THE LIBRARYOF

THE UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIALOS ANGELES

zrj^smhin

Plate I. YOUNG KAYAN CHIEF WITH MIDDLE-CLASS COMPANION.

THE PAGAN TRIBESOF BORNEO

A DESCRIPTION OF THEIR PHYSICALMORAL AND INTELLECTUAL CONDITION

WITH SOME DISCUSSION OF THEIRETHNIC RELATIONS

BY

CHARLES HOSE, D.Sc.FORMERLY DIVISIONAL RESIDENT AND MEMBER OF THE SUPREME COUNCIL OF SARAWAK

AUTHOR OF ' A DESCRIPTIVE ACCOUNT OF THE MAMMALS OF BORNEO '

AND

WILLIAM McDOUGALL, M.B., F.R.S.FELLOW OF CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE

AND READER IN MENTAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

WITH AN APPENDIX ON THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERSOF THE RACES OF BORNEO

BY

A. C. HADDON, D.Sc, F.R.S.

IN TWO VOLUMESVOL. I

MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITEDST. MARTIN'S STREET, LONDON

191 2

COPYRIGHT

I \l

PREFACEIn writing this book we have aimed at presentinga clear picture of the pagan tribes of Borneo as theyexisted at the close of the nineteenth century. Wehave not attempted to embody in it the observa-tions recorded by other writers, although we haveprofited by them and have been guided and aidedby them in making our own observations. Wehave rather been content to put on record as muchinformation as we have been able to obtain at firsthand, both by direct observation of the people andof their possessions, customs, and manners, and bymeans of innumerable conversations with men andwomen of many tribes.

The reader has a right to be informed as to thenature of the opportunities we have enjoyed forcollecting our material, and we therefore make thefollowing personal statement. One of us (C. H.)has spent twenty-four years as a Civil Officer in theservice of the Rajah of Sarawak ; and of this timetwenty-one years were spent actually in Sarawak,while periods of some months were spent from timeto time in visiting neighbouring landsCelebes,Sulu Islands, Ternate, Malay Peninsula, BritishNorth Borneo, and Dutch Borneo. Of the twenty-one years spent in Sarawak, about eighteen werepassed in the Baram district, and the remaindermostly in the Rejang district. In both thesedistricts, but especially in the Baram, settlementsand representatives of nearly all the principal

/IQ-I cr^Q

vi PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEOpeoples are to be found ; and the nature of hisduties as Resident Magistrate necessitated a constantand intimate intercourse with all the tribes of thedistricts, and many long and leisurely journeys intothe far interior, often into regions which had notpreviously been explored. Such journeys, duringwhich the tribesmen are the magistrate's only com-panions for many weeks or months, and duringwhich his nights and many of his days are spent inthe houses of the people, afford unequalled oppor-tunities for obtaining intimate knowledge of themand their ways. These opportunities have notbeen neglected ; notes have been written, specialquestions followed up, photographs taken, andsketches made, throughout all this period.

In the years 1898-9 the second collaborator(W. McD.) spent the greater part of a year in theBaram district as a member of the CambridgeAnthropological Expedition, which, under theleadership of Dr. A. C. Haddon, went out to theTorres Straits in the year 1897. During this visitwe co-operated in collecting material for a joint-paper on the animal cults of Sarawak ; ^ and thisco-operation, having proved itself profitable, sug-gested to us an extension of our joint program tothe form of a book embodying all the informationalready to hand and whatever additional informationmight be obtainable during the years that one of uswas still to spend in Borneo. The book thereforemay be said to have been begun in the year 1898and to have been in progress since that time ; butit has been put into shape only during the last fewyears, when we have been able to come togetherfor the actual writing of it.

During the year 1899 Dr. A. C. Haddon spentsome months in the Baram district, together withother members of the Cambridge Expedition (Drs.

^ Published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xxxi.

PREFACE viiC. G. Seligmann, C. S. Myers, and Mr. S. Ray); andwe wish to express our obligation to him for thefriendly encouragement in, and stimulating exampleof, anthropological field work which he afforded usduring that time, as well as for later encouragementand help which he has given us, especially in readingthe proofs of the book and in making many helpfulsuggestions. We are indebted to him also for theAppendix to this book, in which he has stated anddiscussed the results of the extensive series of phy-sical measurements of the natives that he made,with our assistance, during his visit to Sarawak.We have pleasure in expressing here our thanks

to several other gentlemen to whom we are indebtedfor help of various kindsfor permission to repro-duce several photographs, to Dr. A. W. Nieuwen-huis, the intrepid explorer of the interior of DutchBorneo, who in his two fine volumes [Quer durchBorneo) has embodied the observations recordedduring two long journeys in the interior ; to Mr.H. Ling Roth for the gift of the blocks used in thepreparation of his well-known work. The Natives ojSarawak and British North Borneo, many of whichwe have made use of; to Dr. W. H. Furness,author of The Home Life of Borneo Head-Htinters(1902), for several photographic plates made by himduring his visits to the Baram in the years 1897and 1898 ; to Drs. C. G. Seligmann and C. S. Myersfor permission to reproduce several photographs

;

to Mr. R. Shelford, formerly Curator of the SarawakMuseum, for his permission to incorporate a largepart of a paper published jointly with one of us(C. H.) on tatu in Borneo, and for measurements ofLand Dayaks made by him ; to Mr. R. S. Douglas,formerly Assistant Officer in the Baram district andnow Resident of the Fourth Division of Sarawak, forpractical help genially afforded on many occasions.

Finally, it is our agreeable duty to acknowledge

viii PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEOour obligation to H.H. the Rajah of Sarawak,who welcomed to his country the members of theCambridge Anthropological Expedition, and withoutwhose enlightened encouragement of scientific workon the part of his officers this book would neverhave been written.

C. H.

W. McD.July 1912.

SUPPLEMENTARY PREFACE BY ONEOF THE AUTHORS

I FEEL that it is necessary to supplement ourjoint-preface with some few words of apology for,and explanation of, the appearance of my name onthe title - page of this book. For the book isessentially an attempt to set forth in condensedform the mass of knowledge of the tribes of Borneoacquired by Dr. Hose in the course of a quarter ofa century's intimate study of, and sympathetic com-panionship with, the people of the interior. Myown part in its production has been merely that ofa midwife, though I may perhaps claim to havehelped in the washing and dressing of the infant aswell as in its delivery, and even to have offeredsome useful advice during the long years ofpregnancy. And, since it is more difficult to presenta brief and popular account of any complex subjectthe more intimate is one's knowledge of it, I mayfairly hope that my superficial acquaintance withthe pagan tribes of Borneo has been a useful allyto Dr. Hose's profound and extensive knowledge ofthem ; I have therefore gladly accepted my friend'sgenerous invitation to place my name beside his asjoint-author of this work.

W. McD.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I

CHAPTER IPAGE

Geography of Borneo ..... i

CHAPTER IIHistory of Borneo . . . . .8

CHAPTER IIIGeneral Sketch of the Peoples of Borneo . . 28

CHAPTER IVMaterial Conditions of the Pagan Tribes of Borneo 43

CHAPTER VThe Social System . . . . -63

CHAPTER VIAgriculture . . . . . -97

CHAPTER VIIThe Daily Life of a Kayan Long House . .116

X PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO

CHAPTER VIIIT PAGELife on the Rivers

..

. ^ .131

CHAPTER IXLife in the Jungle

..

., .143

CHAPTER XW-^^

158

CHAPTER XIHandicrafts

..

._

^

CHAPTER XIIDecorative Art

..

.

_ 2-74

LIST OF PLATESFACE PAGE

1. Young Kayan Chief with middle- class Companion (inColour)....... . Frontispiece

2. Bruni, the pile-built Capital of the Sultans of Bruni3. A Jungle Path near Marudi, Baram District .4. A Limestone Hill at Panga in Upper Sarawak5. Mount Dulit from the Tinjar River6. {a) Keltie Falls, Mount Dulit, Sarawak, {p) Kenyahs

stopping to camp for the Night on the Baram River7. The Rejang River emerging from the central mountain

Region ......8. Gorge in the Rejang River above the entrance of Baloi

Peh9. The Rejang River winding through the Hill Country

10. The Rejang River about 300 Miles above its Mouth11. Jungle enveloped in thick Moss on Summit of Mount

Duht12. Head of the Rejang River ....13. In the Headwaters of the Baram River14. Lioh Matu (the Place of a Hundred Islands), at the

of the Baram River ....15. Fanny Rapid in the Pata River, Baram District16. A Sea Dayak or Iban ....17. Profile of Sea Dayak of Plate 16 .18. A Sea Dayak Woman ....19. Kayan Family of the Upper Rejang20. An Uma Pliau (Kayan) Girl of the Baram District21. BuHng, the Son of a Kenyah Chief of the Baram District22. {a) A curly-haired Kayan of the Baram. {b) Aban Tingan,

a famous Kenyah Warrior, ydunger Brother of TamaBulan .........

23. Klemantans of the Tinjar District, and one old Kayan Chiefof Baloi, Laki Bo, wearing black Head-dress (backrow, second figure, left) ......

