The Safe CigaretteVisual Strategies of Reassurance in American advertisements

for cigrarettes, 1945 - 1964

One: The Safe Cigarette

Dr Jackie Batey of Damp Flat Books

This is one of nine volumes exploring images of reassurance that formed the basis of my practice-based PhD resolved into Artist’s Books and Multiples

nice

The Safe Cigarette

Preface: Abstract,GuidetotheVolumesandMultiples

One: TheSafeCigarette

Two: TheCigarette

Three: The Need to Reassure

Four: Personification:WhoShouldWeTrust?

Five: NatureasReassurance-TheMentholCigarette

Six: TechnologyasReassurance-TheFilter-Tip

Seven: Conclusion

Eight: Glossary,ReferencesandAppendices

One:TheSafeCigarette

Contents

TheEndoftheSafeCigarette

IntroductiontotheRelationshipBetweenMakingandVisualAnalysis

The Structure of the Volumes

TheArtist’sBooksandMultiplesandtheirAlignmentwiththeVolumes

ASpecialRelationship?

VisualResponsestoAmericanAdvertising

ImagesThatAttackImages

Advertising’sOwnVisualDisplays,theTradeOrganisation

The Brand Names Foundation and The Advertising Council

PostWarAmericanMagazines,to1965

The Tobacco Industry in America

Endnotes to Volume One

Fig1:01 Anon,“FullerBrushMen”,FOR,June1938

One: TheSafeCigarette

TheEndoftheSafeCigarette

OnOctober14th1999Philip Morrisfinallyadmittedontheircorporatewebsitethat“Thereisno‘safe’

cigarette”.Afteryearsofargumentsbyscientists,doctors,legislators,lobbyists,patients,celebrities,

politiciansandfarmersaboutthepropertiesoftobaccoandcigarettesmoking,thereisanendtothis

tenaciouslyheldmyth.OnJuly14th2001itwasrevealedthatPhilip MorrishadwrittentotheCzech

governmentrecommendingthesmokingofcigarettesasawayofrestrainingtheState’sbudgetcostsby

inducingearlydeathsinitscitizenconsumers.1

Before1940cigaretteshadbeenenjoyedbytheconsumerwithnoanxietiesotherthanthose

attachedtothegeneraluneaseatthepublicitygiventocertainalarmingpropertiesofconcentrated

nicotine.Controversysurroundingthesmokingofcigarettesbegantoconsolidateduringthe1950’s

inAmerica,culminatinginthepassingoftheFederal Cigarette Labelling and Advertising Actin1965,

requiringtheSurgeonGeneral’sWarningtoappearonallcigarettepackets.Thiswasfollowedin1981by

theReportoftheSurgeonGeneralfocusingon“TheChangingCigarette.”Itconcludedthatnocigaretteor

levelofconsumptionwassafe.

Now, twenty years on, Philip Morrishavefinallyagreedwiththeiropponents.Lookingback,

overtheadvertisingmaterialoftheperiod1945-1964aclearthemehasemergedinthecreationof

apervasiveanxietyandthecreationofacorrespondingreassurance.Lookingbackandreflectinghas

enabledmetounderstandexactlywhyIfindmanyoftheadvertisingpropositionssoworthyofcloser

analysis and why I have used these visual strategies as the basis of my own work and its underlying basis

ofhumourindesignandillustration.

AnIntroductiontotheRelationshipBetweenMakinganImageanditsVisualAnalysis

Iworkasanartist,illustratoranddesigner,andtheimageryofthe1950’shaslongbeenastronginfluence

onme.Informationalandadvertisingmaterialfromthisperiodhasbeenatthecentreofmyvisual

research.Ifind’fiftiesadvertisingconcurrentlyamusingandinsidious.Myownworkhasdeveloped

fromsmallscalepaintingsandillustrationsbefore1995intoartist’sbooksandmultiples,hand-produced

inlimitededitionsofunder50.2ThestrategiesIusearemostlydependentontypesofhumourwhile

thecontentfocusesoneverydaycodesofetiquette-eitherimpliedorexplicit-designedtoinformand

influencepeoplehowtoconducttheirlivesonaday-to-daybasis,whileavoidingsocialembarrassmentand

drawingunwantedattentiontothemselves.

Iamattractedtotheconceptof‘absurdity’and‘misinformation’inherentinadvertisingand‘know-how’

explanations.IhaveapersonalcollectionofmaterialbothfromtheU.K.andtheU.S.datingfrom1937-72

includingmagazines,housekeepingmanuals,etiquettebooksandothermanualssuchasPractical Housekeeper

and Popular Mechanics.Icultivatetheabsurdwhilekeepingastraightface,usingdryhumourwithina

combinationofimagesandtext.3

Attheoutsetofthisthesis,Iidentifiedthefollowingaskeyareasforinvestigation:

• Visualstrategiesusedbytheadvertisertopromoteneedintheconsumer.

• Thetoneofvoicewhenaproductisbeingexplainedtotheprospectiveconsumer.

• Instructionsforeverydaylife,theassumptionsofconsumers’aspirations.

• Hiddenagendasandpersuasivearguments,thecapacityoftheimagemakertoconcealcertainvalues

andargumentsortodistortthemforcommercialadvantage.

ThisinteresthasledmetocollecttogetheradvertisementsmainlyforcigarettesfromtheU.S.duringthe’fifties.

Duringthisperiodadvertiserswereforcedtochangestrategiesmanytimesinordertoreassureanincreasingly

scepticalpublicaboutthebenefitsofsmoking.Thedevelopingdialoguebetweensmokerandadvertiser,withrea-

sons and reassurances readily answered in anticipationofthequestion,createsatensionwithintheimages.My

sequenceofVolumeswillexaminethevisualstrategiesusedduringthisperiodintheUnitedStatesmarket.Inthis

analysisIalsohopetobetterunderstandmyownworkingmethodology.Thiswillenablemetodevelopmyartist’s

booksandmultiplesintermsofcontent,humour,illustrationanddesigninthefuture,whilenotlosingtouchwith

thevisualsourcesfromthe1950’s.

