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THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN SARAWAKS JABATAN KERdA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES AND
THE POSSmLE RELATIONSIDP WITH SOIL TYPES
Christopher Anak George
Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)
2006
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik UNIVERSlll MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(
THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN
SARAWAKS JABATAN KERJA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES
AND THE POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP WITH SOIL TYPES PKHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK
111111111 f~illll 11111 1000246232
By
CHRISTOPHER ANAK GEORGE
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SARAWAK
December 2005
Ii
I
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
d
First and foremost I would like to thank the following people who have assisted me
whether directly or indirectly from the conception till the completion of this
dissertation and they are as follows shy
(i) my supervisor in University Malaysia Sarawak Prof Wan Sulaiman Wan
Mohamad
(ii) the SLUSE (Cohort 5) Coordinator Dr Siti Rubiah Zainudin
(iii) the SLUSE lecturers
(iv) my fonner supervisor and senior engineer Mr Lim Yiam Sui (Operation And
Maintenance Section of Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters Kucbing)
whom I have the opportunity to work with from 2003 until 2005 and
(v) Mr Ngap Dollah (Soil Branch Agricultural Department Kuching) for providing
me with the softcopy of the relevant soil maps
Finally my very special thanks to my family members and friends who have given
me the support and encouragement in the course of completing this dissertation
~
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik Ul1VERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Appendices
List of Tables
List of Figures
List ofAbbreviations and Acronyms
Abstract
CHAPTER 1
11
12
13
14
CHAPTER 2
21
22
23
CHAPTER 3
31
32
33
INTRODUCTION
The Water Supply System In Sarawak
Methodology
Objective Of The Study
Scope Of The Study
LITERATURE REVIEW
Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
211 Water Quality Index (WQI)
212 Water Quality Classification
213 Water Quality Parameters
The Characteristic Of Peat Soil
Method of Treating Drinking Water Containing
Trihalomethanes
231 Properties of Activated Carbon
MATERIALS ANO METHODS
Data Sources
Water Quality Parameters
Data Analyses
Page t
i
II
iv
v
vi
Vll
IX
1
4
7
7
9
16
17
17
20
32
33
37
37
38
11
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
I
41 Descriptive Study 40
42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42
43 Frequency Occurrence 43
44 Correlation 46
45 Discussions 50
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
51 Conclusion 60
52 Recommendation 61
BmLIOGRAPHY 63
iii
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
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As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik UNIVERSlll MALAYSIA SARAWAJ(
THE OCCURRENCE OF TRIHALOMETHANES IN
SARAWAKS JABATAN KERJA RAYA WATER SUPPLIES
AND THE POSSIBLE RELATIONSHIP WITH SOIL TYPES PKHIDMAT MAKLUMAT AKADEMIK
111111111 f~illll 11111 1000246232
By
CHRISTOPHER ANAK GEORGE
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science (Land Use and Water Resource Management)
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA SARAWAK
December 2005
Ii
I
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
d
First and foremost I would like to thank the following people who have assisted me
whether directly or indirectly from the conception till the completion of this
dissertation and they are as follows shy
(i) my supervisor in University Malaysia Sarawak Prof Wan Sulaiman Wan
Mohamad
(ii) the SLUSE (Cohort 5) Coordinator Dr Siti Rubiah Zainudin
(iii) the SLUSE lecturers
(iv) my fonner supervisor and senior engineer Mr Lim Yiam Sui (Operation And
Maintenance Section of Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters Kucbing)
whom I have the opportunity to work with from 2003 until 2005 and
(v) Mr Ngap Dollah (Soil Branch Agricultural Department Kuching) for providing
me with the softcopy of the relevant soil maps
Finally my very special thanks to my family members and friends who have given
me the support and encouragement in the course of completing this dissertation
