The Psychology of Adolescence

• Turmoil and adjustment

• Separation and connection

• Ethnic identity and acculturation

Adolescence

• The physiology of adolescence

• The psychology of adolescence

The Physiology of Adolescence

• Adolescence– The period of life from puberty to

adulthood (ages 12-20).• Puberty

– The age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

• Menarche– A girl’s first menstrual period.

Timing of Puberty• Puberty is the average age at which

reproductive systems mature

• Girls enter puberty about two years before boys

• Preceded by growth spurts

• Hormones trigger development of secondary sexual characteristics, physical features that differentiate the sexes

• Onset of puberty depends on genetic and environmental factors.

• For example, body fat triggers the hormonal changes.

Cognitive Development

• Most adolescents are in Piaget’s “formal operational stage” and can think abstractly and form hypotheses

• Imaginary audience is a cognitive distortion in which adolescents see themselves “on stage”

• Personal fable is a cognitive distortion in which adolescents believe they are so special that others cannot understand them

Emotional and Social Development

• Early patterns of adjustment manifest themselves as years passed

• Parents and peers are important influences on self-esteem and personality

• Adolescents’ attitudes fall somewhere between those of their parents and peers

Gender Development

• Defining gender identity and gender typing.

• Influences on gender development.

Sex vs gender

• Biological determinant is sex (physiology)

• Gender is a social construction which may differ across groups/ time

Gender Identity and Gender Typing

• Gender Identity– The fundamental sense of being male or

female; it is independent of whether the person conforms to social and cultural rules of gender.

• Gender Typing– Process by which children learn the abilities,

interests, personality traits, and behaviours associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture.

The Search for Gender Identity

• During adolescence, gender intensification may take place

• This is becoming extreme in one’s orientation toward maleness and femaleness

Influences on Gender Development

• Biological factors– Biological researchers believe that early play and toy

preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones, genes, or brain organization.

• Cognitive factors– Cognitive psychologists suggest that toy preferences

are based on gender schemas or the mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

• Learning factors– Gender appropriate play may be reinforced by parents,

teachers, and peers.

Gender Schema Theory

• Gender schema theory asserts children and adolescents use their sex as an organizing theme to classify and interpret perceptions

• Children develop shorthand concepts of what boys and girls are like

• Adolescent self-esteem is tied to these gender-based perceptions

Turmoil and Adjustment

• Extreme turmoil and problems with adjustment are the exception rather than the rule.

• Three kinds of problems are more likely– Conflict with parents.– Mood swings and depression.– Higher rates of rule breaking and risky

behavior.

Separation and Connection

• Adolescents are trying to separate from parents but remain connected.

• Individuation– The process of developing own opinions, values, and

styles of dress and look.

• Quarrels with parents represent a shift from one-sided parental authority to a more reciprocal adult relationship.

Friendship

• Children and adolescents who have friends tend to be more socially competent

• Friendship sets the stage for adult intimacy

• When friendships fall apart, a child’s self-confidence is undermined

Friendship

• In adulthood, friendships between women differ from those between men

• In adulthood, women talk about family, personal matters, and doubts and fears more than men

• Men talk about sports and work more

• Women find friendships more satisfying

Sexual Behaviour in Adolescence

• Adolescents view sexual intimacy as an important and normal part of growing up

• Adolescents are having sexual experiences at younger ages

Ethnic Identity and Acculturation

• An important task of adolescence is identity development.– Especially important in ethnically diverse societies is

finding a balance between ethnic identity, a close identification with one’s religious or ethnic group, and

– acculturation, an identification with the dominant culture.

• Bicultural, assimilation, separatist, marginal

Adulthood

• Stages and ages

• The transitions of life

• Old age

Adulthood Physical Changes

• From 30 to 40 there is some loss of agility and speed

• Between 40 and 60, there is even greater loss

• In general, overall fitness deteriorates gradually from age 30 on

Why gerontology is so important…

• Because of longer life expectancies and life spans, the average age of the population in developed countries is higher than underdeveloped countries, and will continue to rise.

The Transitions of Life

• Emerging Adulthood (18-25)– Phase of life distinctly different from

adolescence and adulthood.– In some ways an adult, in some ways not.

• The Middle Years (35-65)– Perceived by many experiencing it as the

prime of life.– Menopause:

• The cessation of menstruation and the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years.

