AURELIO RAMÍREZ GALLARDO

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA

Many believe, and some still teach, that the Romans built aqueducts to store water because they didn't

know about the siphon. Also known as the communicating glasses (physics principle), used to transfer

water through a valley using it's own pressure.

Nothing could be further from reality. The Romans built siphons with ceramic pipes, wood and lead

but they didn't have the right materials or the appropriate methods to make tighter joints. For that

reason their siphons weren't generally more than 10 meters in depth, although sometimes they were

larger. The water pressure, broke the joints and broke the pipes. They preferred to build one, two or

more aqueduct levels of superimposed arches.

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA (SPAIN)

Since the first century, A.D., Segovia's aqueduct has supplied the city with water. It's mission of

bringing water from the ancient Roman times to the present it's been accomplished. The aqueduct is

an example of survival. It's survival is also one of it's biggest mystery.

The fact that the monument still stands is an enigma on itself. We do not know why, but we do know

many things by studying its evidences. Who ordered to be built? When it's construction started?. Who

were the engineers and craftsmanship's that built it?. How did they justify such a huge hydraulic

system for such an insignificant city, compared with the other more opulent and famous Roman cities?.

General comment

ROMAN AQUEDUCTS

DESCRIPTION

The aqueduct was built in two phases.

In the first (9 km.), taking the

water in the Brook of la Fuentecilla

of the Tilviejo, that in summer is

almost tail, so they were forced

to take it in the Moors River

having more contributions.

The second phase (5 km.) ends up

in a jump of about 75 metres.

If had files of

the Romans, would see the

project of bringing of

water to Segovia and of

the extension of the same.

Descripción

Takes its waters from the Moros river head.

It's part of a dam who was built during

the Catholic Kings times in the fifteen century.

The granite pieces are

fastened with iron plates.

Exit of the canal with their

corresponding floodgate.

Descripción

In some tracks, the stones were disassembled partly

to build one wall of a someone's property before

they were monument regulations.

There are remains of a roman roadway also.

The canal was built with gneiss stone pieces.

Descripción

The canal arrives at the first tower of water.

The tower is a beacon that has another canal stream.

These lateral canal alleviate the flow excesses

following a little canal is only about 5 gallons/second.

Output of the first water tower

a channel, parts U, that

follow to the second tower.

Descripción The canal strayed when correcting

a great slope change that there was

on the road that goes parallel to the

aqueduct.

This second tower of water is a simple water-treatment plant

Descripción

Here, there are the solid

objects separation and

foams cleaning.

Water is purified.

Tower section.

Descripción

The structure didn't allow

to pass the floating objects.

Diagram settle operation.

The structure didn't allow

to pass the floating objects.

Descripción

That was the first place that invaders saw.

They used to dismantle the arches.

The first arches were re-built many times.

Descripción

The aqueduct's central part had some brick walls

that were placed there during the Carlist wars.

Descripción

Before arriving to the double arcade structure

that breaks in an angle of 127º degrees to cross

the stream bed where the most monumental

and well-known part of the aqueduct is located.

View of the monumental part from the east

before the restoration works from the 70´s.

Descripción

The sentry booth location

From the West

Characteristics

Total length . . . . . . . 9,3 miles

Aqueduct in earth . . 8,7 miles

High aqueduct . . . . . 0,6 miles

Maximum height . . . 93 feet

Maximum flow . . . . 4,4 g/sec.

Ashlars numbers . . 20.400

Piles numbers . . . . . 120

Arches numbers . . . 166

Weigh approximate . . . 4.500.000 pound

Biggest ashlars weigh . . . 4.400 pound

Descripción

Obelisk in the beginning

high aqueduct.

Represents a scroll

held in place by arms

on both sides.

A pipe dropped

with wrench, power

pour water by the

channel to the source

Santa Colomba.

It should pass water at

certain times, for bear

witness that is the only

aqueduct the world

Romano, that follows

carrying water.

Old pencil drawing

Brick walls that were with battlements

during the Carlist Wars.

Precious engraving by g. Doré.

This source was disassembled

and placed in the terrace of

Santa Colomba, that took the

name of the Church

appearing here.

By placing the source

A National Monument since 1884

The old town of Segovia and its aqueduct

World Heritage site since 1985.

Location of sticky traps on the floor.

Green dots: documented.

Red dots: oral sources.