~
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik Ul1VERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Appendices
List of Tables
List of Figures
List ofAbbreviations and Acronyms
Abstract
CHAPTER 1
11
12
13
14
CHAPTER 2
21
22
23
CHAPTER 3
31
32
33
INTRODUCTION
The Water Supply System In Sarawak
Methodology
Objective Of The Study
Scope Of The Study
LITERATURE REVIEW
Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
211 Water Quality Index (WQI)
212 Water Quality Classification
213 Water Quality Parameters
The Characteristic Of Peat Soil
Method of Treating Drinking Water Containing
Trihalomethanes
231 Properties of Activated Carbon
MATERIALS ANO METHODS
Data Sources
Water Quality Parameters
Data Analyses
Page t
i
II
iv
v
vi
Vll
IX
1
4
7
7
9
16
17
17
20
32
33
37
37
38
11
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
I
41 Descriptive Study 40
42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42
43 Frequency Occurrence 43
44 Correlation 46
45 Discussions 50
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
51 Conclusion 60
52 Recommendation 61
BmLIOGRAPHY 63
iii
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Ii
I
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
d
First and foremost I would like to thank the following people who have assisted me
whether directly or indirectly from the conception till the completion of this
dissertation and they are as follows shy
(i) my supervisor in University Malaysia Sarawak Prof Wan Sulaiman Wan
Mohamad
(ii) the SLUSE (Cohort 5) Coordinator Dr Siti Rubiah Zainudin
(iii) the SLUSE lecturers
(iv) my fonner supervisor and senior engineer Mr Lim Yiam Sui (Operation And
Maintenance Section of Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters Kucbing)
whom I have the opportunity to work with from 2003 until 2005 and
(v) Mr Ngap Dollah (Soil Branch Agricultural Department Kuching) for providing
me with the softcopy of the relevant soil maps
Finally my very special thanks to my family members and friends who have given
me the support and encouragement in the course of completing this dissertation
~
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik Ul1VERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Appendices
List of Tables
List of Figures
List ofAbbreviations and Acronyms
Abstract
CHAPTER 1
11
12
13
14
CHAPTER 2
21
22
23
CHAPTER 3
31
32
33
INTRODUCTION
The Water Supply System In Sarawak
Methodology
Objective Of The Study
Scope Of The Study
LITERATURE REVIEW
Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
211 Water Quality Index (WQI)
212 Water Quality Classification
213 Water Quality Parameters
The Characteristic Of Peat Soil
Method of Treating Drinking Water Containing
Trihalomethanes
231 Properties of Activated Carbon
MATERIALS ANO METHODS
Data Sources
Water Quality Parameters
Data Analyses
Page t
i
II
iv
v
vi
Vll
IX
1
4
7
7
9
16
17
17
20
32
33
37
37
38
11
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
I
41 Descriptive Study 40
42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42
43 Frequency Occurrence 43
44 Correlation 46
45 Discussions 50
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
51 Conclusion 60
52 Recommendation 61
BmLIOGRAPHY 63
iii
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik Ul1VERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Appendices
List of Tables
List of Figures
List ofAbbreviations and Acronyms
Abstract
CHAPTER 1
11
12
13
14
CHAPTER 2
21
22
23
CHAPTER 3
31
32
33
INTRODUCTION
The Water Supply System In Sarawak
Methodology
Objective Of The Study
Scope Of The Study
LITERATURE REVIEW
Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
211 Water Quality Index (WQI)
212 Water Quality Classification
213 Water Quality Parameters
The Characteristic Of Peat Soil
Method of Treating Drinking Water Containing
Trihalomethanes
231 Properties of Activated Carbon
MATERIALS ANO METHODS
Data Sources
Water Quality Parameters
Data Analyses
Page t
i
II
iv
v
vi
Vll
IX
1
4
7
7
9
16
17
17
20
32
33
37
37
38
11
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
I
41 Descriptive Study 40
42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42
43 Frequency Occurrence 43
44 Correlation 46
45 Discussions 50
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
51 Conclusion 60
52 Recommendation 61
BmLIOGRAPHY 63
iii
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
I
41 Descriptive Study 40
42 Trihalomethanes Violation 42
