AS Level

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PsychologyResearch Methods

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Contents

The Specification 3Introduction: 4Types of Data 5Research Methods: Experiments 6-7Research Methods: Non-experimental 8-10Ethical Issues 11-13 EXAM PRACTICE 14Sampling Techniques 15-17 Reliability & Validity 18-19EXAM PRACTICE 20Pilot Studies 21Designing Experiments: Aims & Hypotheses 22-24Designing Experiments: Experimental Design 25-28EXAM PRACTICE 29-30Data Analysis for Experiments: Graphs & Charts 31-35Data Analysis for Experiments: Measures of Central Tendency 36-37Data Analysis for Experiments: Measures of Dispersion 38-39EXAM PRACTICE 40-42Designing Questionnaires 43-45EXAM PRACTICE 46Designing Interviews 47EXAM PRACTICE 48Designing Observations 49-50EXAM PRACTICE 51Correlational Analysis 52-53 EXAM PRACTICE 54Interpreting Qualitative Data: Content Analysis 55-58EXAM PRACTICE 59

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The Specification PSYA 1: Research Methods1. You need to know about these research methods, including their

advantages and weaknesses:a. Laboratory experiments b. Field experimentsc. Natural experimentsd. Self report: Interviewse. Self-report: Questionnairesf. Observations g. Case studiesh. Correlations

2. You also need to know about these factors concerning the design of investigations:

a. Ethical issues and ways in which psychologists deal with themb. Awareness of the British Psychological Society (BPS) Code of Ethicsc. Aimsd. Independent and dependent variables, and how to operationalise theme. Control of extraneous variablesf. Design of interviewsg. Design of questionnairesh. Design of naturalistic observations, including the development and use

of behavioural categoriesi. Demand characteristics and investigator effectsj. Reliability and validityk. Hypotheses, including directional and non-directional hypothesesl. Experimental design: independent groups, repeated measures and

matched pairsm. Pilot studiesn. Selection of participants and sampling techniques, including random,

opportunity and volunteer sampling

3. You also need to know about these methods of data analysis and presentation:

a. Presentation and interpretation of: bar graphs, histograms and tables b. Analysis and interpretation of measures of central tendency: mean

mode and median, including advantages and disadvantagesc. Analysis and interpretation of measures of dispersion: range and

standard deviation, including advantages and disadvantagesd. Analysis and interpretation of correlational data: scattergrams, positive

and negative correlations and the interpretation of correlation coefficients

e. Presentation of qualitative dataf. Processes involved in content analysis

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Introduction Psychology is often defined as ‘the science of mind and behaviour’. In order for Psychology to be considered a science (and therefore a legitimate academic subject) it has to follow the rules of science. This means that psychologists can’t just come up with ideas that they believe are true. They must develop theories about behaviour, then carry out research studies to collect evidence in order to support their theories, before they can draw conclusions.

However, there is no such thing as a perfect piece of research, and therefore it is important that we are aware of problems in research that may affect the outcomes and the conclusions we draw from it. Therefore in this pack we will be looking at, not only the research methods themselves, but their possible drawbacks, how these might affect the results and also, how we might improve research techniques.

This part of the course is an essential part of the study of Psychology, and what you learn here you will use in every part of the specification both at AS and A2. Therefore it is very important that you have a good grasp of these concepts and issues.

NB: If you are planning to continue on to A2, make sure that you keep this pack when you have completed your AS year, as you will be asked to produce a completed copy when you start A2!

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Types of DataA research study may produce either quantitative or qualitative data. Some studies may produce both types of data.

ACTIVITY 1

Using page 12 of the text book, write down definitions of these two terms:

Qualitative data ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Quantitative data ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 2Which type of data do you think would be collected in the following studies?

An experiment in which researchers record participants’ reaction times when presented with different types of stimulus.

__________________________________________________________________________

Asking participants to rate their driving skills on a scale from 0 to10 where 0 is very poor and 10 is very good.

__________________________________________________________________________

Asking football fans how they feel when their team wins or loses.

__________________________________________________________________________

Observing stress in teachers by counting how often they raise their voices, complain or act irritably

__________________________________________________________________________

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Research MethodsExperimental Methods:Psychologists use the experimental method when they want to find out if there is a cause and effect relationship between two variables. In a true experiment, there must be a control condition and an experimental condition. This is so that the researcher can make comparisons between the two groups. The researcher manipulates the independent variable in order to test its effect on the dependent variable. Everything else is kept the same (controlled) between the two conditions. If there is a difference in the results of the two groups, we can conclude that the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.

ACTIVITY 1

Using p.13 of the textbook, write a definition of each of these terms:

Independent variable (IV) ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Dependent variable (DV)____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Control____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Extraneous/confounding variable____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Cause & effect relationship____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 2

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Read the following research scenario. Highlight and label the IV, the DV and any possible extraneous variables that she has attempted to control:

A researcher wants to test whether alcohol affects memory. She selects a sample by advertising in the local paper for volunteers to come forward. Once the sample has been obtained, she randomly allocates participants to conditions. In the experimental condition, participants are given a measure of strong alcohol. In the control condition, participants are given a measure of a drink that tastes and smells like alcohol, but which is non-alcoholic. All participants are then presented with a list of words which are delivered one at a time via a projector. They are given five minutes to recall as many of the words as possible. The researcher then compares the results of each group. Types of Experiments

There are three main types of experiment: laboratory, field and natural. These vary in their setting and how much control the researcher has over variables.