24. Long Pokuns (Klemantans) of Tinjar River .25. Kalabit (Murut) Chief (in centre) with Followers, from

the Source of the Baram River ....26. Punans of Tinjar River ......

xi

Head

68

10

12

141616

182022

2426282830323234

36

3838

4040

Xll PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEOFACE PAGE

27. Tama Bulan Wang, the Kenyah Penghulu of the BaramDistrict .......

28. Kayan Girl from the Upper Kotei District .29. Youthful Sea Dayaks in gala Dress30. Sea Dayak Woman wearing Coat and Petticoat orna

mented with Shells .....3 1 . Sulau, the Wife of a Kayan Chief, displaying her Collection

of valuable old Beads ....32. A Barawan Woman (Klemantan) of the Tinjar33. Malanau Infant wearing Apparatus for moulding of the

Head34. A Long House in the Baram District .35. Murik Village of Long Tamala, Baram District36. Gallery of a Kayan House at Long Lama, Baram

District

37. Interior of a Kayan Dwelling-room38. Heads hanging in the Gallery of a Kayan House39. Beneath a Kayan House. To the left the Altar-posts for

Offerings can be seen40. Large Barn in which Padi is stored41. Iban House ....42. Gallery of Iban House43. Iban Seat-mats. Iban Seed-baskets44. {b) Tobacco - boxes ; {c) Wooden Plate for rolling

Cigarettes; {g) Gourd for Pith-heads of Darts ; (/>)

Tobacco-pipes; {fp) Fire-piston ; (/) Nose-flute

45. Kenyah Woman's Hat. Kayan Tawak and Gongs46. Ningka, a valuable old Sea Dayak Jar47. Old earthenware Vessels much prized by all the

Tribes .....48. Ibans bargaining over old Jars49. Tama Usong, leading Kayan Chief of the Baram

District ....

50. Aban Deng, the Chief of the Long Wats (Klemantan) ofthe Baram District .....

51. Sebop (Klemantan) Chief haranguing his Followers52. Kenyahs of the Pata River. The Men wearing Caps and

the one squatting on the left are of the upper Classthe others are of the middle Class .

53. A Kayan making Fire by Friction with a Pusa54. A Corpse in a Barawan (Klemantan) House. Party in the

unfinished House of Jangan, Chief of the Sebops, onthe occasion of the naming of his Child .

..

8255. Ibans felling a Tree ....... 9856. A Lirong Farm in the Tinjar River . .

. .10057. Kayans of Baloi in the /'rt^/- field. The Tatu on the

Thighs is perceptible . . . . . .102

LIST OF PLATES xuiFACE I'AGE

58. Kenyah Women resting from Weeding in the Padi-field 104

59. Kenyah Women at their Farm . .10660. Kenyahs measuring the Length of the Shadow of the

Aso Do at Noon to determine the Time for sowingPadi 108

6 1 . KlemantanWomen dressed as Men at the harvest Festival 1 1

4

62. The Garden of a Kayan House, i.e. the Area between theHouse and the River, with Fruit-trees and PadiBarns .

.. .

. . . ..116

63. Elderly Kayan Woman ascending the House-ladder withBasketful of Water-vessels . . . . .118

64. The Gallery of a Klemantan (Sebop) House, TinjarDistrict 120

65. Jungle Fruits .12266. A Klemantan Village, showing the Balawing Pole . . 12467. Kayans splitting Rattans for Mat-making . . .12668. A Kayan Party sitting in the Gallery of a Long House . 12669. Entertaining Guests in the Gallery of a Klemantan

(Barawan) House . . . . . . .12870. Lepu Pohuns (Klemantans) of the Tinjar River . . 13071. {a) Ibans preparing a Boat for a long Journey, {b) Kayan

W^ar-boat on the Lower Baram . . . .13272. A Halt at Batu Pita on the Baram . . . .13273. Cooking the mid-day Meal on a gravel Bed, Baram

River . . .13474. Boat proceeding up the Rejang River below the Palagus

Falls 13475. Poling up the Palagus Falls, Rejang River . . .13676. {a) Kenyahs hauHng a Boat over Rapids, {b) Hut built

on River-bank for a night's Shelter . . . .13677. A Boat about to descend the Falls at Long Bukau,

Rejang River . . . . . . .13878. Boat roofed with Leaf-mats on the Dapoi River, Baram

District 13879. Kayans fishing with Cast-net in the Upper Baram River 14080. Fishing with Rod and Line at the Tipang Falls of the

Baram 14081. Typical Scene in the uppermost Reaches of a River . 14282. Kenyah Hunters at Work with the Blow-pipp . . 14483. Kenyah Hunter returning Home with young Pig . . 14684. Kayan Hunting-party camping for the Night . . 14685. Ibans setting Traps for Pheasants and small Mammals.

Punans at Home . . . . . . .14886. Kayans working Gutta-percha . . .15087. {a) Gathering the Ipoh Dart-poison, {b) Usong, a Kayan

Youth of upper ClafspSon^f Tama Usong (Plate 49) 152

xiv PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEOFACE PAGE

88. Kenyah collecting Ipoh Poison .. . .

.

89. Klemantans making Fire in the Jungle by sawing onePiece of Bamboo across another

90. Instructing Kayan Youths in the Jungle91. Kenyah and Kayan Swords and Sheaths92. Spears and Paddles (Kayan and Klemantan)93. Kayan and Kenyah War-caps ....94. Coat and Cap, Sword, Knife, and Shield of Kenyah

Warrior (in Colour) .....95. A Murik (Klemantan) Youth in War-dress .96. Klemantan War-boat ascending a Reach of the Baram

near Marudi.......97. Pole set up in River by Kayans to mark the Spot where

a favourable Omen was observed98. Scouts watching a Boat in Trouble at the Mouth of the

Akar River, Baram District ....99. Iban War-party in the Jungle ....

100. Kayan House fenced in for Protection against Enemiesloi. Kenyah Mode of Attack .....102. Kayan Woman dancing, and carrying in right Hand

Head dressed in Leaves.....103. Iban War-boats on the Rejang River .104. Iban Scouts on the alert .....105. Punan Heads taken by Ibans ....106. Iban Women dancing with human Heads .107. Kalabit Smiths using stone Hammers. The Bellows

are simpler than those described in text .108. Iban making Fire-pistons .....109. Iban House in course of Constructionno. Kanowit (Klemantan) Baskets and Beadwork111. Kayan Knife and Axes .....112. Kenyah hewing out Shaft of Blow-pipe before boring it1

1 3. Kenyahs drilling a Blow-pipe ....114. Kenyah lashing Spear-blade to Blow-pipe .115. Kenyah making Dart for Blow-pipe .116. Kenyah making Dart-poison ....117. Kenyahs making Bark-cloth ....118. Iban Woman extracting Cotton-seeds .119. Iban Woman with Spinning-wheel120. Iban Woman preparing the Web for dyeing121. Iban Woman weaving .....122. Carved Door to the Room of Aban Jau, a Chief of the

Sebops (Klemantans), Tinjar River123. Door of Room in Sebop (Klemantan) House. The two

Figures near the Top probably represent GibbonsJ 24. Carvings on the Wall of the Gallery in a Long Ula

(Klemantan) House, Baram District

52

230

LIST OF PLATES XV125.126.

127.

128.

129.130.

131.132.

133-134.135-136.

137.138.

139-140.141.142.

143.

Prow of Klemantan War-boat (the Man is an Iban)A Kenyah Pattern carved on a bamboo Tobacco-box .Annular Design worked on bamboo Tobacco - box(Kenyah) ........

Charcoal Drawings. The first depicts Women at Workon Padi Mortars ; the second the feeding of Pigs andFowls ; the third the laying of a Corpse in the Tomb

Kenyah Sword-handle carved from a Deer's HornOld Beads worn by Kayans (in Colour)Blanket (Pua) woven by Iban WomanBlanket (Pua) woven by Iban WomanTatu Patterns on Thighs of Kayan WomenTatu Patterns on a Kalabit WomanKalabit Tatu (Woman)Tatu designs

PAGE

232234

236

238242244246248250252254258260262264266268270274

MAPS AT END OF VOLUME IIThe Eastern Archipelago.Borneo.

Sketch Map of the Baram District, Sarawak.Sketch Map of Sarawak.

CHAPTER IGEOGRAPHY OF BORNEO

Borneo is one of the largest islands of the world.Its area is roughly 290,000 square miles, or aboutfive times that of England and Wales. Its greatestlength from north-east to south-west is 830 miles,and its greatest breadth is about 600 miles. It iscrossed by the equator a little below its centre, sothat about two-thirds of its area lie in the northernand one-third lies in the southern hemisphere.Although surrounded on all sides by islands ofvolcanic origin, Borneo differs from them in pre-senting but small traces of volcanic activity, and inconsisting of ancient masses of igneous rock andof sedimentary strata.

The highest mountain is Kinabalu, an isolatedmass of granite in the extreme north, nearly 14,000feet in height. With this exception the principalmountains are grouped in several massive chains,which rise here and there to peaks about 10,000 feetabove the sea. The principal of these chains, theTibang-Iran range, runs south-westward through themidst of the northern half of the island and isprolonged south of the equator by the Schwanerchain. This median south-westerly trending rangeforms the backbone of the island. A second much-broken chain runs across the island from east towest about i"" north of the equator. Besides these

VOL. I B

2 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.two principal mountain chains which determine themain features of the river-system, there are severalisolated peaks of considerable height, and a minorridge of hills runs from the centre towards thesouth-east corner. With the exception of thenorthern extremity, which geographically as well aspolitically stands apart from the rest of the island,the whole of Borneo may be described as dividedby the two principal mountain chains into four largewatersheds. Of these, the north-western basin,the territory of Sarawak, is drained by the Rejangand Baram, as well as by numerous smaller rivers.Of the other three, which constitute Dutch Borneo,the north-eastern is drained by the Batang Kayanor Balungan river ; the south-eastern by the Koteiand Banjermasin rivers ; and the south-western bythe Kapuas, the largest of all the rivers, whosecourse from the centre of the island to its south-west corner is estimated at 700 miles. Althoughthe point of intersection of the two principal moun-tain chains lies almost exactly midway between thenorthern and southern and the eastern and westernextremities of the island, the greater width of thesouthern half of the island gives a longer course tothe rivers of that part, in spite of the fact that allthe six principal rivers mentioned above have theirsources not far from this central point. The prin-cipal rivers thus radiate from a common centre, theBatang Kayan flowing east-north-east, the Koteisouth-east by east, the Banjermasin south, theKapuas a little south of west, the Rejang west, andthe Baram north-west. This radiation of the riversfrom a common centre is a fact of great importancefor the understanding of the ethnography of theisland, since the rivers are the great highways whichmovements of the population chiefly follow.