WitheconomicsuccessandalmostfullemploymentinAmericaaftertheSecondWorldWarthemanufac-

turingsectorwasworkingatfullcapacityproducingasmanynewproductsasAmericanhomeshadplacestoput

themin.Thisextravaganceofconsumptionseemsallthemorenoticeableinthelightofourcontemporaryper-

spectiveofrecyclingandecologicalawareness.Withcurrentanxietiesaboutfluoro-carbonsandtheincreasing

pollutionoftheatmospherefromdiscardedfreezingsystems,theveryearnestnessofthenotionoffashionable

coloursforrefrigeratorsseemsabsurd.4Toreflectonthespuriousqualitiesattributedtoconsumerdurablesis

thefoundationofmyownwork-thatcigarettescaneasehousewives’anxieties-thatcarsizealonecanimpress

theneighbours-thatmen’sunderwearismorecomfortablewhenpackagedincellophane-isthefoundationof

thestyleofhumourIhaveexplored.

The Structure of the Volumes

IhavedividedmysectionsofanalysisintosevenseparateVolumesthatwillallowthewealthofimageryIhave

usedtobebestpresented.Thevisualstrategieshavebeencategorisedthus:

Volume1: IntroducestheArtist’sMultiplesandcigarettes,alsoanoverviewoftheVolumes.

Volume2: Introducescigaretteadvertisingandexamineswhatacigaretteis,andhowwearetaughttosmoke.

Thereisacomparisonwithasimilarproduct(chewinggum).Thedefinitionofan“adultpacifier”is

explored,andwhyitshouldbethoughttobenecessary.

Volume3: LooksatthenatureofanxietyandexploreswhatanAmericancitizenhadtobeworriedaboutduring

theperiod.Itracetheinventionofartificialanxietiestosellaproduct.

Volume4: Examinesthepersonificationofabrand,andwhowe,theconsumers,areexpectedtotrust,focussing

onDoctors,Singers,Cowboys,AnimalsandSantaClaus.

Volume5: ExploresthestrategyofpresentingNatureasreassuranceandexplorestherecoursetothe‘Natural’

product.

Volume6: Detailsthelanguageoftechnologyandinnovation,thetechniquewetalkofas‘blindingwithscience’.

Volume7: PlotstheaxisbetweenanxietyandreassuranceinwhichparticularaspectsofAmericanvisualculture

canbeset,ultimatelygeneratingtheobservablevisualtendenciesofaschizophrenicsocietyinwhich

consumptionispresentedastheultimatepalliative.ContainstheimageoftheBuncoMan,fraudster

andpersuaderinMelvilleandJackLevine.TheVolumeconcludeswithadescriptionofthe

relationshipbetweenvisualanalysisandmakinginmyownwork.

TheArtist’sBooksandMultiplesandtheirAlignmentwiththeVolumes

Theselectionofartist’sbooks,multiplesandgatefoldimagesandwhichVolumetheyarealignedtoareasfollows:

Volume One: Gatefold: Identification of Parts

Volume Two: Surely Not;limitededitionof10

Ellipses Points;limitededitionof10

Gatefold: Smoking a Cigarette

Volume Three: Anxious Homes, Cursory Cleaning for the Imminent arrival of Visitors;editionof10.

Lemorette Zone Chart;limitededitionof10.

Gatefold: How’s Your Disposition Today ?

Volume Four: Testimonials !;limitededitionof7

Gatefold: Who Should We Trust ?

Volume Five: Menthol Daze;limitededitionof7

Menthol Madness;limitededitionof10

Gatefold: Menthol Fresh

Volume Six: Lemorette Display Stand;limitededitionof7

Which Filter Works?;limitededitionof10

Gatefold: Guard Against Throat–Scratch...

Volume Seven: Gatefold: CDROM Map of the Artist’s Books & Multiples

TheArtist’sBooksandMultiples,aswellasvisualsandcomments,canbeviewedontheCDROMpackagedwithin

thisVolume–AmapoftheCDROMcanbefoundinVolumeSeven.ForthisinteractivePDFversionhyperlinksare

addedsotheartist’sbookscanbeviewedseperately.

ASpecialRelationship?

BeingaEuropeanobserversurveyingaspectsofAmericanculturecanbringaparticularandvaluableperspective

ofobservationandunderstanding.Itissometimesnoteasytoidentifyclearlysignificanttraitswithinone’sown

culture.Thepassingoftimehelpstoclarifysuchtraitsandattitudes.Lookingatculturesthathaveperceptible

differencesfromourownisalsoatechniquethathelpstodefineelementsofourculture.TheU.K.hasabsorbed

muchAmericancultureintheformoftelevision,film,products,marketingandpolitics.Evenconsideringthemi-

noreconomicdepressionexperiencedbytheU.S.afterthewar,theNationwas,incomparisonwithothervicto-

riousAllies,verywealthyanduntouchedbybombsandethniccleansing.EmploymentwashighandtheU.S.did

indeedseemtobeaveritableLandofPlenty.5

“Interlink’d,food-yieldinglands!

Landofcoalandiron!landofgold!landofcotton,sugar,rice!

Landofwheat,beef,pork!landofwoolandhemp!landoftheappleandthegrape!”

WaltWhitman,“StartingFromPaumanok,(1860)”,The Works of Walt Whitman,

WordsworthPoetryLibrary,WordsworthEditions,London,1995,p.14ff.