ACTIVITY

Using p.15-19 of the textbook, complete the table below. You should aim to have two advantages and two disadvantages for each type of experiment:

Research Method

Definition: Advantage(s) Disadvantage(s)

Laboratory experiment

Field experiment

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Natural experiment

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Non Experimental MethodsSometimes psychologists use other methods of study. These methods cannot establish cause and effect relationships unless they are used as a technique for collecting data to make comparisons in the experimental method (see the box below).

Self-Report Techniques: Interviews and QuestionnairesOne of the best ways to elicit information from people is to ask them! Self-report techniques can be useful to find out people’s attitudes and opinions. This can be done in a face to face situation (interview), or in written format (questionnaire)But watch out – people don’t always tell the truth!

Observational Methods:Researchers might decide to conduct an observation to see for themselves how people behave rather than asking them what they think. There are two types of observational method to choose from – a naturalistic observation (this takes place in the participants natural environment), or a controlled observation (this takes place in a controlled environment provided by the researcher.Be careful not to confuse a naturalistic observation with a natural experiment - they are different! In a natural experiment there is an IV, whereas in an observation there isn’t.

Case Studies When a researcher conducts a case study, he or she gathers in-depth information on an individual, or small group of individuals, using a variety of techniques. The people being studied are normally pretty unique and are studied with the aim of answering difficult or important questions that cannot be investigated experimentally.

Correlational analysisSometimes researchers collect data on two variables because they want to see if they are related to each other in some way. The relationship may be positive (both variables travel in the same direction) or negative Each variable travels in a different direction). The data for a correlation can be gathered from questionnaires, observations or existing statistics (secondary data). The researcher is not changing one variable to see the effect on the other, so this is not an experimental method - even if

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Observation & Questionnaires as a data collection techniqueSometimes researchers observe people’s behaviour or ask them to fill in questionnaires to collect data for an experiment. (Remember that the experimental method always involves a comparison of different conditions in order to look for cause and effect). If these approaches are used

Are these students conducting an observational method or are they using observation as a data collection technique? We can’t be sure unless we find out how they are

it is carried out in a laboratory. Correlations are designed to investigate the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

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ACTIVITY 1

See if you can identify if the following correlations are positive or negative (ring the right answer):

1. The hotter the weather, the more ice creams soldpositive/negative

2. The less revision completed, the lower the exam gradepositive/negative

3. The lower the price of the clothes, the more clothes are soldpositive/negative

ACTIVITY 2

Use the information on p.21-32 in the textbook to help you complete the table below. You should aim to have two advantages and two disadvantages for each method

Research Method

Advantages Disadvantages

Interview

Questionnaire

Observation

Case study

Correlational analysis

ACTIVITY 3Which research methods do you think would be most likely to collect quantitative data?

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__________________________________________________________Which research methods do you think would be most likely to collect qualitative data?__________________________________________________________(Look back at the definitions on page 5 if you can’t remember what these terms mean)ACTIVITY 4For each of the following examples, identify which method is being used (use the information on page 8 if you get stuck):

The participants were children aged 3-5 years old. Each child was taken on their own to an experimental room where there were lots of toys including a 5 foot inflatable Bobo doll and a mallet. The experimenter invited an adult ‘role-model’ to join them and then left the room. Half of the children watched the model playing aggressively with the Bobo doll while the others watched the model play non-aggressively with the doll. Later, each child was given an opportunity to play with toys including the Bobo doll and observed through a one-way mirror. More of the children who saw the aggressive behaviour behaved aggressively than those who did not see it. (Bandura et al., 1961).Answer: _____________________________________

Helping behaviour was investigated in a study on the New York Subway. A confederate (actor) collapsed on a subway train and investigators noted whether help was offered. The confederate was either holding a walking stick or was carrying a paper bag with a bottle of alcohol and smelling of alcohol. Piliavin et al. (1969) found that when the victim carried a cane 95% of bystanders helped within 10 seconds, if he appeared drunk help only came in 50% of the trials.Answer: _____________________________________

Three isolated towns in Canada were studied by Williams in 1986, to assess the impact of TV violence on anti-social behaviour. The three towns were labelled Notel (no TV reception), Unitel (one channel) and Multitel (four channels). Children’s behaviour was assessed at this point, and then again two years after Notel had been provided with one TV channel. Only the children in Notel showed any increase in aggressive behaviour on the second assessment; suggesting that the introduction of TV had had an influence on their behaviour.Answer: _____________________________________

Peter Tripp stayed awake for 8 days in 1959, supervised by two psychologists. (He did this as part of a wakeathon for charity.) By the end of the 8 days he was suffering from hallucinations, and severe delusions. The long term effects of his period of sleep deprivation were unclear, but one report suggests that his mood was negatively affected for years.Answer: _____________________________________

Hazan and Shaver (1987) tested their theory that childhood relationships affected adult relationship behaviours using a “love quiz”, published in a local newspaper. They asked questions about memories from early childhood and later attitudes about and experiences of love. Their findings did tie in with their theory. Answer: _____________________________________

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Gilligan interviewed women who were facing the dilemma of whether or not to have an abortion. She also asked about their general views about morality. She analysed the interviews and concluded that people rely on two different types of moral judgements – not to treat others unfairly and not to turn away from someone in need. Answer: _____________________________________

Festinger et al.(1956) posed as converts to infiltrate a cult which believed that they were receiving messages from outer space, predicting the end of the world on a certain date, by flood. They secretly observed the cult members on the expected eve of destruction. When the flood did not happen, the cult leader said that their prayers had saved the city. Some cult members left the cult, but others took this as proof of their beliefs and stayed.Answer: _____________________________________

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Ethics Issues in PsychologyACTIVITY 1

Imagine that you volunteered as a participant in the following research study. How would you feel about it? Use a highlighter pen to identify all the things that the psychologist did that you, or someone else, might be unhappy about.