In almost all parts of the island, the land adjoin-ing the coast is a low-lying swampy belt consisting

GEOGRAPHY OF BORNEO 3of the alluvium brought down by the many riversfrom the central highlands. This belt of alluviumextends inland in many parts for fifty miles or more,and is especially extensive in the south and south-east of the island.

Between the swampy coast belt and the mountainsintervenes a zone of very irregular hill country, ofwhich the average height above the sea- level isabout one thousand feet, with occasional peaks risingto five or six thousand feet or more.

There seems good reason to believe that at acomparatively recent date Borneo was continuouswith the mainland of Asia, forming its south-easternextremity. Together with Sumatra and Java itstands upon a submarine bank, which is nowheremore than one hundred fathoms below the surface,but which plunges down to a much greater depthalong a line a little east of Borneo (Wallace's line).The abundance of volcanic activity in the archi-pelago marks it as a part of the earth's crust liable tochanges of elevation, and the accumulation of volcanicmatter would tend to make it an area of subsidence

;

while the north-east monsoon, which blows withconsiderable violence down the China Sea for aboutfour months of each year, may have hastened theseparation of Borneo from the mainland. That thisseparation was effected in a very recent geologicalperiod is shown by the presence in Borneo of manyspecies of Asiatic mammals both large and small,notably the rhinoceros {R. borniensis, closely alliedto R. sumatranus) ; the elephant {^E. indicus, which,however, may have been imported by man); the wildcattle {Bos sondiacuSy which occurs also in Sumatra)

;

several species of deer and pig (some of which arefound in Sumatra and the mainland); several speciesof the cat tribe, of which the tiger-cat {Felts nebulosa)is the largest ; the civet-cat ( Viverrd) and its con-geners Hemigale, Paradoxurus, and Arctogale ; the

4 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.small black bear ( Ursus malayanus) ; the clawlessotter [Lutra cinered) ; the bear - cat {ArcticHsbinturong) ; the scaly ant-eater [Mants javanicus) ;the lemurs {Tarsius spectrum and Nycticebus tardi-gradus) ; the flying lemur (Galeopithecus volans)

;

the porcupine {Hystrix crassispinis)\ numerous bats,squirrels, rats and mice ; the big shrew (Gymnurd)

;

several species of monkeys, and two of the anthro-poid apes. The last are of peculiar significance,since they are incapable of crossing even narrowchannels of water, and must be regarded as productsof a very late stage of biological evolution. Ofthese two anthropoid species, the gibbon [HylobatesMillleri) is closely allied to species found in themainland and in Sumatra, while the maias or orang-utan (Simla satyrus) is found also in Sumatra and,though not now surviving on the continent, must beregarded as related to anthropoids whose fossilremains have been discovered there.^

The zoological evidence thus indicates a recentseparation of Borneo and Sumatra from the continent,and a still more recent separation between the two

^ islands.[ The climate of the whole island is warm and

/ moist and very equable. The rainfall is copious at1 ( all times of the year, but is rather heavier during the\ prevalence of the north-east monsoon in the months

y j\ from October to February, and least during the'

I months of April and May. At Kuching, during the/ last thirty years, the average yearly rainfall has been\ 1 60 inches, the maximum 225, and the minimum

102 inches ; the maximum monthly fall recordedwas 69 inches, and the minimum '66, and thegreatest rainfall recorded in one day was 15 inches.The temperature hardly, if ever, reaches 100" F.

;

it ranges normally between 70 and 90 F. ; the^ Within Borneo the distribution of the maias seems to be largely determined

\ by his incapacity to cross a river, there being several instances in which heoccurs on the one but not on the other bank of a river.

Plate 3. A JUNGLE PATH NEAR MARUDI. BARAM DISTRICT.

I GEOGRAPHY OF BORNEO 5highest reading of one year {1906) at Kuching was94, the lowest 69. Snow and frost are unknown,except occasionally on the summits of the highestmountains. Thunder - storms are frequent andsevere, but wind -storms are not commonly of anygreat violence.

The abundant rainfall maintains a copious flowof water down the many rivers at all times of theyear ; but the rivers are liable to rise rapidly manyfeet above their normal level during days of ex-ceptionally heavy rain. In their lower reaches,where they traverse the alluvial plains and swamps,the rivers wind slowly to the sea with many greatbends, and all the larger ones are navigable bysmall steamers for many miles above their mouths :thus a large steam launch can ascend the Rejangfor 160 miles, the Baram for 120, and some ofthe rivers on the Dutch side for still greaterdistances. The limit of such navigation is setby beds of rock over which the rivers run shallow,and which mark the beginnings of the middlereaches. In these middle reaches, where the riverswind between the feet of the hills, long stretchesof deep smooth water alternate with others inwhich the water runs with greater violence betweenconfining walls of rock, or spreads out in widerapids over stony bottoms. The upper reaches ofthe rivers, where they descend rapidly from theslopes of the mountains, are composed of long seriesof shallow rapids and low waterfalls, alternatingat short intervals with still pools and calm shallows,bounded by rock walls and great beds of water-worn stones, which during the frequent freshetsare submerged by a boiling flood. The wholeriver in these upper reaches is for the most partroofed in by the overarching forest.

Practically the whole of Borneo, from the sea-coast to the summits of the highest mountains, is

6 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.covered with a dense forest. On the summits thisconsists of comparatively stunted trees, of whichevery part is thickly coated with moss. In allother parts the forest consists of great trees risingto a height of 150 feet, and even 200 feet, and ofa dense undergrowth of younger and smaller trees,and of a great variety of creepers, palms, andferns. Trees of many species (nearly 500) yieldexcellent timber, ranging from the hardest iron-wood or biliauy and other hard woods (many ofthem so close-grained that they will not float inwater), to soft, easily worked kinds. A considerablenumber bear edible fruits, notably the mango (fromwhich the island derives its Malay name, PuluKlemantari), the durian, mangosteen, rambutan,jack fruit, trap, lansat, banana of many varieties,both wild and cultivated, and numerous sour lessnutritious kinds. Wild sago is abundant in somelocalities. Various palms supply in their unfoldingleaves a cabbage-like edible. Among edible rootsthe caladium is the chief Rubber is obtained asthe sap of a wild creeper ; gutta-percha from treesof several varieties ; camphor from pockets in thestem of the camphor tree {Dryobalanops aromatica).But of all the jungle plants those which play themost important parts in the life of the people arethe many species of the rattan and the bamboo

;

without them more than half the crafts and mostof the more important material possessions of thenatives would be impossible, and their lives wouldperhaps nearly conform to the conventional notionof savage existence as something ' nasty, dull, andbrutish.' The jungle of Borneo is, of course,famous for its wealth of orchids, and can claimthe distinction of producing the largest flower ofthe world {Rafflesia)^ and many beautiful varietiesof the pitcher plant.

The forests of Borneo harbour more than 450

Plate 4. A LIMESTONE HILL AT PANGA IN UPPER SARA^^'AK.

GEOGRAPHY OF BORNEO 7species of birds, many of them being of gorgeouscolouring or strange and beautiful forms ; especially-noteworthy are many hawks, owls, and eagles, fly-catchers, spider-hunters, sun-birds, broad-bills, night-jars, orioles, miners, pigeons, kingfishers, hornbills,trojans, magpies, jays, crows, partridges, pheasants,herons, bitterns, snipes, plovers, curlews, and sand-pipers. Amongst these are many species peculiarto Borneo ; while on the mountains above the4000- feet level are found several species whichoutside Borneo are known only in the Himalayas.

Besides the mammals mentioned above, Borneoclaims several species of mammal peculiar to itself,notably the long-nosed monkey [Nasa/is larvatus)

;

two species of ape [Semnopitkecus Hosei and S.cruciger) ; many shrews and squirrels, includingseveral flying species ; a civet-cat i^Hemigale Hosei) ;a deer (Cervus Brookii)) the bearded pig {Susbarbatus) ; the curious feather-tailed shrew [Ptylo-cercus Lowii).

Reptiles are well represented by the crocodile,which abounds in all the rivers, a long-snoutedgavial, numerous tortoises and lizards with severalflying species, and more than seventy species ofsnakes, of which some are poisonous, while thebiggest, the python, attains a length of thirty feet.The rivers abound in edible fish of many species

;

insects are of course numerous and varied, and, aidedby the multitude of frogs, they fill the island eachevening at sunset with one vast chorus of sound.

CHAPTER IIHISTORY OF BORNEO

The Pagan tribes of Borneo have no written recordsof their history and only very vague traditions con-cerning events in the Hves of their ancestors ofmore than five or six generations ago. But thewritten records of more cultured peoples of the FarEast contain references to Borneo which throwsome small rays of light upon the past history andpresent condition of its population. It has seemedto us worth while to bring together in these pagesthese few historical notes. The later history ofBorneo, which is in the main the story of its occupa-tion by and division between the Dutch and English,and especially the romantic history of the acquisitionof the raj of Sarawak by its first English rajah,Sir James Brooke, has often been told,^ and for thisreason may be dismissed by us in a very few words.

The coasts of Borneo have long been occupiedby a Mohammedan population of Malay culture ;this population is partly descended from Malayand Arab immigrants, and partly from indigenousindividuals and communities that have adopted theMalay faith and culture in recent centuries. WhenEuropeans first visited the island, this population,dwelling for the most part, as it still does, in villagesand small towns upon the coast and in or near the

1 See especially the recently published History of Sa7-awak under its TwoWhite Rajahs, by S. Baring-Gould and C. A. Bampfylde, London, 1910.

