the relationship between food ... - georgetown university

THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENFOODINSECURITY

ANDACADEMICACHIEVEMENTINTHEUNITEDSTATES

AThesis

submittedtotheFacultyofthe

GraduateSchoolofArtsandSciences

ofGeorgetownUniversity

inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe

degreeof

MasterofPublicPolicy

InPublicPolicy

By

LauraKim,B.A.

Washington,DC

April12,2016

ii

Copyright2016byLauraKim

AllRightsReserved

iii

THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENFOODINSECURITY

ANDACADEMICACHIEVEMENTINTHEUNITEDSTATES

LauraKim,B.A.

ThesisAdvisor:AdamT.Thomas,Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

FoodinsecuritynegativelyaffectsasubsetofU.S.householdsandremainsan

importantpolicychallenge.Astheearliestyearsoflifehavebeenproventobethe

mostimportantperiodinanindividual’sphysicalandcognitivedevelopment,itis

especiallyimportanttoassesstheimpactoffoodinsecurityonchildren.Previous

studieshaveexploredtherelationshipbetweenfoodsecuritystatusandhealth,

behavior,andacademicfactorsusingpaneldataforelementaryschoolstudents.

Thispapercontributestotheliteraturebyexaminingtheassociationbetweenfood

insecurityandacademicachievement,measuredbymathandreadingscores,

followingapanelofstudentsfromkindergartenthroughtheeighthgrade.My

resultsindicatethereisnorelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscores.

iv

SpecialthankstoAdamThomasforhisinvaluableguidanceandfeedback

throughoutthisproject

Thankyou,

LauraKim,B.A.

v

TableofContents

INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1BACKGROUND............................................................................................................................2LITERATUREREVIEW..............................................................................................................5CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKANDHYPOTHESIS................................................................9DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS....................................................................................................14REGRESSIONRESULTS..........................................................................................................17DISCUSSION..............................................................................................................................22APPENDIX.................................................................................................................................25WORKSCITED..........................................................................................................................28

1

INTRODUCTION

WhilemosthouseholdsintheUnitedStateshavedependablesourcesoffood,

asubsetofAmericansconsistentlysufferfromfoodinsecurity,definedaslacking

accesstoareliable,steadysourceoffood(Coleman-Jensenetal.,2013).Several

factorshavebeenidentifiedasinfluencesonthefoodsecuritystatusofahousehold.

Incomeisaprimaryinfluence,butthereareotherimportantfactors,suchasadult

caregivers’health(Wightetal.,2013)andmaternalmentalhealth(Noonanetal.,

2014).Inaddition,characteristicssuchasthemaritalstatusofthehouseholdhead

(Balistreri,2012)andchildcaregiverarrangements(Heflinetal.,2012)havealso

beenfoundtobeassociatedwithhigherlikelihoodsoffoodinsecurity.

Hungrychildrensufferfrommyriadproblemsrangingfromstuntedgrowth

anddevelopmentalissues(Cook&Jeng,2009)toincreasedchancesofillness

(Alaimo,etal.,2001;Basch,2010).Studieshavealsofoundthatchronicunder-

nutritionisnegativelyassociatedwithchildren’scognitivedevelopmentbecauseit

altersessentialneurologicalpathwaysandaffectsthecentralnervoussystem,

especiallyduringthefirstthreeyearsoflife,whenyoungbrainsareundergoinga

criticalgrowthphase(Georgieff,2007;Morgane,1993).

Theadverseimpactofhungerisalsoevidentintheclassroom.Among

children,hungerhasbeenfoundtobenegativelycorrelatedwithattendanceand

grades(Kleinman,2002).Poorclassroomperformance,inturn,haslonger-term

consequences–boysandgirlswithpoorschoolachievementinelementaryschool

areathigherriskforantisocialbehaviorinadolescence(Tremblay,etal.,1992).

Studentswithlowerachievementarealsomorelikelytodropoutofschool,which

2

canleadtonegativeoutcomesinadulthood.Forexample,highschooldropouts

makeupofoverthree-quartersoftheUSprisonpopulation(AllianceforExcellent

Education,2006).Fallingbehindinschoolalsoleavesstudentsinadequately

preparedforthelabormarket,wherethedemandforskilledworkersisincreasing.

TheWorkforceAlliance(2009)reportsthat50percentofavailablejobsrequireat

leastahighschooldiploma,and30percentrequireacollegedegree.Thus,thereis

broadagreementthatreducingtheextentofchildhungerwillcontributetoamore

robustAmericaneconomyandabetterpreparedAmericanworkforce(Cook&Jeng,

2009).

UsingpaneldatafromtheEarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy(ECLS-K),this

paperexaminestherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandstudentmathand

readingtestscores.Otherstudieshavealsousedthesedatatoexaminethe

relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityamongchildrenandeducationalachievement.

However,thesestudiesfocusedonchildreninkindergarten(Winicki&Jemison,

2003)andinkindergartenthroughthethirdgrade(Jyotietal,2005).Thispaper

studieschildrenfromkindergartenthroughtheeighthgrade.

BACKGROUND

DevelopingaMeasureofFoodSecurity

Severelevelsofhunger,suchasthosewitnessedindevelopingcountries,

havebeenavoideddueinparttotheeffortsofpublichealthprograms(discussed

below).However,untilthe1980s,noofficialmeasureofhungerexistedtoassessthe

3

numberofindividualswhosufferfromlessextremeformsoffoodinsecurityand

hunger(Bickeletal.,2000).Theneedforsuchameasurewasacknowledgedin1984

bythePresident’sTaskForceonFoodAssistance(Bickeletal,1996).Later,the

NationalNutritionMonitoringandRelatedResearchActof1990directedthe

DepartmentsofAgriculture(USDA)andHealthandHumanServices(HHS)to

developanationalmeasureoffoodsecurity(Bickeletal.,2000).