A psychologist wanted to carry out a study to see whether or not people who are deprived of food become more aggressive when they encounter a stressor (something that makes you stressed), than those who are not deprived of food.The psychologist did not want the participants to know what the study was about as she feared it may affect their behaviour in the experiment. Therefore, she put up a poster in her university, advertising for volunteers to come forward to take part in a study on group behaviour. She then randomly selected 60 people from those that expressed an interest. When they arrived at the university, they were randomly allocated either to condition A or condition B.

All participants were asked to wait in a room (individually) for the experiment to begin. They were then told that there was a delay in starting the experiment as some of the other participants had not arrived. They were told that they would have to wait in the room until the other participants got there. Each participant was held in the room for three hours, but those in condition

A were offered sandwiches and drinks, while those in condition B were left without refreshments. If any participant objected to the wait, or asked to leave, they were strongly discouraged and told that they would ruin the experiment if they left. After the three hours pass, a confederate of the experimenter enters the room, pretending to be another participant. They act in a very agitated way and start an argument with the participant, using threatening and abusive language, accusing them of being responsible for the delay. Unbeknown to the participant, the interaction between the participant and the confederate was filmed using a secret camera, so that the psychologist could analyse their reactions following the procedure to determine whether the food-deprived group reacted more aggressively than the non-food-deprived group. After a five minute period, the experimenter enters the room and tells the participant that the experiment has been abandoned and that they are free to leave.

After the experiment had been completed, a television company learned that the university was carrying out research into anger and its relationship to lack of food. They contacted the university asking if they could use the film footage from the experiment in a forthcoming

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documentary they were making on the subject. They offered a fee to the university in return. The university accepted and handed over the film. Clips of the participants’ reactions in the two conditions were used in the documentary.

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Ethical Issues in Psychology Continued..ACTIVITY 2

Use the information on p.53-58 of your textbook to answer these questions:

Who sets the rules about what British psychologists can and can’t do in their research? (The Code of Ethics)__________________________________________________________

Why is it necessary to have these rules and why is it important for psychologists to follow them?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is a cost-benefit analysis?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

When might it be acceptable to deceive participants? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is presumptive consent?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is prior general consent?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________What is debriefing?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What is an ethical committee?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Ethical Issues in Psychology Continued..Ways of Dealing with Ethical Issues

ACTIVITY 3

Use the information on p.53-58 of the textbook to complete the table below:

Ethical IssueOutline the ethical issue and say why each of them raises a problem for the researcher

How it can be dealt with?

Informed Consent

Deception

Protection from Harm

Anonymity and Confidentiality

Right to Withdraw

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EXAM PRACTICE: January 2011

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Sampling Techniques

ACTIVITY 1

Consider the following scenario and then answer the questions:

A researcher working at a university in the South of England wants to find out if reading celebrity magazines lowers people’s body satisfaction. She selects a group of 50 students between the ages of 18 & 21, 25 of whom are male and 25 of whom are female, from her university, to take part in a study. She achieves her sample by putting a advert up in the university gym, asking people to come forward. When they arrive to take part, she gives them a questionnaire which aims to assess their current level of body satisfaction (condition 1). There is only one question that measures their body satisfaction score, the rest are red herrings and the participants are told that the survey is measuring their attitude to modern living. She then asks them to wait, individually, in a room where they are provided with an assortment of celebrity magazines to keep them occupied while they wait for the next researcher. The next researcher informs them that the data they collected in the first questionnaire is not sufficient, and they are given a second questionnaire (condition 2), which contains different questions, but includes the question that measures their level of body satisfaction. They are then debriefed, thanked for their time and allowed to leave.When the researcher assesses her results, she finds that the body satisfaction scores in condition 1 are significantly higher than the body satisfaction scores in condition 2. She therefore concludes that reading celebrity magazines leads to lower body satisfaction.A researcher in the North of England decides to replicate her study. She places an advert in a local newspaper asking people to come forward to take part in the study. She takes a sample of 100 respondents. 70 of them are female and 30 of them are male. She carries out the study using the same method and procedure. However, she finds no significant difference between the body satisfaction scores in condition 1 and condition 2.A researcher working in Japan hears about the original study and decides to replicate it in the Japanese University where she works. Like the first researcher, she advertises for students to come forward by placing a advert in the university gym. She gathers a sample of 30 students to take part. They are all female. Like the second researcher, when she analyses the results she finds that there is no significant difference in body satisfaction scores between the two conditions.

1. Give one ethical issue which should have been considered before carrying out this study_____________________________________________________

2. Give one way in which this ethical issue could have been dealt with__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Give three possible reasons why the two replication studies did not yield the same results as the original studyi__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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ii_________________________________________________________________________________________________________iii_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Sampling Techniques Continued..

ACTIVITY 2

Use the information on p.58-60 of the textbook to answer the questions and complete the table below:

1. What is meant by the term ‘target population’__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Why is it important that the sample reflects the target population?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Now fill in the table on the 3 main sampling techniques:

Sampling technique

Definition Advantages Disadvantages

Random sampling

Opportunity sampling

Volunteer sampling

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Sampling Techniques Continued..

ACTIVITY 3For situations A, B and C below, identify the sampling technique and comment on whether it is likely to produce a representative sample:

Jane is hoping to carry out an experiment on how non-smokers’ memories are affected by a smoky atmosphere. She has decided to put a notice on the VLE asking people who would be willing to participate to e-mail her. Sampling technique? Representative?

As part of his A Level, Henry is investigating how childhood memories of seventeen and eighteen year olds differ according to gender. He selects participants for his study by asking friends, acquaintances or anyone who will agree to take part.

Sampling technique? Representative?