CHAP. ,

I

HISTORY OF BORNEO 9mouths of the rivers, owed allegiance to severalMalay sultans and a number of subordinate rulers,the local rajahs and pangirans. The principalsultans had as their capitals, from which they tooktheir titles, Bruni on the north-west, Sambas in thewest, Pontianak at the mouth of the Kapuas river,Banjermasin in the south at the mouth of the riverof the same name, Pasir at the south-east corner,Kotei and Balungan on the east at the mouths ofthe rivers of those names ; while the Sultan of Jolo,the capital of the Sulu islands, which lie off the northcoast, claimed sovereignty over the northern end ofBorneo. But these Malay sultans were not thefirst representatives in the island of culture and ofcivilised or semi-civilised rule ; for history preservessome faint records of still earlier times, of whichsome slight confirmation is afforded by survivingtraces of the culture then introduced.

In spite of all the work done on the history of theEast Indies, most of what occurred before and muchthat followed the arrival of Europeans remainsobscure. There are several Asiatic nations whoserecords might be expected to contain valuableinformation, but all are disappointing. The Klings,still the principal Hindu traders in the Far East,visited the Malay Archipelago in the first or at anyrate the second century after Christ,^ and intro-duced their writing^ and chronology. But theirearly histories are meagre and unsatisfactory in theextreme. The Arab culture of the Malays, whichtook root in Sumatra in the twelfth century, is ofcourse of no assistance in regard to events of earlierdate, and does not give trustworthy and detailed

^ Crawfurd, Descriptive Dictionary, p. 140.^ Despite Crawfurd's opinion this is now an accepted fact. Raffles's History

ofJava contains much interesting information on the point, and there is aremarkable statement which has not obtained the attention that it deserves,showing that the Chinese recognised the similarity between the Java and Soli(Nagpur) alphabets.Groeneveldt, Notes on Malay Ai^chipelago and Malcuca ;TxxOontx's Essays Relating to Indo-China, vol. i. p. 166.

lo PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.accounts until the fifteenth century. The Chinese,on the other hand, always a literary people, carefullypreserved in their archives all that could be gatheredwith regard to the "southern seas." But Chinawas far away, and many local events would possessno interest for her subjects. Under the circum-stances, the official historians deserve our gratitudefor their geographical descriptions and for theparticulars of tribute-bearing missions to the Son ofHeaven, though they have little else to tell.

The first account we have been able to findreferring to Borneo is a description of the kingdomof Poli from the Chinese annals of the sixth century.Poli was said to be on an island in the sea south-east of Camboja, and two months south-east ofCanton. The journey thither was made by wayof the Malay Peninsula, a devious route stillfollowed by Chinese junks. Envoys were sentto the Imperial court in a.d. 518, 523, and 616.'* The people of this country," our authority says,"are skilled in throwing a discus - knife, and theedge is like a saw ; when they throw it at a man,they never fail to hit him. Their other armsare about the same as in China. Their customsresemble those of Camboja, and the productionsof the country are the same as of Siam. Whenone commits a murder or theft they cut off hishands, ^ and when adultery has been committed,the culprit has his legs chained for the period ofa year. For their sacrifice they choose the timewhen there is no moon'; they fill a bowl with wineand eatables and let it float away on the surfaceof the water ; in the eleventh month they havea great sacrifice. They get corals from the sea,and they have a bird called s'ari, which can talk."A later reference to the same place says: "Theycarry the teeth of wild beasts in their ears, and

^ There is a Bruni still alive whose hands have been cut off for theft.

KELTIE FALLS, MOUNT DULIT. SARAWAK.

Plate 6. KENYAHS STOPPING TO CAMP FOR THE NIGHTON THE BARAM RIVER.

HISTORY OF BORNEO iiwrap a piece of cotton round their loins ; cottonis a plant of which they collect the flowers to makecloth of them ; the coarser kind is called kupa^and the finer cloth Heh. They hold their marketsat night, and cover their faces. ... At the eastof this country is situated the land of the Rakshas,which has the same customs as Poli." ^

This is an interesting account in many ways,and tallies very closely with what other evidencewould lead one to suspect. For there is reasonto think that Bruni, before it became Mohammedan,was a Bisaya kingdom under Buddhist sovereignsand Hindu influence ; and nearly all the particularsgiven with regard to the people of Borneo aretrue of one or other of the races allied to Bisayasand living near Bruni to-day. The discus- knife,a wooden weapon, is not now in use, but is knownto have been used formerly. The wild Kadayanssacrifice after every new moon, and are forbidden toeat a number of things until they have done so. TheMalanaus set laden rafts afloat on the rivers topropitiate the spirits of the sea. The very namesof the two kinds of cotton, then evidently a noveltyto the Chinese, are found in Borneo : kapok isa well-known Malay word ; but taya is the common

^ This account is taken from Groeneveldt {loc. cit.) who, however, supposesPoli to be on the north coast of Sumatra. In this he follows "all Chinesegeographers," adding "that its neighbourhood to the Nicobar Islands is asufficient proof that they are right." But Rakshas, which may have been " fora long time the name of the Nicobar Islands, probably on account of thewildness and bad reputation of their inhabitants," is merely Rakshasa, a termapplied by the Hindu colonists in Java and the Malay Peninsula to any wildpeople, so that the statement that to the east of Poli is situated the land of theRakshas is hardly sufficient support for even "all Chinese geographers."Trusting to " modern Chinese geographers," Groeneveldt makes Kaling,where an eight-foot gnomon casts a shadow of 2.4 feet at noon on the summersolstice, to be Java, that is to say, to be nearly 5 south of the equator. Havingunwittingly demonstrated how untrustworthy are the modern geographers,he must excuse others if they prefer the original authority, who states that Poliis south-^aj^ of Camboja, the land of the Rakshas east of Poli, to "all"geographers who state on the contrary that Poli is south-7w^/ of Camboja,the Rakshas' country west of Poli. The name Poli appears to be a moreaccurate form of Polo, the name by which Bruni is said to have been knownto the Chinese in early times.

12 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.name for cotton among the Sea Dayaks, though itis doubtful whether it is found in Sumatra at all, andis not given in Marsden's great Dictionary. Theuse of teeth as ear-ornaments may refer to Kenyahs.If these identities are sufficient to show that Poliwas old Bruni, we have an almost unique illustrationhere of the antiquity of savage customs. That anexperience of fourteen hundred years should havefailed to convince people of the futility of feeding saltwaves is a striking demonstration of the widespreadfallacy, that what is old must needs be good.

Poli had already attained a certain measure ofcivilisation, and even of luxury. The kinglydignity was hereditary, and the Buddhist monarchwas served with much ceremony. He was cladin flowered silk or cotton, adorned with pearls,and sat on a golden throne attended by servantswith white dusters and fans of peacock feathers.When he went out of his palace, his chariot, canopiedwith feathers and embroidered curtains, was drawnby elephants, whilst gongs, drums, and conchesmade inspiriting music. As Hindu ornaments havebeen found at Santubong together with Chinesecoins of great antiquity, as the names of manyoffices of state in Bruni are derived from Sanskrit,and the people of Sarawak have only lately ceasedto speak of "the days of the Hindus,"^ there isnothing startling in the statement that the kingsof Poli were Buddhist.

Whatever Poli may or may not have been, thereis little question that Puni, 45 days from Java,40 from Palembang, 30 from Champa, in eachcase taking the wind to be fair, was Bruni. TheChinese, who have neither b nor double consonantsin their impoverished language, still call the Borneancapital Puni. Groeneveldt says that the Chinese

^ Rajah Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, quoted in Ling Roth'svaluable work, The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo, vol. ii.p. 279.

HISTORY OF BORNEO 13consider Puni to have been on the west coast ofBorneo. This state is mentioned several timesin the annals of the Sung dynasty, which, thoughonly ruling over Southern China, had a completemonopoly ^ of the ocean trade for three centuries(960 to 1279 A.D.). Puni was at that time atown of some 10,000 inhabitants, protected by astockade of timber. The king's palace, like thehouses of modern Bruni, was thatched with palmleaves, the cottages of the people with grass.Warriors carried spears and protected themselveswith copper armour. When any native died, hiscorpse was exposed in the jungle, and once a yearfor seven years sacrifices were made to the departedspirit. Bamboos and palm leaves, thrown away afterevery meal, sufficed for crockery. The products ofthe country, or at least such as were sent as tribute,were camphor, tortoiseshell, and ivory.'

In the year 977, we are told, Hianzta, king ofPuni, sent envoys to China, who presented tributewith the following words : *' May the emperor livethousands and tens of thousands of years, and mayhe not disapprove of the poor civilities of my littlecountry." The envoys presented a letter from theking. This was written on what looked like thevery thin bark of a tree ; it was glossy, slightlygreen, several feet long, and somewhat broaderthan one inch ; the characters in which it waswritten were small, and had to be read horizontally.In all these particulars the letter resembled thebooks of magic which are still written by the Battasof inland Sumatra.^ The message ran : "The kingof Puni, called Hianzta, prostrates himself before themost august emperor, and hopes that the emperormay live ten thousands of years. I have now sentenvoys to carry tribute ; I knew before that there

^ E. H. Parker, Chinas p. 33. ^ Groeneveldt, loc. cit.^ Marsden, History of Sumatra, p. 383.

14 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.was an emperor, but I had no means of communica-tion. Recently there was a merchant called Pu Lu,whose ship arrived at the mouth of my river ; Isent a man to invite him to my place, and he toldme that he came from China. The people of mycountry were much delighted at this, and preparinga ship, asked this stranger to guide them to thecourt. The envoys I have sent only wish to seeYour Majesty in peace, and I intend to send peoplewith tribute every year. But when I do so I fearthat my ships may occasionally be blown to Champa,and I therefore hope Your Majesty will send anedict to that country with orders that, if a ship ofHianzta arrives there, it must not be detained.My country has no other articles,^ and I pray YourMajesty not to be angry with me." The envoyswere entertained and sent home with presents. In1082 A.D., a hundred years later, Sri Maja, king ofPuni, sent tribute again, but the promise of yearlyhomage was not kept. Gradually the Sung dynastydeclined in power, and East Indian potentatesbecame less humble.