WhatemergedistheCoreFoodSecurityModule(CFSM),whichisusedtoday

intheUnitedStatesandCanada.TheCFSMconsistsof18indicatorquestionsthat

assesstheextenttowhichhouseholdsexperiencefoodinsecurityandhunger

(Bickeletal.,2000).1Thefirsttenquestionsassesswhetheratanypointinthelast

twelvemonthshouseholdshadtosacrificetheamountoffoodthattheypurchased

orlimitthefrequencyorsizeoftheirmealsduetofinancialconstraints.The

remainingquestionsaredirectedtowardshouseholdswithchildrenandare

designedtomeasurehow,ifatall,children’smeals–intermsofnutritionalquality,

frequency,orquantity–wereaffectedbythehousehold’sfinancialsituation.

Householdswithchildrenareconsideredtobefoodinsecureiftheyanswer

affirmativelytoatleastthreequestionsonthesurvey.Theyareconsideredtobe

foodinsecurewithhungeriftheyansweraffirmativelytoatleasteightquestions

(Coleman-Jensenetal.,2013).In2013,11.7percentofchildrenlivedinhomesin

whichatleastonechildwasfoodinsecure.Inthepastdecade,therehavebeen

similarfindingsontheextentoffoodinsecurityandfoodinsecuritywithhunger,

1SeeAppendixforthefullCoreFoodSecurityModulequestionnaire.

4

withanincreaseinboththrough2008.However,levelsforbothhaveplateaued

sincethen,asshowninFigure1.

Figure1

Source:HouseholdFoodSecurityintheUnitedStatesin2013(Coleman-Jensen,etal.2013)

PublicNutritionPrograms

SeveralUSpublichealthprogramshavebeenestablishedtomakefoodmore

accessibletochildren.OnesuchprogramistheNationalSchoolLunchProgram

(NSLP),establishedbytheRichardB.RussellNationalSchoolLunchActin1945.

Underthislaw,schoolsarerequiredtoservelunchesthatmeetmandated

nutritionalguidelinestoqualifyingstudentsforfreeorreducedcost(USDA,2015).

DueinparttothesuccessoftheNSLP,otherinitiativessuchastheSchoolBreakfast

Program(SBP)andtheSummerFoodServiceProgramhavealsobeenimplemented

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1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

TrendsinfoodinsecurityinU.S.Householdswithchildren,1998-2013

Foodinsecure

householdswithchildren

Foodinsecure

householdsexperiencing

hungerwithchildren

5

(USDA,2015).TheseprogramsalloperateundertheauspicesofUSDA’sFoodand

NutritionService(FNS).TheNSLPreachesoverhalfofallchildrenenrolledinUS

primaryandsecondaryschools.Approximately87%ofschoolsthatparticipatein

theNSLPalsoparticipateintheSBP(Let’sMove).

Definitions

Thispaperusestheterms“foodsecurity,”“foodinsecurity,”and“hunger”

followingthedefinitionsthatweredevelopedin1990byaworkinggroupatthe

AmericanInstituteofNutrition.“Foodsecurity”meansbeingreadilyabletoaccess

nutritionallysufficientfoodinself-sufficientwayswithoutrelyingonemergency

strategiessuchasafoodshelter.“Foodinsecurity”referstosituationsinwhich

accesstonutritionalfoodislimitedorunreliable.“Hunger”isdefinedasachronic,

involuntarylackoffood,whichcanleadtodiscomfortandmalnutrition,andisa

possibleresultoffoodinsecurity.

LITERATUREREVIEW

Severalstudiesexaminetherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityand

children.Manyofthesestudiesassesstherelationshipbetweenthefoodinsecurity

statusofachild’shouseholdandthatchild’shealth,educationaloutcomes,and

behavioraloutcomes.Isummarizethisliteraturebelow.Ialsodiscusssomepublic

nutritionprograms,focusinginparticularontheseprograms’relationshipswith

variousoutcomesonchildren.

6

FoodInsecurityandEducationalOutcomes

WinickiandJemison(2003),usingECLS-Kdata,foundthatkindergarteners

fromhouseholdsthathadansweredaffirmativelytojustoneortwoquestionsinthe

foodsecuritymodule,thoughnottechnicallyconsideredfoodinsecure,displayed

lowertestscoresinthefallandexperiencedlessacademicgainthroughoutthe

schoolyear.Theauthors’resultsalsosuggestedthatacademicoutcomesofchildren

frommarginallyfoodinsecurehouseholdsaremoresimilartothoseoftheirpeers

whowerefromfoodinsecurehouseholdsthanthosefromfoodsecurehouseholds.

Amonghouseholdsthatwereofficiallyfoodinsecure,Jyotietal.(2005)foundthat

girlstendedtohavelowerreadingskills.Insufficientfoodintakeresultingfromfood

insecuritywasalsofoundtobecorrelatedwithlowertestscoresandanincreased

likelihoodofrepeatingagrade(Alaimoetal.,2001),aswellasdecreasesinlearning

skills,whichincludesastudent’sattentiveness,persistence,andabilitytostudy

independently(Howard,2010).

Kleinmanetal.(2002)gatheredinformationfromvoluntaryparticipantsof

threeinnercityschoolspriortoandsixmonthsaftertheimplementationofa

universalschoolbreakfastprograminBostonpublicschools.Athirdofthechildren

inthestudyhadbeenidentifiedasbeingatnutritionalrisk.Inthesixmonths

following,studentswhodecreasedtheirnutritionalriskoverthisperiodshowed

greatergainsinschoolattendanceandinmathgradesthantheircounterpartswith

whoshowednochangeinnutritionalrisk(Kleinmanetal.,2002).