Tessa is investigating how the strength of BHASVIC students’ memories differ for events that have occurred in their college life compared to in their life outside of college. She decides to gain her sampling by giving each BHASVIC student a number, then using random number tables to select students who have the corresponding numbers.

Sampling technique? Representative?

Stretch your learning…If you managed that ok… you could: redesign this study, which used an opportunity sample, using a different sampling technique, and explain the choices you have made.

A researcher recruits 50 undergraduates to investigate gender differences in British driving behaviour.

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Validity

Internal Validity External Validity

Population Validity Ecological Validity

Sampling technique?

Explain your choice:

Reliability & ValidityFor psychological research to be worthwhile, it must be both reliable and valid. However, reliability and validity can be difficult to achieve. But what do these terms mean?

The term reliability refers to how consistent the results are. In other words, if the experiment is repeated, will the same or highly similar results occur again? If the answer is yes, the study can be said to possess high reliability.

Validity on the other hand, is a slightly more complex concept. Validity is about how accurate and representative the results are. So it is fundamentally about whether the evidence is a fair test of theory.

There are two types of validity: Internal and External

ACTIVITY 1

Fill in the boxes below to define the different types of validity:

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NB: there is a third type of external validity know as temporal or historical validity. It refers to how well we can generalise the results across different periods of time. It is usually only relevant when discussing social psychological concepts, e.g. obedience behaviour, which we might expect to change over time according to social norms, rather than say, memory capacity, which we would not expect to change.

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ACTIVITY 2

Use the information on p.60 of the textbook and your notes on p.6 of this pack, to complete the table below:

Some Factors Affecting Internal ValidityFactors Definition

Type of Study it is most likely to affect

Explain why it affects internal validity

Investigator effects

Demand characteristics

Social desirability bias

Control of extraneous variables

NB: Individual differences and order effects also lower the internal validity of a study, but we will deal with these in the experimental design section

Factors affecting External Validity

ACTIVITY 3:

Give one factor that would affect:

The population validity of a study____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________The ecological validity of a study____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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EXAM PRACTICE: June 2012

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Pilot Studies

ACTIVITY 1

Read the following scenario and answer the question:

A researcher wants to find out if early childhood experiences affect later relationships. Therefore he designs a questionnaire to assess the quality of his participants’ relationships in early childhood, and the quality of their current relationship. He sends his questionnaire out to 300 people. 200 of them send their completed questionnaires back to him. However, when he comes to analyse the responses he finds that most of his 200 respondents cannot remember their early childhood experiences and have therefore not answered those questions. He also realises that 20% of the sample are not in a current relationship and have therefore not been able to complete the second half either.

Suggest what he could he have done to prevent wasting time and money on a study that he is unable to benefit from? Say precisely how your idea would have avoided the problem:__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

A pilot study is a small scale trial study that is carried out before the main study begins.Reasons why you might carry out a pilot study are:

To identify any extraneous variables To test whether participants guess the aims of the study (demand

characteristics) To check that participants understand or accurately interpret the

questions (as in the example above) To check that procedures are adequate (e.g. if you’re giving a

memory test, have you allowed enough time for your participants to complete it?)

What type of validity do you think might be affected by the above factors?__________________________________________________

A pilot study also allows us to see whether we are likely to achieve a significant result. Research projects are costly and time-consuming, and therefore it is wise to test whether you are likely to find anything interesting before going ahead.

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Designing Experiments: Aims and HypothesesAimsAll studies start with aims. The aim is the purpose of the study, so it states what the psychologist is trying to investigate. For example, ‘The aim of the study was to test the capacity of short term memory’.

ACTIVITY 1Write down the aim of one research study you have read about, other than the example given above:____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

HypothesesA hypothesis leads on from the aims of the study. It is a precise statement that the researcher makes before the study begins, predicting the outcome of the study. In an experimental study, the hypothesis states how the psychologist expects the independent variable to affect the dependent variableNB: If you have forgotten what the terms ‘independent variable’ and ‘dependent variable’ mean, look back at your notes on p.6 of this pack.

OperationalisationIt is very important that a researcher operationalises the variables in the hypothesis. This means that they must state exactly what is being taken as a measure of the independent variable, and exactly what is being taken as a measure of the dependent variable.

ACTIVITY 2

Identify the IV and DV in the following research questions:

1. Does background noise affect memory?

IV

DV

2. Do students who revise perform better in exams?

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IV

DV

3. Are people with who observe violence more aggressive?

IV

DVACTIVITY 3

Say how you would operationalise the following variables (in other words, say what you are going to take as a measure each one):

Noise_______________________________________________________________Memory_____________________________________________________________Revision______________________________________________________________Aggression____________________________________________________________Observing violence______________________________________________________

The operationalised variables are then used to write the hypothesis of the study.

FOR EXAMPLE Using research question 2 from activity 2, our operationalised hypothesis may be:

“Students who revise for 12 hours during the week leading up to the exam will score significantly higher on a GCSE maths paper than students who do no revision during the week leading up to the exam”

What is the operationalised independent variable in the example given above?__________________________________________________________What is the operationalised dependent variable in the example given above?__________________________________________________________

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There are two

different types of experimental hypothesis:

One tailed (directional) Two tailed (non-directional)

A directional hypothesis states which group will score higher or lower, i.e.: “X will be higher/lower than Y”

A non-directional hypothesis will only predict a difference between the two conditions, but will not say which group will score higher or lower, i.e.: “There will be a difference between X and Y”

Now look back at the example hypothesis above. Is it directional, or non-directional?__________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 4

Using research question 3 from activity 4, write a directional and a non-directional hypothesis for this study:

Directional: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Non-Directional:31

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

NB: A directional hypothesis tends to be used when past research, or observation suggests that the results will fall in a particular direction, whereas if past research is conflicting, or if there hasn’t been much past research, a non-directional hypothesis should be used

Stretch Your Learning..