This San Sebastian's carving, was burnt by fires.

It was moved to Segovia museum.

In that niche the symbol would be Hercules' statue

or boar, very abundant in those times.

This Carmen's Virgin carving was

placed May 21, 1520. It was made by Antonio

de Jardina, “ensayador” of Currency House.

Hercules carvings and a wild boar

replica of the God and the symbol

the nearby Sierra.

Probably this, or

something like that was what

There would be two niches

plants of the plates.

The legend

The water carrier - Goya - Museum of Budapest

THE LEGEND

Hear ye. I'm going to refer you the origin of the aqueduct of Segovia.

Years ago, many years lived in Segovia, an elderly priest,

In the company of the priest lived his niece Mary.

He was to bring the water up to his house, from a distant source

Prepared a good day to go out to the square he saw at an angle

the kitchen the pitcher of water without a drop of liquid inside.

Full of wrath took to the street and arrived at the gates of the city.

With a clear and distinct voice, he left these words:

I would give my soul to which avoided me to come every day to the dog source!

-I take it! -a gentleman with a sarcastic and soft voice replied.

Return to your House, girl, said that man; you will never have to go back to the source.

Whenever I call me you will find in your presence, and remember your Word,

that makes mine your soul forever.

The stranger stretched hand and touched the edge of the jar.

Instantly filled with this, D. Frutos told Maria that he called the stranger.

-I give my soul, said D. Frutos in a serene voice, if you do what I ask you;

but on the condition that if you don't, you will also be free the soul of Mary.

-Be! said the devil,

I don't want to just water for me; I need to bring it for all Segovia.

-Bring it!.

- But it has to be tonight and if the bridge you are going to build to that

water reaches the top of the city is not completed, unless you

Miss a single stone, leaving the morning sun, won't right or my

soul nor to the one of Mary.

. Saying is! He said the devil.

Satan ran from one side to another as flying activity, always

It appeared there where more effort is needed, and the black legion could not

given moment's rest.

The huge bridge was almost completed; only needed to place a stone in

your website, in the highest part, when Sun looked on the verge of its brilliant

disk above the mountains.

A thread of light, crossed the space and came to hurt the aqueduct until Satan himself,

raised on shoulders of its workers, had time to place the last stone.

His astonishment to see the arrogant arches of the aqueduct, had no limits, and soon was the entire population

gathered in the Azoguejo, commenting on the wonderful fact.

It was then when, full of joy, D. Frutos and his niece gave with loud voices to their neighbors the key to the mystery.

Maria repentant of sin, was strongly willing to not ever run the risk of losing its soul.

This is the true origin of the aqueduct of Segovia.

If you doubt it, look at the stone that is missing and that never has been able to be placed.

Look in each of the stones tracks

That in them he let Satan scorched fingers.

Recesses for to raise the blocks with a pair of tweezers.

The more weigh more tightened.

You will then have the conviction of the truth

of my story, and get the certainty that the

aqueduct, which already has so many centuries

of existence, will remain standing, according to

the promise of the devil, until the consummation

of the ages on the last night of the world.

AURELIO RAMÍREZ GALLARDO

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA

Technical construction

They didn't have elements to cut blocks of sandstone.

The gneiss makes staggered cuts.

When not having perforation elements neither explosive,

could not take out ashlars, so big of a quarry front.

They threw out it

from here.

The ashlars were taken by cutting stones, with wooden wedges of elm tree nailed

into customize fissures.

The process was made a clay fence, then it was wet with water. When the wood

expanded, they performed the cuts of the ashlars.

If a cracks are made on a granite Crag

with a chisel, are filled with wood wedges of

elm, are surrounded by a cordon of clay and are

they filled with water, the day following is broken in two

pieces with a flat and clean cut.

In each piece are the traces of the wedges.

This granite is an isotropic rock

(it has the same physical properties in any direction)

and therefore it can cut a piece of trapezoidal form.

These ashlars have small holes and they still

have remains of the tools, that cut them.

The granite erosion is shown in many pieces although

it's not much, after almost two millenniums (1,950 years

since it's construction).

Face of a coincidental ashlar

with a mirror of failure and

not be it has weathered.

It is incredible to see how, they cut

the ashlars, in such a good way.

It has never been broken.

Here we can see the cut drawings

and the prints of the pincers.