7

FoodInsecurityandHealthOutcomes

Studiesoftherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandhealthoutcomes

haveproducedvaryingresults.Caseyetal.(2005),usingdatafromacross-sectional

surveyofchildrenfrom36countiesofLouisiana,Mississippi,andArkansas,found

negativeassociationsbetweenhouseholdfoodinsecurityandreportedphysical

functionandhealth-relatedqualityoflife.Theauthorsalsofoundapositive

associationbetweenchildren’sexposuretotheNationalSchoolLunchProgram

(NSLP)andtheirheight,ameasurehistoricallyusedtogaugetheeffectsofnutrition

onhealth.

Otherstudieshaveexaminedtherelationshipbetweenfoodinsecuritystatus

andphysicalgrowthmeasuressuchasBMIandbodyweight,andfoundthatfood

insecuritywasnotapredictorofphysicalsize(Bhargavaetal.,2008;Winickiand

Jemison,2003).Bhattacharyaetal.(2004)observedthat,whilepovertyhada

positivecorrelationwithpoornutritionalintakesinpreschoolchildren,food

securitydidnot;andfoodsecuritywasnotassociatedwithnutritionaloutcomesin

schoolagechildren.Ontheotherhand,Jyotietal.(2005),usingECLS-Kdatafor

childrenfromkindergartentothirdgrade,foundthatfoodsecurityamong

kindergartenerspredictedgreatergainsinBMIandweightforgirls.

FoodInsecurityandBehavioralOutcomes

Foodinsecurityalsoplaysaroleinhowwellachildisabletointeractand

assimilatewithhisorherpeers.Muchofchildren’spsychologicalandsocial

8

behaviorcanbemeasuredbyhowtheyinteractwithothersintheclassroom.

Alaimoetal.(2001)andCaseyetal.(2005)foundthatfoodinsecuritywas

associatedwithlowersocialinteractionability.Insufficientfoodintakestemming

fromfoodinsecuritywascorrelatedwithanincreasedlikelihoodofbeing

suspendedandahigherprobabilityofseeingapsychologist(Alaimoetal.,2001).In

addition,StormerandHarrison(2003)foundthathouseholdfoodinsecurityhada

negativerelationshipwithsocialinteractionabilityamonggirls.Howard(2010)

foundthatfoodinsecuritywasassociatedwithadecreaseinchildren’s

interpersonalrelations(suchasformingfriendshipsandexpressingthemselves),

andself-control.However,Howardfoundnorelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity

andotherproblembehaviorsuchasfightinganddisturbingclassroomactivities.

ThePresentStudy

Broadlyspeaking,priorresearchindicatesanegativeassociationbetween

foodinsecurityandacademicachievement.Howevernopriorstudyhasusedthe

ECLS-Ktofollowstudentsfromkindergartentotheeighthgradetostudythe

relationshipbetweentheirfoodsecuritystatusandeducationaloutcomes.Inthe

presentstudy,Ihopetocontributetotheliteraturebyextendingexistinganalysisto

thefinalroundoftheavailableECLS-Kdata.

9

CONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKANDHYPOTHESIS

Ihypothesizethatfoodinsecuritywillhaveanegativecorrelationwitha

student’sacademicachievement.Thatis,ifthechildcomesfromahouseholdthat

reportsexperiencingfoodinsecurity,thatchildwillhavealowerprobabilityof

succeedingintheclassroom.Factorsrelatedbothtofoodinsecurityandacademic

achievementcanbegroupedintothreebroadcategories–demographic,health,and

schoolfactors.ThesecategoriesarepresentedinFigure2.

Figure2:ConceptualFramework

DemographicandHouseholdFactors

Measuresofsocioeconomicstatus,suchasparentalincomeandeducation,

havebeenfoundtobepositivelycorrelatedwithschoolperformanceamong

children(Sirin,2005).Also,myreviewoftheresearchfoundraceandethnicitytobe

AcademicAchievement


• FOODINSECURITY• Race• Gender• Householdsize• Householdpovertystatus• Childreceivingfree/reducedlunch

HealthFactors

• StudentHealth• Height• Weight• BMI

SchoolFactors

• Percentageofstudentsinpoverty

• Percentageofstudentsreceivingfree/reducedlunch

• Percentageofminoritystudents

10

associatedwithacademicachievement,withAfricanAmericanandHispanic

studentsperformingatthelowestlevels(Kao&Thompson,2003).2Blake(1981)

foundthatastudent’snumberofsiblingsalsohadanegativerelationshipwith

academicachievement.

HealthFactors

Childhealthfactorssuchasobesitycouldalsobeassociatedwithbothfood

securityandacademicachievement.Shoreetal.(2008)foundthatamongmiddle

schoolstudents,obesitywasnegativelycorrelatedwithgradesandnationaltest

scores.Thisalsoheldtrueforyoungergroups,wherephysicalfitnessinthirdand

fifthgraderswaspositivelyassociatedwithacademicperformance,whileBMIwas

inverselyrelated(Castellietal.2007).

SchoolFactors

FowlerandWalberg(1991)foundthatsocioeconomicstatusintheschool

districtandpercentageofstudentsintheschoolwhowerefromlow-income

householdswerethemostinfluentialandconsistentfactorsrelatedtoacademic

outcomes.Inaddition,schoolpovertylevelshavebeenfoundtobenegatively

associatedwithschoolmeantestscores(Battistichetal.1995).Furthermore,high

concentrationsofpovertyinschoolshavebeennegativelycorrelatedwithchildren’s

achievementwhethertheywerefrompoorhouseholdsornot(Kennedy,1986).

2AsIestimateafixedeffectsmodel,characteristicssuchasraceandgenderare

excludedfrommyconceptualframework,sincemyfixedeffectsspecification

controlsforallstudentcharacteristicsthatremainconstantovertime.