Have a go at the additional practice hypotheses in the right hand box on p.39 of the textbook, just to make sure you’ve got the hang of it!

NB: Hypothesis refers to the singular, and hypotheses to the plural

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Experimental Design

Experimental design refers to how the participants in a study will be used. The choices are: matched pairs, repeated measures, and independent groups.

In one of the designs, different groups of participants are used for each condition of the experiment.

In one of the designs, the same group of participants are used for all the conditions of the experiment .

In one of the designs there are different participants used for each part of the experiment, but they are matched for relevant characteristics. What this is means is that each person in group 1 is matched for a specific characteristic with a person in group 2. The characteristics they are matched for will depend on which characteristics are deemed to be important in the study.

ACTIVITY 1Which term do you think goes with which picture?

______________________________

______________________________

______________________________

Now go back and write the name of each experimental design next to the correct description at the top of the page.

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ACTIVITY 2

Which design is being used here?

1) Researchers wanted to find out whether a new teaching method could improve verbal reasoning ability in 5 year olds. In one condition the children were taught the new method and in the other they were taught a traditional method. Each participant in the new method group was matched with a participant from the other condition.

______________________________

2) Researchers were looking at whether people remembered more in the morning or evening. They gave one set of participants free recall tests in the morning and compared their results to the control group who took the test in the evening.

______________________________

3) A researcher enrolled 20 participants into their experiment. All participants completed a musical task and then a written task. Their abilities to perform under pressure were compared.

______________________________

Strengths and Weaknesses of Different Experimental Designs

ACTIVITY 3

Use the information on p.43 of the textbook to complete the table below

Independent Groups Repeated Measures Matched Pairs

Advantage34

s

Disadvantages

Dealing With the Problems of Experimental Designs

If either individual differences, or order effects affect the result of an experiment, then this will lower the internal validity of the experiment. Can you explain why?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Therefore, we have to find a way minimise these problems.

Individual differences (participant variables) are usually dealt with through random allocation

ACTIVITY 4

Using the information on p.43-44 of the textbook, give a definition of random allocation and explain how it minimises the problem of individual differences:

Definition: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________How it minimises the problem: ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Order effects are usually dealt with through the use of counterbalancing

ACTIVITY 4

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Using the information on p.42-43 of the textbook, explain what is meant by counterbalancing and why it helps to minimise order effects:

What it is: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How it works __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 5

Read the details of the proposed experiment and then draw a diagram below to show exactly how you would carry out this study using a repeated measures design with counterbalancing:

A researcher wants to find out if alcohol affects reaction times. He is going to give his participants a computer game to test their reaction times, both when they are sober and after they have consumed a strong measure of alcohol. He has recruited 20 participants. Their names are:

Mary Harry Chelsea WandaJoe Wallace Cyril BruceAhmed Mable Sam RubySelina Catherine Rolf ConstanceFlorence Mohammed Helena Fred

Now sketch your diagram..

___________________________________________________________________________Leave this space clear so that you can have another go if you get it wrong

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EXAM PRACTICE: June 2011

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EXAM PRACTICE: January 2011

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Data Analysis for Experiments:Summarising Data in Graphs

Graphs are a useful way of summarising data which enable psychologists to easily see trends or patterns in data. Three types of graph that are commonly used to display quantitative data are:

HistogramBar ChartScattergram

Histograms

NB: This type of data can also be displayed in a frequency polygon. You do not need to know about frequency polygons for the exam, but you may be asked to interpret data from one that is presented to you, therefore it is a good idea to be familiar with what they look like. The figure on the right is an example of a frequency polygon:

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This graph shows the frequency of different scores on a continuous scale (e.g. scores on a memory test)

Histogram to show exam scores in

Both axes should be labelled clearlyThe range of possible scores is represented in class intervals on

The number of participants achieving the scores in a particular class interval is plotted on the y axisBars are joined together to show that we are representing a continuous set of scores on one

Only one set of data can be displayed on a histogram

It should always be given a

Bar Charts

Scattergrams

See p.53 of this pack for more information on interpreting scattergrams

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This graph is used to display correlational data. It shows the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

This graph shows frequencies of scores in separate categories (e.g. how many people have blue eyes and how many people have brown eyes)

Bar chart showing number of people watching each television programme

It should always be given a

Both axes should be labelled clearly

The total number in each category is plotted on the y axis

The categories are plotted on the x axis

Bars are not joined together to show that we are displaying discrete categories

It should always be given a

One variable is plotted on the x axis , and one variable is plotted on the y axis (each must be clearly labelled)

For each pair of scores, a cross is placed on the graph at the point where those two scores meet

ACTIVITY 1

Fill in the gaps in the statements below:

A histogram is commonly used to show __________________________ (e.g. IQ or test)

Bar charts are used to display ___________________________________ (e.g. blue eyes, brown eyes)

Bars on a bar chart are not ________________ because they represent _____________ _______________

Scattergrams are used to show the ____________ and _____________ of correlations

ACTIVITY 2

Use the grid below to sketch a histogram showing the results from condition one of a memory test that aimed to test whether memory is better in the morning that in the afternoon (Don’t forget to give it a title and label the axes correctly):

Scores from condition 1 of a memory test (taken in the morning)12, 7, 6, 14, 10, 4, 12, 11, 6, 9, 10, 5, 7, 10, 9, 8, 10, 13, 9, 8

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ACTIVITY 3

Use the grid below to sketch a bar chart to show the results from Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s 1988 study on cultural differences in attachment (you will find the information on p.127 of the textbook).