Intheperiodafter1945,EuropeansweredazzledbyAmericanrichesandbyatenaciousvisionoftheGolden

Future.The Independent GroupinBritainwereearlyadmirersofAmericanmagazineadvertisements,unableto

believetheevidenceofplenty6.ForthosefamiliarwithBritishmagazines(e.g.Woman’s Own, Picture Post and

Everyman’s),LOOK, Flair and FORTUNEweresimplymarvellousinsheerproductionvalues.Overalltherealsois

ademonstrablevisualdistinctiontobemadebetweenadvertisingimageryintheU.S.andtheU.K.after1945.

InBritain,therewasastrongbeliefthatadvertisingwasadisreputabletrade.Hesitantpublishersandashortage

ofpaperkeptmagazineproductionvalueslow.Thepaperstockofmagazines,thebudgetforcolourprinting,

resourcesforgeneratingnewfeaturesshowclearvariationsinU.S.andU.K.editorialdesign7.IntheU.K.cigarette

consumptionwasconsiderablylowerpercapitathanintheU.S.,andBritainwasnotassignificantasatobacco

producingcountry8.

Criticalandhistoricalstudiesofadvertisinghavenotserveduswell.Tolookbackovertheperiodandreflect

onthelegacythathasbeenleftisvitaltoourunderstandingofthepresentday.Manyexistingstudiesofthevisual

mechanicsofthepostwaradvertisementarereluctanttoaskquestions,relyingratherontheimpressionistic

glowofnostalgiaoraretreatbehindstatistics.Aconsideredre-evaluationcanhelprevealthedesignand

implementationofVisualStrategiesoftheperiod.

“Theincentivetorevivesomepastperiodisoftenasopportunisticasitisimperative.Nostalgia,asa

motivator,isnomatchfortheneedtorecallahistoricalmomentthathasembeddedwithinitaspirit

lackinginthepresent.Sometimesanunexpectedorunthinkableeventoccurswhichcompletesaseriesof

pasteventswithsuchfinalitythatonemuststraintorememberwhatitwasthatsoobscuredthemand

theirmeaningforsolong.”

Riva Castleman, Art of the Forties.Exhibitioncatalogue,TheMuseumofModernArt,NewYork,1991,p.9

Itisonlynow,afteryearsofspeculationandconcealment,thatthewholevisuallanguageofcigaretteadvertising

andproductionismakingitswayintothepublicdomainalmostonadailybasis,witholdcourt-casesfinally

comingtoaconclusionandnewlitigationsinitiated.

InmyworkIfeltmorecloselydrawntoAmericanadvertisingasarawsourceofimagerybecauseofits

richnessofthemeandimmediacyofpresentation.

VisualResponsestoAmericanAdvertising:MediaStudiesandIndustryManuals

SuspicionaboutcommercialismandthetechniquesofMadisonAvenue9 are familiar territory within cultural

andmediastudiesafter1945.Manyofthesestudieshaveaddressedgenderandenvironmentalissuesinthe

advertisingofAmericanconsumerproducts,fromJudithWilliamsoninherpioneeringstudyof197810 to Greg

Myers’Ad Worlds of1999.11

Analytictextshavearguedpersuasivelyaboutmechanismsofmanipulation.Authorsfromvarioussource

disciplineshavechartedshadesofmeaningandinbuiltmythologies.Seriousandincisivestudieshavebeen

howevertoocontenttorelyonrelativelyfewvisualexamplesprintedsmallandusuallyingrayscale,andoften

lostinthegutterofthebook.Imagesusedinanalyticalstudiesareoftencarelesslycroppedwithlittlesenseof

howtheyoriginallyappearedinthesequenceofmagazinepages.Theimagesdiscussedareoftenimpossiblefor

thereadertostudyduetothepoorqualityofthereproduction.

Therewerefromthisperiodtwobookspublishedwhich,howeverbadlytheyreproducedthevisual

evidence,neverthelessassembledvisualarguments,ofteninamontageform,orasarhetoricaldeviceonthe

page.

The Mechanical BridebyMarshallMcLuhan(1951)isafineexampleofabookwheretheimagesare

treatedasimportantelementswithintheanalysis.Thisisamediumsizedbook(200mmx270mm)laidoutin

atwocolumnsoftextperpageformatwithimagesappearingdirectlyoppositethetextthatrelatestothem.

Theimages,althoughinblackandwhite,areprintedwhole,eachtoasinglepagesothatallthetextwithinthe

advertisementislegibleforreaderstoexaminethemselves.

(SeeVolume8foranillustrationandmoredetailsaboutthisbook).Gender AdvertisingbyErvingGoffman(1976)

alsopresentsblackandwhiteimages,butneverthelessmakesargumentsinavisualformwithagenerosityof

spaceallocatedtotheimages.

McLuhaninterestedmeespeciallyinthetoneofvoiceheuses,askingasmanyquestionsasheanswersand

writinginastylenotdissimilartotheadvertisingcopyheiscommentingupon.McLuhanalsouseshumourand

satiresuccessfullytounderlineapoint.Whenseekingtoanalyseadvertisinginthecauseofunderstandinglarger

socialandideologicalissues,therehasbeencomparativelylittlestudyofthestructure,developmentandadaption

oftheimagesinunderstandingtheinteractionbetweenconsumerandproduct.

Therehasbeenlittleanalysisofhowimagemakersdevisedandemployedconsistentvisualstrategiesinthe

AdvertisingIndustry,hereseenthroughtheagencyofsellingcigarettes.

On the other hand, there aremanyoutstandingbookswrittenbypracticingartdirectorsanddesigners

intendedasmanualstoexplaintechniquesaswellasarticulatingdesigndecisions.Thesebooks,manyfromthe

‘50s,areintendedfortheuseofthoseinvolvedwithintheindustry.

Thesequenceofeventsanddecisionsleadinguptotheproductionofthefinalimageareexploredinsomedetail.