11

DATAANDMETHODS

ThispaperusesdatafromtheEarlyChildhoodLongitudinalStudy,

KindergartenClassof1998-99,alsoknownasthe“ECLS-K”.Thesedataaremade

availablethroughtheNationalCenterforEducationStatistics(NCES)atthe

DepartmentofEducation’sInstituteofEducationSciences.TheECLS-Kfollowsa

cohortofchildrenattendingbothprivateandpublicschoolsfromthefallof1998

(whentheystartedkindergarten)tothespringof2007(whentheyfinishedeighth

grade).TheECLS-Kalsoincludesdataobtainedfromquestionnaireswithparents,

teachers,andschooladministratorsaboutstudentsandstudents’schools.Thedata

werecollectedoveracourseofsevenrounds–twiceeachinkindergartenandfirst

grade(whichcorrespondstoroundsonethroughfour),thenonceeachinthird,

fifth,andeightgrades(whichcorrespondstoroundsfivethroughseven).Atotalof

21,409childrenparticipatedinthestudy.Iusedatafromthesecond,fifth,sixth,and

seventhrounds,inwhichfoodsecuritydatawerecollectedthroughparent

interviews.

Mydependentvariableisacademicachievement,whichImeasureusing

readingandmathtestscores.Thetestswereadministeredtoeverystudenteach

year.TheywerewrittenforthepurposeoftheECLS-Kandweremodifiedvariations

oftheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress(NAEP)andsimilartests

createdforotherNCESstudies.Testscoreswerestandardizedwithameanof50

andastandarddeviationof10toimprovetheeasewithwhichrespondents’scores

couldbecomparedwiththescoresofotherchildren.Thereadingtestmeasures

12

skillssuchasletterrecognitionandreadingcomprehension,andthemathtest

assessesskillssuchasgeometryandalgebra.

Mykeyindependentvariableisameasureoffoodsecuritybasedon

responsestothe18-questionfoodsecuritysurveymodulewhichwasdiscussed

aboveinmyBackgroundsection.Thesurveyquestionshelptodistinguishbetween

householdandindividuallevelsoffoodinsecurity.Ahouseholdisconsideredfood

insecureifpositiveresponsesaregiventothreeormorequestions,andfood

insecurewithhungerifpositiveresponsesaregiventoeightormoreitems.

IalsoincludecontrolvariablesdiscussedintheConceptualFramework.All

relevantvariablesaredescribedbelowinTable1.

Table1:VariablesandVariableDescriptionsVariable Description

DependentVariable

MathScore Acontinuousvariablemeasuringperformanceonanannual

mathtest.*

ReadingScore Acontinuousvariablemeasuringperformanceonanannual

readingtest.*

IndependentVariable

FoodInsecure Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherornotachild’s

householdisfoodinsecure.


HouseholdSize Acontinuousvariablemeasuringthenumberofmembersin

therespondent’shousehold.

ReceivesFreeor

ReducedLunch

Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherachildreceivesfreeor

reducedcostschoollunch.

PovertyIndicator Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherornotafamilyis

belowthefederalpovertylevel.

*Testscoresarestandardizedwiththemeanat50andthestandarddeviationsetat

10.

13

HealthFactors

ChildHealth Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherparentsconsiderthe

childtobeingoodhealth.

Height Acontinuousvariablemeasuringchild’sheight

Weight Acontinuousvariablemeasuringchild’sweight.

BMI Avaluecalculatedasbodymass(bodyweightinkilograms)

dividedbythesquareofbodyheight.

SchoolFactors

FreeorReduced

LunchPercentage

Acontinuousvariablemeasuringtheproportionofstudents

inschoolreceivingfreeorreducedlunch.

Lessthan10%

Minority

Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool

consistsoflessthan10%minoritystudents.

10-25%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool

consistsof10-25%minoritystudents.





Over75%Minority Abinaryvariablemeasuringwhetherastudent’sschool

consistsofover75%minoritystudents.

IestimateOrdinaryLeastSquaresmodelswithfixedindividualandtime

effects.Individualfixedeffectscontrolforcharacteristicsofeachchildthatare

constantovertime,suchasrace,gender,parents’educationlevels,andbirth

circumstances.Timefixedeffectscontrolfortime-varyingfactorsthatchangeover

timeuniformlyforeveryoneinmysample,suchaseconomicconditions,policy

changes,andbroaddemographicshifts.Includingindividualandtimefixedeffectsin

mymodelreducestheextentofomittedvariablebiasinmyestimates.

Iestimatethemodelas:

TestScoreit=β0+β1FoodSecurityit+β2DemographicFactorsit+β3WellnessFactorsit+

β4SchoolFactorsit+αi+γt+uit

14

Wherethesubscriptsiandtdenoteeachchildandtimeperiod,respectively,αiisa

setofdummiesforeachchild,andγtisasetofdummiesforeachtimeperiod,anduit

istheerrorterm.TheΒicoefficientrepresentstherelationshipbetweentestscores

andfoodinsecuritystatus.

DESCRIPTIVESTATISTICS

Descriptivestatisticsforthedependentandcontrolvariablesincludedinmy

regressionmodelareprovidedinTable2.3Descriptivesaredisaggregatedby

whetherthechildisfromahouseholdthatisfoodsecureorfoodinsecure.

Approximately90.2percent(15,383person-rounddata)ofmyobservationsfallin

thecategoryofbeingfoodsecure,while9.8percent(1666person-rounddata)fallin

thecategoryofbeingfoodinsecure.Descriptivestatisticsareweightedbyasample

childpanelweightdevelopedbyECLS-Kresearchers.Iusealongitudinalchild

weightdevelopedforrounds2through7.