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ACTIVITY 4

Use the following data to sketch a scattergram in the grid below:

Hours of revision completed in the week before the exam

Score on exam paper

5 3310 428 45

12 546 288 35

10 397 313 209 487 44

10 4315 529 497 36

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Data Analysis for Experiments:Measures of Central TendencyMeasures of central tendency (averages) attempt to identify the most typical score in a set of data, in other words, the score that most represents the data set. The three measures of central tendency are the mean, median and mode.

Mean: This is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set together and dividing by the number of scores.

Median: This is calculated by putting all the scores in a data set in order, and identifying the score in the middle. In an even numbered data set, the two middle scores are added together and divided by 2 to find the median.

Mode: This is the most commonly occurring score. In some data sets, there may be more than one mode.

ACTIVITY 1

Calculate the mean, median and mode for the following:

1a) Data from a psychology quiz:

1, 2, 3, 7, 10, 20, 30, 43, 47, 48, 50

Mean = Median= Mode=

1b) The number of faces recalled out of 12 in a free recall task:

1, 1, 5, 2, 3, 7, 6, 5, 2, 1, 8, 7, 9, 5, 4, 3, 2, 5

Mean = Median= Mode=

1c) Scores on a questionnaire (out of 25).

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20, 30, 25, 16, 13, 14, 25, 26, 28.

Mean= Median= Mode=

NB: You will not be asked to calculate means medians and modes in the exam, but you do need to know what they are, how to interpret them and their strengths and weaknesses.

ACTIVITY 2

Look at the statements below the table, they are either strengths or weaknesses of at least one measure of central tendency. Write all the statements that apply in each box:

Measure of central tendency

Strengths Weaknesses

Mean

Median

Mode

There may be more than one of them / Not affected by outliers / May not be a number represented in the data set / Doesn’t take account of all of

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the data / Will always be a number in the data set / Uses all the scores / May be affected by outliers

Data Analysis for Experiments:Measures of Dispersion

Measures of dispersion tell us about how the data is spread. You need to know about two measures of dispersion: The range and the standard deviation

The range: This is an incredibly easy measure of dispersion to calculate. It involves subtracting the lowest score from the highest score. That’s it! It is most useful when assessing how representative the median is a typical score. This is because the median only takes into account the one score in the middle of the data set. The higher the range, the less representative the median is because it would indicate that the scores are spread widely from that figure.

The standard deviation: This gives us the average distance of each score from the mean, therefore, it tells us something about how representative the mean is as a typical score:

A high standard deviation would indicate that the mean is not so representative as a typical score. This is because a high score indicates a high average distance between each score and the mean (in other words they are more spread out from the mean).

A low standard deviation would indicate that the mean is more representative as a typical score. This is because a low score indicates a low average distance between each score and the mean (in other words, they are more tightly clustered around the mean).

NB: The standard deviation is calculated using a mathematical formula. You will not be asked to calculate either a standard deviation or a range in

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the exam. However, you will need to know what they are, and how to interpret what they tell us about the data

ACTIVITY 1

What is the range for the following data sets?

a) 5, 4 ,1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 7, 2. Range _______________________b) 9, 11, 16, 4, 6, 17, 22, 35, 2, 12, 13. Range _______________________c) 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14, 12, 16, 1, 9, 15, 17. Range _______________________

If the standard deviation is low, this tells us that the mean is _______________________.If the standard deviation is high, it this tells us that the mean is _____________________

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ACTIVITY 2

Read the research scenarios below and then answer the questions for each one:

1. Ps were tested on their ability to avoid obstacles in a computer driving simulation. The simulator recorded how many times the Ps hit an obstacle during the simulation (max. 30). Half of the Ps were engaged in conversation during the simulation by the experimenter, so they had to respond verbally to a series of questions. The other half completed the same task but in silence.Directional Hypothesis: Participants will be more likely to hit obstacles when they are engaged in conversation than when they are not

(i) What do the means in each condition suggest about the effect of the distraction task on their performance? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________

(ii) Comment on what the standard deviations in each condition tell us about the data: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Researchers asked AS Level student PPs, to complete a questionnaire about how long they spent studying each week. They were divided into two groups: those who spent more than ten hours a week studying and those who spent ten hours or less. After the exams, the researchers compared the exam marks (max. 100) of the two groups.

Directional Hypothesis: Students who study for more than ten hours per week will achieve higher exam scores than those who study for less than ten hours per week.

(iii) What do the means in each condition suggest about the effect studying on their performance? _

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Conversation condition

Silence condition

Mean 7.3 5.4Standard Deviation

4.7 1.2

Less than 10 hrs

10 hrs or more

Mean 65.9 68.3Standard Deviation

15.4 8.9

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

(iv) Comment on what the standard deviations in each condition tell us about the data: ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________EXAM PRACTICE: June 2011

EXAM PRACTICE: June 2010

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EXAM PRACTICE: June 2009

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Designing QuestionnairesQuestionnaires are a self-report method.

They are usually used to produce quantitative data for statistical analysis, but can also be used to collect qualitative data

Features of a good questionnaire:

Clear questions that are easy to understand Questions do not lead respondents to give a particular answer (e.g.

