’s wise gover-nance, Kosala progressed from strength tostrength, becoming daily more prosperous andmore pleasant.

Thai version ‘Ramayana’ [Ramakien](King Rama I of Siam 1967:11-101)Prelude [T-?]

Once upon a time, there were two cities:Ayudhaya built by Shiva for men and Lankabuilt by Brahma for the giants. One day Nonduk,a giant serving Shiva in heaven, was incarnatedas Ravana, the wicked king of Lanka, after fight-ing with the god Narayana, father of Anomatanwho was the first king of Ayudhaya. There wasa town called Saket near to Ayudhaya. Its kingwas Kodom. He had a wife called Nang Ajna.She bore him a daughter named Nang Savaha.But she was so adulterous that she made love tothe god Indra and the Sun god. Then she borethem two sons. Knowing her adultery, Kodomcursed the two sons to be turned into monkeys:one into a green monkey known as Palee, theother one into a red monkey known as Sugriva.Afterwards Nang Savaha bore the Wind god ason called Hanuman. Near to Ayudhaya was

another city called Kaiyaket with a king of thesame name ruling over it. Kaiyaket had a daugh-ter called Kaiyakesi. Having heard that Achabarn,the king of Ayudhaya, had a son called Tosarot,Kaiyaket wanted his daughter to marry Tosarot.Then they got married. So Tosarot had threequeens: Kaosuriya, Samutra and Kaiyakesi. Oneday Tosarot was called to fight a wicked giant inthe heaven. During the fight Kaiyakesi savedTosarot’ life. Then he promised her that what-ever she asked of him would never be refused.

Once the god Narayana, together with the god-dess Lakshami and many other gods, was rein-carnated to protect all living beings from theaggressiveness of the giants. Narayana was bornto Kaosuriya as Rama, and three brothers werealso born after him: Lakshaman, Barata andSatru. Lakshami was born in Lanka to Ravana.But soon she was put in a glass bowl and floateddown the stream. She was found by the hermitJanaka, the former king of Mithila, and broughtup by him. She was given the name of Sita.After that, he went back to his kingdom andruled as before. When Sita grew of age, Janakasought a husband for her. Finding Rama, hewanted Sita to marry Rama and they got mar-ried.

Rama refuses the throne and goes into exile [T-?]

Tosarot was growing old and wanted Rama tosucceed him. When the news was known toKaiyakesi, mother of Barata and Satru, she be-came very jealous. So she reminded Tosarot ofthe promise made to her, and asked that Baratasucceed him to the throne for fourteen yearsfirst and that Rama should come to the throneafterwards. So Rama himself refused to acceptthe throne and went into a forest with Lakshamanand Sita.

Sita stolen away by Ravana [T-?]One day, in the forest, Ravana stole away Sitafrom Rama and took her to Lanka. On the wayto Lanka, he encountered Sadayu, a huge bird.Sadayu sacrificed himself trying to save Sita fromRavana.

Rama and his allies search for Sita [T-?]

Rama and Lakshaman began searching for Sita.At Katliwan Forest, they came across Hanuman.


On seeing Rama, Hanuman recalled his mother’swords to wait for Rama and join his service.Hanuman went back and brought Sugriva, whovolunteered to go and fight by the side of Ramawith all his army. So Rama gained allies instrength. As the first step, Hanuman investi-gated Lanka with a selected group of soldiers.Then they built up a bridge to Lanka across thesea.

Rama defeats Ravana and returns to Ayudhyawith Sita [T-?; ?; ?]

After the fierce fight with Ravana and his enor-mous army, Rama and his allies defeated theirenemy and at last saved Sita. But Sita would notcome to meet Rama because she could not showher purity was unsullied by her kidnapping. Butshe was proven innocent by walking safelythrough an ordeal of fire. Then they came backto Ayudhya, and Rama was crowned the king.

Sita accused of unfaithfulness [T-?]But the battle with Ravana’s friends was stillgoing on. By the time the battle was over, aghost of a giantess called Adula, a far relative ofRavana tempted Sita by drawing Ravana’s face.Seeing the picture, Rama thought she was un-faithful. Then he ordered Lakshaman to take heraway and have her executed. But Lakshamanallowed her to go away on her own into a forest.In the forest she met a hermit called Vajmarika.Sita was already pregnant before she left thepalace and very soon gave birth to a son calledMongkut. The hermit also made Sita a son calledLob with a sacred ceremony. One day Ramacame across the two boys and found that theywere his sons. He also met Sita there. But thoughshe permitted Rama to take away her two sons,she refused to come along.

