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STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Fall 2013 1

The Science Teachers Bulletin

Volume 77, Number 2 Spring 2014

PROMOTING EXCELLENCE IN SCIENCE EDUCATION

STANYS EXECUTIVE BOARD 2014-2015

President

Jason Horowitz Nassau STANYS Section

[email protected]

President Elect Gene Gordon

Central Western STANYS Section [email protected]

Vice President Glen Cochrane

Suffolk STANYS Section [email protected]

Secretary

Donna Banek Nassau STANYS Section

[email protected]

Past-President Frances Scelsi Hess, Ed.D.

Catskill STANYS Section [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]





ii STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Spring 2014


Volume 77, Number 2 Spring 2014

Official Publication of the

Science Teachers Association of New York State, Inc.

PO Box 2121 Liverpool, NY 13089

(516) 783-5432 www.stanys.org

A State Chapter of the National Science Teachers Association and a member of the New York State Council of Education Associations

Editor: Michael J. Hanophy, Ph.D. St. Joseph’s College 245 Clinton Avenue Brooklyn, NY 11205 [email protected]

Assistant Editors: Aaron D. Isabelle, Ph.D. [email protected] Helen Pashley, Ph.D. [email protected] Vivian Pokrzyk, Ph.D. [email protected]

http://www.stanys.org/





STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Spring 2014 iii


2014 STANYS

Published twice a year (Fall and Spring)

All rights reserved.

Permission to duplicate any part of this journal may be requested in writing from the editor.

Opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and may not reflect STANYS policy.

Guidelines for submission of manuscripts are

found on the last page.

Don’t forget to submit YOUR article for the next issue of


Deadline for the FALL issue is October 15, 2014

See guidelines for submission on Page 32

iv STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Spring 2014

Table of Contents

Letter to the Editor Josephine Salvador, Ed.D. Director, NYS Master Teacher Program Pages 1-2 Protein Crystallography Dan Williams Pages 3-6 The Wonder of Lightsticks in Regents Chemistry Candace Schneggenburger Pages 7-23 The Role of Metaphorical Thinking

and Models in the STEM Classroom John Styles Pages 24-31

STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Spring 2014 1

Letter to the Editor

*Editor’s Note: In the Fall 2013 edition of the Bulletin, Dr. Bruce Tulloch’s article, “Master

Teachers Need a Master Plan,” discussed the many benefits of New York State’s

Master Teacher Program. In this issue, Dr. Josephine Salvador, Director of the

program, clarifies some aspects of the application process.

7 March 2014

Dr. Hanophy,

I am writing in response to the article, Master Teachers Need a Master Plan,

in the Fall 2013 issue of Science Teachers Bulletin. It’s wonderful to see

this excellent new opportunity for STEM teachers highlighted by STANYS

but I need to make a few corrections to the information about the

application process.

Dr. Tulloch proposes that the application would do well to include

“recommendations of academic supervisors, peers, and students as well as a

thorough review of credentials and prior professional activities” and indeed,

the application includes such documentation.

The application components are quite detailed. In addition to a resume,

personal statement, college transcripts and a PRAXIS II exam, the

application requires the most recent teacher observation report and two

letters of recommendation—one from the principal or building

administrator and one from a colleague. Candidates also have the option of

including a recommendation from a current or prior student. The complete

application portfolio allows for the candidate to present the fullest portrait

2 STANYS The Science Teachers Bulletin Spring 2014

of their professional work. The complete application information is

accessible via the New York State Master Teacher Program webpage at

http://www.suny.edu/masterteacher/

Governor Cuomo created the NYS Master Teacher Program to “reward

those teachers who work harder to make the difference and whose students

perform better as a result.” Master Teachers possess a growth mindset and

are committed to deepening the breadth and depth of their content area,

pedagogical craft and knowledge of student communities. A number of

NYS Master Teachers are active members of STANYS and I am very glad

for this professional connection.

The students in NYS deserve the best STEM teachers in their classrooms

and, collaborating as a network, we can be sure that can happen.

Sincerely,

Josephine Salvador, Ed.D. Director, New York State Master Teacher Program The State University of New York 33 W. 42nd Street - New York, New York 10036 Be a part of Generation SUNY: Facebook - Twitter - YouTube

http://www.suny.edu/masterteacher/


http://www.suny.edu/MasterTeacher/

https://www.facebook.com/generationsuny

https://twitter.com/generationsuny

https://www.youtube.com/user/GenerationSUNY


Protein Crystallography

Dan Williams

Shelter Island High School

Shelter Island, NY

Protein crystallography is a powerful tool in biology today, helping scientists to know the

shapes of molecules and interpret their function. This tool is not reserved for hard core

scientists with access to synchrotron technology; this tool can be used in high schools,

empowering students with knowledge and insight into the “shape equals function” world of

proteins. Simple programs like WinCoot open up tremendous possibilities for all of our

labs.

Protein crystallography has typically been covered in the classroom either through a J-mol

exploration of a structure or a “Protein Challenge” modeling exercise. While these are

excellent teaching tools, neither provides inquiry, real world experience, or research in

crystallography. However, open ended inquiry and research in protein crystallography is

not only possible in the high school classroom; with the use of this technology it is free and

easily accessible. Maybe even more valuable, the use of this technology in the classroom

can illustrate residue shapes, active site pockets, and steric hindrance within polypeptides

making the chemistry of proteins real for the students.

