the psychology of design colleen seifert department of psychology [email protected]
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The Psychology of DesignThe Psychology of Design
Colleen SeifertColleen Seifert
Department of PsychologyDepartment of Psychology
[email protected]@umich.edu
Challenges for Psychology:Challenges for Psychology:
What are the cognitive processes in design?What are the cognitive processes in design?
What strategies lead to creative design?What strategies lead to creative design?
What do we wish we could know, and how What do we wish we could know, and how can we find answers?can we find answers?
Common Ground?Common Ground? Psychologist: Why don’t you employ psychologists?Psychologist: Why don’t you employ psychologists? Nuclear Power Plant Manager: What do you mean? Should Nuclear Power Plant Manager: What do you mean? Should
we set up couches for psychotherapeutic sessions?we set up couches for psychotherapeutic sessions? Who designs, constructs, and maintains your installation?Who designs, constructs, and maintains your installation? Engineers.Engineers. Who runs your installation?Who runs your installation? Engineers.Engineers. Are these engineers human people?Are these engineers human people? Of course, what else?Of course, what else? Do you think that humans can make mistakes?Do you think that humans can make mistakes? Of course every person makes mistakes.Of course every person makes mistakes. Is it possible that engineers make mistakes, too?Is it possible that engineers make mistakes, too? … … extended silence….extended silence….
Psychological SciencePsychological Science
1920-1950, .002% of publications were devoted to 1920-1950, .002% of publications were devoted to creativitycreativity
1980s: .01% of Psychological Abstracts involved 1980s: .01% of Psychological Abstracts involved creativitycreativity
1960-1991: 9000 total works included creativity1960-1991: 9000 total works included creativity 2005: First article with “Psychology and design“2005: First article with “Psychology and design“
““Experience shows that, in its beginnings, Experience shows that, in its beginnings, design is very often exclusively technology design is very often exclusively technology driven. Human-centered perspectives are driven. Human-centered perspectives are usually called upon only at later design usually called upon only at later design stages where many constraints are already stages where many constraints are already set.” (Wilpert, 2005)set.” (Wilpert, 2005)
“Error” Approach“Error” Approach
The Psychology of Everyday ThingsThe Psychology of Everyday Things
Mismatch of designer and user conceptual Mismatch of designer and user conceptual modelsmodels
““affordances” (Gibson, 1977)affordances” (Gibson, 1977)
Working backwards from errorWorking backwards from error
(Norman, 1988)(Norman, 1988)
General ApproachGeneral Approach
(Amabile, 1983)(Amabile, 1983) Three components to creativity:Three components to creativity:
Domain relevant skillsDomain relevant skillsCreativity relevant skills (heuristics)Creativity relevant skills (heuristics)MotivationMotivation
FreedomFreedom AutonomyAutonomy Good role modelsGood role models Resources (Time)Resources (Time) Encouragement of originalityEncouragement of originality Freedom from criticismFreedom from criticism Innovation norms and no fatal failuresInnovation norms and no fatal failures(Witt & Beorkrem, 1989, pp. 31-32).(Witt & Beorkrem, 1989, pp. 31-32).
“Situated” Approach“Situated” Approach
(Sternberg & Lubart, 1995). need a confluence of six resources:
intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment.
all six resources are related to judged creativity of products (e.g., very short stories, art works, advertisements, novel scientific solutions)
Correlational ApproachCorrelational Approach
Perspectives on Design SystemsPerspectives on Design Systems
Cognitive ApproachCognitive Approach
““The most fundamental issue for any design The most fundamental issue for any design is to pursue a strategy that guarantees that is to pursue a strategy that guarantees that the final design product matches user the final design product matches user expectations in terms of the product’s expectations in terms of the product’s usability, functionality, safety, and requisite usability, functionality, safety, and requisite user competencies.” (Wilpert, 2005).user competencies.” (Wilpert, 2005).
Design TasksDesign Tasks
Planning a vacationPlanning a vacation Infrastructure and city planningInfrastructure and city planning Architectural designArchitectural design Design of everyday productsDesign of everyday products Interior designInterior design ??????