SomeofthemostimportantresultsfromTable2arethemeansforthe

dependentvariableindicatingthatchildrenwhoarefoodsecurereporthigher

3IinterpolatedmissingdataforcontinuousvariablesinmymodelforwhichIhad

informationavailablefrombothprecedingandsubsequentrounds.Insuchcases,I

tookthevaluesfrombothroundsandusedtheaverageofthosevaluestoimpute

missingvalues.ThevariablesforwhichIperformedthisprocedurearethereading

andmathtestscoresforrounds2,5,and6;householdsizeinround5;andthe

percentageofstudentseligibleforfreeorreducedlunchinaschoolforrounds5and

6.Theinterpolationprocedureaccountedfor2%ofallvaluesforreadingscores;

1.9%ofallvaluesformathscores;2.4%ofallvaluesforhouseholdsize;and1%of

allvaluesforthepercentageofstudentseligibleforfreeorreducedlunch.

15

readingandmathscores.Thisisinlinewiththeassumptionthatchildrenwhoare

foodsecurewillbebetteroffoverallthantheircounterpartswhoarefoodinsecure.

Inaddition,themeanvaluesforcharacteristicssuchasbeingbelowthepoverty

levelareoverthreetimeshigherforchildrenwhoarefoodinsecurethanfor

childrenwhoarefoodsecure.Foodinsecurechildrenalsohavemeansovertwice

thatoffoodsecurechildrenintheirprobabilityofreceivingfreelunchfromschool.I

alsoincludedifferencesinmeanstestsinTable2,andresultsarestatistically

significantatthe1percentlevel,exceptforchildheight,whichissignificantatthe5

percentlevel.

Aresultthatcouldbeunexpectedistheheight,weightandbody-massindex

variables,wherechildrenwhoarefoodinsecurehavehighermeansthanthosewho

arefoodsecure,andthedifferenceisstatisticallysignificant.However,thismaynot

necessarilyindicatethatfoodinsecurechildrenhaveanadvantageovertheirpeers.

AstudybyLevine(2011)showsthatpeoplelivinginpovertymaybemoreproneto

obesitythantherestofthepopulationbecausethoseindividualsaremorelikelyto

liveinplaceswithoutaccesstofreshfood.Forexample,peoplelivinginpoor

countiesmayalsobemorepronetobesedentarybecausetheyaremorelikelyto

liveinplacesthataremoredangerousandlackpublicparksandsportsfacilities,

puttingthematfurtherriskforobesity.

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Table2:DescriptiveStatisticsbyFoodSecurityStatus

FoodSecure(n=15383) FoodInsecure(n=1666)

Diff.inMeans

Mean Std.Dev. Min Max Mean Std.Dev. Min Max

DependentVariables

MathScores 51.37 9.56 18.35 83.72 46.45 9.27 16.05 70.84 4.92***

ReadingScores 50.93 9.61 12.99 86.91 45.84 9.37 12.83 72.69 5.09***

HouseholdFactors

HouseholdSize 4.53 1.34 2 15 4.93 1.79 2 13 -0.4***

ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch 0.40 0.49 0 1 0.87 0.34 0 1 -0.47***

PovertyIndicator 0.19 0.39 0 1 0.59 0.49 0 1 -0.40***

HealthFactors

ChildHealth 0.99 0.04 0 1 0.99 0.06 0 1 0.00***

Height 56.27 6.87 28 76 56.38 6.76 40.25 72.63 -0.11**

Weight 94.52 40.39 20 300 99.26 43.93 31 300 -4.74***

BMI 20.09 5.22 4.91 206.5 20.95 5.63 10.6 50.88 -0.86***

SchoolFactors

FreeorReducedLunchPercentage 36.85 26.67 0 95 50.91 27.89 0 95 -14.06***

Lessthan10%Minority 0.32 0.47 0 1 0.17 0.37 0 1 0.15***

10-25%Minority 0.17 0.37 0 1 0.13 0.34 0 1 0.04***

25-50%Minority 0.18 0.38 0 1 0.16 0.37 0 1 0.02***

50-75%Minority 0.11 0.32 0 1 0.12 0.33 0 1 -0.01***

Over75%Minority 0.22 0.42 0 1 0.42 0.49 0 1 -0.20***

***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1

17

REGRESSIONRESULTS

MyregressionresultsarereportedinTables3and4.4ForTable3,the

dependentvariableisstandardizedreadingscores,andforTable4,thedependent

variableisstandardizedmathscores.Forbothtables,Model(1)isanOLSregression

thatpredictsanestimateoftherawcorrelationbetweentestscoresandfood

insecurity.Model(2)includescontrolvariablesbuthasnostudentortimefixed

effects.Model(3)includesstudentfixedeffects,andModel(4)hasbothstudentand

timefixedeffects.Lastly,Model(5)includesallcontrolvariables,studentandtime

fixedeffects,andexaminestheinteractionbetweenfoodinsecurityandpoverty.

Robuststandarderrorsarereportedinparenthesesunderneathallcoefficients.All

regressionsareweightedusingchilddemographicweightsprovidedbytheECLS-K.

Forbothtables,thecoefficientforfoodinsecurityissignificantatthe5%

levelinmodels(1)and(2),butlosesthissignificanceinsubsequentmodelsonce

studentandtimefixedeffectsareadded.Anexplanationofthisfindingcouldbe

omittedvariablebiasresultingfromtheexclusionoffixedeffectsthathavean

associationwithmykeyindependentanddependentvariables.Forexample,model

(3)presentsalessbiased,moremeaningfulestimatethanmodel(1)becauseit

includesstudentfixedeffects.Withoutthesestudentfixedeffects,model(1)’s

estimateislessmeaningfulbecausewedonotknowwhatkindofarelationship

omittedvariables,suchasrace,willhavewithtestscoresorfoodinsecurity.By

includingstudentfixedeffects,model(3)measurestherelationshipbetweenfood

insecurityandtestscoresholdingsuchindividualfixedeffectsconstant.