‘do you think violent films make children more aggressive?’) Avoids making assumptions about respondents, e.g. about sexuality Avoids questions that are too personal or intrusive Questionnaire is piloted to make sure questions are understood and

interpreted correctly If using multiple choice, an adequate choice of responses should be

given

Designing questionsThere are two main types of questions you can use: closed (also referred to as multiple choice) and open (also referred to as free response)

ACTIVITY 1

Use the information on p.25 of this pack to help you answer these questions:

What is an open question? __________________________________________________________What type of data do you think will be generated by open questions?__________________________________________________________What is a closed question?__________________________________________________________What type of data do you think will be generated by closed questions?__________________________________________________________Explain one advantage of using open questions:__________________________________________________________

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Explain one advantage of using closed questions:__________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 2

Sometimes questionnaire design can go drastically wrong! Look at the questionnaire and identify the main errors Fraud and Fakedata have made in the table below. Use the features of a good questionnaire to

help you if you like.

Main Flaws Problems they cause

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ACTIVITY 3

Using the topic of underage drinking, make up two closed questions and two open questions and write them in the box. Make sure that your questions do not include the mistakes made by Fakedata and Fraud:

Closed:

Open:

1. Which of your questions would collect qualitative data?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Which of your questions would collect quantitative data?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Questionnaires can result in social desirability bias – people want to be seen in a good light by others and present and play down aspects of their personality, attitudes and behaviours depending on the situation and who is asking the question. Identify one question in Fakedata and Fraud’s questionnaire in Activity 2 that you think might be likely to produce social desirability bias. __________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Can you think of a way in which it might be possible to reduce the effect of social desirability bias in a questionnaire?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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EXAM PRACTICE: January 2010

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Designing InterviewsInterviews are also a self-report method

They are more likely to collect qualitative data than questionnaires, but certain types of interview will lead to quantitative data being gathered.

Features of a good interview:

The interview should have an explicit purpose and a specific aim It should be carefully planned and piloted The interviewer should aim to establish a rapport with the

interviewee

Types of Interview

There are three types of interview: structured, semi-structured and unstructured. However, unstructured interviews do not tend to be used in psychological research, and therefore we will be concentrating on the first two.

ACTIVITY 1

Use the information on p.29-30 of the textbook to answer the following questions:

1. What is a structured interview?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. What is a semi-structured interview?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Complete the table:

Structured Semi-Structured

Strengths:

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Weaknesses:

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EXAM PRACTICE: June 2012

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Designing Observations

ACTIVITY 1

Watch the clip of the nursery school children that will be played to you in class. List all the behaviours you observe in the box below:

Now go round the class and look at the responses of other class members. What do you notice about the different observation reports?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How might different observers’ interpretations of what they observe affect the research?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How could we help to avoid the problems we have highlighted above?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Features of a good observation:

There should be a clear aim about what is being observed before the study begins

Behavioural categories should be developed before the observation begins to ensure consistency between observers

Observers should be carefully trained before the observation begins so that they are clear about what counts as an example of each behavioural category

The timing of each observation should be standardised Video recording the observation, where possible, allows

observation reports to be checked

Developing behavioural categories

The variable(s) you want to study needs to be broken down into specific behavioural categories before the study takes place. The observer can then easily record how many instances of each behavioural category they have observed. These categories help researchers to gather valid and reliable data as they serve to standardise the observation process and make it easy for the study to be replicated. Carrying out an observation without them would not be a good idea, because it would be very difficult to be systematic, and therefore it would lack scientific validity – chances are different researchers would be observing different things.

ACTIVITY 2

What behavioural categories would you include if you were carrying out an observation of aggressive behaviour amongst the crowd at a football match?

Category:

Top Tips for Using Behavioural Categories:

Draw up a coding system or checklist to make it easier to record quantitative data quickly

Pilot the categories and checklist before the main study begins

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It’s a good idea to have more than one observer so you can check that your coding is reliable (all observers are using it in the same way)

EXAM PRACTICE: January 20097 One situation in which disruption of attachment can occur is when a mother of a young child is admitted into hospital. A researcher decided to study the behaviour of a two-year-old boy who experienced this disruption of attachment.She decided to use naturalistic observation of the boy both before his mother was admitted into hospital and after she returned home. Each period of observation lasted for one hour.

7(a) Suggest two suitable behavioural categories the researcher could use to record the boy’s behaviour. ..................................................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

...................

..............................................................................................................................................

...................

..............................................................................................................................................

...................

(2 marks)

7 (b) How might the researcher record the boy’s behaviour during the one-hour observation?

..............................................................................................................................................

.....................

..............................................................................................................................................

.....................

..............................................................................................................................................

.....................

..............................................................................................................................................

....................(2 marks)

7(c) Explain why the psychologist might want to carry out a pilot study before the main observation...................................................................................................................................................................

..............................................................................................................................................

...................

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..............................................................................................................................................

..................

..............................................................................................................................................

..................(2 marks)

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Correlational AnalysisCorrelational hypothesesCorrelations also have hypotheses. Correlational hypotheses predict a relationship between two variables not a difference, and therefore they are worded differently to experimental hypotheses. A directional hypothesis for a correlation states whether the relationship will be a positive or a negative correlation. A non-directional hypothesis simply states that there will be a correlation.

For Example:

Directional correlational hypothesisThere will be a significant positive correlation between temperature and ice-cream sales

Non-directional correlational hypothesisThere will be significant correlation between average time spent reading per week and scores on an I.Q. test.

Which of the above hypotheses is sufficiently operationalised? Give a reason for your answer:__________________________________________________________

NB: For more information on aims and hypotheses, see p.22-24 of this booklet.

For information on how to construct a scattergram, see p.32 of this booklet.

Correlation co-efficients

Correlations are designed to investigate the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. The strength of the correlation is expressed by the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is always a figure between +1 and -1 where +1 represents a perfect positive correlation and -1 represents a perfect negative correlation. A negative correlation will always have a minus before it. A correlation coefficient of 0 means that there is no correlation between the two variables.