Happy ending [T-?]

After a good while, Shiva ordered and beggedthat they be reconciled. Then they were recon-ciled. But there still remained an attack by awicked giant and his son. So Rama sent his sonand his brother to fight them. In the end, all theenemies were destroyed and peace and unityreigned once more in Ayudhaya.

Structural analysisIn this section, I will move on to analyse

the Ramayana versions within a structural

framework so that we may draw their socio-cultural implications in their contexts out of thestructural difference and contexualisation. I willdivide this section into two parts: structuralarrangement and structural comparison.

Structural arrangement I: the content

Common features of the content shared inthe Ramayana versions are that: i) Rama isbanished into exile; ii) Sita (Sinta) is stolen awayby Ravana (Rawana); iii) Rama gains monkeyallies and they defeat Ravana (Rawana). Onthe other hand, however, distinctive elementsalso exist in each version. First, in the ‘Prelude’it appears that each version gives a unique set-ting of the whole plot, according to its socio-cultural context. Thus, while the Hindi versionstresses the Hinduistic elements, the incarna-tion of the Vedic gods and the inevitable con-flict between the good gods and the evil gods,the Javanese version puts emphasis on thesyncretistic stories of heroes and the Thai ver-sion gives attention to the Buddhist conceptof the ‘Wheel of Life’ (Circulation) and the‘Karma’ achieved by good and evil merits andthe indispensable struggle between good andevil. Second, in the ending part, the Javaneseversion results in a happy ending after the de-feat of Rawana and rescue of Sinta, whereasthe Hindi version closes its story with a sadending, due to the doubt of Sita’s purity. TheThai version has an ultimate happy ending butis rather complicated, since Sita comes throughtwo stages of transition to prove her purity(see Table 1).

Structural arrangement II: the structure

Although there are distinctions betweenthem in the content of the ‘Prelude’ and ‘end-ing part’, the three versions also apparentlyshare similarities in the structure as a whole. Inthe ‘Prelude’, for example, a similar structural


pattern of moving on to the main body is foundin each version. Similarly, in the ‘ending part’ itis revealed that each version has similar struc-tural components. In other words, the system-atic analysis of the structure of each Ramayanaversion reveals that the original content of theHindi version is developed and evencontexualised with and in each socio-culturalcontext, while the structural implications stillremain underneath the plot (see Chart 1).

Hindi version Javanese version Thai version

H-? Prelude (Incarnation;Good-Evil)

J-? Prelude T-? Prelude (Circulation;Cause-Effect )

H-? Rama banished J-? Rama banished T-? Rama refuses the throneand goes into exile

H-? Sita abducted by Ravana J-? Sinta kidnapped byRawana

T-? Sita stolen away byRavana

H-? Rama and his ally searchfor Sita

J-? Rama and his allycooperate to search for Sinta

T-? Rama and his ally searchfor Sita

H-? Rama defeats Ravanaand saves Sita

J-? Rama defeats Rawanaand saves Sinta

T-? Rama defeats Ravana andsaves Sita

T-? Sita proves her purity bygoing through the ordeal of fire

H-? Returns to Kosala withSita

J-? Happy ending (Ramareturns to Dasarata withSinta)

T-? Rama returns to Ayudhyawith Sita

T-? Sita accused ofUnfaithfulness

H-? Sad ending (Sita's puritydoubted)

T-? Happy ending (Sitareconciled with Rama)

Table 1Structural arrangement of the Ramayana: the content

Structural arrangement III: the origin of themain characters

The most complicated and diverse featureof the Ramayana is the origins of the main char-acters. As mentioned in ‘Structural arrangementI’, and mainly described in the ‘Prelude’, theorigins of the main characters, that is, how theyoriginate, and the process through which theyincarnate, and even why they originate, implythe socio-cultural context.


Taking some examples, in the Hindi version,the incarnation of Vishnu into Rama is causedby the ultimate conflict between the good godsand the evil god. In the Thai version, however,the origins of the main characters are to a cer-tain extent intertwined with their merit accord-

Chart 1Structural arrangement the Ramayana: the structure

ing to the Law of Circulation. On the other hand,in the Javanese version, there is insufficientexplanation of the origin of the heroes. Instead,the syncretistic stories of the heroes permeatethe proposed plot of the Javanese version ofRamayana (see Chart 2).