4IreportregressionresultswithoutweightsinAppendix2.

18

Theinclusionofstudentfixedeffectsinmodel(3)leadstoalossinstatistical

significanceandreductioninmagnitudeforthecoefficientforfoodinsecurity.This

shiftisexpected,asitisreasonabletobelievefixedstudentcharacteristicssuchas

birthcircumstanceswouldhavestronglinkstobothtestscoresandfoodinsecurity.

Model(4)includestimefixedeffectsandproducestheleastbiasedestimates

becauseitincludesallcontrolsaswellasbothsetsoffixedeffectsvariables,thereby

eliminatinganyomittedvariablebiascausedbytime-invariantcharacteristicsand

time-varyingcharacteristicsthatchangeoveragivenpointintimeforallstudents,

suchasGDPandpoliticalfactors.Theresultsfromthismodelshowthatthereisno

relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandeitherreadingormathtestscores.This

modelproducesthemostplausiblycausalestimateoftherelationshipbetweenfood

insecurityandtestscores,andtheresultshereindicatethatthetwoareunrelated.

Ontheotherhand,demographicfactorssuchasincomeandracehavedemonstrated

astrongandsignificantassociationwithtestscores(Sutton&Soderstrom,1999).It

isthereforepossiblethatastudent’stestscoreswillnotbeaffectedinasignificant

waysolelybyachangeinfoodinsecuritystatus.

Model(5)includesaninteractiontermbetweenfoodinsecurityandpoverty.

Thismodeltestswhetherthereisadifferenceintherelationshipbetweenfood

insecurityandtestscoresdependingonwhetherornotastudentispoor.Neither

thecoefficientforfoodinsecuritynorthecoefficientfortheinteractiontermis

significanthere.Furthermore,anF-testshowsthattheinteractiontermandfood

insecurityarenotjointlysignificant.

19

Tosummarize,myregressionresultsindicatethatthereisnostatistically

significantrelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscores.Theadditionof

studentandtimefixedeffectscontrolledfortime-invariantandtime-varying

characteristicsthataffectedallstudentsinmymodel.However,thesesetsoffixed

effectvariablesalsoreducedthemagnitudeandstatisticalsignificanceofthe

coefficientforfoodinsecurity,mykeyindependentvariable.Theinclusionofan

interactiontermbetweenfoodinsecurityandpovertytestedforhowthe

relationshipbetweenfoodinsecurityandtestscoresdifferedforpoorandnon-poor

students.Mymodelfoundnorelationshipforeitherofmypoorornon-poor

subsamples.

20

Table3.RegressionResultsforStandardizedReadingScoresVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.953*** -1.045*** 0.029 -0.035 -0.039 (0.386) (0.387) (0.334) (0.334) (0.416)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.248*** 0.285** 0.288** 0.288** (0.082) (0.115) (0.114) (0.114)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -4.318*** -0.111 -0.141 -0.141 (0.299) (0.328) (0.330) (0.331)PovertyIndicator -3.501*** 0.506* 0.521* 0.520* (0.329) (0.269) (0.269) (0.290)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator 0.006 (0.540)HealthFactors ChildHealth 8.100*** 2.548 2.662 2.661 (1.679) (1.639) (1.695) (1.697)Height -0.000 -0.129*** -0.059 -0.059 (0.045) (0.040) (0.074) (0.074)Weight -0.005 0.016 0.014 0.014 (0.013) (0.011) (0.012) (0.012)BMI -0.027 -0.088* -0.073 -0.073 (0.065) (0.053) (0.059) (0.059)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.0400*** 0.008 0.007 0.007 (0.006) (0.006) (0.006) (0.006)10-25%Minority 0.386 -1.112*** -1.080** -1.080** (0.374) (0.430) (0.429) (0.429)25-50%Minority 0.558 -0.564 -0.583 -0.583 (0.365) (0.475) (0.471) (0.471)50-75%Minority -0.367 -0.602 -0.563 -0.563 (0.404) (0.622) (0.617) (0.617)Over75%Minority -0.766* -1.178* -1.169* -1.169* (0.419) (0.707) (0.697) (0.697)Constant 50.09*** 48.58*** 53.57*** 50.26*** 50.26*** (0.138) (3.005) (2.655) (4.037) (4.042) Observations 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049R-squared 0.025 0.199 0.024 0.028 0.028N 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.01 (0.994)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1

21

Table4.RegressionResultsforStandardizedMathScoresVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.649*** -0.920** -0.096 -0.117 0.032 (0.373) (0.382) (0.278) (0.279) (0.390)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.026 0.192 0.191 0.189 (0.079) (0.118) (0.118) (0.118)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -4.146*** 0.128 0.110 0.105 (0.302) (0.318) (0.317) (0.317)PovertyIndicator -3.095*** 0.052 0.056 0.104 (0.316) (0.288) (0.287) (0.297)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator -0.262 (0.532)HealthFactors ChildHealth 4.970*** -0.357 -0.357 -0.347 (1.681) (1.823) (1.807) (1.822)Height 0.128*** -0.010 0.084 0.085 (0.048) (0.039) (0.068) (0.068)Weight -0.026** -0.011 -0.014 -0.014 (0.013) (0.0099) (0.011) (0.011)BMI 0.020 0.013 0.043 0.044 (0.066) (0.048) (0.054) (0.054)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.047*** -0.004 -0.004 -0.004 (0.006) (0.005) (0.005) (0.005)10-25%Minority 0.600* 0.215 0.224 0.221 (0.358) (0.401) (0.402) (0.401)25-50%Minority 0.482 0.325 0.326 0.325 (0.367) (0.449) (0.451) (0.451)50-75%Minority -0.252 0.541 0.582 0.580 (0.393) (0.501) (0.502) (0.502)Over75%Minority -0.688* 0.354 0.391 0.391 (0.407) (0.636) (0.630) (0.630)Constant 50.50*** 44.94*** 50.62*** 46.08*** 46.02*** (0.136) (3.091) (2.665) (3.702) (3.708) Observations 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049 17,049R-squared 0.022 0.190 0.012 0.014 0.014N 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570 6,570StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.19 (0.825)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1