Theseareanuntappedresource,seldommentionedinbibliographiesorquotedinanalysisofmarketing.12

OfparticularuseStephenBaker,Advertising Layout and Art Direction,publishedbyMcGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc. (1959).Thisisarichanddetailedsourceofinformationaboutdesignandillustrationconceptsand

techniquesappliedtoadvertising.AnotherdetailedresourceofadvertisingimageryistheArt Directors Annual,

producedfrom1921asasurveyofexcellenceinAmericanadvertising.Eachannualalsoprovidesidentified

HeroesofDesign,withtrustedprofessionalsidentifiedasjurorsandprovidesannualstatementsofintent.

Severalimportantstudiesofimagerywerepublishedatthebeginningoftheperiod,suchasErnest

W.Watson’sForty Illustrators and How They Work(1946)andFrankH.Young’sTechniques of Advertising Layout

(1947).Thesebooksexaminecomposition,structureanddevelopmentofimages.Theylookattypographyand

theplacementwithinthepage.Watson’sbookisunusualinthatverbatiminterviewswiththeartistsareincluded.

Thesetextsareintendedforpractitionerswithintheindustryandarequiteopenandexplicitaboutdeveloping

imagesthatarecreatedtoorder-depictingtheproduct,theconsumerandtheidealconditionsofpurchase.

Thesepublicationsclearlyshowthattheadvertisingprofessionwasawareofwhatdemandcouldbegenerated

by images and how desirable a career it could be fig:1:02.Thereisconsiderableevidencethatspecificwritingsby

FreudandJungwererecommendedreadinginadvertisingagenciesjustafterthewar.13

ImagesthatattackImages

Fromtheearlydaysofitsexistenceasaprofession,andcertainlyafter1900,theadvertisingindustrywasthe

objectofsomesuspicionamongtheAmericanpublic.Severalfilmicnarrativesoftheperiodafter1945present

theAdvertisingManasa‘HollowMan’,particularlytheDanDuyeacharacterinIt’s Always Fair Weather (1955),

inwhichadvertisingissavagelyattackedparticularlyinitshigh-growthareaontelevision.InFunny Face(1957)

thecreativedirectorofanadvertisingagencyexplainshowtomanipulatepublicopinioninfavourofanewcolour

(thesong“ThinkPink”).TheCommunicationMedia,includingNewspapermenandJournalists,werealsooften

unfavourablypresented,characterisingitsexponentsasdishonestpowerseekersinThe Sweet Smell of Success

(1957)andAce in the Hole (1951).Giventhegatheringcontroversyaroundsmokingcigarettes,BobNewhart’s

comedymonologue,“TheIntroductionofTobaccotoCivilisation”(1963),focusedontheabsurdityofputting

lightedpaperinonesmouth,andkeepingitthere.Newhartingeniouslyexplorestherelationshipbetweenthe

newlyinventedactivityofsmokingandthegenerationofwordsusedtodescribetheprocess.

Visuallythetraditionofusingsatiretocommentonthehumanconditionhasalonganddistinguished

history.AmericanmagazinessuchasThe New YorkerregularlymockedtheaspirationsofMadisonAvenue,with

cartoons,definitionsofdeceit,crookedness,misinformationandthegullibilityofthepublic.Thesecartoons

thenappearedinthemassproducedmagazineswhichthemselveswerethemajorchannelsofcommunication

betweenconsumerandtheproducers/advertisers.

Thepost-warperiodinAmericasawlittleofthesocialcommentarywearefamiliarwithfrompaintingsand

muralsofthe1930’s.IllustratorssuchasBenShahn,GeorgeTookerandJackLevineperhapsalonesustainedvisual

polemicsagainsttheevilsoftheage,usingcaricatureandwit.

Fig1:02ArtInstructionInc.,advertisement,PopularScience,March1951

Fig1:03 BrandNamesFoundationadvertisement,SEP,December1955

Advertising’sOwnVisualDisplays,theTradeOrganisation

ButAdvertisingwasintheperfectpositiontodefenditself.Itsvalueswerevisuallydisplayedregularlyinmass

circulationmagazinesofthe1950’sintheAgencies’ownadvertisements14andthoseforitstradeorganisations,

The Brand Names Foundation and the Advertising Council.Bothbodiessoughttoallayanydoubtsoranxieties

amongthereadershipbyconstructinganauraofprofessionalcompetenceandintegrityfig:1:01.Bothcreated

afacadeofcorporateconsolidation,bothencouragedgravitasandsoughttogeneraterespectabilityand

confidence.

The Brand Names Foundation and The Advertising Council

The Brand Names Foundation whichadvertisedregularlyinarangeofmagazinesduringtheperiodisanexample

ofthetypeofshadowyorganisationthathasinfluencedthedevelopmentoffakebrandsformyArtist’sMultiples

andBooks.Theadvertisementshownhere,fig1:03,ispurelydesignedtopromotebrandedproductsrather

thangenericoneseventhoughnotangibledifferenceinqualityoftheproductmaybeapparent.The3-way

relationshipbetweentheconsumer,theadvertiserandthemanufacturerisclearlyexpressedwiththetaglines,“I

made it!”, “I sold it!” and “I bought it!”,aseamlessprocessleadingtotheCommonGood.

Thevisualdeploymentofthevariouselementsgivesanequalpresencetoeachpartoftheprocess,

presentingtheteamattheheartofconsumerism,eachelementdependantontheothertwofortherelationship

tobeasuccess.Lookingback,theideaofbuyingaproductexplicitlybecauseitisbrandedseemscrude,almost

asifweasconsumersaretoosophisticatednowadaystojustchoosebrandsratherthanweighupalltheoptions.

AlthoughwestilltendtotalkintermsofLevi’s, Coke, Dr.Martins, Tippexetc.,theAdvertising Council aims to

persuadetheconsumer,thereader,thatadvertisingliesattheheartoftheAmericaneconomicandpolitical

system,regularlyselectingpastandpresentPresidentstosupportthe‘product’,asshowninfig1:05 from January

1962.Fig1:04 shows an Advertising CouncilpromotionfromJuly1960.Ablankedoutfacehintsthatunbranded

productsareuntrustworthyandunreliable.Onlytheconfidentfacethatrepresentsbrandeditemscanreturnthe

consumers’gaze.