43 Frequency Occurrence 43
44 Correlation 46
45 Discussions 50
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
51 Conclusion 60
52 Recommendation 61
BmLIOGRAPHY 63
iii
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
APPENDICES
Page
Appendix 1 Interim National Water Quality Standard for 67
Malaysia (DOE 1995)
Appendix 2 Drinking Water Quality Standards And Frequency 70
Of Monitoring (Ministry Of Health Malaysia 2000)
Appendix 3 Letter Horizons 73
Appendix 4 Sampling Programme For Analysis At Chemistry 74
Department - Water Analysis Frequency For Water
Supply (JKR Sarawak 1999)
Appendix 5 The Summary Of Trihalomethanes Occurrence In 76
The Respective Water Supply Authorities From 1996
- 2005
Appendix 6 The Area Coverage Of Different Soil Types Located 79
At The Water Supply Authorities
Appendix 7 Results Of Frequencies Correlations And Crosstabs 82
Of Various Parameters
tv
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities 6
Table 21 Distribution Of Peat Swamps (Hectares) Per Division In 26
Sarawak
Table 22 Surface Areas Of Typically Available Activated Carbons 34
Table 41 Soil Type Located At Water Supply Authorities In 41
Sarawak
Table 42 Trihalomethanes Violation 43
Table 43 The Frequency Occurrence Of Trihalomethanes Violation 44
Table 44 Average Level Of Trihalomethanes Observed In The Past 45
10 Years (1996 - 2005)
Table 45 Relationship Between Soil Type And The Presence Of 48
Trihalomethanes
Table 46 Interpretation Ofr Value 48
Table 47 Relationship Between Soil Area And The Occurrence Of 49
Trihalomethanes
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water 2
Supply Authorities
Authorities
Catchment Areas
Area Boundary
Gazetting Processes
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 5
Figure 21 The Distribution Of Various Soil Type In Sarawak 27
Figure 22 The Distribution Of Peat Soil In Sarawak 28
Figure 23 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply 29
Figure 24 The Delineation Of A Water Supply Catchment 30
Figure 25 The Sarawak Water Supply Catchment Area 31
Figure 41 Sop Type at Various Water Supply Authorities 42
vi
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
I I
I I
As BOD CEC CFU COD CPI DO DOE EPA SFPUC HAA FCC HCl INWQS JKR LAKU SWB KWB kg km Ilg Ilhos 1 ml ppm ppt MOH MWA NfuN NSDWQ NTU RM RWQC SLUSE SPSS TCC TCU TSS UNIMAS WQI Ho Ha
RES CHL pH COL TUR TDS COD BOD
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
Arsenic Biological Oxygen Demand Cation Exchange Capacity Colony Forming Unit Chemical Oxygen Demand Consumer Price Index Dissolved oxygen Department of Environment Environmental Protection Agency San Francisco Public Utilities Commission Haloacetic acid Faecal Coliform Count Hydrochloric Acid Interim National Water Quality Standard Public Works Department Jabatan Kerja Raya Northern Zone Water Board Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara Sibu Water Board Kuching Water Board kilogram (s) kilometre(s) microgram micromhos litre(s) millilitre(s) parts per million parts per trillion Ministry of Health Malaysian Water Association ammoniacal nitrogen National Standard for Drinking Water Quality Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Malaysian Ringgit Raw Water Quality Criteria Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management Statistic Package for Social Science Total Coliform Count True Colour Unit Total Suspended Solids
University Malaysia Sarawak Water Quality Index Null Hypothesis Alternative Hypothesis
Residual Chlorine pH Colour Turbidity Total Dissolved Solids Chemical Oxygen Demand Biological Oxygen Demand
VB
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
NH3 NN TN MBASE TA FL CHL FE MN AL THM CHCla CHBr2CI CHChBr CHBr3 As Hg Cd Pb Cr Ag Cu Zn Mg Na Se S04 DBP NDMA CDBP DOM Kp TOC PAC GAC SMK MLD
Ammonia Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrogen Total Nitrogen Detergent Total Alkalinity Fluoride Chlorine Ferum Manganese Aluminium Trihalomethanes Chloroform Trichloromethane Chlorodibromomethane Bromodichloromethane Bromoform Arsenic Mercury Cadmium Plumbum Chromium Argentum Cuprum Zinc Magnesium Natrium Selenium Sulphate Disinfection By-Product N itrosodimethylamine Chlorination Disinfection By-Product Dissolved Organic Oxygen Partition Coefficient Total Organic Carbon Powdered Activated Carbon Granulated Activated Carbon National Secondary School Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Million Litres Per Day