In the thirteenth and the early part of the four-teenth centuries Bruni owed allegiance alternately totwo powers much younger than herself, Majapahitin Java, and Malacca on the west coast of the MalayPeninsula. Both these states were founded in thethirteenth century."^ Majapahit, originally only oneof several Javan kingdoms, rapidly acquired strengthand subjugated her neighbours and the nearestportions of the islands around. Malacca, formedwhen the Malay colony of Singapore was over-whelmed by Javanese, became the great commercialdepot of the Straits and the chief centre ofMohammedanism in the Archipelago. The twopowers therefore stood for two faiths and two

^ Than camphor, tortoiseshell, ivory, and sandal woods.2 There is some doubt as to the date of the foundation of Majapahit.

*^.,

HISTORY OF BORNEO 15cultures: Majapahit for Brahminism and Hinduinfluence, Malacca for Islam and the more practicalcivilisation of Arabia.

In the earliest years of the fourteenth centuryBruni was a dependency of Majapahit, but seemsto have recovered its independence during theminority of the Javan king. It is to this time thatthe tradition of the Kapuas Malays ascribes thearrival of the Kayans in Borneo.^ Then AngkaWijaya extended the power of Majapahit overPalembang in Sumatra, Timor, Ternate, Luzon, andthe coasts of Borneo. Over Banjermasin he set hisnatural son. In 1368 Javanese soldiers drove from

^ According to a Malay manuscript of some antiquity lent to us by the lateTuanku Mudah, one of the kings {batara) of Majapahit had a beautiful daughter,Radin Galo Chindra Kirana. This lady was much admired by Laiang Sitirand Laiang Kemitir, the two sons of one Pati Legindir. On the death of theking, Pati Legindir ruled the land and the beautiful princess became his ward.He, to satisfy the rival claims of his two sons, promised that whoever shouldkill the raja of Balambangan (an island off the north coast of Borneo), knownby the nickname of Manok Jingga, should marry the princess. Now at thecourt there happened to be Damar Clan, one of the sons of Raja Matarem,who had disguised his high descent and induced Pati Legindir to adopt him ashis son. This young man found favour in the princess's eyes, and she tried topersuade her guardian to let her marry him. Pati Legindir, however, declaredthat he would keep to his arrangement, and roughly told the lover to bringManok Jingga's head before thinking of marrying the princess. So DamarClan set out with two followers on the dangerous mission, which he carriedout with complete success. On his return he met his two rivals, who inducedhim to part with the head of the royal victim, and then buried him alive in adeep trap previously prepared. Pati Legindir, suspecting nothing, ordered hisward to marry Laiang Sitir, who brought the trophy to the palace ; but theprincess had learned of the treachery from one of the spectators, and asked fora week's delay. Before it was too late, Damar Clan, who had managed tofind a way out of what nearly proved a grave, reached the court and told histale, now no longer concealing his rank. He married the princess and after-wards was entrusted by Pati Legindir with all the affairs of state. Havingobtained supreme power, Damar Olan sent his treacherous rivals to southernBorneo, with a retinue of criminals mutilated in their ear-lobes and elsewhereas a penalty for incest. These transported convicts, the ancestors of theKayans, landed near Sikudana and spread into the country between theKapuas and Banjermasin. It is interesting to see how this tale agrees withother traditions. The Kayans state that they came across the sea at no distantdate. Javan history relates that Majapahit was ruled during the minority ofAngka Wijaya by his elder sister, the princess Babu Kanya Kanchana Wungu.A neighbouring prince, known as Manok Jengga, took advantage of thisarrangement by seizing large portions of the young king's domains. One,Daram Wulan, however, son of a Buddhist devotee, overthrew him and wasrewarded by the hand of the princess regent. When Angka Wijaya came ofage he entrusted the care of a large part of his kingdom to his sister andbrother-in-law.

i6 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.Bruni the Sulu marauders who had sacked the town.A few years later the ungrateful king transferred hisallegiance to China, and not long afterwards, withcalculating humility, paid tribute ^ to Mansur Shah,who had succeeded to the throne of Malacca in1374 A.D.An extraordinary incident occurred at the be-

ginning of the fifteenth century, which againandfor the last timedraws our attention to the Chinesecourt. The great Mongol conquerors, Genghis andKublai Khan, had little to do with the MalayArchipelago, though the latter sent an unsuccessfulexpedition against Java in 1292. But the Mingemperors, who were of Chinese blood, came topower in 1368 and soon developed the maritimeinfluence of the empire. For a few years therewas a continual stream of East Indian embassies.During the last twenty years of the century,however, these became more rare, and in 1405 theChinese emperor found it necessary to send atrusted eunuch, by name Cheng Ho, to visit thevassal states in the south. This man made severaljourneys, travelling as far as the shores of Africa,and his mission bore immediate fruit. Amongothers, Maraja Kali, king of Puni, although ChengHo does not appear to have called on him in person,sent tribute in 1405 ; and so pleased was he with theembroidered silk presented to him and his wife inreturn, that he visited the Son of Heaven threeyears later. Landing in Fukien, he was escortedby a eunuch to the Chinese capital amid scenes ofgreat rejoicing. The emperor received him inaudience, allowing him the honours of a noble ofthe first rank, and loaded him with gifts. The sameyear, having accomplished his one great ambition of'* seeing the face of the Son of Heaven," thishumbled monarch died in the imperial city, leaving

^ Sejarah Malaya, edited by Shellabear, Singapore, 1896, p. 106.

^^,'''%:

r -^s* 'it*'' -*'

#iM^i.

c

HISTORY OF BORNEO 17his son Hiawang to succeed to the throne of Puni.Having induced the emperor to stop the yearly-tribute of forty katties of camphor paid by Puni toJava, and having agreed to send tribute to Chinaevery three years, Hiawang returned home to takeup the reins of government. Between 14 10 and1425 he paid tribute six times, besides revisiting theChinese Court ; but afterwards little Puni seems tohave again ignored her powerful suzerain.

It is probable that the Chinese colony in NorthBorneo which gave its name to the lofty mountainKinaBalu(Chinesewidow)andtotheKina Batangan,the chief river which flows from it, was foundedabout this time. Several old writers seem to referto this event, and local traditions of the settlementstill survive. The Brunis and Idaans (a people inthe north not unlike the Bisayas) have legendsdiffering in detail to the effect that the Chinesecame to seize the great jewel of the Kina Baludragon, but afterwards quarrelled about the bootyand separated, some remaining behind. The Idaansconsider themselves the descendants of these settlers,but that can only be true in a very limited sense.Both country and people, however, show traces ofChinese influence.

There is good evidence that the Chinese influenceand immigration were not confined to Bruni and thenorthern end of the island. In south-west Borneothere are traces of very extensive washings ofalluvial gravels for gold and diamonds. Theseoperations were being conducted by Chinese whenEuropeans first came to the country ; and theextent of the old workings implies that they hadbeen continued through many centuries. Hindu-Javan influence also was not confined to the courtof Bruni, for in many parts of the southern halfof Borneo traces of it survive in the custom ofburning the dead, in low relief carvings of bulls

VOL. I c

i8 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.on stone, and in various gold ornaments of Hinducharacter.

The faith of Islam and the arrival of Europeanshave profoundly affected the manners and politicsof the East Indies, and now it is difficult to picturethe state of affairs when King Hiawang revisitedChina to pay homage to the Emperor. In 152 1,within a hundred years of that event, Pigafetta,the chronicler of Magellan's great exploit, wascalling on the '* Moorish " king of Bruni, in thecourse of the first voyage round the world. Thechange had come. Of the two new influences, sopotent for good and evil, Mohammedanism madeits appearance first. The struggle for religioussupremacy ended in the complete victory of theProphet's followers in 1478, when Majapahit wasutterly destroyed, thirty years before the captureof Malacca by the Portuguese.

How early the Arab doctrines were taught inBruni it is impossible to state with any precision.Local tradition ascribes their introduction to therenowned Alak ber Tata, afterwards known asSultan Mohammed. Like most of his subjectsthis warrior was a Bisaya, and in early life he wasnot a Mohammedan, not indeed a civilised potentateat all, to judge by conventional standards ; for thechief mark of his royal dignity was an immensechawat, or loin-cloth, carried as he walked by eightymen, forty in front and forty behind. He is theearliest monarch of whom the present Brunis haveany knowledge, a fact to be accounted for partlyby the brilliance of his exploits, partly by theintroduction about that time of Arabic writing.After much fighting he subdued the people ofIgan,^ Kalaka, Seribas, Sadong, Semarahan, andSarawak,^ and compelled them to pay tribute. He

^ Whose descendants are the Malanaus.^ Cf. Low, Journal Straits Bratich Royal Asiatic Society^ voh v. p. I,

from whose article we have obtained much interesting material.

HISTORY OF BORNEO 19stopped the annual payment to Majapahit of onejar of pinang juice, a useless commodity thoughtroublesome to collect. During his reign theMuruts were brought under Bruni rule by peacefulmeasures,^ and the Chinese colony was kept ingood humour by the marriage of the Bruni king'sbrother and successor to the daughter of one ofthe principal Chinamen.

Alak ber Tata is said to have gone to Johore,^where he was converted^ to Islam, given ^ thedaughter of Sultan Bakhei and the title of Sultan,and was confirmed in his claim to rule over Sarawakand his other conquests.^

Sultan Mohammed was succeeded by his brotherAkhmad, son-in-law of the Chinese chief, and he wasin turn succeeded by an Arab from Taif who had

^ This is said to have been accomplished by Alak ber Tata's brother,Awang Jerambok, the story of whose dealings with the Muruts is well knownboth to Brunis and Muruts. He set out one day for the head of the riverManjilin, but lost his way after crossing the mountains. After wandering forthree days he came upon a Murut village, whose inhabitants wished to killhim. He naturally told them not to do so, and they desisted. After sometime, which he spent with these rude folk, then not so far advanced into theinterior, he so far won their affections that they followed him to Bruni, wherethey were entertained by the sovereign and generously treated. These Murutsthen induced their friends to submit.