The Roman engineers didn't

modulate the ashlars disposition.

There are some ashlars

with 8 or 9 rows.

In the central part they have prepared some “cartels”

made with brass letters. They could have been made from a

Hercules and a boar statue.

There are tracks were the letters where located.

There still some lead remain.

Somorrostro´s book inscriptions interpretation

doesn't correspond with those, that we have

reproduced directly from a scaffold.

Fernandez Casado´s interpretation is as next:

TI CLAVDIVS PONT MAX VIII COS III TRIBVNICIA POTESTATE VIIII IMPPP

OMNIVM FECIT

Cartels with the prints of the inscriptions.

The prints were taken out, in 1973 from some

scaffolds.

They are an exact reproduction

Some still have lead or keep the traces.

The German Alfoldy, proposed a new interpretation

in which he believes, that there was a restoration of

the aqueduct on the inscriptions.

AURELIO RAMÍREZ GALLARDO

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA

REPAIR WORKS AND CONSOLIDATION

The works aimed to consider the following aspects.

Stability

Move the pipe installed near Foundation

and dismantling of the coronation.

Integrity

Cleaning of all foreign objects and demolition of walls in coronation.

Functionality

Restore the flow of water for his coronation to a source.

Conservation

Sealing of joints of the coronation channel.

Consolidation

Injection of concrete for the Foundation, fails it central.

and the sewing of ashlars

Restoration

Restore the fascia in the Central arches and the functionality

of all the elements composing them from

its construction by the Romans.

Santiago Serrano . . . . . General Direction of Hydraulic Works.

Fernando Chueca . . . . . Academy of history

Luis Menéndez Pidal . . .Academy of Fine Arts.

Francisco Pons Sorolla . General Direction of Architecture.

Francisco Iniguez . . . . . General Direction of Fine Arts.

Martín Almagro . . . . . . Commissioner of excavations.

Mayor of Segovia

The Commission inspector of works was

consisting of the following persons:

Segovia Aqueduct repair works and consolidation.

Dated 1970 - 1974.

Before the project started, we developed a

whole structure detailed inspection.

This hut was in very bad conditions.

The moat was padded of debris, inhabited,

with electric power entrance and then whitewashed.

This is the way it look, after restoration was completed.

In the mid-20th century was placed on the coronation

a pipeline, between brick small walls.

It covered straw, to protect it from Frost.

All the walls and pipes, were disassembled.

The U shape pipes took the water from the aqueduct.

The structure was made in time of Felipe V, King of Spain.

Once the walls are removed, the structure contour is

festooned. The rest of the wall disappears from the direct

line. The disproportionate, in the upper part is more

harmonious.

Blinded arch.

When it was discovered, they found out that it

was a water canal that went to the reservoir.

Once the aqueduct was restored, it´s image was improved.

The aqueduct goes along, in 90º degree angle.

The missing ashlars, were taken out to place them, in the

aqueduct coronation, some centuries ago.

The Romans did not finish the construction.

For some reason, there are little information about it´s

antiquity. Irresponsible restorers, disassembled these

pieces and they placed them back, in the

aqueduct above the superior arches.

When they built the Azoguejo square, the construction team,

dug too much leaving the overdraft outside foundation.

In most parts, the foundation is laid on gneiss and granite

rock.

Protecting the pile: Small concrete pieces were

placed there and picked up with a "zuncho".

Here we can see the sky, between two pieces.

To sew the broken ashlars, we used some, they

were made by diamonds drills mouths.

These holes are threaded brass bulones placed and fixed

with resin epoxi. If they were made of iron, that could cause

breaking the ashlar. Oxidation and humidity are stress.Wool

it´s used to retain, the extra injected mortar.

Once they are covered cement made of mortar

and granite sand, make it look like the original stone.

The "enjutas" of the arches were stuffed

to avoid holes movements from.

It was made with mortar, to better

preserve the isostatic stone.

All the joints from the second level, were made

waterproof with elastic resins to

avoid episodes like this one.

Disassembling a piece from the upper level, appeared at a

highest of seven stories with “opus signinum” (isolation

material to transport water). That piece is not Roman

and confirms that they didn't finish it. The pieces in U of the

current small canal come from the King Felipe V.

These pieces are missing from the “cartela”, also

are missing in all the arches, of the first floor.