Creative DesignCreative Design
What is creativity?What is creativity? overt behaviorovert behavior both “original” and “appropriate”both “original” and “appropriate” based on valuesbased on values
(originality, independence, parsimony, (originality, independence, parsimony, consistency, generality)consistency, generality)
"something that breaks existing patterns”"something that breaks existing patterns”(Runco, 2004)(Runco, 2004)
Measuring “Creative”Measuring “Creative”
Creativity as judged by independent, Creativity as judged by independent, competent evaluators (domain experts) competent evaluators (domain experts) Amabile, 1983)Amabile, 1983)
Cross-cultural similarities (Chen et al., Cross-cultural similarities (Chen et al., 2002).2002).
Consensual judgmentsConsensual judgments
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design
Problem solving approach (Wertheimer, 1945) Problem solving approach (Wertheimer, 1945)
problem space: problem space: rules, constraintsrules, constraints““affordances” affordances” (Gibson, 1977)(Gibson, 1977)restructuring and restructuring and insightinsight
Using only three straight cuts with a knife, divide a Using only three straight cuts with a knife, divide a round cake into eight equal pieces.round cake into eight equal pieces.
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in DesignOriginal ideas are remote, Original ideas are remote,
well-removed from the well-removed from the problem or ideaproblem or idea
Creativity involves Creativity involves tendency to tendency to “overinclusive “overinclusive thinking”thinking”
(Eysenck, 1999)(Eysenck, 1999)
Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962)Remote Associates Test (Mednick, 1962)
Find a fourth word which is related to all threeCookies Sixteen Heart
Surprise Line Birthday
Base Snow Dance
Blue Sharp Mouse
Flat associative hierarchy is more flexible, makes options accessible that are otherwise not
Divergent thinking tests (Guilford, 1968)Divergent thinking tests (Guilford, 1968) FluencyFluency OriginalityOriginality FlexibilityFlexibility Open-endedOpen-ended
How might the problems of migrant foreign workers be How might the problems of migrant foreign workers be solved?solved?
Unusual Uses Test: Think of as many Unusual Uses Test: Think of as many differendifferent ways as t ways as possible to use a brick.possible to use a brick.
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design “Under searching” is related to poor problem
solving (Perkins et al., 1991; Pyszczynski and Perkins et al., 1991; Pyszczynski and Greenberg, 1991)Greenberg, 1991)
Brainstorming (Osborn, 1957)Brainstorming (Osborn, 1957) Postpone judgment: Postpone judgment: ban criticism, defer
closure Focus on quantity, not quality: Focus on quantity, not quality: stress fluent
production Hitchhike or piggyback: Hitchhike or piggyback: encourage add ons
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design
Productivity Loss (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987)Productivity Loss (Diehl & Stroebe, 1987)
4 people working alone always beat 4 working together!4 people working alone always beat 4 working together!
Free riding Is individual’s work identifiable?Free riding Is individual’s work identifiable?
Evaluation apprehension Is evaluation likely?Evaluation apprehension Is evaluation likely?
Production blocking Is turn-taking interfering?Production blocking Is turn-taking interfering?
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design
Problem FindingProblem Finding(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1971)(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1971)""discovery-oriented" behaviordiscovery-oriented" behavior spend more time exploring approaches before
settling on one ready to change if new approach suggested not viewing a work as fixed strong correlation between p.f. and professional
success
Cognitive Processes in DesignCognitive Processes in Design
Problem solving orientationProblem solving orientation
Over-inclusive thinkingOver-inclusive thinking
Divergent thinkingDivergent thinking
Extensive searchExtensive search
Problem findingProblem finding
Problem orientation: Problem orientation: Adopt set-breaking
Over-inclusive thinking: Over-inclusive thinking: Use analogiesUse analogies
Divergent thinking: Divergent thinking: Downrate precedents
Extensive search: Extensive search: BrainstormBrainstorm
Problem finding: Problem finding: Fend off closureFend off closure
Cognitive Strategies in DesignCognitive Strategies in Design
QuestionsQuestions
Are these theories of cognitive processes Are these theories of cognitive processes viable in real design tasks?viable in real design tasks?
Can the use of “creative design strategies” Can the use of “creative design strategies” result in better designs?result in better designs?
What do designers and engineers think What do designers and engineers think about cognitive processes?about cognitive processes?
??????
Design is a human activity “where the physical Design is a human activity “where the physical artifact or a part of it, which is under design, is not artifact or a part of it, which is under design, is not currently existent, but is believed to be so in the currently existent, but is believed to be so in the future.” (Pohjola, 2003, p. 181)future.” (Pohjola, 2003, p. 181)
DefinitionDefinition