Vlll
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
ABSTRACT
d
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four agencies namely Public Works Department Kuching Water
Board Sibu Water Board and LAKD However the Medical Department will
assist on supplying gravity feed water supply to areas not yet supplied by any of
the four agencies The objective of this study was to determine the level of
trihalomethanes found in the respective water supply authorities between the
last 10 years from 1996 until 2005 Trihalomethanes are one of the disinfection
by-products and considered to be carcinogenic to the affected consumers in the
long term
The data for this study was collected from the Water Supply Branch JKR
Headquarters in Kuching Sarawak and the data is based on the previous ten
(10) years of data collected by JKR Headquarters from 1996 until 2005 The data
was later analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS)
Version 110 whereby descriptive statistics were used to analyse the data
Pearson Product Moment Coefficient was used to determine the relationship
between the average level of trihalomethanes present in treated water detected
by each of the water supply authority and soil type of the area It is a measure of
association that allows researchers to determine the strength and direction of an
association
An r value of -0199 from the statistical analysis indicated that a negative
relationShip exists between the average range oflevel of trihalomethanes and soil
type In other words the higher the level of trihalomethanes detected the less
ix
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
I
peat the soil type is which means that trihalomethanes can occur anyway
regardless if the soil is of peat soil type or non-peat soil
Two hypotheses have been developed for the purpose of studying the relationship
between trihalomethanes and the soil type namely the Null Hypothesis (Ho) and
the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) The Null Hypothesis (Ho) indicates that there is
no association between the soil type factor and the occurrence of
trihalomethanes As for the Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) this hypothesis
indicates that there is an association between the soil type factor and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes Based on the analysis it can be interpreted that
the Null Hypothesis is significant whereby it indicated no association between
the soil type and the occurrence of trihalomethanes
Even though this study proposed the use of powdered or granular activated
carbon (pAC or GAC) at the affected treatment plants to remove dissolved
organics colour and taste and odour-causing compounds the cost factor needs to
be considered by JKR Sarawak before any implementation on the usage of PAC
or GAC is to be carried out for the affected treatments plants As at end of 2005
JKR Sarawak has not use the PAC or GAC at their affected treatment plants
However this study also suggested another option which is the privatization of
all the treatment plants under JKR Sarawak Nevertheless this option will have
to be carefully studied by the potential private sectors in terms of return
investments and the socio-economic status of the rural people where most of
these treatment plants are located
x
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
ABSTRAK
Pembangunan pengoperasian dan penyelenggaraan bekalan air di ~arawak
dilaksanakan oleh empat agensi iaitu Jabatan Kerja Raya Lembaga Air
Kuching Lembaga Air Sibu dan Lembaga Air Kawasan Utara
Walaubagaimanapun Jabatan Kesihatan akan membantu dari segi bekalan air
secara graviti di kawasan yang belum dibekalkan oleh salah satu daripada
agensi-agensi terse but Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menentukan tahap
trihalomethane yang didapati di loji-Ioji perawatan air sepanjang 10 tahun
antara tahun 1996 hingga 2005 Trihalomethane adalah salah satu daripada
hasil sampingan perawatan air dan dianggap sebagai kasinogenik kepada orang
awam untuk jangka masa yang lama
Data-data untuk kajian ini telah diperoleh dari Cawangan Bekalan Air JKR
IbuPejabat di Kuching Sarawak dan data-data tersebut merangkumi data-data
yang telah dikumpul oleh JKR IbuPejabat selama 10 tabun dari tahun 1996
hingga 2005 Data-data tersebut telah dianalisa dengan menggunakan Pakej
Statistik Sains Sosia (SPSS) Versi 110 yang mana statistik secara diskripsi