Erikson’s Eight Stages - I

• Trust vs. Mistrust– Infancy (0-1 year)

• Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt– Toddler (1-2 years)

• Initiative vs. Guilt– Preschool (3-5 years)

• Industry vs. Inferiority– Elementary School (6-12 years)

Erikson’s Eight Stages - II

• Identity vs. Role confusion– Adolescence (13-19 years)

• Intimacy vs. Isolation– Young adulthood (20-40 years)

• Generativity vs. Stagnation– Middle adulthood (40-65 years)

• Integrity vs. Despair– Late adulthood (65 and older)

Levinson’s Life Structures

• Levinson divides life into four stages he calls “eras:” adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood

• During adolescence (age 4 – 17) people enter the adult world, but are still immature and vulnerable

Levinson’s Life Structures

• During early adulthood (18 – 45) the first major life choices are made

• At the end of early adulthood, a midlife crisis occurs caused by the realization that one’s life is half over

Levinson’s Life Structures

• The third era is middle adulthood (ages 46 to 65)

• By this point in life, career and family are well established

• People feel satisfaction and self-worth, or sense much of life has been wasted

Levinson’s Life Structures

• The final era is late adulthood (age 65 on)

• Many people relax, enjoying the fruits of their labor

• Children and grandchildren become the focus of attention

Cognitive Changes

• Up to age 65, there is little decline in learning or memory

• Some age-related cognitive decrements do occur, especially after 65

Late Adulthood: Growing Older

• About 13% of the Canadian population is 65 years of age or older

• The proportion of elderly is expected to increase 18% by year 2021

Ageism

• Ageism is prejudice against the elderly, and the discrimination it leads to

• People seen through positive stereotypes are less likely to suffer discrimination

Health in Late Adulthood

• Many elderly lead healthy lives

• However, aging adults face many possible health changes

• Dementias are progressive impairment of mental functioning

Health in Late Adulthood

• Reversible dementias can be caused by malnutrition, alcoholism, and toxins, and usually affect younger people

• Multiple infarct dementia, usually caused by one or two small strokes, and Alzheimer’s disease are forms of irreversible dementia

Health in Late Adulthood

• Alzheimer’s disease involves memory loss, language deterioration, poor visual/spatial skills, and an indifferent attitude

Theories about aging

• Disengagement Theory– Older persons make a normal and healthy

adjustment to aging when they detach themselves from their social roles and prepare for their eventual death.

– Disengagement is functional to society.

Theories…/2• Activity theory

– People tend to shift gears in late middle age and find substitutes for previous roles and activities.

– Older people have same social & psychological needs & do not want to withdraw

– Activity is directly related to longevity, happiness & health.

• Conflict Perspective – Aging is problematic– As people age, power diminishes unless wealth is

maintained.– If disadvantaged in younger years, more so in older

years

Theories of Aging: Heredity

• One heredity theory of aging is based on the study of apoptosis, the process by which cells kill themselves

• Telomeres are end segments of DNA

• Cells grow older each time they divide because the telomeres shorten

• Cessation of telomere division may be a possible explanation of aging

Theories of Aging: External Factors

• Lifestyle factors affect how long a person will live

• It is reasonable to assume external factors such as disease, smoking, and obesity may affect a person’s lifespan

Theories of Aging: Physiology

• Physiological theories rely on both hereditary and environmental factors

• Wear-and-Tear theory assumes the body simply wears-out from overuse

• Homeostatic theory assumes the body’s ability to adjust to stress decreases with age

Alzheimer’s and other Dementias

• Prevalence/ Incidence in Canada and the world.

• Same risk factors as cardio-vascular disease.

• The importance of anti-oxidants. (i.e. red wine, real vitamin E, ginko biloba, etc.)

CSHA• The Canadian Study of Health and

Aging is a study of the epidemiology of dementia in Canada. It has followed over 10,000 elderly Canadians over a ten-year period from 1991 to 2001 and has collected a wide range of information on their changing health status over that time.

AD Symptoms• Global dysfunction at the behavioral level:

– memory impairment, – thinking and judgment impairment, – poverty of associations, – paranoid delusions (in half of the patients), – sometimes slow, sometimes rapid deterioration,

always fatal. • Etiology unknown; some forms due to genetic risk.

Alzheimer’s disease risk factors

• APOE-4 status

• Cardiovascular risk factors

• AGE (theory states that, if people lived long enough, everyone would eventually develop AD)

Death and Dying

• People’s overall health deteriorates with age

• Some individuals experience the terminal drop, rapid drop in intellectual functioning the year before death

• Thanatology is the study of the psychological and medical aspects of death and dying

• “Life is not a journey to the grave with the intention of arriving safely in a pretty and well-preserved body, but rather to skid in broadside, thoroughly used up, totally worn out and loudly proclaiming, 'Wow, what a ride!‘”