While students at my school on Shelter Island are attempting to crystallize a protein in our

lab and resolve its structure at the synchrotron (NSLS at Brookhaven National Lab through

the InSync Program) not every lab program will be able to do this. However, every lab that

has a computer with internet access will be able to perform original research or complete

inquiry based lessons on open access crystallographic data. The software required is called


WinCoot (http://www.ysbl.york.ac.uk/~lohkamp/coot/wincoot.html) is free and relatively

easy to learn, and crystallographic data comes from servers such as the “Electron Density

Server” at Uppsala University, Sweden (Kleywegt et al. 2004).

Students can download data directly

into WinCoot for analysis. Much of the

published data in the protein data bank

is incomplete; scientists often are only

interested in a particular active site or

ligand binding site, so less attention is

paid to other regions of the polypeptide.

Huge uncharted regions of electron

density data are available that have not

been examined. Therefore, students

can explore looking for novel ligand

binding sites, new conformations,

mutations, or other areas of interest.

WinCoot is also a great tool to teach the

use of electron density data; students

will see the characteristic three dimensional shape of residues like tyrosine and will easily

understand how its size and shape prohibits certain conformations (Figure 1). You can

actually see covalent bonding in WinCoot, find a cysteine–cysteine interaction, and students

will observe the electron density cloud tightened within the disulfide bond as the electrons

are being shared between the sulfurs. We teach conformation and the sharing of electrons

between atoms but often students do not grasp these concepts because they cannot

visualize the electrons that are in clouds around each atom. With WinCoot students do see

how the electrons clouds look and behave (Figure 2).

I have been exploring using WinCoot as a teaching tool in a comprehensive molecular story.

Students read the journal article “Design of a novel globular protein fold with atomic-level

accuracy” (Kuhlman et al. 2003) and discuss why designing novel proteins is important.

Figure 1. The structural formula of tyrosine in green and the electron density cloud of the amino acid.

http://www.ysbl.york.ac.uk/~lohkamp/coot/wincoot.html


Students then use an amino acid map of the Top7 protein to predict its secondary structure.

They also use Toobers® (foam-covered wire that will hold its shape once folded) to build

models based on their predictions (Martz 2005). Students then examine the actual electron

density cloud of Top 7, resolving their secondary structure with the data. Finally, students

check their work by importing the known secondary structure of Top7. In this exercise,

students read primary literature, apply knowledge of chemistry to make predictions,

compare their predictions to actual data, and check their work on accepted scientific values,

a very powerful exercise.

Protein crystallography is a

powerful tool in biology

today. It is not reserved for

hard core scientists; it is very

accessible for high schools

students. Programs like

WinCoot empower students

and teachers with the ability

to gain knowledge and insight

into the “shape equals

function” world of proteins.

There are tremendous

possibilities available for our

classrooms and research

programs.

To learn more about programs like this, feel free to contact me or the Brookhaven National

Laboratory Office of Educational Programs (http://www.bnl.gov/education/).

Figure 2. The pinched-off area in the blue electron cloud represents the middle of the cysteine–cysteine disulfide bond where electrons are being shared between two sulfur atoms.

http://www.bnl.gov/education/


References

Kleywegt GJ, Harris MR, Zou JY, Taylor TC, Wählby A, Jones TA. 2004. The Uppsala Electron-

Density Server. Acta Cryst. D60: 2240-2249. The website for the Electron Density

Server at Uppsala University can be accessed at http://eds.bmc.uu.se/eds/.

Kuhlman B, Dantas G, Ireton GC, Varani G, Stoddard BL, Baker D. 2003. Design of a novel

globular protein fold with atomic-level accuracy. Science 302(5649), 1364-1368.

Martz E. 2005. Toobers® in science education. http://www.umass.edu/molvis/toobers/

About the Author: Dan Williams is a science teacher at Shelter Island High School, Shelter Island, NY. He has been involved for several years with the educational programs at Brookhaven National Laboratory including InSynC, a program designed to train both teachers and students and introduce synchrotron science into the high school curriculum.

Shelter Island High School 33 North Ferry Road Shelter Island, NY 11964 (631) 749-0302 [email protected]

Make plans to attend the

119th

Annual STANYS Conference

November 1-4, 2014 Rochester, NY

http://eds.bmc.uu.se/eds/

http://www.umass.edu/molvis/toobers/



The Wonder of Lightsticks in Regents

Chemistry

Candace Schneggenburger

Palmyra-Macedon High School

Palmyra, NY

Each year during May, the barrage of

distractions – AP exams, last minute

field trips, fire drills, the prom, and

nice weather – seem to remove any

remaining vestige of motivation my

students have for the final push of the

school year. I wanted to try

something different, but what?