^ Founded after the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese, 1 5 12 A.D.(Crawfurd, Descriptive Dictionary). Sultan Abdul Krahar, great-great-grandsonof Sultan Mohammed's younger brother, died about 1575 A.D. From thisfact and the statement that Mohammed stopped the Majapahit tribute, we mayinfer that the latter sat on the throne of Bruni in the middle of the fifteenthcentury ; if this inference is correct, the story of his visit to Johore must beunfounded.

^ Some say he was never converted, others that he was summoned to Johoreexpressly to be initiated into Islam.

* He is also alleged to have seized the lady in a drunken freak. It is statedthat the Sultan was so much enraged at this that he proposed to make waron Bruni. His minister, however, suggested that enquiries should be madeinto the strength of that kingdom before commencing operations. He wasaccordingly sent to Bruni, where he was so well received that he married andremained there, with a number of followers. Word was sent to Johore thatthe princess was treated as queen and was quite happy with her husband.This appeased the Sultan's wrath. An old friend of ours belonging to theBurong Pingai section of Bruni, that is to say, the old commercial class, saysthat his people are all descended from this Pengiran Bandahara of Johore, andthat the name Burong Pingai is derived from the circumstance that theirancestor had a pigeon of remarkable tameness.

^ Cf. with Dalrymple's account of the origin of the Sulu Sultanate, /

20 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.married his daughter. Thus the present royalhouse of Bruni is derived from three sourcesArab,Bisaya, and Chinese. The coronation ceremony asstill maintained affords an interesting confirmationof this account. On that occasion the principalminister wears a turban and Haji outfit, the two nextin rank are dressed in Chinese and Hindu fashion,while the fourth wears a chawat over his trousersto represent the Bisayas; and each of these ministersdeclares the Sultan to be divinely appointed. Thenafter the demonstration of loyalty the two gongs

one from Menangkabau, the other from Johore

are beaten, and the Moslem high priest proclaimsthe Sultan and preaches a sermon, declaring him tobe a descendant of Sri Turi Buana, the Palembangchief who founded the early kingdom of Singaporein 1160 A.D., who reigned in that island for forty-eight years, and whose descendants became the royalfamily of Malacca.

The Arab Sultan who succeeded Akhmed as-sumed the name Berkat and ruled the country withvigour. He built a mosque and converted manyof his subjects, so that from his reign Bruni maybe considered a Mohammedan town. To defendthe capital he sank forty junks filled with stone inthe river, and thus formed the breakwater whichstill bars the entrance to large ships. This workrose above the water level, and in former timesbristled with cannon. Sultan Berkat was succeededby his son Suleiman, whose reign was of littleconsequence.

Neglecting Suleiman, we come now to the mostheroic figure in Bruni history. Sultan Bulkiah, betterknown by his earlier name, Nakoda Ragam. Theprowess of this prince has been celebrated in proseand verse. He journeyed to distant lands, andconquered the Sulu islands and eastern Borneo.Over the throne of Sambas he set a weak-minded

HISTORY OF BORNEO 21brother of his own. He even sent an expeditionto Manila, and on the second attempt seized thatplace. Tribute poured into his coffers from allsides. His wife was a Javanese princess, whobrought many people to Bruni. These intermarriedwith the Bisayas, and from them it is said aresprung the Kadayans, a quiet agricultural folk,skilled in various arts, but rendered timid by con-tinual oppression. Some have settled recently inthe British colony of Labuan, and others in Sarawakround the river Sibuti, where they have becomeloyal subjects of the Rajah of Sarawak.

Nakoda Ragam's capital at Buang Tawa was ondry land, but when he died, killed accidentally byhis wife's bodkin, the nobles quarrelled amongthemselves, and some of them founded the presentpile-built town of Bruni. It was to this Malaycapital and court that Pigafetta paid his visit in152 1 with the surviving companions of Magellan.His is the first good account from European sourcesof the place which he called Bornei, and whoselatitude he estimated with an error of less than tenmiles.^

It is easy to see from Pigafetta's narrative ^ that atthe date of his visit the effects of Nakoda Ragam'sexploits had not evaporated. The splendour of theCourt and the large population the city is said tohave contained were presumably the result of theconquests he had made in neighbouring islands.The king, like the princes of Malacca beforethe conquest, had his elephants, and he and hiscourtiers were clothed in Chinese satins and Indianbrocades. He was in possession of artillery, andthe appearance and ceremonial of his court wasimposing.

^ He puts the longitude 30 too far east ; but in his day, of course, there wereno chronometers.

2 Cited in full by Crawfurd, Descriptive Dictionary of the Indian Islands.Article, " Brunai."

22 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.From this time onwards the power of Bruni has

continuously declined. Recurrent civil wars invitedthe occasional interventions of the Portuguese andof the Spanish governors of the Philippines, which,although they did not result in the subjugation ofthe Malay power, nevertheless sapped its strength.

The interest of the later history of Borneo liesin the successive attempts,^ many of them fruitless,made by Dutch and English to gain a footing onthe island. The Dutch arrived off Bruni in theyear 1600, and ten days afterwards were glad toleave with what pepper they had obtained in theinterval, the commander judging the place nothingbetter than a nest of rogues. The Dutch did notpress the acquaintance, but started factories atSambas, where they monopolised the trade. In1685 an English captain named Cowley arrivedin Bruni ; but the English showed as little inclina-tion as the Dutch to take up the commerce whichthe Portuguese had abandoned.

At Banjermasin, on the southern coast, moreprogress was made. The Dutch arrived therebefore their English rivals, but were soon compelledby intrigues to withdraw. In 1704^ the Englishfactors on the Chinese island of Chusan, expelledby the imperial authorities and subsequently drivenfrom Pulo Condar off the Cochin China coast bya mutiny, arrived at Banjermasin. They had everyreason to be gratified with the prospects at thatport ; for they could sell the native pepper to theChinese at three times the cost price. But theirbitter experiences in the China seas had not taughtthem wisdom ; they soon fell out with the JavaneseSultan, whose hospitality they were enjoying, andafter some bloody struggles were obliged to with-draw from this part of the island.

^ Much of the following information is extracted from an article by J. R.Logan on European intercourse with Borneo, Joui-nal Vidian Archipelago, vol.ii. p. 505. '^ The article in \hQJournal Indian Archipelago says 1702.

Plate 13. IN THE HEADWATERS OF THE BARAM RIVER.

HISTORY OF BORNEO 23In 1747 the Dutch East India Company, which

in 1705 had obtained a firm footing in Java, and in1 745 had established its authority over all the north-eastern coast of that island, extorted a monopolyof trade at Banjermasin and set up a factory.Nearly forty years later ^ (17S5), the reigning prince"having rendered himself odious to his subjects, thecountry was invaded by 3000 natives of Celebes.These were expelled by the Dutch, who dethronedthe Sultan, placing his younger brother on thethrone ; and he, in reward for their services, cededto them his entire dominions, consenting to holdthem as a vassal. This is the treaty under whichthe Dutch claim the sovereignty of Banjermasinand whatever was once dependent on it. In thisway the Dutch got a hold on the country whichthey have never relaxed ; and, after the intervalduring which their possessions in the East Indieswere administered by England,^ they strengthenedthat hold gradually, year by year, till now two-thirds or more of the island is under their flag andfeels the benefits of their rule. If there are stillany districts of this large area where Dutch influencehas even now barely made itself felt, they will notlong remain in their isolation ; for the Controleursare extending their influence even into the mostremote corners of the territory.

To turn again to the north-western coast andthe doings of Englishmen, in 1763 the Sultan ofSulu ceded to the East India Company the territoryin Borneo which had been given him when hekilled the usurper Abdul Mubin in Bruni. In 1773a small settlement was formed on the island ofBalambangan, north of Bruni ; and in the followingyear the Sultan of Bruni agreed to give thissettlement a monopoly of the pepper trade inreturn for protection from piracy. In the next

^ Crawfurd, Descriptive Dictionary^ P- 37* ^ l8ii to 1S15.

24 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.year, however, Balambangan was surprised andcaptured by the Sulus. It was reoccupied for afew months in 1803, ^^^ then finally forsaken.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century theMalays of Bruni, Sulu, and Mindanao, with nativefollowers and allies, inspired we may suppose bythe example of their European visitors, took topiracynot that they had not engaged in suchbusiness before, but that they now prosecuted anold trade with renewed vigour. English tradersstill tried to pay occasional visits, but after the lossof the May in 1788, the Susanna in 1803, and theCommerce in 1806, with the murder of the crews,the Admiralty warned merchants that it was certaindestruction to go up river to Bruni. For fortyyears this intimation was left on British charts, andBritish seamen followed the humiliating counsel.Not until the early forties was peace restored, afteran event of the most romantic and improbable kind,the accession of an English gentleman to the throneof Sarawak.

Of this incident, so fateful for the future of thewestern side of Borneo, it must suffice to say herethat James Brooke, a young Englishman, havingresigned his commission in the army of the BritishEast India Company, invested his fortune in ayacht of 140 tons, with which he set sail in 1838for the eastern Archipelago. His bold but vaguedesign was to establish peace, prosperity, and justgovernment in some part of that troubled area,whose beauties he had admired and whose mis-fortunes he had deplored on the occasion of anearlier voyage to the China seas. When atSingapore, he heard that the Malays of Sarawak,a district forming the southern extremity of theSultanate of Bruni, had rebelled against the Bruninobles, and had in vain appealed to the DutchGovernor-general at Batavia for deliverance from

Plate 14. LIOH MATU (THE PLACE OF A HUNDRED ISLANDS),AT THE HEAD OF THE BARAM RIVER.

HISTORY OF BORNEO 25their oppressors. Under the nominal authority ofthe Sultan, these Bruni nobles, many of whom wereof Arab descent, had brought all the north-westernpart of Borneo to a state of chronic rebellion. Theyhad taught the Sea Dayaks of the Batang Lupar andneighbouring rivers to join them in their piraticalexcursions, and, being to some extent dependentupon their aid, were compelled to treat them withsome consideration ; but all other communities weretreated by them with a rapacity and cruelty whichwas causing a rapid depopulation and the return tojungle of much cultivated land.