22

DISCUSSION

Inthispaper,Iexploredtherelationshipbetweenastudent’shouseholdfood

insecuritystatusandhisorheracademicachievement.Asdiscussedearlier,school

mealprogramshavebeeninplacesincethemiddleofthelastcenturyinorderto

improvechildren’snutritionalintake,whichcanhavelong-termbenefitsfortheir

physicalandcognitivedevelopment(Bickeletal.,2000).Thepresentstudywas

intendedtohelpinassessingtheefficacyofsuchprogramsinaddressingthe

achievementgapbetweenchildrenfromfoodsecureandfoodinsecurehouseholds.

Myresultsshowedthatthereisnoevidenceofarelationshipbetweenfood

insecuritystatusandtestscores.

Thisisincontrasttopreviousstudies,discussedinmyLiteratureReview,

whichfoundthatfoodinsecurityhadanegativeandsignificantassociationwith

students’testscoresoracademicgains.Oneexplanationforthisdifferenceisthat

mostofthesestudiesdidnotincludestudentandtimefixedeffects.Inclusionof

fixedeffectsreducestheextentofthebiasinmyestimates.

Mystudyalsofacedsomelimitations.ThenumberofroundsofECLS-Kdata

thatIwasabletoutilizewaslimitedbecauseinformationonthefoodsecuritystatus

ofthestudents’householdswasonlysoughtonfourrounds.Iwaslimitedtousing

controlvariablesforwhichinformationwasavailableforthoseparticularrounds;

whichistosaythatIwaspreventedfromcontrollingforsomefactorsthatcouldbe

associatedwithmydependentandkeyindependentvariables.

Atime-varyingcharacteristicwhoseomissionmayhavebiasedmyestimates

isproximitytosocialservicesavailableinthecommunity.Proximitytosocial

23

serviceproviderssuchashealthclinicsandfoodbankscouldbepositively

associatedwithtestscoresandnegativelyassociatedwithfoodinsecurity,meaning

thattheomissionofthisvariablecouldhavedownwardlybiasedmyestimates.

Thus,theomissionofthisvariablemayhavecausedmetooverestimatemy

relationshipofinterest.Inotherwords,therelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity

andacademicachievementmaybeevenweaker(meaningthecoefficientiscloserto

zero)thansuggestedbymyresults.

AnothervariablethatIwasunabletocontrolforwasparentalmaritalstatus.

Fixedeffectsdonotcontrolforchangesinthemaritalstatusofastudent’sparents.

Livinginatwo-parenthouseholdislikelytooffergreaterstabilityandisgenerally

associatedwithmorepositiveoutcomesforthechild,suchashavingagreater

chanceofstayinginandfinishingschoolandhavingahigherGPA,comparedto

otherparentalstructures(ManningandLamb,2003).Therefore,studentsliving

withsingleparentsmightbeexpectedtohavelowertestscores.Generallyspeaking,

single-parenthouseholdsarealsomorelikelytobeeconomicallyinsecurethantwo-

parenthouseholds(AcsandNelson,2003).Asitisplausiblethatfinanciallyunstable

householdsaremorelikelytobefoodinsecure,therecouldbeapositiveassociation

betweenfoodinsecurityandbeinginasingle-parenthousehold.Thus,theomission

ofthisvariablemayhavedownwardlybiasedmycoefficient,makingitlargerin

magnitudethanitshouldbe.Inotherwords,althoughmostofmymodelsyielded

negativeandsmallestimatesformycoefficientofinterest,infacttherelationship

betweenfoodinsecurityandtestscoresmaybeevensmaller(negativebutsmaller

inmagnitude)thanpredictedinmymodels.

24

Althoughmystudyfoundnoevidenceofarelationshipbetweenfood

insecurityandstudenttestscores,itidentifiedpotentialopportunitiesforfuture

research.Forexample,Jyotietal.(2005)usedinformationfromkindergartenand

thirdgradeintheECLS-Ktodeveloplaggedmodelsthatrelatedfoodinsecurityfrom

anearlierroundtogainsintestscoresinsubsequentrounds.Futureresearchcould

uselaggedmodelsbyexploitinginformationfromkindergartenandthird,fifthand

eightgradestolookatevenlonger-termconsequencesoffoodinsecurityfor

students’academicgains.

Whilemystudyfoundnoconsequentialrelationshipbetweenfoodinsecurity

andacademicachievement,itstillofferssomelessonsforpolicymakers.Asnoted

previously,academicachievementisdependentuponacomplexnetworkoffactors,

andachangeinonefactoraloneisunlikelytochangeastudent’stestscoresina

significantway.Foodinsecurityisjustasymptomofavastnetofunderlyingcauses.

Therefore,weshouldnotpresumethatapolicythatchangesfoodsecuritystatus

withoutchangingothermeasuresofdisadvantagewouldbesufficientinclosingthe

achievementgap.

25

APPENDIXAppendix1.CoreFoodSecurityModule

Source:HouseholdFoodSecurityintheUnitedStatesin2013(Coleman-Jensen,etal.2013)

1. “We worried whether our food would run out before we got money to buy more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

2. “The food that we bought just didn’t last and we didn’t have money to get more.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

3. “We couldn’t afford to eat balanced meals.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months? 4. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in the household ever cut the size of your meals or skip meals because there

wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 5. (If yes to question 4) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in only 1 or

2 months? 6. In the last 12 months, did you ever eat less than you felt you should because there wasn’t enough money for food?