What’s cool, chemistry-related, and

not hazardous? My answer to this

question came from my “go to”

resource for chemistry-related ideas –

the Journal of Chemical Education

published by the American Chemical Society. As I skimmed old issues of the journal, I re-

discovered the article, “The Chemistry of Lightsticks: Demonstrations to Illustrate Chemical

Processes” (Kuntzleman et al. 2012). LIGHTSTICKS! THIS IS IT! They’re cool (not

chemically, but they are definitely “cool” in student parlance). They are definitely

Figure 1. Image of Lightstick during Reaction Rates and Reaction Coordinate Lab


chemistry-related, they weren’t overly hazardous, and I had most of the needed supplies on

hand.

Lightsticks can be used to demonstrate so many chemical concepts that I decided to make

them the theme for our Regents Chemistry exam review over the course of several weeks.

That meant I needed about 400 4” lightsticks and, thanks to the STANYS Foundation Award,

I was able to purchase them. An added bonus was that my supplier, GlowMania

(http://www.glowmania.com/), gives its customers 50 lightstick bracelets for every $50 of

product purchased so I had some extra lightsticks to use as incentives for my students!

I used the lightsticks each Friday in May to review the following chemistry topics: Reaction

Rates and Reaction Coordinates (Figure 1 & 2, Appendix 1), Stoichiometry (Appendix 2),

Redox (Appendix 3), and Acids and Bases (Appenidx 4). For each of the four topics,

students completed a short (25-30 minute) lab activity, created posters to encapsulate

their learning about the topic (Figure 3), did gallery walks to view other students’ posters

and took pictures of them with their phones, and then completed review questions

(previous Regents exam questions) about the topic. I will be sharing the details of the lab

activities and some student posters at the annual STANYS convention in Rochester this

November.

Each of my students got to keep a

bracelet after he or she finished with

it in the first review lab on Reaction

Rates and Reaction Coordinates. My

students were excited both by the

concept of using lightsticks to review

chemistry and by the fact that they got

to keep a bracelet. I will also put a

lightstick bracelet on each of their

desks as they sit down to take the

Regents exam in June – partly because

they’ll think it’s neat and partly

Figure 2. Data from Reaction Rates & Reaction Coordinate lab showing the lightstick reaction to be exothermic.

http://www.glowmania.com/


because I am hoping it will trigger their memories of what we reviewed when we used the

lightsticks.

At the writing of this article, I still have one

more Friday of lightstick reviews to do,

however I am declaring the project a

success – at least as it relates to engaging

my students. I have not heard one word

about AP exams, the prom, or the weather.

What I have heard is – “Mrs. S, you always

have the best labs! At my other school we

never did cool things!” and “When’s our

next lightstick lab?” and “Are we using the

lightsticks again today?” The students

enjoyed getting to take home the lightstick

bracelets, either wearing them on their wrists or belt loops. They were intrigued by the

actual design of the lightsticks: dye and phthalate ester in the glass vial surrounded by

hydrogen peroxide in the outer plastic casing. They realized that the sound you hear when

you activate a lightstick is the breaking of the glass vial. An unplanned connection between

chemistry and lightsticks has also arisen in our organic chemistry unit as the students have

noticed that one of the reactants in the lightstick is an “ester with some benzene rings”.

I am hopeful that this experience will translate to improved test scores on June 24, but

more importantly, I am hopeful that this experience will enhance my students’ recognition

and appreciation of the wonders of chemistry in their daily lives.

References

Kuntzleman TS, Rohrer K, Schultz E. 2012. The chemistry of lightsticks: demonstrations to

illustrate chemical processes. Journal of Chemical Education 89(7): 910-916.

Figure 3. Students creating their Chemical Reactions poster.


Appendix 1. Using lightsticks to review Reaction Coordinates and Reaction Rates

Name: Lab Partners:

Friday Lightstick Lab & Review #1

Introduction

Over the next four Fridays, we will be using lightsticks to help us review chemistry topics. Today’s

topic is Reaction Coordinates and Reaction Rates – the unit we just finished in class. We will conduct

a lab experiment using lightsticks and then create a poster size review sheet for the topic. During a

gallery walk of everyone’s posters, you will take pictures of everyone’s poster using your cell phone.

We will use the posters to complete Regents exam review questions about reaction rates and reaction

coordinates.

Everyone loves lightsticks! I’m entirely sure that’s because lightsticks are ALL ABOUT CHEMISTRY!!!

Lightsticks consist of an outer plastic casing that contains a phenyl oxalate ester (a carbon containing

compound – we’ll learn about this in a few short weeks! I can’t wait!) and sodium salicylate. The

sodium salicylate catalyzes the reaction and is related to the “oil of wintergreen” that we used in the

Chemical Bonds Lab and the Evaporation & IMF lab. That plastic casing has a small glass tube inside

that contains hydrogen peroxide. When the lightstick is bent, the glass vial breaks. This releases the

hydrogen peroxide allowing the reaction to occur. The reaction can’t happen until the hydrogen

peroxide is released because, according to collision theory, substances must have effective collisions

in order to react. A collision is only effective if the particles have the correct orientation and

speed/energy when they collide. There are several factors which will influence how effective

collisions are. They are: concentration, temperature, addition of a catalyst, and surface area. In

general, an increase in either the temperature or the concentration of the reactants will increase

number of effective collisions and speed up a chemical reaction. Increasing surface area (making the

particles smaller) will increase the rate as well.