In the central part, the pieces were restored

and there you can see the “cartela”, where

the Roman inscriptions were made.

In this bow came out them a little pointed,

the parts are small and there is a huge mess.

This reconstruction is a very refined

one made with small ashlars.

Ashlars have the dated, when they that were made.

In a moonless night, the street lights have the legend

“SIGLO” (CENTURY) 19.

It seems that they erased, the Roman nomenclature.

The quarrymen marks found on some blocks.

AURELIO RAMÍREZ GALLARDO

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA

Publication

Inside the publication.

Only in Spanish version.

SUPERVIVENCIA DE UNA OBRA HIDRÁULICA

EL ACUEDUCTO DE SEGOVIA

SCIENCES, HUMANITIES AND ENGINEERING COLLECTION, No. 40

COLEGIO DE INGENIEROS DE CAMINOS, CANALES Y PUERTOS.

Servicio de publicaciones. Almagro, 42 28010 - MADRID

Phone: 91 3081988 Fax: 91 3199556

SPAIN - European Union

Youl find a wide range of information about

this magnificent Roman aqueduct.

SURVIVAL OF A HYDRAULIC WORK - THE AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA (SPAIN)

This book explains in great technical and narrative style the Aqueduct´s

restoration process step by step (Proyecto de Reparación y Consolidación).

SUMMARY

Introduction, by Spain´s Aristocrat Lozoya Marquise

Foreword, by Fernando Chueca Goitia (Ph. D. Architect. Spain´s National Fine Arts

Academy Chair. Spain´s National History Academy Chair)

Preliminary, by the author Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo, Ph. D Civil Engineer

Chapter I

Description. The intake. - The piping. - First tower of water. Stone house. – Second

tower of water. Decanter hut. - Aqueduct in simple arcade.

- The end of the aqueduct back to city walls - Main characteristics.

Chapter II

Construction. - Comments about its construction. - The longitudinal profile.

Why they used the granite. - Elevation breakdown. - Construction Techniques.

Why they made an aqueduct. - When the aqueduct was built.

Why it was built in Segovia. – How much is its weight. - Why it still stands.

Its price. - For how long it will last.

Chapter III

Preceding, Repair and consolidation works design and motivation. Stability

The design - Government reports - Elements of the Inspecting Committee,

Technical Direction and the Contractor.

Chapter IV

The repair and consolidation works. Stability - Integrity - Functionality

Conservation - Consolidation -Restoration - Knowledge

Chapter V

The repair and consolidation works through press releases.

Chapter VI

Historical data.

First part: Documents from 1483 to 1868.

Second part: Press releases found in newspapers

and magazines from 1868 to 1970.

Chapter VII

The legend.

Bibliography

Prints and Photographs lists.

One volume, size 22 x 32 cm. In Spanish version only

297 pages. 76 drawings and pictures. 27 old engravings.

Author: Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo - aurenauta@gmail.com

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

SURVIVAL OF A HHYRAULIC WORK

THEE AQUEDUCT OF SEGOVIA

PROLOGUE BY FERNANDO CHUECA GOITIA

There are historical monuments about which we often have abundant information, dates, motives for their

construction, names of people who founded or promoted them, artisans who took part in the building process,

circumstances as well as problems encountered during the construction, and anything else we might wish to know in

order to perfect our knowledge about them. However, sometimes we discover that what we are missing is the

monument itself, which wars or other catastrophes have destroyed. Frequently the only things that remain are

historical dates, pitiful ruins or dispersed pieces which need the work of an archaeologist to theoretically reconstruct

them. That is the case, for example, of the famous prodi­gious and monumental Abbey of Cluny, which has

disappeared without leaving early any trace behind.

The aqueduct of Segovia is a completely opposite case: we have the entire monument in perfect conditions, due to

the frequent and intelligent care it has received over the centuries, and also due to its natural physical fortitude.

Nothing is missing from this beautiful utilitarian construction that has been alive and operating right up until now,

and still does so today, even though it has only an honorary function. From the first century, A. D., the aqueduct of

Segovia has provided the city of Segovia with water and while doing so has lived through all the epoch from classical

antiquity until the twentieth century, including the Visigoths, the Moors, Castilians conquerors, the long Middle Ages,

the Catholic kings, Ferdinand and Isabelle, Austrian and Bourbon Kings, the tumultuous nineteenth century with its

Carlist invasions, progressive revolutions and conservative or moderate restorations, without suffering any damage to

its structure, unless one includes small, although glorious, wounds quickly healed.