digunakan untuk menganalisa data-data tersebut Pemalar Momen Produk
Pearson digunakan untuk menentukan hubungan di antara purata tahap
trihalomethane di dalam air terawat yang dikesan oleh loji-Ioji perawatan air
dengan jenis tanah di kawasan loji-Ioji tersebut Ia adalah pengukuran
hubungan yang membenarkan penyelidik-penyelidik menentukan kekuatan dan
arab hubungan tersebut
Nilaii bersamaan -0199 dari analisa statistik menunjukkan bahawa terdapat
hubungan secara negatif di antara purata tahap trihalomethane dengan jenis
Xl
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
tanah Dalam kata lain semakin tinggi nilai tahap trihalomethane yang dikesan
semakin kurang sifat tanah gambut pada tanah tersebut yang bermakna
trihalomethane boleh berlaku tanpa mengira tanah tersebut adaJah tanah
gambut ataupun bukan tanah gambut
Dua hipotesis telah direka bagi tujuan mengkaji hubungan di antara
trihalomethane dan jenis tanah iaitu Hipotesis Null (Ho) dan Hipotesis
Alternatipound Hipotesis Null (Ho) menyatakan bahawa tiada hubungan di antara
jenis tanah dan penghasilan trihalomethane Untuk Hipotesis Alternatif
hipotesis ini menyatakan bahawa terdapat hubungan di antara jenis tanah
dengan penghasilan trihalomethane Berdasarkan analisa yang dijalankan
interpretasi terhadap Hipotesis Null adalah penting yang mana analisa ini
menunjukkan tiada hubungan di antara jenis tanah dan penghasilan
trihalomethane
Walaupun kajian ini mencadangkan penggunaan serbuk atau butiran karbon
teraktif (pAC atau GAG) di loji-Ioji perawatan air untuk mengeluarkan bahan
organic terlarut warna serta rasa dan kompaun penyebab bau factor kos perlu
diben perhatian oleh JKR Sarawak sebelum penggunaan PAC atau GAC
dimulakan di loji-Ioji perawatan air yang terlibat Sehingga akhir taboo 2005 JKR
Sarawak belum menggtmakan PAC atau GAC ke atas loji-loji perawatan air yang
terlibat Kajian ini juga mencadangkan opsyen penswastaan kesemua loji perawatan
air JKR Sarawak Walaubagaimanapoo kajian secara menyeluruh perlu dijalankan
oleh pihak sector swasta dari segi pulangan modal pelaburan dan status sosioshy
ekonomi masyarakat di kawasan pedalaman di mana kebanyakan loji-Ioji ini didapati
XlI
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
CHAPTER 1
d
INTRODUCTION
11 The Water Supply System In Sarawak
The development operation and maintenance of water supply in Sarawak are
undertaken by four main water supply authorities namely the Public Works
Department or better known as Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) (for supplying water to
the whole Divisions in Sarawak and to the rural areas of Sarawak) Kuching Water
Board (supplying water within Kuching town) Sibu Water Board (supplying water
I I within Sibu town) and LAKU (Northern Zone Water Board) which supplies water
within Bintulu town Miri town and Limbang town as indicated in Figure 11 The
Medical Department also assists the Public Works Department (JKR) on supplying
gravity feed water supply to areas that are not yet supplied with treated water by
JKR
A typical water treatment plant consists of a raw water intake a sedimentation
tank a filtration tank and a clear water well all of which are built within close
proximity During the water treatment process in a treatment plant the raw water
from a nearby river is pumped into the sedimentation tank whereby the raw water
is mixed with aluminium sulphate (also known as alum) and calcium carbonate (also
known as soda ash) at a dosing rate determined by the flow rate and the Jar Test
1
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
j-lVAK WATER SUPPLY OVERVIEW
ORGANIZATIONAL SET-UP
STATE W TER AUTHORITY (STATEFINA CIALSECRETARy)
I ---~~ _~--
SWB (3)
l5ibuWldU
I
JKR (W TER SUPPI BRA C1I)
(88) bull lilt atbdIcd
Note Figures in bracket denote the number of water supply authorities under the agency concerned
Figure 11 The Organizational Set Up Of Sarawak Water Supply
Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
It is in this sedimentation tank that coagulation and flocculation processes take
place whereby the tiny particles of organic matter from the raw water will form into
2
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
big lumps of floc which will settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tank The top
part of the raw water in the sedimentation tank which now consists of less fine
particles of organic matter and suspended solids will then flow into the filtration