Materials

Lightsticks netbook sodium salicylate scissors test tubes test tube racks 3 beakers ice temperature probe

Procedure, Part I – Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate

1. Obtain and wear goggles.

2. Obtain 3 beakers. Fill them 2/3 full – one with room-temperature tap water, one with ice water,

one with hot water from Mrs. S’s sink.


3. Use the temperature probe to determine the temperature of the water in each beaker. Record

the information in the Data Table.

4. Simultaneously snap 3 lightsticks.

5. Insert one lightstick into each beaker. Watch what happens for three minutes and record your

observations in the Data Table.

6. After three minutes remove all three lightsticks from the beakers and allow them to come to

room temperature for three minutes. Record your observations in the Data Table.

7. You may keep your lightstick bracelet! See Mrs. S for the bracelet closures.

Data Table

Hot Water

Room Temperature Water

Ice Water

Temperature

Observations of Lightsticks after two

minutes in beaker

Observations of Lightsticks two minutes after

removing them from the beaker

Procedure, Part II – Exo or Endo?

8. On the Experiment tab, select Data Collection. Set the Mode to Time Based and the Length to 60

seconds. Leave the Sampling Rate at 2 samples/second. Click Done.

9. Obtain and activate a 4” lightstick. Record the color of your light stick

here.___________________

10. Use scissors to cut the top off the lightstick.

11. Transfer the contents of the lightstick into a test.

12. Insert the temperature probe into the test tube.


13. Mass out 0.5 g of sodium salicylate.

14. Click the “collect” button. After 10 seconds, add the sodium salicylate to the test tube and use

the temperature probe to mix it into solution.

15. Record the starting temperature and the highest temperature reached in the Data Table.

16. Complete the Data Table by finding groups with other color lightsticks and recording their data.

Data Table

Lightstick Color Initial Temperature Highest Temperature Change in Temperature

pink/red

yellow

green

purple/blue

orange

Analysis

1. Which temperature of water made the lightsticks glow the most brightly in Part I? In terms of

collision theory, explain why this makes sense.

2. Is the lightstick reaction exothermic or endothermic? How do you know?


3. Sketch a potential energy diagram to show the changes in potential energy that occurring in a

lightstick.

4. Given the following information about the heat content of the reactants and products AND the

balanced equation also shown below, calculate the heat of reaction (H) for a lightstick.

Remember that H = Hproducts – Hreactants.

You must take the balanced equation into account. For example, according to the equation 2 moles of CO2 are produced in the lightstick reaction, but the table only tells

you the heat per ONE mole.

Compound Heat Content

(kJ/mole)

C14H4O4Cl6 OR C26H24O8Cl6 -540

H2O2 -188

C6H3OCl3 OR C12H13O3Cl3 -394

CO2 -165

The overall reaction in a lightstick is usually one of the two following reactions. You may choose either one for your calculations. They both give the same result.

C14H4O4Cl6 + H2O2 2C6H3OCl3 + 2CO2

OR

C22H24O8Cl6 + H2O2 2C12H13O3Cl3 + 2CO2


Conclusions

1. Create a review poster that summarizes all of your “Kinetics & Equilibrium” Chemquips.

2. Use your phone to take pictures of every group’s review poster.

3. Complete the attached Kinetics & Equilibrium questions.

4. In doing this lab I learned:

a.

b.

c.

Printed Name Date

Signature

Part I adapted from J. of Chem. Educ. editorial staff, The Effects of Temperature on Lightsticks, J.

Chem. Educ., 1999, 76 (1), p 40A]

Part II adapted from Kuntzleman, Rohrer, and Schultz, The Chemistry of Lightsticks:

Demonstrations To Illustrate Chemical Processes, J. Chem. Educ., 2012, 89, p 910-916


Appendix 2. Using lightsticks to review Stoichiometry and Moles

Name: Lab Partners:


Introduction

Today’s lightstick review topic is Stoichiometry & Moles– your “totes fave” topic. We will conduct a

lab experiment using lightsticks and then create a poster size review sheet for the topic. During a

gallery walk of everyone’s posters, you will take pictures of everyone’s poster using your cell phone.

We will use the posters to complete Regents exam review questions about stoichiometry and moles.

The overall reaction in a lightstick is usually one of the two following reactions. This most common

reaction is the second one. We will assume the second reaction is occurring in our lightsticks and will

use the equation to help us determine how many grams of C22H24O8Cl6 were originally in the

lightstick.

C14H4O4Cl6 + H2O2 2C6H3OCl3 + 2CO2

OR

C22H24O8Cl6 + H2O2 2C12H13O3Cl3 + 2CO2

Materials

lightstick netbook sodium salicylate scissors gas pressure sensor Erlenmeyer flask thermometer

Procedure


2. Using a regular thermometer, record the current room temperature in the Data Table.

3. COMPLETELY fill the Erlenmeyer flask to the tippy-top with tap water. Transfer the water to a

graduated cylinder to determine the volume of the Erlenmeyer flask. Be CAREFUL. The flask

holds at least 125 mL of volume and the graduated cylinder only holds 100 mL. You’ll need to fill

the graduated cylinder to the 100 mL mark, empty it, then add the rest of the contents of the

Erlenmeyer flask to the graduated cylinder. Record the volume in the Data Table.