It is an extraordinary case of survival, and therefore the title of Aurelio Ramirez's book seems very appropriate:

Survival of a Hydraulic Work. Yes, it is an extraordinary case of survival, almost as mysterious as its own mystery.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

This mystery is precisely the other side of the question. The fact that we have the monument standing today is still

an enigma. We are not scientifically sure what or to whom we owe its existence, an existence which is so real and

evident. Who had it built? On what date or approximate date was it started or finished? Who were the artisans who

constructed it? How can we explain such a colossal hydraulic work in such an apparently insignificant city compared

to other more opulent and famous cities in Spain during the Roman period?

The enigma of the aqueduct has obsessed, and still does obsess, a variety of people: chroniclers, historians,

archeologists, poets and writers who have been struck by it beauty, by the transparency of its granite blocks that

receive a diver­sity of light in the morning or at sunset, responding to images that sometimes seem to float in the air as

if weightless, and other times seem to weigh down the earth with geological gravity. These variations of its character

and its presence make the Arcanum more inscrutable.

It is not at all strange that Ramón Gomez de la Serna, when he wrote The Secret of the Aqueduct, invented a

fictional character, the crazy chronicler Don Pablo, who went insane before he could solve the mystery.

The truth of the matter is that in spite of all the efforts put forth, the mo­nument still jealously guards its mystery

against the constant attacks of the most able champions who seek in vain to conquer greater certainties. Thus, we

must content ourselves with observations and conjectures which leave us in the desperate trance of throwing it all to

the devil, or, in other words, attributing its origin to the arts of Satan, who, in a moment of satanically whim, wanted

to tease man by imposing himself upon us with his incomprehensible extravagancies.

It is interesting to note that recently those who have been most successful in unraveling the enigma of the aqueduct

have not been learned and patient scripturists or erudites, skilled in the handling of dust covered papers or in the

comparison of chronicles and old manuscripts. They have been men of science and modern technology; engineers

skilled in construction and building techniques.

Two civil engineers, Carlos Fernandez Casado, and the author of this book, are the two who have advanced the

most down the thorny path of explorations into the history and reality of the aqueduct.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

The Marques of Lozoya has already indicated in his enjoyable and suggestive presentation, the importance of the

contributions which writers in the field of physical and natural science have made in the area of historical themes.

Nothing truer could be said, especially in this case where we can verify how the work of these two engineers has made

it possible to break the traditional molds of study, and also get away from the continuous repetitions of Somorrostro's

book, which has become a classic in this field and has recently been re-edited by the Caja de Ahorros of Segovia in a

facsimile of the 1820 edition.

Fernandez Casado, as well as Aurelio Ramírez, played a decisive part in the restoration and consolidation of the

aqueduct which the Hydrographic Confederation of the Duero undertook as part of the bimillennium of the aqueduct

which was celebrated in 1974. Fernández Casado, a master veteran of engineering and history, was the director and

advisor of the project. Aurelio Ramírez, young and enthusiastic, a native of Segovia, was the executor of this

extraordinarily delicate and compromising project, which caused alarm among art and history lovers mainly because

strange rumors began to circulate concerning the type of work that was going to be done in order to secure the link

between the old stones which had maintained their own equilibrium for so many centuries.

As a representative of the Royal Academy of History, the author of this prologue was a witness to the work of both

these architects while serving on an advisory and supervisory commission. The members of the commission were: the

late architect Luis Menéndez Pidal, representative from the Academy of Fine Arts; the architects, Francisco Pons

Sorolla from the General Directory of Architecture, and, Francisco Iñiquez from the General Directory of Fine Arts;

the archeologist, Martín Almagro from the Commission of Excavations; and, the Mayor of Segovia. The director of

the Hydrographic Confederation of the Duero, Santiago Serrano Pendan, presided over the commission with

tactfulness, knowledge, and intelligence.

I must say that the work of the commission was, besides enjoyable, also easy and simple due to the fact that at no

time did we have any discrepancies with the directors of the project, nor with the criterion of Fernández Casado,

Aurelio Ramírez, or Arenillas and García Gil, two architects who also collaborated in the work.