Chart 2Structural arrangement of the Ramayana: the origin of the main characters

Structural comparison I: the mediator ofdual structuration

In the structural arrangements, theRamayana retains common features in eachversion. The dualistic opposition [conflict be-tween good and evil] is the predominant ele-

ment in the structural flow of the plot. In otherwords, the intrinsic aspect of the Ramayana isthe ultimate conflict between good and evil.

As shown in Table 2, The primary agentsof the conflict are Rama and Ravana (Rawana),and in the process of dual structuring, apes


and giants play the roles of secondary media-tors. The way the dual structuring is arranged,however, emerges in heterogeneous or semi-homogeneous style according to the socio-cultural contexts (Hinduistic, syncretistic, andBuddhist). The dual structuring is well demon-strated in Table 3.

Structural comparison II: the type oftransitory action

In the scene of building a bridge to Lanka[Alengka], we find different types of transitoryaction in the process of structuration towardsthe ultimate victory of the good in theRamayana versions (see Table 4). The differ-ent transitory actions give us a clue to the op-erational value system found in the differentsocio-cultural contexts in which the Ramayanaversions were developed and contextualised.Bridging is an analogy shared in each version,in that the transitory actions play the role ofoperational ‘hinges’ between the actions of thegood and predetermined events. Bridging givesrise to the socio-cultural transition of the good(Rama and Sinta [Sita]) from ‘separation’through transition to ‘(re)-incorporation’ interms of ‘structuration’ towards the victory ofthe good. However, while in the Hindi versionthe transitory action implies such Hinduisticelements as propitiating sacrifices, in theJavanese version it is based on the syncretis-tic Javanese virtue of Gotong-Royong (mutual

confidence and mutual aid) and in the Thai ver-sion it is described within even longer stagesin terms of the sophisticated mechanisms ofgood and evil.

Comparison III: ending

The ending part in each version highlightsthe socio-cultural implications of theRamayana in each context. The Hindi versionseems to seek ultimate spiritual happiness,which may be achieved after realising that ‘lifeis but a dream, a bubble of water’. On the otherhand, in the Javanese version, the ultimate hap-piness is presented from a simple and down-to-earth Javanese viewpoint. In the Thai ver-sion, the ultimate happiness is described interms of a most complicated mechanism of goodand evil according to the Buddhist worldview.

Having said that, each version constructsits unique plot with some variants (see Table5). In the Hindi version, for instance, one mayfind that the priori-plot [P1] is transformed intothe post-plot [P2] by the variant (people doubtSita’s innocence). In the Javanese version,however, no variant and thereby transforma-tion of the priori-plot [P] happens. In otherwords, the Javanese version maintains its priori-plot to the end. In the Thai version, the presen-tation is very complicated: two variants [X1,X2] and two transformations [P1, P2] of theplot develop. In the end, however, the storyends in the priori-plot [P1].

Table 2Structural comparison: the mediator of dual structuration

NB: H (Hindi version), J (Javanese version), T (Thai version)

Intrinsic Pair Primary Agent Second Agent

The Good Rama Apes (Hanuman etc)

The Evil Ravana [Rawana (J)] GiantsKaikeyi [Kekayi (J); Kaiyakesi (T)]


Table 3The process of dual structuration

NB: C (Cause), E (Effect), (Process of event)

Hindi Version

(C) Horse Sacrifice(E) Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Indra promise four sons toDasaratha

(C) Ravana opposes the gods(E) Vishnu incarnates as the four sons of Dasaratha; the godsincarnate as apes

(C) Kaikeyi demands the banishment of Rama(E) Rama goes into exile with Sita

(C) Sita abducted by Ravana(E) [Rama and apes search for Sita

Javanese Version

(C) Kekayi demands the banishment of Rama(E) Rama goes to exile with Sinta(C) Sinta kidnapped by Rawana(E) Rama and apes search for Sita