4. Insert the stir bar into an Erlenmeyer flask, put a special, white rubber cork into the opening of

the Erlenmeyer flask and set the flask on a stir plate.

5. Set up the netbook. Open LoggerPro and attach the gas pressure sensor. On the Experiment tab, select Data Collection. Set the Mode to Time Based and the Length to 10 minutes. Change the Sampling Rate to 2 samples/minute. Click Done. Be sure to get the pressure unit set to “kPa”.


here.___________________

7. Use scissors to cut the top off the lightstick and transfer the contents into the Erlenmeyer flask.

8. Begin data collection by clicking on the “collect” button. Record the initial pressure in the Data

Table.

9. Mass out 1.00 g of sodium salicylate and quickly add it to the flask. Remember to re-cork the

flask so the system is closed.

10. Once data collection has stopped, record the highest pressure in the Data Table.

Data Table

Flask Volume in

mL

Flask Volume in L

Room Temperature

in oC

Room Temperature

in K

Initial Pressure

Highest Pressure

Analysis

1. What is the change in pressure over the course of data collection?

2. We’d like to use the “1mole of gas = 22.4L” conversion factor, but that is only true at standard temperature and pressure (STP). What are the values for standard temperature and standard pressure? Are we at those temperatures and pressures inside the Erlenmeyer flask?


3. We can’t use the “1 mole of gas = 22.4L” conversion factor because that is only true at standard temperature and pressure (STP) and we are NOT at STP. Oh, darn, guess we can’t do the lab.

WRONG!!!! Mathematical relationships to the rescue!!!!

We can use the ideal gas law to determine how many moles of gas we have. The ideal gas law is:

PV = nRT where P = pressure in kPa, V = volume in L, T = temperature in K, and R

= the universal gas constant (8.31 L.kPa/K.mole) Solve for the number of moles of CO2 generated using the answer to question 1 for the

pressure.

4. Use stoichiometry to determine the number of grams of C22H24O8Cl6 that were originally in the lightstick.


5. Complete the chart below.

Mass of C22H24O8Cl6 in YOUR

lightstick

Mass of C22H24O8Cl6 in a second

group’s lightstick

Mass of C22H24O8Cl6 in a third

group’s lightstick

Average Mass of C22H24O8Cl6 in a

lightstick

Conclusions

1. Create a review poster that summarizes all of your “Chemical Rxns” Chemquips.


3. Complete the attached Moles & Stoichiometry questions.


a.

b.

c.

Printed Name Date

Signature

Adapted from Kuntzleman, Rohrer, and Schultz, The Chemistry of Lightsticks: Demonstrations To

Illustrate Chemical Processes, J. Chem. Educ., 2012, 89, p 910-916


Appendix 3. Using lightsticks to review Redox Rreaction

Name: Lab Partners:


Introduction

In this installment of Lightstick Review, we will investigate Redox Reactions. During the lightstick

reaction, the phenyl oxalate ester (a carbon containing compound) is broken apart and carbon dioxide

is released. The carbon from the ester is oxidized to form the carbon dioxide and oxygen is produced

in the reduction of oxygen in H2O2 to O2.

In this lab we will confirm the creation of O2 in the lightstick by using an oxygen gas probe during the

reaction.

Materials

netbook 50 mL beaker 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask scissors netbook O2 gas probe LabQuest mini

Procedure


2. Set up the LabQuest mini, the O2 probe, and the netbook. Open LoggerPro. Under the

Experiment tab, select Data Collection. Set the Mode to Time Based. Set the Length of Time to 5

MINUTES and the sampling rate to 2 samples/second. Click Done.


here.___________________

4. Use scissors to cut the top off the lightstick and transfer the contents into the Erlenmeyer flask.

5. Begin data collection by clicking on the “collect” button. Record the initial and final O2

concentrations in the Data Table.

6. Find one other group that used the same color lightstick as you did. Record their O2

concentrations in the Data Table.


Data Table

Our Data Another Group’s Data

Initial O2

Concentration

Average Initial O2

Concentration

Final O2

Concentration

Average Final O2

Concentration

Average Change in O2 Concentration

Conclusions

1. Create a review poster that summarizes all of your “Redox” Chemquips.


3. Complete the attached Redox questions.


a.

b.

c.

Printed Name Date

Signature




Appendix 4. Using lightsticks to review Acids, Bases, and Neutralization

Name: Lab Partners:


Introduction

In this last Lightstick Review lab we will review Acids, Bases, and Neutralization. You will experiment

with various basic salts (i.e. sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, sodium nitrite, sodium

phosphate, sodium acetate) to see which one increases light emission to the greatest extent.

The reaction that occurs in a lightstick is catalyzed by the addition of weak base and inhibited by the

addition of a weak acid. The relevant chemistry for this part is contained in equations 1 and 2:

(1) HC7H5O3 + OH- C7H5O3- + H2O

(OOOH!!! LOOK: An acid plus a base makes salt & water!)