Personally, the only difficulty I encountered was assuring some alarmed people —including some of my fellow

Academy members— what was being done to the aqueduct and what systems and procedures of consolidation were

being employed. I am not going to describe at this moment what those procedures and measures were, because a

major part of this book is dedicated to that task, and furthermore, now that the aqueduct has survived this delicate

surgical operation, everyone can see that it is strong and healthy without any scars. The expert engineers also revealed

themselves as masters in plastic surgery; as if they had operated on the body of a beautiful actress whose physical

charm could not be marred in any way.

The monument, besides being safe and sound, is more exuberant and beautiful than ever.

Aurelio Ramírez gradually became more and more interested in this subject with a growing passion until finally

for a few years he lived only for the aqueduct; auscultating it, inspecting it, measuring it, weighing it, analyzing its

stones one by one, their size, form, and placement, in brief, investigating every detail, no matter how insignificant it

might seem. As far as Ramirez is concerned, the body of the aqueduct has no secrets, but, its history... that is another

story; its history resists investigations. Nevertheless, the author's love for this subject has also led him into its history.

He, himself, tells us so in chapter IV, page 65: «We have also tried at the same time to contribute to the history of this

monument by initiating a series of investigations about everything related to the aqueduct, which we have included in

this publication».

Without a doubt, the author has not cut corners in his effort to compile everything that concerns the aqueduct.

Not only are technical aspects included, but also historical and literary themes as well as all sorts of news articles

which have appeared in national and local newspapers from 1868 until 1970.

His work also contains the most complete ichnography of the monument that we know of; its figure appears in old

engravings, prints, lithographs and curious photographs of the past.

One of the most interesting parts of the book is chapter II, titled «Realizations». It is particularly interesting

because it refers to the granite material with which the monument was built. This is a very wide-ranged subject,

although apparently the material selected for this monument seems to be rather obvious, and offers few problems. In

the city of Segovia, where the neighboring “Carpetovetónica” mountain range contains abundant volcanic rock, and

granite has traditionally been the major building material, it is not at all strange that the aqueduct was constructed

with this material. Yes, but... in this «but» lie the many questions that still remained unsolved until Aurelio Ramirez's

investigations were able to answer many of them.

The pillars of the aqueduct are built on foundations sometimes made of gneiss, and other times made of sandstone

from Albense; however, the superstructure is made completely of granite. Some people have tried to find cut-away

hillsides which might have harbored the quarries which supplied the 7.500 m3 of granite needed during the

construction of the aqueduct, but they were never found; the volume of rock is sufficient enough that it should have

left its mark. But these people did not realize that the Romans did not possess the means of perforation nor the

explosives needed in order to exploit these quarries by separating huge blocks and dividing them into smaller well

squared units.

«While investigating the land near Segovia», explains Ramirez, «we have studied the granite and have discovered

that its composition and its characteristics are similar to that used in the aqueduct. Between the Eresma river and city

of Segovia there are still surface rock formations, but the closer we get to the aqueduct they become less and less

numerous, until they finally disappear beneath the now existing orchards and vegetable gardens», page 25. These

granite rock formations which have disappeared —not a quarry— contained the 7.500 m3 of granite we were looking

for.

Ramirez's finding is essential; it is one of the most interesting contributions to the history of the aqueduct. These

rock formations, by means of wet wooden wedges that swell with the humidity, could be broken down into smaller

squared off and almost geometrically perfect blocks, due to the isotropic properties of granite. We can still see the

marks left by these wedges on the stones of the aqueduct.

This explains many things: first of all, since the granite was very near the project site and did not need to be carted

from far away, it proved to be a rich as well as economical, construction material; and secondly, due to the regularity

of the granite blocks, a great deal of labor was saved, and also it was possible to build the aqueduct without the use of

cement, which is an unusual luxury in a utilitarian project.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

At this point we have come upon a type of construction which is traditionally Greek or Hellenistic: perfectly

squared off blocks which are placed one on top of the other without cement. The fact that an elegant building such as

the Parthenon was constructed this way does not surprise us, but the fact that a humble provincial aqueduct was built

in the same manner, is quite a shock. However, we have already explained what special circumstances brought about

this happening. Although it is only fair to say that the blocks were coarsely carved which meant that the stones did not

lie evenly on top of each other, and therefore, the use of cement would have been beneficial in smoothing out these

joints.

