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From modern day

France…

1

Image:

http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_EBq9covCU9o/RotnNrG6YII/ AAAAAAAACDk/M1QEHmownhM/s400/YIMG_2326.JPG

Image: http://guidesofistanbul.com/eng/images/ bozdogan_2/766662-roman_aqueduct-Istanbul.jpg

to Turkey…

2

Image:

http://www.guenter-lehnen-koeln.de/Denkmaeler_62.jpg

Image:

http://i1.trekearth.com/photos/12917/dsc_2102-1124.jpg

from Germany…

to Tunis…

3

Image: http://www.aymavilles.vda.it/site/foto/DSC_0028_302_l.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/ilelouine4.jpg

from the Alps

mountains…

to the mountains of

Algeria…

4

Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/

thumb/1/19/Almunecar3042603.JPG/800px-Almunecar3042603.JPG

Image: http://www.greatcommission.com/ israel/CaesareaMaritimaRomanAqueduct.jpg

from the shores of

Spain

to the beaches of

Israel…

the Romans built one-storey aqueducts,

5 Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aqueduc.jpg/800px-Aqueduc.jpg

two storey aqueducts…

6 Image: http://www.andalucia.com/province/granada/almunecar/image/3506-14monumentos.jpg

three storey aqueducts,

7 Image: http://images.cdn.fotopedia.com/flickr-4262726711-original.jpg

and four storey aqueducts. 8 Image: http://costablog.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/nerja_aqueduct.jpg

BUT,

these magnificent structures

which we call aqueducts today, were in reality,

only a fraction of the system

by which ancient Romans

acquired water.

Fully 80 % of Roman aqueducts

lay hidden underground

or in workaday disguise.

Let’s look at the aqueduct of Segovia

in Spain to discover how the Romans got their

drinking water.

9

ANCIENT ROMAN WATER ACQUISITION

10

Image: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg/800px-Vista-aerea-del-acueducto-de-Segovia.jpg

to

11

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade

Image adapted from: Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 12.

Headwater Collection: Caput Aquae

sedimentation

On a steep hillside in central Spain, a

small mountain stream…

12 Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirtopsegovia.jpg

…is slowed and strained to capture a supply

of pure, fresh water which is then sent…

13 Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirsegovia.jpg

…past the granite

dam…

14

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/

aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg

and through a regulating

sluice gate.

to

15

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Open and Covered Trenches:

Canales

sedimentation

It

then

would

have

flowed

along

an

open

stone

conduit…

16

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/weirblockssegovia.jpg

before being covered with large, flat

stones designed to shield the fresh water

from the sun and from contaminants.

17

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/coversegovia.jpg

These flat stones could be removed for access to

several small settling basins designed to slow the

flow of rushing water and let sand carried from the

mountain stream sink below the water’s current.

18

Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm

to

19

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Underground Tunnel: Specus

sedimentation

After passing the settling basins, the mountain

water entered a long underground tunnel called the

specus. In many locations, the Romans had no

choice but to cut these through solid rock, but if

possible, they built a specus by digging a trench in

the earth and constructing its side walls, floor and

roof, in that order. The roof could be flat, pointed,

or arched. A specus could be constructed of stone,

brick or cement; it was coated inside with

waterproof plaster, and when completed, it was then

buried, making it resistant to wind or storm damage,

enemy destruction, and even some earthquakes.

20

Aicher, Peter J. Guide to the Aqueducts of Ancient Rome. 1st ed. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, Inc., 1995. p. 11.

The specus: an aqueduct’s

undeground channel

21

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/P5062217.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/tekconduitmodel.jpg

Image:http://roma.andreapollett.com/S3/roma-aq2.htm

to

22

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Shafts: Putei or Lumina

sedimentation

Above a buried specus, a series of evenly

spaced manholes, called putei, marked its path

across the countryside. Each puteus brought air

and light (lumen) into the buried specus and

allowed maintenance crews to descend into the

water channel for cleaning and repair.

23

Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/ im199269499-Arquetas.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/koelnputei.jpg

At the bottom of each

puteus, the flowing water

was aerated as it fell into

a drop basin designed to

catch and remove debris

from the main specus.

24

Image: http://www.celtiberia.net/imagftp/ im199269587-Agua-arquetas.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/lijntekstillingbasin.jpg

Puteus and

sedimentation

drop basin

Workers would remove the

mud and debris by hauling

buckets up the puteus shaft.

They would also clean the

specus walls by removing

calcium and hard-water

deposits called sinter.