PostWarAmericanMagazines,to1965

Themass-circulationperiodicaltendedtoreflectwhatwasmosttypicalofthenationasawholeandexpress

whatwereseenascoreAmericanidealsthroughitsfeaturesandthroughitsadvertising.FrankHYoung,inhis

Technique of Advertising Layout,discussesthevolumeofadvertisingproducedduring’fiftiesAmericawitha

senseofpride,espousing,“...thecreativeskillsofthemenandwomenwhoknowhowtoreplacechaoswith

order,beauty,andpower.”15

Magazinesunderwentachangeinthewaytheywerefinancedinthelatenineteenthcentury.Traditionally

publishersofmagazineshadmadetheirprofitfromsellingthemagazinetothepublic,withadvertisingrevenue

helpingtosupporttheperiodical.Twopublishers,FrankA.MunseyandCyrusH.K.Curtis,however,usedtheselling

ofadvertisingspacetofinancetheentireperiodical.Advertisingrevenueprovedmoreprofitablethanthesales

ofthemagazinetothepublic.Thisresultedinastrongdependencebetweenthemagazinepublisherandthe

advertiser.16Thefollowingcircumstancesdeveloped;

1 Themagazinehadtosellasmuchadvertisingspaceaspossibleathighratestokeepinprofitand

coverthepublishingcosts.

2 Advertiserswantedtoreachasmanyconsumersaspossibletopromotetheirproductsandtojustify

thehighrateschargedbythemagazineforspaceFig1:06.

3 Themagazinehadtoappealtothelargestpossiblereadership.Alossofcirculationwouldhave

meantaloweringofadvertisingspacecostsandconsequentiallyalossofprofits.

Thereforeanycontroversialissueshadtobetemperedinordertonotalienatethemajorityofreaders.The

magazinehadtoreflectasgenerallyaspossibletheidealsandaspirationsofallAmericans.Manymagazines

tendedtoavoidconfrontationbysimplymirroringattitudesandbeliefsheldbythelargestpossiblesectionofthe

public.WilliamB.Waitswritesaboutmass-circulationperiodicalshaving“Specialreflectingquality”.17

The Tobacco Industry in America

CigaretteshadbeenlistedasanessentialproductduringtheSecondWorldWar.Thelackoftobaccoforthe

domesticmarketmeantcigaretteproducershadtouseuptheirsupplyofstockpiledleaf,cuttingitwithother

productstomeettheincreaseddemand.Thequalityoftheproductwaspoorandbrandswitchingwasatits

highest.TheTobaccoIndustrywassetupforthemass-productionofwartimenecessities,butafter1945easily

convertedtopeacetimeconsumption.

Barelytwentyyearslaterthestapleproductwasseeninasinisternewlightwiththepublicationofthe1st

SurgeonGeneral’sReport,Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of

the Public Health Service,(PublicationNo.1103),1964.Thedoubtsthathadbegantoemergeduringthe’fifties

thatsmokingwaspotentiallydamagingtohealthwereconfirmedwhenthereportledtoatextwarningbeing

placedonthepackaging.Anyreassurancesintheadvertisingoftheproductwerenowcontradictedincleartype

printedonthepacket.Advertisingstrategieshadtochange,tofocusontheconsumer’sfreedomofchoiceand

theirright,asanadult,tosmoke.

Fig1:04AdvertisingCounciladvertisement,SEP,July1960

Fig1:05AdvertisingCounciladvertisement,LOOK,January1962

Fig1:06FawcettDearingPlc.,advertisement,LOOK,May1953

AtthebeginningofthetwentiethcenturycigaretteshadbeenslowertogainpopularityintheU.S.than

theU.K.InAmericalessthan2millioncigaretteswerebeingproducedin1879.CigaretteproductioninBritain

acceleratedwiththedevelopmentofthemachineryofmassproduction18butAmericadevelopedinnovative

marketingtechniques.JamesBuchananDukeofW. Duke & Sons(anearlyversionoftheAmerican Tobacco

Company),wasparticularlyinfluential.Dukebegantradinginchewingtobaccointhe1870’sbuthewasconvinced

ofthepotentialofthecigarette.Hepioneerednewtechniquesofmerchandisinganddisplayadvertisingandhas

beenwidelycreditedwithmakingtheAmericanconsumeraccepttheneedtosmokecigarettes.By1900Dukewas

selling9outof10cigarettesintheU.S.HeattemptedtotakeovertheU.K.tobaccomarketin1901buthisarrival

inBritainpromptedthe13mostpowerfulU.K.tobaccohousestobandtogethertoformtheImperial Tobacco

company,triggeringamajormarketingwarlastingoverayear.Asettlementsaweachcompanyagreetorespect

eachother’sallottedterritory.Thetobaccotradefortherestoftheworldwassplittwo-thirdsfortheAmerican

Tobacco Company and one-third for Imperial Tobacco.TheAmerican Tobacco Companyremainedamonopoly

untiltheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtheldthetobaccogiantguiltyofviolatingtheShermanAnti-Trustlawsin

1911andordereditsdissolution.ThemajorcompaniestoemergewereAmerican Tobacco, R.J. Reynolds, Liggett

& Myers Tobacco Company, Lorillard and BAT 19.By1922manufacturedcigarettessurpassedthepopularchewing

tobacco(plug),inpoundageoftobaccoconsumed,tobecometheU.S.’highestgrossingtobaccoproduct.

In1924theAmerican Tobacco Companyproducedover73billioncigarettesfortheU.S.market,29billion

morethanin1900.Thepopularityofthecigarettewasfirmlyestablishedasapleasurablepartoftheconsumer’s

dailyroutine.CigarettesmokinghadbecomepopularamongreturningservicemenfromtheFirstWorldWarbut

becauseofwellpublicisedmaleprejudicestookalittlelongertoattractfemaleconsumers.