Thai Version

(C) Narayana defeats a wicked giant, Nonduk(E) Nonduk reborn as Ravana(C) Nang Ajna bears two sons to Indra and the Sun god(E) Kodom curses the two sons to be turned into a green monkey[Hanuma] and a red monkey [Sugriva]; Nang Ajna curses NangSavaha to give birth to a monkey fighting for Rama(C) The giants get more dangerous and more aggressive(E) Narayana incarnates as Rama; the gods also take birth on earth(C) Kaiyakesi wants Rama to be banished(E) Rama goes into exile with Sita(C) Sita stolen away by Ravana(E) Rama and apes search for Sita

ConclusionI have attempted to dissect the Hindi and

South-East Asian (Javanese and Thai) versionsof the Ramayana. In so doing, I have employeda Lévi-Straussian structural analysis of mythsand analysed the socio-cultural implications ofthe Ramayana versions in each socio-cultural

context, while remaining faithful to the structuralanalysis of the texts. After having said that, now,as a conclusion, I move onto the straightforward,and primary, question: what are the socio-cul-tural implications of the Ramayana in the socio-cultural contexts of South-East Asia? As we havefound, especially in the ‘VI. Structural analysis’,


the Ramayana implies certain common featuresin its structural content as a whole, which tell usabout the operational modes of the universalhuman mind (good and evil), as in India, in thecontext of South-East Asia. On the other hand,contextualised with syncretistic or indigenousvalues in South-East Asia, however, the socio-cultural implications of Ramayana also containthe structural difference and evencontexualisation and transformation of the sym-bolic meanings. In the Hindi version, for instance,as we have considered, not surprisingly,Hinduistic elements are commonly foundthroughout the story: horse sacrifices, circularconflict between good and evil, incarnation ofthe gods in the ‘Prelude’; the ultimateness ofspiritual happiness in the ending. On the otherhand, in the Javanese version, the Javanese syn-cretistic value system, rather than the orthodoxreligious worldview, is revealed in the story: the

Table 4Structural comparison of the Ramayana: the type of transitory action

Hindi Version Javanese Version Thai Version

Heterogeneous

- Lakshmanathreatens the unfaithfulSugriva- Rama performssacrifices to propitiatethe god of Ocean

- Sugriwa keeps hispromise

- Rama commandsSugriva to build abridge across toLanka- Hanuman quarrelswith Nipat- Ravana's hindrance

Homogeneous

- Rama helps Sugrivarestore his kingdomfrom Bali- The strait isspanned

- Rama helps Sugriwarestore his kingdomfrom Subali- Hanuman bridgesthe strait

- Rama helps Sugrivarestore his kingdomfrom Palee- The bridge iscompleted

Semi-homogeneous- Hanuman resolvesto visit Lanka

- Hanuman volunteersto visit Alengka

- Hanuman andchosen apes are sentto Lanka

morals of the heroes, not the divinity of the godsas found in the Hindi and Thai versions, and thevirtue of Gotong-Royong. In the Thai version,the Buddhist value system dominates the waythe story is constructed: for instance, the Truthof ‘Circulation’ by good or evil merit. As a result,it may be said that, as Lévi-Strauss says, theRamayana in South-East Asia conditions a ‘uni-versal’ and ‘timeless’ dimension of operationalmodes of the human mind in the forms and pat-terns of all the versions or sub-versions, such asthe Hindi version, the Javanese version and theThai version. At the same time, in the South-EastAsian context the Ramayana plays 1) a role ofmedium between the Hinduistic text and thesocio-cultural contexts and 2) a role of stimuluswhich strengths the socio-cultural value systemsand syncretises the intrinsic systems of valuewithin the diverse socio-cultural contexts ofSouth-East Asia.


Table 5Structural arrangement: the plot

NB: P [Plot]; X [Variant]; E [Ending]; ~ [Connection of the Process]; = [Final Connection]

Hindi Version

[P1 : X] ~ [P2] = [E (P2)]

Rama defeats Ravana and returns to Kosala with SitaPeople doubt Sita's innocenceRama banishes SitaRama meets Sita in a forestSita refuses to come with Rama and ascends to heaven

Javanese Version

[P] = [E (P)]

Rama defeats Rawana and returns to Kosala with SintaEver-lasting happiness

Thai Version

[P1 : X1] ~ [P1] ~ [P1 : X2] ~ [P2] = [E (P1)]

Rama defeats Ravana and saves SitaSita proves her purity by walking through the ordeal of fireRama returns to Ayudhya with SitaSita is accused of unfaithfulness and banishedRama meets Sita in a forestSita refuses to come with RamaShiva reconciles Rama and Sita

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