This type of construction without mortar has led Fernández Casado to set the date of the aqueduct back to the time

of Claudius instead of during Trajan's time, which was considered by many to be the approximate date. He explains:

«If we go back to the first century, A.D., the fact that the monument was built without cement permits us to discard

this date since this form of construction in opera quadrata, directly inherited from Greeks, was substituted by the

Roman structura cementiciae, which consists of small stones mixed together with cement, either with the same opus

quadrata or else more frecuently in public works with the opus incertum or opus reticulatum, and later on with opus

lateritiae, which in Rome eventually substituted the others especially in the area of aqueducts, starting with the

neronian or celimontian arches of the addition to the «Aqua Claudia». (Published in Roman Aqueducts in Spain.

Instituto Eduardo Torrola, 1972. transcribed in this book 31-35.)

According to this type of quadrata construction, the date of the aqueduct could be anywhere from the time of

Claudius on back into Roman history. Fernandez Casado's theory interpreted the inscription on the pediment of the

aqueduct as a dedicatory to Claudius, which up until recently seemed quite plausible. However, when the scaffolds

were mounted for the restoration work done on the aqueduct, Aurelio Ramírez was able to examine the holes which

were left by the letters and he demonstrated that they did not coincide exactly with those Fernández Casado had

detected with photographic instruments. The enigma continues.

There is still one doubt left in our mind. If the quadrate construction, as Ramirez has demonstrated, was the logical

form to be employed at the site of the aqueduct, would not it continue to be logical due to the excellent material

available in Segovia at the foot of the project site, even though the use of this type of construction had varied in other

areas of the Roman Empire less favorably endowed? All of these considerations only seem to increase the mystery.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

One thing is clear, with the material at their disposal, they knew how to take advantage of it, and they did so

economizing at the same time. In other words, the more perfect and the less coarse the material, the smaller the units

needed. Any other type of material would have required much wider sections and consequently the pillars would not

have produced such a tall and elegant effect. Also, it would have been inconceivable for them not to have taken full

advantage of the possibilities of the material on hand, as they so skillfully did. They proved that they were audacious

because they knew what they were doing.

I would say, a little hyperbolically, that the aqueduct of Segovia has something Gothic about it; the builders of

medieval cathedrals, just as those who built the aqueduct drained every possibility out of the costly material they

employed. One thing compensated for the other.

All of these considerations were especially interesting to me, because as Aurelio Ramírez explained them to me

during the restoration of the aqueduct I was thinking about the hypothetical reconstruction of the aqueduct of Toledo

which I was working on at that time. The aqueduct of Toledo, much bigger than the one in Segovia (compare the

height above the “azoguejo” in Segovia 27 m., to the height above the Tajo river 90 m.), could not have been anything

else but structura cementiciae, as the existing ruins indicate. These ruins were undoubtedly the nuclei of the aqueduct.

But how were these nuclei covered? I do not think they could have possibly been covered with opus quadrata, because

this would have meant an absurd carting of stone blocks. I am more inclined to believe that they were covered with

stone masonry and bricks in a mixed composition or «aparejo», as I have always thought that the classical «aparejo»

of Toledo had a Roman origin.

In order to find granite rock in Toledo similar to that which was at the foot of the aqueduct in Segovia, it would

have been necessary to go to Ventas con Peña Aguilera, 40 kilometers away, which makes it inconceivable to think that

the Romans would have wasted so much money and time in transportation, especially in a public work project.

Getting back to the aqueduct of Segovia, I have always been interested in its proportions which I consider were

based on architectural models. I will explain what I mean: the Romans did not disassociate architectural work, with

its norms and its classical linguistics, from engineering work. This divorce came about in the nineteenth century when

architecture still upheld the traditions while engineering broke away from them due to new technological conquests.

Now things have changed again and in a certain way this union has once more occurred, not that engineering has

returned to the yoke of architecture, but that the latter has been subjected to the former.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

If we draw a hypothetical line from the ground to the second impost, what remains above that point is a splendid

and academic composition of an architectural order in double arches (see drawing). The part of the pillars between

the 2a and 3a impost can be considered as the pedestal of this composition. The fact that other imposts were added is

because the builders felt that the only way to architecturally solve the problem was by adding successive pedestals. If

not, then it is difficult to understand why the space between the 3a and 4a imposts is much larger than the ones below.