Brooke sailed for Sarawak in August 1839, andfound the country torn by internal conflicts. TheSultan had recently sent Muda Hasim, his uncleand heir-presumptive to the throne of Bruni, torestore order ; but this weak though amiable noblehad found himself quite incapable of coping withthe situation. Brooke spent some time surveyingthe coast and studying the people and country, andgained the confidence of Muda Hasim. After anexcursion to Celebes, Brooke sailed for a secondvisit to Sarawak just a year after the first, andfound the state of the country going from bad toworse. Muda Hasim besought him to take com-mand of his forces and to suppress the rebellion.Brooke consented, and soon secured the submissionof the rebel leaders on the condition that he(Brooke), and not any Bruni noble, should be thegovernor and Rajah of Sarawak. Muda Hasim hadoffered to secure his appointment to this office asan inducement to him to undertake the operationsagainst the rebels; Brooke therefore felt himselfjusti-fied in granting these terms. And when later MudaHasim, no longer threatened with disgrace andfailure, showed himself disinclined to carry out thisarrangement, Brooke, feeling himself bound by hisagreement with the rebel leaders, whose lives he

T^

26 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.had with difficulty preserved from the vengeanceof the Bruni nobles, insisted upon it with someshow of force ; and on September 24, 1841, he wasproclaimed Rajah and governor of Sarawak amidthe rejoicings of the populace. Muda Hasim, asrepresentative of the Sultan, signed the documentwhich conferred this title and authority ; but sincehe was not in any proper sense Rajah of Sarawak,which in fact was not a raj, but a district hithertoruled or misruled by Bruni governors not bearingthe title of Rajah, this transaction cannot properlybe described as an abdication by Muda Hasim infavour of Brooke. Brooke accordingly felt that itwas desirable to secure from the Sultan himself aformal recognition of his authority and title. Tothis end he visited the Sultan in the year 1842, andobtained from him the desired confirmation of theaction of his agent Muda Hasim. The way inwhich the raj of Sarawak has since been extended,until it now comprises a territory of nearly 60,000square miles (approximately equal to the area ofEngland and Wales), will be briefly described in alater chapter (XXH.).

The northern end of Borneo had long been ahunting-ground for slaves for the nobles of Bruniand Sulu, whose Sultans claimed but did notexercise the right to rule over it. In 1877 Mr.Alfred Dent, a Shanghai merchant, induced thetwo Sultans to resign to him their sovereignrights over this territory in return for a moneypayment. The British North Borneo Company,which was formed for the commercial developmentof it, necessarily undertook the task of pacifica-tion and administration. In 1881 the companywas granted a royal charter by the British Govern-ment ; and it now administers with success anda fair prospect of continued commercial profit aterritory which, with the exception of a small

mi-

Plate 15. FANNY RAPID IN THE PATA RIVER, BARAM DISTRICT.

HISTORY OF BORNEO 27area about the town of Bruni, includes all of theisland that had not been brought under the Dutchor Sarawak flag. In 1888 Sarawak and BritishNorth Borneo were formally brought under theprotection of the British Government ; but theterritories remained under the rule of the Rajahand of the company respectively, except in regardto their foreign relations. In the year 1906 theSultan of Bruni placed himself and his capital,together with the small territory over which hestill retained undivided authority, under the protec-tion of the British Government ; and thus wascompleted the passing of the island of Borneounder European control.

CHAPTER IIIGENERAL SKETCH OF THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO

It is not improbable that at one time Borneo wasinhabited by people of the negrito race, smallremnants of which race are still to be found inislands adjacent to all the coasts of Borneo aswell as in the Malay Peninsula. No communitiesof this race exist in the island at the present time

;

but among the people of the northern districtsindividuals may be occasionally met with whosehair and facial characters strongly suggest an in-fusion of negrito or negroid blood.

It is probable that the mixed race of Hindu-Javanese invaders, who occupied the southern coastsof Borneo some centuries ago, became blended withthe indigenous population, and that a considerableproportion of their blood still runs in the veins ofsome of the tribes of the southern districts {e.g.the Land Dayaks and Malohs).

There can be no doubt that of the Chinesetraders who have been attracted to Borneo by itscamphor, edible birds' nests, and spices, some havesettled in the island and have become blended withand absorbed by the tribes of the north-west {e.g.the Dusuns) ; and it seems probable that some ofthe elements of their culture have spread widelyand been adopted throughout a large part of Borneo.For several centuries also Chinese settlers havebeen attracted to the south-western district by the

28

1m] w

Plate i6. A SEA DAYAK OR IBAN.

Plate 17. PROFILE OF SEA DAYAK OF PLATE 16.

CHAP. Ill THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO 29gold which they found in the river gravel andalluvium. These also have intermarried with thepeople of the country ; but they have retained theirnational characteristics, and have been continuallyrecruited by considerable numbers of their fellow-countrymen. Since the establishment of peace andorder and security for life and property by theEuropean administrations, and with the consequentdevelopment of trade during the last half-century,the influx of Chinese has been very rapid ; untilat the present time they form large communitiesin and about all the chief centres of trade. Acertain number of Chinese traders continue topenetrate far into the interior, and some of thesetake wives of the people of the country ; in manycases their children become members of theirmothers' tribes and so are blended with the nativestocks.

Among the Mohammedans, who are found in allthe coast regions of Borneo, there is a considerablenumber of persons who claim Arab forefathers ; andthere can be no doubt that the introduction of theMohammedan religion was largely due to Arabtraders, and that many Arabs and their half-breddescendants have held official positions under theSultans of Bruni.

During the last half-century, natives of India, mostof whom are Klings from Madras, have establishedthemselves in the small trades of the towns ; andof others who came as coolies, some have settledin the towns with their wives and families. Thesepeople do not penetrate into the interior or inter-marry with the natives.

With the exception of the above - mentionedimmigrants and their descendants, the populationof Borneo may be described as falling naturallyinto two great classes ; namely, on the one handthose who have accepted, nominally at least, the

30 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.Mohammedan religion and civilisation, and on theother hand the pagan peoples. In Bruni and inall the coast regions the majority of the people areMohammedan, have no tribal organisation, and callthemselves Malays (Orang Malayu). This name hasusually been accorded them by European authors

;

but when so used the name denotes a social, politi-cal, and religious status rather than membershipin an ethnic group. With the exception of thesepartially civilised *' Malays" of the coast regionsand the imported elements mentioned above, allthe natives of Borneo live under tribal organisation,their cultures ranging from the extreme simplicityof the nomadic Punans to a moderately developedbarbarism. All these pagan tribes have often beenclassed together indiscriminately under the nameDyaks or Dayaks, though many groups may beclearly distinguished from one another by differencesof culture, belief, and custom, and peculiarities oftheir physical and mental constitutions.

The Mohammedan population, being of veryheterogeneous ethnic composition, and havingadopted a culture of foreign origin, which may bebetter studied in other regions of the earth wherethe Malay type and culture is more truly indigenous,seems to us to be of secondary interest to theanthropologist as compared with the less culturedpagan tribes. We shall therefore confine our atten-tion to the less known pagan tribes of the interior

;

and when we speak of the people of Borneo ingeneral terms it is to the latter only that we refer(except where the *' Malays " are specifically men-tioned). Of these we distinguish six principalgroups: (i) Sea Dayaks or Ibans, (2) the Kayans,(3) Kenyahs, (4) Klemantans, (5) Muruts, (6) Punans.A census of the population has been made in

most of the principal districts of Sarawak and ofDutch Borneo ; but as no census of the whole

Ill THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO 31country has hitherto been made, it is impossible tostate with any pretence to accuracy the number ofthe inhabitants of the island. Basing our estimateon such partial and local enumerations as have beenmade, we believe the total population to be about3,000,000. Of these the Chinese immigrants andtheir descendants, who are rapidly increasing innumber, probably exceed 100,000. The Malaysand the native converts to Islam, who constitutewith the Chinese the population of the townsand settled villages of the coast districts, probablynumber between three and four hundred thousand

;

the Indian immigrants are probably not more than10,000; the Europeans number perhaps 3000; therest of the population is made up of the six groupsof barbarians named in the foregoing paragraph.

Any estimate of the numbers of the peopleof each of these six divisions is necessarily avery rough one, but it is perhaps worth whileto state our opinion on this question as follows :Klemantans, rather more than 1,000,000 ; Kenyahs,about 300,000 ; Muruts, 250,000 ; Sea Dayaks,200,000 ; Kayans, 150,000 ; Punans and otherpeoples of similar nomadic habits, 100,000

i.e. a

total of 2,000,000.(i) Of all these six peoples the Sea Dayaks have

become best known to Europeans, largely owingto their restless truculent disposition, and to thefact that they are more numerous in Sarawak thanany of the others. They have spread northwardsover Sarawak during the latter half of the lastcentury, chiefly from the region of the BatangLupar, where they are still numerous. They arestill spreading northward, encroaching upon themore peaceful Klemantan tribes. They are mostdensely distributed in the lower reaches of themain rivers of Sarawak, especially the Batang Luparand Saribas rivers, which are now exclusively

32 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.occupied by them ; but they are found also inscattered communities throughout almost all partsof Sarawak, and even in British North Borneo, andthey extend from their centre in Sarawak into theadjacent regions of Dutch Borneo, which are drainedby the northern tributaries of the Great KapuasRiver.