Forthefirsttimetheproductbecameassociatednotjustwithamarketingpropositionexplainedin

paragraphsofcarefullywrittencopy,butwithcoherentcampaignsofsequencesofimages.In1925Liggett &

Myers ran the Chesterfieldadvertisementthatshowedawomanaskingamanto“Blowsomemyway.”Afew

years later the American Tobacco Company’sGeorgeWashingtonHilldevisedthe“ReachforaLuckyinsteadofa

sweetandavoidthatfutureshadow.”Fig1:07,Thecampaignshowedathin,elegantwomansmokingbutcasting

theshadowfatwomanbehindher.Thishelpedtoestablishcigaretteswithwomenanxiousaboutweightgain.A

campaigncouldberecalledbywordorslogan,butalsobyakeyimage,orvisualproposition.

Despitethepowerfuldynamicofthiseconomicallysoundindustry,therewereearlyandwellpublicised

doubtsaboutthesafetyoftheproduct.Asearlyas1912cigarettesmokingwasassociatedwithill-health20.The

firstsubstantiatedconnectionwasmadebetweenlungcancerandsmokingbyDr.I.Adler21.Hestronglysuggested

thatlungcancerwasrelatedtosmokingcigarettes.Otherreportsfollowedlinkingcigaretteswithvarioushealth

problemssuchascancers,andcardiovascularandrespiratorydiseases

Ihavelistedthemajorgovernmentsponsoredinvestigationsofsmokingandhealthhereintheendnotes22.

Fig1:07LuckyStrikeadvertisement,ILL,May1930

InthenextVolume,Iwillexploretheparticularnatureofthecigaretteasaconsumerproduct.

Iwillcompareitsadvertisingstrategieswithanotherleisureproduct-ChewingGum.Iwillthenaskbasic

questionsoftheproduct;

Howarewetaughttosmoke?

Whatarethebenefitsfortheconsumer?

Next read volume TWO: THE CIGARETTE

Fig1:08ThomasR.Carskadon,USA In New Dimensions: A Twentieth Century Fund Survey,Macmillian,NewYork,1957

Endnotes to Volume One

1

“TheTobaccoIndustrymaystillsustainarearguardactionwithintheEnglishspeakingworld,buttomost

rationalAmericanandEnglishscientists,commentatorsandlegislators,the“SafeCigarette:isnolongeran

issue.Theyarealldangerous.”

ThispressreleasewaspublishedonthePhilipMorriswebsiteonOctober14th1999.www.philipmorris.com

“NEWYORK,July26,2001-LastmonthastudycommissionedbytheCzechaffiliateofPhilip Morris

Internationalwasreleased.Thefundingandpublicreleaseofthisstudywhich,amongotherthings,detailed

purportedcostsavingstotheCzechRepublicduetoprematuredeathsofsmokers,exhibitedterrible

judgmentaswellasacompleteandunacceptabledisregardofbasichumanvalues.Foroneofourtobacco

companiestocommissionthisstudywasnotjustaterriblemistake,itwaswrong.AllofusatPhilip Morris,

nomatterwherewework,areextremelysorryforthis.Noonebenefitsfromtheveryreal,seriousand

significantdiseasescausedbysmoking.Weunderstandtheoutragethathasbeenexpressedandwe

sincerelyregretthisextraordinarilyunfortunateincident.Wewillcontinueoureffortstodotherightthing

in all our businesses, acknowledging mistakes when we make them and learning from them as we go

forward”.

ThispressreleasewaspublishedonthePhilip MorriswebsiteonJuly28th2001.www.philipmorris.com

2

ExamplesofmyArtist’sBooksareheldincollectionssuchasEton College Library and the Yale Collection of

British Design.

3

Foramoredetaileddescriptionaboutthedifferentusesofironyfrom‘Romantic’to‘Tragic’,seegenerallyD.J.

Enright, The Alluring Problem: An Essay on Irony, OxfordUniversityPress,Oxford,1988.

4

“Ataconferenceofgas-rangepeopletheconfereeswereexhortedtoemulatethemoreup-to-date

carmakersinthisbusinessofcreatingpsychologicalobsolescence.Theywereremindedthatauto

merchandisersstrivetomakeeveryoneashamedtodriveacarmorethantwoorthreeyears.Thegas-

rangepeopleweretoldbluntlybythedirectorofAmericanColourTrends:‘Ladiesandgentleman,you

knowandIknowthattoomanyhousekeepershavetheattitudethat“anyoldpieceofequipmentwilldoso

longasitworksatall”.’Hedescribedtherecenttrendtochangethecolourofmanyproductsand

explained:‘Allofthesetrendshaveadefinitebearingonwhatyoucandotostepuptheobsolescenceof

gasappliances.’”

Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders,PenguinSpecial,London,1960[1957]p.24.Atthetimeofwritingthe

penchantforcolouredkitchenapplianceshasagainresurfaced.

5

AccountsofAmericafromtheperspectiveofaforeignerareverycommoninthepost1945period.However,

Simone De Beauvoir, America Day By Day,GeraldDuckworth&Co.,London,1952[1948],containsexcellent

accountsaboutmanyAmericanstates,industiesandespeciallytheeducationsystemduringthe’forties.Fora

morecynicalaccountaboutAmericainthelate’thirties,seeLeslieCharteris,The Saint in New York, Pan Books,

London,1950[1935].

6

SeeD,Robbins(editor),The Independent Group: Postwar Britain and the Aesthetics of Plenty,ICALondon,Hood

MuseumofArtDartmouthCollege,TheMITPress,CambridgeMass.,1990,pp.58-59.