25

Image: http://www.TinyURL.com/287cux7

Image: http://i.telegraph.co.uk/telegraph/multimedia/ archive/01565/aquaduct_1565777c.jpg

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/a

quasite/foto/roupbridge.jpg

Image: http://news.discovery.com/ archaeology/2010/01/29/aqueduct

1-825x550.jpg

Related to settling and drop basins, regulation

basins might use a sluice gate to divert the flow of

water from a specus during its cleaning or repair. 26


Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/

aquasite/foto/P5082778.jpg

to

27

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Sedimentation or Cleaning Tanks:

Piscina Limaria

sedimentation

As the flowing water neared its destination,

the specus rose again to ground level. At this

point, it entered a preliminary cleansing

facility called a piscina limaria; in Latin the

word for mud is limus.

28

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info /aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg

In this little building,

incoming water would

slow its flow and settle

into a basin designed to

gather particles of dirt

and debris in a pit at

the bottom. Water

intake could be halted

with a metal sluice gate

while workers cleaned

and then flushed the

sediment from the pit. 29

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/casapiedrain.jpg

After the

water

was

cleaned,

it left this

piscina

limaria

and traveled

on in its

open-air

conduit.

30

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casapiedra1.jpg

A short distance ahead, the water flowed into

another, larger piscina limaria…

31

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquas.jpg

…where it fell into a deeper drop basin. As the water

rose back up again, a separate shunting channel… 32

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaquain2.jpg

carried the water into a

side tank in which a

stone sieve filtered the

flow one last time

before it reached the

upcoming arcade.

33


to

34

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Elevating Wall:

Substructio

sedimentation

Leaving the large settling basin, the water continued

its trip forward on top of a substructio, a raised

stone wall, usually no more than 7-10 feet high,

supporting the specus without the use of arches. 35

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/casaaqua0.jpg

to

36

distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Elevating Arches or Arcade

Arcuationes

sedimentation

After travelling on the substructio for

463 feet, the water channel then rose slowly

onto the first level of the 2240 foot long

arcuatio, or arcade bridge, on which it

would cross the deep valley ahead.

37

Image: http://lh5.ggpht.com/_8uWGonu6jVk/SavtVX1YDvI/AAAAAAAAAvw/vqVBqCfF6Ks/s800/DSC00992.JPG

After a several sharp angles, the conduit finally

turned out onto a double arcade and…

38

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/curvesegovia.jpg

…crossed a long straightaway as the arches below…

39

Image: http://www.ige.csic.es/HWC2006/espanol/images/acueducto.jpg

rose to a dizzying height of 95 feet before…

40

Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/215/457600861_d67a0fdeb5.jpg

reaching the opposite side and descending once

again towards the ground, where the mountain

stream’s water would be distributed to the city.

41

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/finalarchessegovia.jpg

to

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distribution

underground seepage

water collection

open/covered trench

tunnel

shafts

un

de

rgrou

nd

se

ep

age

o

tunnel

substruction

arcade


Water Distribution

sedimentation

Sedimentation Tanks and Cisterns

Piscinae et Cisternae

43


ground level pressurized subterranean pipes secondary

castella and

water towers

sedimentation/cistern

homes, industry baths public fountains

closed system (pressurized) open system (gravitational)

main castellum

At the end of an aqueduct, water was often

delivered to large holding tanks, called cisterns.

44 Image: http://pjspictures.me.uk/images/Cr_Cistern.jpg

These also served as final piscinae limariae, slowing

the water’s flow through multiple chambers and

allowing one last chance for sediment to cleaned out

of the water before delivery to the public. 45

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/p2castellumvirgo.jpg

Main Water House and Delivery Pipes

Castella Aquae, Pipae et Fistulae

Castellum Divisorium

46



castella and

water towers




main castellum aquae

The aqueduct’s water then arrived at the rear of

the main distribution house, called the castellum

aquae or the castellum divisorium. 47

Image: http://commondatastorage.googleapis.com/static.panoramio.com/photos/original/7287015.jpg

48

paraphrase of Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2. cf. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html

When [aqueducts] are brought to the walls of the city a castellum is built, with a triple cistern attached to it to receive the water. In the castellum are three pipes of equal sizes, [each] connected in such a manner that when water overflows [from the side basins], it is discharged into the middle one. [From that middle basin comes a pipe for the public fountains, and from the side basins come pipes] a)for the supply of the thermae(baths), thus affording a yearly revenue to the people and b) for the supply of private houses… Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.6.1-2.