The Sea Dayak is of a well-marked and fairlyuniform physical type. His skin is distinctly darkerthan that of the other peoples of the interior, thoughnot quite so dark as that of most of the true Malays.The hair of his head is more abundant and longerthan that of other peoples. His figure is wellproportioned, neat, and generally somewhat boyish.His expression is bright and mobile, his lips andteeth are generally distorted and discoloured bythe constant chewing of betel nut. They are avain, dressy, boastful, excitable, not to say frivol-ous people cheerful, talkative, sociable, fond offun and jokes and lively stories ; though given toexaggeration, their statements can generally beaccepted as founded on fact ; they are industriousand energetic, and are great wanderers ; to the lastpeculiarity they owe the name of I ban, which hasbeen given them by the Kayans, and which hasnow been generally adopted even by the Sea Dayaksthemselves.

The good qualities enumerated above renderthe I ban an agreeable companion and a usefulservant. But there is another side to the picture :they have little respect for their chiefs, a peculiaritywhich renders their social organisation very defectiveand chaotic ; they are quarrelsome, treacherous,and litigious, and the most inveterate head-huntersof the country ; unlike most of the other peoples,they will take heads for the sake of the glorythe act brings them and for the enjoyment ofthe killing ; in the pursuit of human victims they

Ill THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO 33become possessed by a furious excitement that drivesthem on to acts of the most heartless treachery andthe most brutal ferocity.

All the Sea Dayaks speak one language, withbut slight local diversities of dialect. It is ex-tremely simple, being almost devoid of inflections,and of very simple grammatical structure, relyinglargely on intonation. It is closely allied to Malay.

(2) The Kayans are widely distributed throughoutcentral Borneo, and are to be found in large villagessituated on the middle reaches of all the principalrivers with the exception of those that run to thenorth coast. They occupy in the main a zonedividing the districts of the lower reaches of therivers from the central highlands from which allthe rivers flow.

They are a warlike people, but less truculentthan the Sea Dayaks, more staid and conservativeand religious, and less sociable. They do notwantonly enter into quarrels ; they respect and obeytheir chiefs. They are equally industrious withthe Sea Dayaks, and though somewhat slow andheavy in both mind and body, they are more skilledin the handicrafts than any of the other peoples.They also speak one language, which presents evenless local diversity than the Sea Dayak language.

(3) The Kenyahs predominate greatly in thehighlands a little north of the centre of Borneowhere all the large rivers have their sources ; butthey are found also in widely scattered villagesthroughout the Kayan areas. In all respects theyshow closer affinities with the Kayans than withthe Sea Dayaks ; as regards custom and mode oflife they closely resemble the Kayans, with whomthey are generally on friendly terms ; but they areeasily distinguished from the Kayans by well-markeddifferences of bodily and mental characters, aswell as by language. Physically they are without

VOL. I D

34 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.question the finest people of the country. Theirskin - colour is decidedly fairer than that of SeaDayaks or Kayans. They are of medium stature,with long backs and short, muscular, well-roundedlimbs ; a little stumpy in build, but of graceful andvigorous bearing. They are perhaps the mostcourageous and intelligent of the peoples

;pug-

nacious, but less quarrelsome than the Sea Dayak

;

more energetic and excitable than the Kayan;

hospitable and somewhat improvident, sociable andof pleasant manners ; less reserved and of morebuoyant temperament than the Kayan ; very loyaland obedient to their chiefs ; more truthful andmore to be depended upon under all circumstancesthan any of the other peoples, except possibly theKayans.

The Kenyahs speak a number of dialects of thesame language, and these differ so widely thatKenyahs of widely separated districts cannot con-verse freely with one another ; but, as with all thepeoples, except the Sea Dayaks, nearly every manhas the command of several dialects as well as of theKayan language.

(4) The Klemantans. Under this name we grouptogether a number of tribes which, though in ouropinion closely allied, are widely scattered in allparts of Borneo, and present considerable diversitiesof language and custom. In physical and mentalcharacters they show affinities to the Kenyahs onthe one hand and to the Muruts on the other.They are less bellicose than the peoples mentionedabove, and have suffered much at their hands.They are careful, intelligent, and sociable, thoughsomewhat timid, people ; skilful in handicrafts, butless energetic than the Kayans and Kenyahs, andinferior to them in metal work and the making ofswords and spears and boats. The blow-pipe istheir characteristic weapon, and they are more

.^ fl^

/

f

^

Plate 21. BULING, THE SON OF A KENYAH CHIEF OF THEBARAM DISTRICT.

THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO 35devoted to hunting than any others, except thePunans.

Klemantans are to be found in every part of theisland, but most of their villages are situated onthe lower reaches of the rivers. They are mostabundant in the south, constituting the greater partof the population of Dutch Borneo ; in the norththey are few, their place being filled by their nearrelatives, the Muruts. The latter constitute theprincipal part of the population of the northernend of the island, predominating over all the otherpeoples in British North Borneo, and in the northernextremities of Sarawak and of Dutch Borneo.

(5) The Muruts are confined to the northernpart of Borneo. They resemble the Klemantansmore closely than the other peoples. They arecomparatively tall and slender, have less regularand pleasing features than the Klemantans, andtheir skin is generally darker and more ruddy incolour. Their agriculture is superior to that ofthe other peoples, but they are addicted to muchdrinking of rice-spirit. Their social organisationis very loose, their chiefs having but little authority.Besides those who call themselves Muruts, we classunder the same general name several tribes whichwe regard as closely allied to them ; namely, theAdangs in the head of the Limbang ; the Kalabitsabout the head of the Baram ; the Sabans andKerayans at the head of the Kerayan river ; theLibuns ; the Lepu Asings at the head of the Bahau;Tagals and Dusuns in the most northerly part ; theTrings of the Barau and Balungan rivers on theeast.

(6) The Punans, among whom we include, besidethe Punans proper, the Ukits and a few otherclosely allied but widely scattered small groups,are the only people who do not dwell in villagesestablished on the banks of the rivers. They live

36 PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.in small groups of twenty or thirty persons, whichwander in the jungle. Each such group is generallymade up of a chief and his descendants. Thegroup will spend a few weeks or months at a timein one spot (to which generally they are attractedby the presence of wild sago), dwelling in rudeshelters of sticks and leaves, aud then moving on,but generally remaining within some one area,such as the basin of one of the upper tributariesof a large river. They are found throughout theinterior of Borneo, but are difficult to meet with,as they remain hidden in the depths of the forests.Unlike all the other peoples, they cultivate no padi(rice), and they do not make boats or travel on therivers. They support themselves by hunting withthe blow-pipe, by gathering the wild jungle fruits,and by collecting the jungle products and barteringthem with the more settled peoples. In physicalcharacters they closely resemble the Kenyahs, beingwell-built and vigorous ; their skin is of very lightyellow colour, and their features are regular andwell shaped. Mentally they are characterised byextreme shyness and timidity and reserve. Theyare quite inoffensive and never engage in openwarfare; though they will avenge injuries by stealthyattacks on individuals with the blow-pipe andpoisoned darts. Their only handicrafts are themaking of baskets, mats, blow-pipes, and theimplements used for working the wild sago ; butin these and in the use of the blow-pipe they arevery expert. All other manufactured articles usedby themcloths, swords, spearsare obtained bybarter from the other peoples. Unlike all the otherpeoples, they have no form of sepulture, but simplyleave the corpse of a comrade in the rude shelterin which he died. They sing and declaim rudemelancholy songs or dirges with peculiar skill andstriking effect. Their language is distinctive, but

Ill THE PEOPLES OF BORNEO z^is apparently allied to the Kenyah and Klemantantongues.We propose to deal with the topics of each of

our descriptive chapters by giving as full as possiblean^account-of -the Kayans, and adding to this someobservations as to the principal diversities of customand culture presented by the other peoples. For,if we should attempt to describe in detail each ofthese peoples with all their local diversities, thisbook would attain an inordinate length. TheKayans are in most respects the most homogeneousof these peoples, the most conservative and dis-tinctive, and present perhaps the richest and mostinteresting body of belief and custom and art ; whilemany of their customs and arts have been adoptedby their neighbours, or are indigenous with them.We may conclude this chapter by describing

briefly in general terms the physical characters, andthe habits and customs that are common to all ormost of these pagan tribes.

These peoples present no very great differencesof physical character. All are of medium height

;

their skin-colour ranges from a rich medium brownto a very pale cafd-au-lait, hardly deeper than thecolour of cream. Their hair is nearly black orvery dark brown, and generally quite lank, but insome cases wavy or even almost curly. Theirfaces show in nearly all cases, though in verydiverse degrees, some of the well-known mongoloidcharacters, the wide cheek-bones, the small obliqueeyes, the peculiar fold of the upper eyelid at its nasalend, and the scanty beard. In some individualsthese traces are very slight and in fact not certainlyperceptible. The nose varies greatly in shape, butis usually rather wide at the nostrils, and in verymany cases the plane of the nostrils is tilted a littleupwards and forwards. On the other hand someindividuals, especially among the Kenyahs, have

SS PAGAN TRIBES OF BORNEO chap.distinctly aquiline and well-formed noses. Amongstall these peoples, especially the Kenyahs, Punans,and Klemantans, there are to be seen a few in-dividuals of very regular well -shaped features ofEuropean type.

Although as regards physical characters all thesepeoples have much in common, yet each of thempresents peculiarities which are obvious to the eyeof an experienced observer, and enable him withouthesitation to assign to their proper groups themajority of individuals ; and such recognition onmere inspection is of course rendered easier by therelatively slight peculiarities of dress and ornamentproper to each group.

The pure-bred Kenyah presents, perhaps, themost clearly marked as well as the finest physicaltype. His skin is the colour of rich cream with avery small dash of coffee. The hair of his headvaries from slightly wavy to curly, and is neververy abundant or long in the men. The rest ofhis body is almost free from hair, and what littlegrows upon the face is carefully plucked out (notleaving even the eyebrows and eyelashes). Thispractice is common to all the peoples of the interiorexcept the Sea Dayaks. His stature is about1600 mm. ; his weight about 136 pounds. Hislimbs are distinctly short in proportion to his body

;

his trunk is well developed and square, and bothlimbs and trunk are well covered with roundedmus