(Yes/No) 7. In the last 12 months, were you ever hungry, but didn’t eat, because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 8. In the last 12 months, did you lose weight because there wasn’t enough money for food? (Yes/No) 9. In the last 12 months, did you or other adults in your household ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough

money for food? (Yes/No) 10. (If yes to question 9) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in

only 1 or 2 months? (Questions 11-18 were asked only if the household included children age 0-17) 11. “We relied on only a few kinds of low-cost food to feed our children because we were running out of money to buy

food.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

12. “We couldn’t feed our children a balanced meal, because we couldn’t afford that.” Was that often, sometimes, or never true for you in the last 12 months?

13. “The children were not eating enough because we just couldn’t afford enough food.” Was that often, sometimes, or

never true for you in the last 12 months? 14. In the last 12 months, did you ever cut the size of any of the children’s meals because there wasn’t enough money

for food? (Yes/No) 15. In the last 12 months, were the children ever hungry but you just couldn’t afford more food? (Yes/No) 16. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever skip a meal because there wasn’t enough money for food?

(Yes/No) 17. (If yes to question 16) How often did this happen—almost every month, some months but not every month, or in

only 1 or 2 months? 18. In the last 12 months, did any of the children ever not eat for a whole day because there wasn’t enough money for

food? (Yes/No)

26

Appendix2.RegressionResultsforStandardizedReadingScoreswithoutWeightsVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.626*** -0.925*** -0.193 -0.234 -0.380 (0.194) (0.194) (0.184) (0.184) (0.258)HouseholdFactors HouseholdSize -0.347*** 0.110* 0.113* 0.113* (0.039) (0.067) (0.066) (0.066)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -3.721*** -0.120 -0.131 -0.126 (0.147) (0.175) (0.176) (0.176)PovertyIndicator -2.970*** 0.063 0.073 0.027 (0.161) (0.164) (0.164) (0.175)FoodInsecurity*PovertyIndicator 0.262 (0.331)HealthFactors ChildHealth 5.405*** 1.046 0.991 0.987 (1.430) (1.329) (1.337) (1.335)Height 0.069*** -0.047** 0.044 0.043 (0.023) (0.022) (0.042) (0.042)Weight -0.009 0.003 -0.002 -0.002 (0.006) (0.005) (0.006) (0.006)BMI -0.049* -0.036 -0.006 -0.006 (0.029) (0.023) (0.023) (0.023)SchoolFactors FreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.037*** 0.008** 0.007** 0.007** (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)10-25%Minority 0.553*** 0.327 0.348 0.349 (0.174) (0.217) (0.218) (0.218)25-50%Minority 0.178 0.378 0.378 0.380 (0.172) (0.263) (0.264) (0.263)50-75%Minority -0.323 0.578* 0.599* 0.599* (0.202) (0.326) (0.327) (0.327)Over75%Minority -1.317*** 0.344 0.345 0.346 (0.201) (0.367) (0.367) (0.367)Constant 50.12*** 48.35*** 50.61*** 46.36*** 46.39*** (0.065) (1.868) (1.730) (2.461) (2.461) Observations 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936R-squared 0.021 0.181 0.006 0.008 0.008N 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 1.14 (0.319)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1

27

Appendix3.RegressionResultsforStandardizedMathScoreswithoutWeightsVariable (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) FoodInsecure -4.577*** -1.047*** -0.157 -0.196 -0.251 (0.190) (0.193) (0.150) (0.150) (0.219)HouseholdFactorsHouseholdSize -0.067* 0.071 0.078 0.078 (0.040) (0.060) (0.060) (0.060)ReceivesFreeorReducedLunch -3.704*** -0.088 -0.090 -0.088 (0.150) (0.156) (0.156) (0.156)PovertyIndicator -2.770*** 0.250* 0.266* 0.249* (0.160) (0.143) (0.142) (0.149)FoodInsecure*PovertyIndicator 0.099 (0.295)HealthFactors ChildHealth 4.268*** -1.034 -1.064 -1.065 (1.329) (1.184) (1.181) (1.180)Height 0.141*** -0.013 0.026 0.026 (0.023) (0.019) (0.036) (0.036)Weight -0.021*** -0.005 -0.011** -0.011** (0.006) (0.004) (0.004) (0.004)BMI -0.005 -0.015 0.011 0.011 (0.031) (0.018) (0.020) (0.020)SchoolFactorsFreeorReducedLunchPercentage -0.041*** 0.002 0.002 0.002 (0.003) (0.003) (0.003) (0.003)10-25%Minority 0.479*** 0.092 0.097 0.098 (0.176) (0.186) (0.187) (0.187)25-50%Minority 0.273 0.021 -0.006 -0.006 (0.173) (0.222) (0.222) (0.222)50-75%Minority -0.186 0.114 0.0975 0.0974 (0.203) (0.272) (0.273) (0.273)Over75%Minority -1.068*** 0.088 0.075 0.076 (0.199) (0.316) (0.316) (0.316)Constant 50.50*** 44.81*** 52.00*** 50.28*** 50.29*** (0.065) (1.818) (1.508) (2.104) (2.106) Observations 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936 24,936R-squared 0.021 0.170 0.006 0.008 0.008N 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762 11,762StudentFE NO NO YES YES YESYearFE NO NO NO YES YESFStatisticsandp-valueforjointhypothesis FoodInsecurityandPoverty 0.93 (0.0396)Robuststandarderrorsinparentheses***p<0.01,**p<0.05,*p<0.1

28

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