Castellum

divisorium:

sluice gates to

control and direct

flow of water

strainer

lead weir

public supply

thermae

private supply

49

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/ aquasite/foto/lijntekpompeii.jpg

Water entering the castellum divisorium… 50

Image: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Castellum_Aquae_Pompeii_271.jpg

…was divided into three channels… 51

Image: http://www.avignon-et-provence.com/tourisme/pont-du-gard/img/pont-du-gard-12.jpg

52

Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_dept.jpg

…which exited the building in three pipes.

53

Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/ S3/roma-aq2.htm

Image: http://roma.andreapollett.com/

S3/roma-aq2.htm

Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/

italy_2007/water_dept.jpg

“That the flavor of water conveyed in

earthen pipes is better, is shown at our daily meals, for

all those whose tables are furnished with silver vessels, nevertheless use

earthenware vessels because the

purity of the water’s flavor is

preserved in them”

Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.11 http://penelope.uchicago.edu/

Thayer/E/ Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html

“Water conducted

through earthen pipes is more

wholesome than that through

lead; This may be verified by

observing those who work with lead; they are of a pallid color…”

54

Image: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sparker/2662921627/in/photostream/

Image: http://www.eskimo.com/~mikeg/italy_2007/water_pipes.jpg

Paraphrase of: Vitruvius, De Architectura 8.1-11

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ Thayer/E/

Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/8*.html

55

Nevertheless,

lead pipes were almost essential for

delivering water under pressure

throughout many large Roman cities.

The possible side-effects of that lead

may well have been diminished,

however, by the natural buildup of

minerals within these pipes, mirroring

the accumulation of sinter within an

aqueduct’s specus.

Water Towers and Water Pressure:

Secondary Castella and Public Consumption

56



castella and

water towers




main castellum

Thirsty visitors gather for a drink.

Where will their water come from?

57

Image: http://farm1.static.flickr.com/94/260046813_06c17543b4.jpg

In most Roman cities, the castellum aquae was located, as it was in Pompeii, on the highest spot in town. There the great force of the mighty aqueduct pushed water into small diameter lead pipes and that water, further pressurized by gravity on its downhill route, continued on to secondary castella, which we call water towers, located in many local neighborhoods. There, lead pipes carried the water up into lead-lined basins at the top of brick towers 15 or more feet tall. Such gravity-feed mini-reservoirs reduced and regulated the pressure of the water as it entered the next set of pipes…

58

Image: http://www.romanaqueducts.info/aquasite/foto/ lijntekwatertorenpompeii.jpg

Oleson, John. Handbook of engineering and technology in the Classical world. 1st. New York,, NY: Oxford University Press, USA, 2008. 303.

which actually delivered the

water for the public to drink

at a corner fountain…

59

Image: http://lejournaldelouise.com/wp-content/ gallery/rome/pompeii-water-fountain.jpg

Image: http://image09.webshots.com/ 9/8/79/35/115187935GPIMbo_ph.jpg

…or carry back in a bucket to businesses

or homes in their neighborhood.

60

Image: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_nHmUxKq2nz4/SiC_RBHjJeI/AAAAAAAAB3k/umlse2xG5NI/s1600-h/2008-05-22+257+Ercolano+-+Herculaneum.jpg

Image: http://www.ostia-antica.org/regio2/pr/viafon.htm

Some wealthy Romans paid to

have water piped directly into

their homes, where it often was

put to use for fountains in their

own private gardens (horti).

61

Image: http://enginova.com/water Image: http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1136/624800701_ee6a3e9e87.jpg

Image: http://museumvictoria.com.au/ melbournemuseum/discoverycentre/

pompeii/objects/water-pipe/

62

Remember, too,

that one- third of

the water leaving

a castellum

divisorium, was

directed to the

public baths.

In the thermae, it filled both

steamy hot-water soaking basins

and cold-water plunge pools…

63 Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/

uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg

Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/gouk/ 1/0/O/-/-/-/bath.jpg

… and, as a fresh

supply continually

entered, dirty water

was channeled from

the bathhouse...

into adjoining latrines, where it flushed away waste

and, in many Roman cities, carried it outdoors

64

Image: http://images.travelpod.com/users/bandglittle/uk2006.1167413760.pc292754.jpg

into cloacae (sewers) under

the street, which then carried

it to nearby rivers or the sea-

65

Image: http://0.tqn.com/d/ancienthistory/ 1/0/s/a/2/800px-040227_tevere16CloacaMaxima.jpg

Image: http://www.tempt.ee/uploads/ 3457_cloaca%20maxima1.jpg

underscoring why

Romans expended

such great effort to build the aqueducts that supplied fresh water from afar.

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