(2) C7H5O3- + H3O+ HC7H5O3 + H2O

Materials

netbook spectrophotometer laser cable lightsticks Na2CO3 NaHCO3 NaNO2 K3PO4

NaC2H3O2 scissors test tube ring stand

clamp

Procedure

1. Turn on the computer and start LoggerPro.

2. Attach the Spectrovis spectrophotometer DIRECTLY to the computer! No need for the LabQuest

Mini. Insert the fiber optic cable into the opening on the spectrophotometer. Be sure to line up

the triangles!

3. Under the Experiment tab, scroll down to Calibrate and then over to the word

“Spectrophotometer”. Left click on the word “Spectrophotometer” a dialog box will pop up.

Click to check the box before the words “Disable Calibration (Use raw values) then click OK.

4. Also under the Experiment tab, select Data Collection and change the Collection Mode to Time

Based. Then click Done.

5. Click on the icon in the tool bar that looks like a little rainbow ( ). Change the Collection

Mode to Absorbance vs. Wavelength. Click Done


6. Activate a glowstick. Cut it open and pour the contents into a test tube.

7. Clamp the test tube into the holder.

8. Position the fiber optic so that the opening near the yellow end of the cable is in contact with the

glass tube. Click “Collect”. When data collection stops, go the Experiment tab and select “Store

Latest Run”.

9. Choose one of the four following substances to add to the lightstick mixture. Indicate

your choice by circling the formula of the substance.

Na2CO3 NaHCO3 NaNO2 K3PO4 NaC2H3O2

10. Measure out 0.5 g of the substance and add it to the test tube.

11. Wait about 15-20 seconds and then hold the fiber optic cable directly up against the glass

of the test tube (like you did in Step 8). Click “Collect”.

12. Save the graph to Mrs. S’s FreeAgent Hard Drive in the 1Lightsticks Review Lab4 folder. Save it

as each of your first names followed by your class period.

Conclusions

1. Create a review poster that summarizes all of your “Acids & Bases” Chemquips.


3. Complete the attached Acid/Base questions.

4. Compare your graph to another group’s graph to see which (if either) substance had a greater

effect on light intensity. Write a sentence that compares the two graphs.


a.

b.

c.

Printed Name Date

Signature




About the Author: Candace Schneggenburger is the District Lead Science Teacher for Palmyra-Macedon High School. She teaches Regents Chemistry to about 80 students each year. She was the recipient of a STANYS Foundation Award (http://www.stanys.org/about/awards/9-about-stanys/stanys-award-recipients/199-foundation-award.html) which helped to fund her work with lightsticks.

Palmyra-Macedon High School 151 Hyde Parkway Palmyra, NY 14522 (315)597-3420 [email protected]

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The Role of Metaphorical Thinking and

Models in the STEM Classroom

John Styles

Schoharie Jr-Sr High School

Schoharie, NY

I.

When we hear the word metaphor, no doubt we are taken back to junior high English class.

I can recall being assigned various poems and other works of literature and being asked to

identify the metaphors employed by the authors. If your experience is anything like mine,

then you probably learned that a metaphor is a literary device used to make implicit

comparisons between two objects –that is, comparisons that do not use the words like or as.

Again, if your junior high English experience was like mine, then metaphors were always

contrasted with similes, another literary device for making comparisons, though this time

the comparison was explicit –that is, they make use of the words like or as. This typical

junior high English lesson has a long history that goes back at least as far as Aristotle who

wrote about metaphor in both the Rhetoric and the Poetics. The picture of metaphor that

emerges from those works is one of an elliptical simile. As such, a literal description can

always be substituted for a metaphorical expression without any loss of meaning. This had

the effect of denying any special cognitive content to a metaphor, thereby reducing it to

mere rhetorical flourish.

This attitude toward metaphor prevails into the modern era and is readily found among

17th century Enlightenment thinkers. During this period, when science was in ascendancy


and a scientific world view had come

to dominate the European continent,

the writings of influential thinkers

such as Thomas Hobbes and John

Locke left no room for the use of

metaphor in the still nascent

sciences. For instance, in the

following passage from Essay

Concerning Human Understanding,

Locke condemns all uses of

figurative language in matters pertaining to securing knowledge and establishing truth

(Johnson 1981, p 13):

But yet if we would speak of things as they are, we must allow that all the art of

rhetoric, besides order and clearness; all the artificial and figurative application

of words eloquence hath invented, are for nothing else but to insinuate wrong

ideas, move the passions, and thereby mislead the judgment; and so indeed are

perfect cheats: and therefore, however laudable or allowable oratory may render

them in harangues and popular addresses, they are certainly, in all discourses

that pretend to inform or instruct, wholly to be avoided; and where truth and

knowledge are concerned, cannot but be thought a great fault, either of the

language or the person that makes use of them.

It is clear from this passage that Locke acknowledges a very limited role for figurative

language generally and for metaphor in particular. In rhetorical addresses, for example, it

may serve as ornamentation of sorts to dress up a speech by using words in a fanciful

manner, but beyond that has no substantive function. If our interest is in gaining or

conveying knowledge and acquiring or establishing truth, as it would be in scientific

endeavors, then, according to Locke, there is no room for figurative language and its use

must be avoided.