tank
The filtration tank consists of a few layers of sand known as the filter media which
will filter the raw water coming from the sedimentation tank The raw water that is
being filtered by this filtration tank is usually crystal clear and this crystal clear
water is then pumped into the clear water well whereby the process of chlorination
will take place Chlorination of the filtered water is necessary in order to eliminate
all the bacteria that might be found in the filtered water namely E-Coliform bacteria
and faecal coliform bacteria which pose a serious health threat to humans when they
drink the untreated filtered water
Once this filtered water undergoes chlorination the water from the clear water well
is then pumped to the high level tank (also known as reservoir) usually located on
top of a hill and then the water is gravitated through a series of pipelines before it
reaches the consumers These series of pipelines consist of distribution mains and
the communication pipes Distribution mains are the main pipes connected from the high level tanks to the pipes laid along the main roads and the communication pipes
are the pipes connected from the main pipes to the respective houses
3
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
12 Methodology
This study covers the various sampling points of each water supply authority
throughout the 11 divisions in Sarawak of which the water supply authorities are
being managed by JKR Sarawak JKR Sarawak has 88 water supply authorities
(water treatment plants which have been gazetted) spread across the 11 Divisions of
Sarawak as shown in Figure 12 and Table 11
When a new treatment plant has been constructed it will be gazetted through the
Ministry of Public Utilities Once it has been gazetted only then it will be considered
as water supply authority and be able to collect payments from water bills paid by
the consumers
The management of these water supply authorities is not an easy task as it involves
a lot of funds to maintain the running of each treatment plant in order to supply
enough treated water to the consumers
4
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Puat Khldmat 11 klumat Akade~ UNlVERSITI MALAY lA SARAWIU
LEGEND bull JKR WATER SUPPLY AUTHORITIES
Figure 12 The Distribution Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
5
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Table 11 The List Of JKR Sarawaks Water Supply Authorities
W WATER SUPPL AUTHORlnES KUCHING DMSION MIRI DIVISION BINTULU DIVISION MUKAI DIVISION
I TAPAH 28 NIAHSUBIS 48 TATAU 66 MUKAH
2 LUNDU 29 MARUDI 49 SEBAUH 67 BALINGlAN
J SEMATAN 30 LONG LAMA 50 LABANG 68 DALAT
4- SINIAWAN 31 BEKENU 51 TUBAU 69 IGAN
5 BAU 32 BELURU 52 PANDAN 70 OYA
6- BAKO 53 KUALATATAU 71 KUT
7 MUARATEBAS LIMBANG DIVISION 54- SANGAN 72 KUALA BALINGlAN
I SANTIJBONGIDAMAI 33 LUBAI TENGAH 55 SG ASAP BAKUN 73 KPG TlAN
34- LAWAS 74 BELA W AYJERIJEH
1B16~ DIYII~ 35 TRUSAN S~M~HAN DIVISION 75 PALOH
9 SRiAMAN 36 SUNDAR 56 SERIAN 76- MATU
10 MELUGU 37 MERAPOK 57 TRiBOH DAROshy11 SKRANG 38 KUALALAWAS 58 SIMUNJAN 78- SAAI
12- LUBOKANTU 59 TEBAKANG 79 SEMUP
IJ ENGKIULI SARIKEI DIVISION 60 GEDONG
14- STUMBINIBLJAT 39 SARlKEI 61 ASAJAYA BETONG DIVISION
15 L1NGGA 40 BINTANGOR 62 SEBUYAU 80 BETONG
16- WBOKANTUWS 41 PAKAN 63 TEBEDU 81 SARATOK
17 BANTING 42 JULAU 64 SEBANGAN 82 ROBAN
II PANTU 43 SELALANG 65 DALAI RlNGIN 83 DEDAK
III Wm12t 84 SPAOH
19 BAWANG ASSAN ~IT DIVISION 85 MALUDAM
2t KANOWIT 44- KAPIT 86- PUSA
21 ULUMUKAH 45 SONG 87 KABONG
12 NGSEKUAU 46- DELAGA 88 DELADIN
n MACHAlf 47 NGENTAW
24 NGJAGAU
25 NGTADA
J6 NGNGUNGUN
no NGDAP
(Source Water Supply Branch JKR Headquarters)
6
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
13 Objective OfThe Study
The main objective of this study was to determine the level of trihalomethanes found
in the respective water supply authorities between the last ten years from 1996 until
2005 Trihalomethanes can be categorized as chloroform (CHCla)
chlorodibromomethane (CHBr2CI) bromodichloromethane (CHChBr) and
bromoform (CHBra) Trihalomethanes occur when chlorine reacts with organic
matters that are still present in the treated water during the process of chlorination
Trihalomethanes are carcinogenic and can cause cancer to the affected consumers in
the long term
Ana1ysis of the water quality parameters such as trihalomethanes is usually carried
out by the Chemistry Department half yearly whereby the water samples are taken