Therefore The closer the correlation coefficient is to 0, the weaker the correlation

The closer the correlation coefficient is to 1 (or -1), the stronger the correlation

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Interpreting Scattergrams

The closer the crosses are clustered around the line of best fit, the stronger the correlation

ACTIVITY 1

X

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

XX

X

If the crosses on a scattergram are going in this direction, then the relationship is positive

If the crosses on a scattergram are going in this direction, then the relationship is negative

Line of best

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EXAM PRACTICE: June 2011Content analysis

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Interpreting Qualitative Data: Content AnalysisIf a researcher wants to convert qualitative data into quantitative data they use a process called content analysis. The process of content analysis is similar the process carried out when doing an observation, because it involves developing categories and noting how many instances of each category are observed in the material being used. The difference being that rather than directly observing behaviour you collect materials that have already been produced by people and code those instead. Materials might include diaries, interview transcripts, qualitative questionnaires, news articles, TV programmes, pictures, books etc.

Examples of what content analysis might be used for:

Recording how many negative thinking strategies are used in the diaries of depressed patients

Recording the roles of women in magazines (e.g. professional, carer, service occupation)

Once the material has been coded, it can be analysed quantitatively with graphs, tables and statistical calculations.

Before you do content analysis

Decide the aim of the study and your ‘research question’ or hypothesis.Decide the method of data collection and material to be sampled.

How to do content analysis

There are six main stages in content analysis:

First, draw up a coding system/checklist. Choose coding units/define categories that fit in with the hypothesis or research question you are studying. These must be clear and you will need to be able to apply them consistently. So you will need to do a pilot study to check that your categories make sense and can include all the potential range of responses.

Select and collect your source material. Decide on the materials to be sampled, design the data collection method, collect the data and transcribe it if necessary.

Code the data using your coding units/categories. Read through each text and systematically identify words that fall into your categories. New categories may emerge as you work through your texts, in which case, you can go back and recode texts again with the new categories. The main problem with any form of content analysis is that it can be interpreted differently by different researchers. You can improve reliability by having more than one person code the data independently and checking for consistency.

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Record how many times each behaviour/category is seen in all of the data using a spreadsheet or simple tally chart.

Analyse data using bar charts and/or a frequency distribution table. Content analysis can be used to produce data for correlational analysis.

Draw conclusions about your hypothesis or research question.

ACTIVITY 1

Using the information on the last page about the stages of content analysis, pick out the main points and write a summary of each stage in the boxes below:

Doing Content Analysis

The answers overleaf were given by respondents to this question:

“Write about how you felt when separated from your carer. For instance, try to describe the emotion that you felt and any behaviour that you showed that may indicate your emotions.”

This question was asked in order to answer the research question:

Summary of the 6

Processes in Content Analysis.

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‘Do people remember early separations from their carers as negative experiences?’

1. I don't remember much as I was pretty young but all that I do remember as I wasn't really bothered by it, I knew my relatives well who I spent the separation with so I was pretty happy and safe.

2. What I remember is that I didn’t really know where I was (in hospital). I wasn’t really distressed but I felt melancholic. I was missing my mother. One more thing I remember is that someone brought some candies and I couldn’t open the package and when someone older helped me to open it – accidentally all candies poured out from package – that’s when I cried”

3. I was separated from my dad for long periods of time and on occasion i would cry loads but most days I just got on with my life. I tried to imagine what he was doing and where he was, at that precise time. I tried to remember his face but failed miserably. When separated from my mum for short periods of time I got scared and worried and always wanted to know where she was. I would be really scared that she wouldn’t come back.

4. Scared, lost, I would usually look or run around shouting their name until I found them again and if it was too long I would probably start crying.

5. A bit scared when i went to nursery school, crying when i left my mum, but soon settled in.

6. Upset, angry and confused. My grandma would try and calm me down with games but i refused to settle. i had to sleep with my mum's jumper every night otherwise i would cry.

7. Happy really, arranged holiday, close to grandparents so felt happy to be with them. maybe after a few days i then began to miss my parents and perhaps became anxious to be back with them.

8. It was so sudden and a complete shock. I did not understand what had happened or why my parents went away. I cried a lot and I was very quiet. I wanted to sleep with my sister as I was frightened that she would also go, so I stayed close to her at all times.

9. Age 5 I wanted to go and stay with my Aunty and Uncle for the night but when I was trying to go to sleep I felt frightened and started crying so I couldn’t go to sleep. My parents had to come and collect me and take me home to sleep.

10.When I was separated I felt confused about why I was taken away from my mum. I was always asking where she was

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and when I didn't get answers I became afraid that i wouldn't see her again. I cried a lot and refused to play or be comforted by anyone.

11.When I was separated I didn't feel that upset about it because I was used to being left by my parents regularly due to their jobs. I just carried on playing as usual with whoever was there to replace them which was usually a nanny they had hired. I didn't cry much but at night I missed being said goodnight by them.

12.Not unhappy in the slightest - kept busy/amused by temp. caregivers, although had a cuddly toy from home.

ACTIVITY 2

Use the statements on the last page to complete a content analysis. Follow the guide on ‘How to do content analysis’ on p.55 of this pack relating to stages 3 & 4. The first two steps have been done for you. When you have coded the data, answer the three questions to show how you would complete the process.

Content Analysis Coding Table1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Words/phrases describing positive emotionsWords/phrases describing negative emotionsWords/phrases describing positive social interactionsWords/phrases describing negative social interactionsUncategorised words

How could you summarise this data in a table to make it quick and easy to understand the overall patterns? Sketch out a table below.

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Look back at the graphs on p.30-31. Which graph would be most suitable to present the data from your summary table?__________________________________________________________What conclusion would you draw about the research question?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

EXAM PRACTICE: January 2013

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