The reason for this is that we are not dealing with the pedestal any more, but with the pillar. Draw, if you like, the big

pillars with the imposts divided up equally and you will see the unattractive effect it produces.

If you want to take this architectural image of the aqueduct a step further, insert an order of pilasters or columns

into the nude and utilitarian structure, and you will see what the underlying architectural model is, which when

simplified, subsists.

In order for this model to gain more respect, the aqueduct needs a rather high crown, equivalent to what would be

the entablature of an order. When the restoration work began, the mass of this crown existed and it was made up of

masonry and bricks that had been built over the specus.

But Rome used to see everything more architectonico. In order to see the aqueduct in this light we must

abstract the first two parts of the central pillars which were added because of the unlevel terrain.

© Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo

During the meetings of the Inspection Commission I was worried about this attic or crown which, naturally, had to

be removed since it was a coarse addition built in order to lodge a cast iron water conduction tube. But who knows

how the double arches would have been crowned if the Romans who initiated the construction of the aqueduct had

finished it. Because, the aqueduct is not finished; it lacks the final touch, not essential in the utilitarian project, but

definitely so from the architectural point of view.

Aurelio Ramirez explains perfectly, what are the deficiencies of this crown, which perhaps was never finished or

was destroyed and later rebuilt with precipitation and bad taste by employing in the upper part, molded pieces from

the cornice of the lower arches which were placed in a confused and disorderly manner. Anyway, this is another small

enigma which still remains, and in the presence of which, we will abide by what Ramirez says on p. 84 of his text.

If the analysis done by the engineer and director of the restoration of the aqueduct is as thorough as we have been

saying all along, and not a single aspect has been left without being taken into consideration or clarified, then we must

also thank him for his patient work as a compiler of all sorts of information about this monument. This makes his

book a Summa or Varia Recopilación, which ranges from first class historical documents to the most trivial newspaper

articles, which can, however, give us fructiferous clues, or else provide us with a curious lesson. Such is the case of the

controversy which began when the Royal Academy of History asked that the aqueduct be declared a national

monument on October 11, 1884, (p. 201).

The report issued by Royal Academy irritated many of the people in Segovia because of the terminology in which

it was written. They felt their pride and dignity had been wounded and consequently a dispute broke out in the press.

The author has captured all of these details in his book. «A rumor is circulating around Segovia, » states the Academy

report, «that the Town Hall is going to allow a building to be constructed against the pillars of the aqueduct».

In 1884 this report exasperated the Town Hall, the Sociedad Económica Segoviana de Amigos del País, and many

writers and newspaper men. Nevertheless, time went on, and less than twenty years afterwards, the municipal

architect, Mr. Odriozola, proposed the destruction of one of the arches of the aqueduct which was located in the

“bajada del Postigo” between the Civil Government building and the Conciliar Seminary (p. 254). His proposal was

meant to beautify the street, improve the circulation, and take advantage of the stone blocks for other projects. Of

course, the Town Hall approved the proposal and decided that the demolition should take place as soon as possible. It

did not mean a thing that this municipality once felt so offended because someone doubted its desire to conserve the

monument.

It is also very interesting and curious to follow the long series of different interpretations of the “cartela” of the

aqueduct, or, in other words, the inscription found on the pediment between the two central arches. Without a doubt,

this controversy started in 1885 when the aqueduct was declared a national monument and the people of Segovia

wanted to demonstrate their interest for the monument. The Sociedad Económica Segoviana de Amigos del País

sponsored this investigation which unfortunately ended in complete failure. However, it triggered off a tournament of

ideas, studies, and research which was often digressive, useless and tiring, but at the same time offered an occasional

interesting fact which could very well be helpful to future investigators. These future historians will also owe a great

deal to Aurelio Ramírez for having put at their disposal in an orderly and skillful manner such abundant documental

material.

I want to finish by telling the author of this book that there is definitely one thing that he can be proud of, and I

believe it is the one thing will most satisfy him: after the restoration which he directed with such enthusiasm, natural

talent and technical competence, and after the publication of this book which will convert him into the Somorrostro of

our century, his name will always remain associated with the aqueduct. And, to be associated with a monument whose

continuance he has demonstrated and assured, is also the best way to assure one's own continuance through the

gratitude of coming generations.

FERNANDO CHUECA GOlTIA

E N D © Aurelio Ramírez Gallardo