This attitude prevailed for another three hundred years. However, in the mid-20th century

philosopher Max Black published a paper that proposed a revolutionary way of thinking

about what a metaphor is and how it functions. One immediate impact of his work was that


it caught the attention of philosophers of science who saw in his theory a new model of

scientific explanation.

II.

In his paper, Metaphor, Black (1955) proposes what he calls the” interaction theory of

metaphor,” metaphors to be understood as an interaction between two conceptual systems

that he designates the primary and secondary subjects of the metaphor. A rather simple

example he uses is, “Man is a wolf.” According to Black, we understand this metaphor

because our thoughts associated with humans and wolves interact with one another and

the result of this interaction is various shifts in meaning of the terms involved, such that

our concepts human and wolf are altered. If Black is correct, then no literal substitution for

the metaphor will suffice to capture the insights generated by the metaphor.

In a follow-up paper, Black introduces the notion of metaphorical thought (Black 1979, p

31). He insists that when we make a metaphorical assertion, we are not merely

entertaining the metaphor, but are actively engaged in thinking of one thing as though it

were another, and in so doing, explore all of the implications of such thinking. At the heart

of metaphorical thought is the ability “to think of something (A) as something else (B)”

(Black 1979, p 31), and this process is characterized by conceptual innovation. He likens

the conceptual innovation prompted by metaphorical thought to thinking of a triangle that

is composed of three curved segments. To see the triangle in this way requires alterations

to the concept of a triangle, insofar as curved segments are not part of our conceptual

understanding of a triangle. While this exercise in non-Euclidean geometry is not an

example of metaphorical understanding, it does capture the essence of metaphorical

thought, viz., that when we think of some A as metaphorically B the result is a change in the

relevant concepts (Black, 1979 p.33):

The imaginative effort demanded in such exercises (familiar to any student of

mathematics) is not a bad model for what is needed in producing, handling, and

understanding all but the most trivial metaphors. That the use of relevant

concepts employed should change…seems essential to the operation.

Subsequent to Black’s work, philosophers of science took notice, and began applying his


ideas to various areas in science including developing models of explanation and using

models in the development of theory.

III.

Mary Hesse had already been studying the relationship between analogies and theoretical

models when Black’s work on metaphor was published. Hesse (1966) argues that Black’s

interaction theory of metaphor provides for us a new way to understand the relationship

between the explanadum of a scientific theory and the explanans. She describes this as a

“metaphoric re-description of the domain of the explandum” (Hesse 1966, p 132). In this

analysis, the domain of the explanadum corresponds to the primary system in Black’s

account; the explanans function similarly to the secondary system. A favorite example of

Hesse’s is the explanation of gas behavior through an understanding of massive,

mechanical particles, such as billiard balls. Much in the same way that Black’s secondary

system of an interaction metaphor will inform and change the way we understand the

primary system, our understanding of the

mechanics of billiard balls will inform and

shape our thinking about and understanding of

the behavior of gas particles. One consequence

is that by using the metaphor, we move from

thinking about gas particles as volume-less

points to thinking of them as finite particles,

and therefore as possessing volume. Interaction

metaphors supply a model that can be used to

construct a theory, and in so doing attempt to

offer an explanation of the theory in terms of a

more familiar system.

This manner of generating scientific explanation abandons the deductive-nomological

model of explanation (D-N) by taking the emphasis off the deductive relationship that is

supposed to have existed between the explanadum and explanans. Instead, it focuses on

the relationship between the primary system and the secondary system given by and


mediated through the metaphor. If metaphors are the driving force behind theoretical

explanations, then this would go a long way towards accounting for the observation that

the deductive relationships said to exist between explanadum and explanans on the D-N

account can rarely be demonstrated in practice. Rather, as Hesse points out, what we do

see are relationships of approximate fit, and these relationships are quite consistent with a

metaphor-based theory of explanation. It is precisely this relationship of approximate fit

that will help guide research, insofar as scientists continually strive to find a tighter fit or

ever-closer approximations. At the close of the paper, Hesse characterizes rationality as:

“the continuous adaptation of our language to our continually expanding world and

metaphor is one of the chief means by which this is accomplished” (Hesse 1966, p 139).

Following Hesse’s application of interaction metaphors to offer an alternative account of

scientific explanation, many other philosophers of science sought to expand the use of

Black’s theory to other areas of science. One such approach focused on what Richard Boyd

(1979) termed “theory-constitutive metaphors.” As the name suggests, theory-constitutive

metaphors, constitute the theory. They are the scaffolding around which the theory is

structured; as such, they cannot be replaced by any adequate literal expression(s). The

theory is, at least for a time, built around the metaphor; to remove the metaphor would be

to, in effect, discard the theory. Theory-constitutive metaphors are the vehicle by which the

theory is introduced and articulated. According to Boyd, the essential feature of theory-

constitutive metaphors is that they display “inductive open-endedness.” This feature allows

us to explore the relationship that exists between a primary and secondary system (Boyd

1979, p 489):

They [theory-constitutive metaphors] display what might be called inductive

open-endedness…. The reader is invited to explore the similarities and analogies

between features of the primary and secondary subjects, including features not

yet discovered, or not yet fully understood…. Theory-constitutive metaphors are

introduced when there is (or seems to be) good reason to believe that there are

theoretically important respects of similarity or analogy between the literal

subjects of the metaphors and their secondary subjects. The function of such

metaphors is to put us on track of these respects of similarity or analogy.