7

Twomanualsofdesignandadvertisingthatareparticularlydetailedandinformationalare;FrankH.Young,

Technique of Advertising Layout.PartridgePublications,London,1947[1935];StephenBaker,Advertising

layout and Art Direction,McGraw-HillBookCompany,1960.Botharelargeformat,wellproducedbooksthat

containchaptersondesignspecifics.AdvertisingLayoutandArtDirectionhaschapterssuchas“Oranizationofan

artdepartment”and“Howtoworkwithcopywriters-andlikethem,too”.Technique of Advertising Layout has

chapterssuchas“Continuityinthephysicalappearanceofanadvertisingcampaign”and“Bridgingthegutterin

thetwofacingpagesadvertisement.”

8

Thegrowthofcigaretteproductionandconsumptionisessentiallyatwentiethcenturyphenomenonbutthey

werefirstintroducedintoBritainwithsoldiersreturningfromtheCrimeaafter1856.Thefirstbranded,mass-

producedcigaretteswerebeingsoldintheU.K.fromasearlyas1883byGloag Tobacco, the makers of Gold Flake.

Beforetheinstallationofthe1883Bonsackmachine,outputwaslimited,withpatchyproductionquality,andlow

output(anexceptionalworkmancouldroll2,500cigarettesaday).TheBonsackcouldproducebetween80to100

thousandcigarettesadayofgoodquality.ForcomparisonsbetweenBritishandAmericantobaccoconsumption

see, Peter Taylor, The Smoke Ring. Tobacco, Money & Multinational Politics,SphereBook,London,1984.

9

Foraclearaccountofperceivedpublicsuspicionsabouttheadvertsingindustyduringtheperiod,seeMartin

Mayer, Madison Avenue U.S.A.,TheBodleyHead,London,1958,Chapter1,“TheAdvertisingMan:Habitat,

FunctionsandHistory”;page38,isespeciallyrelevent.

10

JudithWilliamson,Decoding Advertisements- Ideology and Meaning,MarionBoyarsPublishers,London,1978,

isanexcellentstudyofadvertisementsfromthe’seventies.ChapterFour“‘Cooking’Nature”pages103-121,

containsaninterestingaccountofhow‘nature’hasbeenexploitedinordertopromoteproductssuchascarsand

braziers.

11

Greg Myers, Ad Worlds. Brands, Media, Audiences.Arnold,London,1999,surveyssomeofthemorerecent

advertisingissuese.g.“GlobalizationinAdvertising”,Ch.4,pp.55-74and“Advertising,InteractionandtheWorld

WideWeb”Ch.8,pp.133-50.

12

GiventhecurrentAmericanreluctancetoreproduce,discuss,displayorpossessandimagerelatingtotobacco,

Idofeelaparticularresponsibilitytomyselftoreproduce,discuss,displayandpossesstherawmaterial.On

arecentvisittotheAmericanIllustratorsGalleryLibraryinNewYork,(March2000)someofthemostuseful

manualshadbeenthrownaway.Sincesuchjournalsareproducedannuallyitwasfeltbythestaffthatonlythe

mostrecentversionneededtobestored.ItwastragicthatIhavealargerpersonalcollectionthantheAmerican

IllustratorsLibraryandthatthedevelopmentandhistoryofitsowngenrewasconsideredunimportant.Ialso

discoveredfromatraderinU.S.Magazinetearsheetsfromtheperiodthattherewaslittleinterestintobacco

advertisements,thetraderexplainedthathiscustomersdidnotwanttobeassociatedwithan‘unsociablehabit’

or‘bogusclaims’.

13

ThefollowinglistisaselectionofmanualsproducedforusewithintheAmericanadvertisingindustryduringthe

period:

StephenBaker,Advertising Layout and Art Direction,McGraw-HillBookCompany1960.

ErnestW.Watson,Forty Illustrators and how they work,BooksforlibrariesPress,Freeport,

NewYork,1946.

JulianLewisWatkins,The 100 Greatest Advertisements,DoverPublications,NewYork,1959.

Formore‘objective’accountsaboutthestructureandactionsoftheAmericanadvertisingindustrysee;

JohnS.Wright/DanielS.Warner,Advertising,McGraw-Hill,NewYork,1962,“PsychologyofAdvertising”,

pp.58-87.

MartinMayer,Madison Avenue U.S.A.,TheBodleyHead,London,1958.

Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders,PenguinSpecial,London,1960[1957].

“TheCenturyoftheSelf”,afour-partBBCTVdocumentarybroadcastinMarch2002.

Formorereferenceslookunder“Advertising”inthe“BibliographyandReferences”sectionofVolumeEight.

14

The Advertising CouncilwasformedintheU.S.in1942,itsmissiontoidentifyanumberofsignificantpublicissues

andputtheindustry’scase.TheSmokeyBearForestFirePreventioncampaign(1944)isoneoftheirlongest-

runningandbestknownpublicserviceadvertisingcampaigns.

http://www.adcouncil.org/

The mission of the Brand Names Education FoundationofNewYorkwas,andstillis,toadvanceworldwide

knowledgeofthenature,purposeandvalueofbrandnamesandtheresponsibilitiesassociatedwiththeiruse,

“believingthatbrandnamesenableconsumerstomakeintelligentchoicesamongcompetingproducts”.Theyare

anonprofitmakingorganisation.

http://www.bnef.org/mission.html

15

The Technique of Advertising Layoutisparticularlyusefulinthatitisveryspecificaboutvariousdesigndecisions,

withchapterssuchas“WhiteSpace:ItsValue”,“Colour:HowToUseItEffectively”,and“Movement:Leadingthe

reader’seye”.

“TheUnitedStateshasmorethan13,000newspapers,dailyandweekly,largeandsmall.Practicallyallcarry

advertisementswhichhavebeenpreparedbyadvertisingagenciesforthebusinessfirmsofthecountry.