at the various respective water supply authorities under JKR Sarawak However
the formation of chloroform (CHCla) which is a part of trihalomethanes was
discussed in this study
14 Scope Of The Study
In order to answer the objective as indicated previously the following aspects were
studied
7
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
_ _ _______
(i) the presence or absence of trihalomethanes from the various sampling points in
the respective water supply authorities of every division in Sarawak through
the use of secondary data and information and
(ii) whether there is a relationship between the soil type factor and area in the
catchments that contribute to the flow at the water intake points and the
occurrence of trihalomethanes
This study was carried out within a period of four and a half months from
1- November 2005 until 15th March 2006 It used the data available in JKR
Headquarters for the purpose of identifying the pattern on the occurrence of
trihalomethanes in the respective water supply authorities Additionally this study
looks into efforts or necessary measures that may have been carried out to reduce
the occurrence of trihalomethanes and attempts to provide possible explanation if
rectification measures had not been carried out The report will provide a valuable
insight to JKR Headquarters to properly manage the treatment of raw water
throughout the whole divisions in Sarawak
8
= -c--~---- ___===============================
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
21 Disinfection By-Products And Trihalomethanes
There has been great reduction in the occurrence of waterborne diseases since the
widespread implementation of drinking water disinfection However other potential
risks may have been introduced in the treated water despite measurable public
health benefit has been achieved The presence of chloroform and other
trihalomethanee (THMe) in treated drinking water was first associated with the
chlorination of drinking water in 1974 (AWW A 1999) In addition to killing
microorganisms it was discovered that disinfectants react with organic and
inorganic substances naturally present in the water to produce a variety of
disinfection by-products (DBPs) which include THMs The disinfection by-products
8880ciated with chlorination are THMs halo acetic acids haloacetonitriles and
halopicrins Chlorite and chlorate are by-products of chlorine dioxide disinfection
while ozonation may result in bromate formation Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is
a by product ofchlorination and chloramination
1979 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had regulated the
tribalomethanee by setting the limit at 100 mgll (AWW A 1999) The Stage 1
Diainfectants and Disinfection Byproduct Rule was widely announced in December
9
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10
Trihalomethanes (THMs)
mducts
1998 and the limits have since been revised to 80 pgl for trihalomethanes 60 pgll
for haloacetic acid 10 mgll for chlorite and 10 pgll for bromate As haleacetonitriles
halopicrina chlorate and NDMA have been identified as health hazards it is
important that a balance be achieved in reducing exposure to DBPs and at the same
time maintaining control of waterborne diseases
In February 2004 the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission (SFPUC)
converted its drinking water disinfectant from chlorine to chloramines in order to
meet the stricter regulations (wwwsfgovorg) As a result the conversion has
effectively lowered THM formation while maintaining public health protection
According to American Water Works Association (1999) the different types ofDBPs
consist of bromate chloratechlorite haloacetic acids haloacetonitriles halopicrins
nitrosodimethylamine and trihalomethanes However all of these DBPs will not be
further discussed in this Chapter as this study will only focus on trihalomethanes
which is one of the disinfectant by-products (DBPs)
are small organic compounds similar in structure to
methane but also containing chlorine andor bromine The compounds are the major
of chlorine disinfection of water middotsupplies They are formed when
-_dually occurring organic substances react with chlorine used to disinfect drinking
The trihalomethanes of significance in disinfected water are chloroform
blolrobromomethane cblorodibromomethane and bromoform Studies of human
10