Boyd argues that this exploration of the two systems will serve to orient research as

scientists continue to explore the features of the two systems in order to determine the

extent of similarity. Finally, he argues that theory-constitutive metaphors encourage the

scientist to always look for new discoveries between the two systems and bring about

greater understanding of the aspects of similarity and analogy that are most relevant to the

theory being developed.

Examples of theory-constitutive metaphors can be found throughout various sciences. One

of area of interest is in the various models of the atom. For example, Rutherford’s nuclear

model of the atom includes electrons moving in circular paths around the nucleus. This

strongly suggests a planetary model of the atom. With this model in hand, scientists

endeavored to uncover the precise ways in which the atom behaves like a miniature solar

system and in which ways it does not. As Boyd notes, the model generated a research

program as scientists tried to work out the exact nature of the similarity. The Rutherford

model was eventually deemed inadequate because in exploring the implications of the

atom-as-solar system, it was recognized that the laws of electrodynamics predict electrons

radiating energy and spiraling into the nucleus. But it was precisely this deficiency that

would ultimately lead to the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom. This model preserves the

underlying planetary metaphor, but adds the orbitals and quantization of angular

momentum. This little sliver of the history of the development of the atomic model

underscores the virtue of the open-endedness of theory-constitutive metaphors.

IV.

Our understanding of what a metaphor is and how it functions has changed dramatically

since Aristotle nearly two and half millennia ago. Through the work of Max Black and those

he influenced, metaphor no longer need be confined to English classrooms. If Black is

correct that metaphor is a vehicle for prompting creative thought and conceptual

innovation, then they deserve to be emphasized and utilized in the STEM classroom.

Thinking through the implications of a metaphor often involves higher-order thinking skills

such as analysis and synthesis, skills that should be stressed in all areas of education, but

especially in STEM areas. In my own classroom, I try to emphasize the role of the


metaphors that underlie various atomic models. Most of my students have no idea what

plum-pudding is, so when I tell them Thomson described the atom as being plum-pudding

it means nothing to them. I give them a very general description of the dessert, and we talk

about how Thompson pictured the atom as negative particles scattered throughout a

positively charged medium, and ask them to create their own model to describe the atom. I

have had some interesting responses over the years, but one of the better ones is chocolate

chip cookie dough. This is a much more effective model for students today who are vastly

more familiar with chocolate chip cookie dough than with plum pudding. As we transition

to Rutherford’s model, I like to give them the results of his experiments and ask them to

develop a model of the atom and an underlying metaphor to accompany it. When we finally

get to the discussion of the planetary model, the model provides a context for asking

essential questions: In what ways can an atom be said to be like a solar system? And just as

importantly, we can identify the features of an atom that are not like a solar system. In

thinking about and answering both questions, students are engaging with subject matter at

a deeper level. This type of exercise need not be confined to chemistry. One could easily

imagine presenting a lesson based on Darwin’s use of artificial selection as a model for

natural selection. Indeed, in a rural school district, such as the one I teach in, many students

are very familiar with artificial selection and could readily relate to it and use it as a vehicle

to extend their knowledge of natural selection.

Regardless of the content area, the emphasis on models and the metaphors that underlie

them always prompt students to think of something that is unfamiliar and largely unknown

to them in terms of something this is more familiar and better understood. Ideally, the

result is an enhanced understanding of both.

References

Black M. 1955. “Metaphor”. In Models and Metaphors. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,

25-47.

Black M. 1979. “More About Metaphor.” In Metaphor and Thought, ed. A. Ortony

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed, 1993, 356-408.


Boyd R. 1979. “Metaphor and Theory Change: What is “metaphor” a metaphor for?” In

Metaphor and Thought, ed. A. Ortony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd

edn, 1993, 481-532.

Hesse M. 1966. “The Explanatory Function of Metaphor.” In Introduction to the Philosophy

of Science, ed. Arthur Zucker. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 132-139.

Johnson M (editor). 1981. Philosophical Perspectives on Metaphor. Minneapolis: University

of Minnesota Press.

About the Author: John Styles has primarily taught NYS Regents chemistry and AP chemistry at Schoharie Jr-Sr High School since 1996. In 2008 he took a two-year leave to take a position teaching chemistry at SHAPE International High School located at NATO headquarters in Casteau, Belgium. In addition to teaching chemistry, John regularly teaches classes in philosophy and logic at various local colleges.

Schoharie Jr-Sr High School 436 Academy Drive Schoharie, NY 12157 (518) 295-6601 [email protected]

Photographic images in this issue are attributed to

• Images of glowstick and glow bracelets (cover & p 23) courtesy of glowmania.com

• Protein crystallography images courtesy of the author (Dan Williams)

• Classroom images (glowsticks) courtesy of the author (Candace Schneggenberger)

• Mind Technologies (p 25) © Agsandrew | Dreamstime.com

• Smiling thinking woman with two web bubbles (p 27) © Nastia1983 | Dreamstime.com



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