Herealoneisavastmarketforthecreativeskillsofthemenandwomenwhoknowhowtoreplacechaos

withorder,beauty,andpower.Andeverydaybringitsnewdemands;forthetideofpublicitymovesfastin

modernAmerica.”

FrankH.Young,Technique of Advertising Layout,PartridgePublications,London,1947[1935],page9.

16

CurtisPublicationschargedmoreforadvertisingspacethanwasthecustomatthetimebutsincetheirmagazines

hadsuchalargecirculationcomparedtotheircompetitors,businesseswerepreparedtopay.TwoofCurtis’

mainmagazines,The Saturday Evening Post and The Ladies’ Home Journal,hadreachedacirculationofone

millionreaderseach.Incontrastatypicalnewsstandmagazinethatmadeitsmoneythroughsalestothepublic

hadcirculationofabout150,000;Harper’s Bazzarhadacirculationofabout150,000duringthisperiod.The

circulationofthemass-periodicalswasalsoachievedbymakingthesellingpriceverylow,about5to10centsa

copy.Othermagazinescouldbeuptothreetimesthisprice.

17

FormorebackgroundinformationonhowAmericanmagazineswerefinancedduringtheearlytwentiethcentury,

seeWilliamB.Waits,The Modern Christmas in America - A Cultural History of Gift Giving, The American Social

Experience,NewYorkUniversityPress,NewYork,1993,“Preface”,pagexvii.

18

MuchtobaccousedintheBritishtobaccoindustrywasimportedfromitsoldcolonialplantationsinVirginia.

InfactItwasnotuntilaslateas1911thattobacco-growingwasallowedinEngland(sincebeingprohibitedby

Cromwellin1653).

19

FormoreinformationonthelifeofJamesDuke,seeJohnK.Winkler,Tobacco Tycoon: The story of James

Buchanan Duke,RandomHouse,NewYork,1942.Forafullaccountofthehistoryoftobaccocultivationsee

Maurice Corina, Trust in Tobacco,MichaelJoseph,London,1975.

20

See The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC),T.I.P.S Information pages. www.cdc.gov/tobacco

See A.S.H Action on Smoking and Health,www.ash.org.u.k./html/factsheets.html

A summary of the health risks of the smoker follows;

Thenewsmokercanexpecttoexperiencediscomfortintheearlydaysofaddiction-inhalingcigarette

smokeforthefirsttimecancausepalpitations,dizziness,sweating,nauseaandvomiting.CigaretteSmokinghas

beennamedasacausitoryfactorinthefollowingconditions(ETSandburnsarenotlisted):

Cancers;lung,cervicalcancer,pancreas,kidney,liver,bladder,stomach,leukaemia,cancersoftheskin,mouth,lip

and throat

CardiovascularDiseases;Hypertension,HeartDisease,Stroke,peripheralvasculardiseaseleadingto

amputationandheartattacks

RespiratoryDiseases;Pneumonia,Bronchitis,Emphysema,ChronicAirwayObstructionandasthma

Inwomenonly;Menstrualproblemsinwomen(althoughnotwithPMT),earliermenopausewithahigherriskof

developingosteoporosis,spontaneousabortion(miscarriage),bleedingduringpregnancy,prematurebirth,low

weightofbabiesatbirth(whichisassociatedwithgreaterrisksofill-health),SuddenInfantDeathSyndrome.

InMenonly;increasedspermabnormalitiesandimpotence.

Cigarettesmokingisalsounderstoodtodistortbothtasteandsmell.Smokersaremorelikelytodevelopfacial

wrinklesatayoungerageandhavedentalhygieneproblems.Stomachulcersareaggravatedbysmoking,and

woundsinsmokersincludingsurgicalincisions,takelongertoheal.Cigarettesmokingalsocausesstainingonthe

teethandfingers,irritationoftheeye,noseandthroat,reducedlungfunctioninadultswithnochronicchest

problems.chroniccoughs,phlegm,wheezingandchronicmiddleeareffusion(glueear).

Thattheproductcouldgenerallyunderminehealthhasnowbeenprovedbeyondreasonabledoubt.By1986

Americansweresmokingupto635billioncigarettesayearregardlessofsuchwarnings.

21

Therehadbeenwarningsofheathrisksassociatedwiththepartakingoftobaccobefore1912,mostfamouslythe

Counterblaste to TobaccobyKingJamesIin1604whichcalledtobacco“hatefultothenose,harmfultothebrain

anddangeroustothelungs”.Otherreportsfollowedandlinkedanykindofsmokeinhalationtocancerand,by

1898,specificallylungcancer.IntheLeipzigPathologicalInstitute,researchbetweenin1900-1912byDr.Brinkman

notedalargeproportionoflungcancerpatientswerecigarsellers,makersandinnkeepers-occupationsthat

mightbeexpectedtosmokeorbeexposedtosmoke.ItwashoweverDr.I.Adler’sstrongsuggestionthatlung

cancerwasrelatedtosmokinginhismonographof1912,thatlaidtheblamewiththedramaticincreasein

cigarettesmoking.In1912lungcancerwasstillarelativelyobscureandunknowndisease.

ForotherearlierconnectionsandmoredetailonDr.AdlerseeJamesWalton(ed),The Faber Book of Smoking,

FaberandFaber,London,2000,Chapter6.

22

ThemajorAmericanreportsbefore1970are;

“Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health

Service”,U.SDepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,Washington,1964.

“The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Public Health Service Review”,DepartmentofHealth,Education,

andWelfare,Washington,1967.

“The Health Consequences of Smoking: 1968 Supplement to the 1967 Public Health Service Review”,

DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,Washington,1968.

“The Health Consequence of Smoking: 1969 Supplement to the 1967 Public Health Service Review”,

DepartmentofHealth,Education,andWelfare,Washington,1969.

For a full list of the U.S Department of Health, Education, and Welfare’s Reports, Look under “Tobacco and

Health” in the Bibliography and References” section of Volume 8.