The MilpaFrom the Ancient Yucatan to Modern America

Lauren HaddowBrigham Young University – Idaho

18 July 2011

IntroductionMan has never had a passive relationship with the physical world.

Today, it is clearly evident that man has made a significant impact on the

environment, but modern humans are not the only ones to do so; even the

early foraging societies of prehistory shaped their environments through

what is referred to as tending. Tending, or what we might today call

gardening, is the practice of nurturing plants in order to produce food. An

interesting example of this practice was found in Australia, where foragers

would harvest yam roots but re-plant the inedible tops, which grew edible

yams the next year (Gilbert 37). While this was not farming (in the sense

that these foragers did not prepare the soil, store seeds, or weed the area),

it was a clear step towards the inevitable rise of community-based and large

scale food production.

It was not difficult for foragers to make the jump to farming. They

already had most of the tools and knowledge they would need to produce

food on a larger scale. Experts

argue that the switch to farming

could occurred due to two things:

climate change (which would

have compelled foragers to work

harder and longer for less food)

and/or social demand (which would

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have been triggered by social elites using the food for feasting, which

increased their social status). However, these theories do not explain why

multiple foraging societies around the world “suddenly” decided to become

permanent farming societies. Farming is thought to have been discovered in

at least three (but possibly seven or eight) different parts of the world

within a 5,000-year period (Gilbert 38). This change to farming is thought

widely to be one of the key events in the history of mankind; it was farming

that made the large-scale civilizations we are a part of today possible.

Farming Practices in MesoamericaAfter the advent of farming, many civilizations cultivated crops in

ways that suited their diets and environments. One example of this is the

milpa in Central and South

America. The word milpa comes

from the Nahuatl (language

used by the Aztecs) phrase mil-

pa which means “to the field”

(Armstrong). The milpa

generally produces maize (corn),

beans, and squash, along with

crops that are suited to local environments. The crops produced in the

milpa are produced and consumed locally, and constitute the staple crops in

local diets. Land used for the milpa can be cultivated for two years, and

then allowed to lie fallow for eight years, to allow for natural renewal of

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vegetation (Arias). If the field rotation continues and leaves the appropriate

amount of time for field regeneration, the milpa system can be sustained

indefinitely.

By rotating crops and using slash-and-burn techniques, farmers allow

secondary vegetation to grow in

their fields, which creates the

ecosystem necessary for traditional

and successful milpa farming. There

are several principles revealed in

the milpa system; among others, the

milpa minimizes the use of toxic

chemicals, conserves precious resources, manages ecological relationships,

diversifies varieties of crop growth, and probably most importantly,

empowers people (Arias).

First, the milpa makes minimal or no use of toxic chemicals used for

pest and weed control. The milpa also avoids the use of genetically

engineered crops that provide less nutrients and cost more for farmers to

produce. Second, the milpa conserves resources. Farmers are able to plant

the milpa with virtually no impact on the landscape or environment. Often,

forests do not need to be cleared for a milpa and farmers plant their crops

in what is known as a “forest garden.” Third, the milpa sustains the

ecological relationship through the intercropping of biologically

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complemented crops such as beans and corn. For example, beans provide

significant amounts of nitrogen in the soil, a chemical that corn requires in

abundance. By providing the nitrogen, the beans prevent the corn from

leaching essential nutrients too quickly from the soil. There are other

biological upsides to the milpa, as Charles C. Mann describes in his book

1491:

Milpa crops are nutritionally and environmentally complementary.

Maize lacks the amino acids lysine and tryptophan, which the body

needs to make proteins and niacin;.... Beans have both lysine and

tryptophan.... Squashes, for their part, provide an array of vitamins;

avocados, fats (197-198).

Fourth, the milpa provides for high crop diversity. This diversity inevitably

translates into diet diversity for those who consume the products. In some

places, the milpa can provide fifteen varieties of corn, five of bean, three of

squash, and six of chile (Arias).Even when the milpa is left fallow, the field

becomes a habitat for birds and other animals, creating biodiversity and

landscape diversity. The milpa provides many needs for local communities,

ranging from the obvious food production to construction materials, wood

for fuel, flowering plants, and animals for hunting. Fifth, the milpa as a local

institution empowers the farmers who work it. Traditional knowledge of

milpa agriculture is passed down in a community, preserving heritage. The

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milpa gives the community a sense of self-reliance and importance through

the simple act of producing the things required to sustain the community.

The milpa has been the object of much study in recent history. It has

been discovered separately by different European societies during the initial

stages of contact between the Old World and the New World. English

settlers in what would become the United States of America first

encountered the milpa through the Native American tribes on the coasts of

New England. These tribes utilized the milpa system in what they called the

“Three Sisters”; the three sisters being corn, squash, and beans. The milpa

was so widely adapted because it was not only environmentally friendly

(which probably was not known by the ancient farmers), but because it

provided all the nutrients necessary to sustain human life. Today, the milpa

is still studied as more and more people recognize the impact of large-scale

industrial farming on the environment. The milpa, in the estimation of H.

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Garrison Wilkes, a maize researcher at the University of Massachusetts in

Boston, "is one of the most successful human inventions ever created."

Cultural Aspects of the MilpaEven aside from all the ecologically and biologically important aspects

of the milpa is the fact that the milpa is more than just a source of food for

the communities that incorporate them. The concept of the milpa is also a

sociocultural concept. The farmers experience direct and complex

relationships with their land. The community is centered around the

planting, tending, and harvesting of the milpa. It is said that “the making of

milpa is the central, most sacred act, one which binds together the family,

the community, the universe...[it] forms the core institution of Indian society

in Mesoamerica and its religious and social importance often appear to

exceed its nutritional and economic importance” (Nigh).

For example, in San Felipe del Agua, a community in Oaxaca, the

milpa is more than fields and crops. It is a network of families. The milpa

expands to include the “traditional knowledge, hand-made tools, the Zebu

crossed criollo cattle used for

plowing, burros, dogs,

backyard tortilla factories,

kitchen tables, meals, hard

work – a way of life centered

around the [milpa]”

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(Armstrong). The milpa not only gives the community essential nutrients for

life, but provides a sense of purpose and importance in an ever-changing,

modern world.

Threats and ChallengesThe modern world has impacted many traditional practices, including

the milpa. Due to the expansion of civilization, many governments have

instituted “cash crops” in certain areas in order to feed the growing

populations. Cash crops are crops that are grown for profit. This means that

if a certain area is particularly suited to corn production, only corn will be

grown because it is worth the most and is produced the best in the local

soils and environment. In Mexico, the production of maize was actively

pushed by the government, threatening the existence of the milpa. This

push for maize monoculture or cash cropping was supported with chemical

fertilizers, herbicides, and genetically enhanced maize varieties. The use of

fertilizers has resulted in the acidification and contamination of soils and

water, and dramatically increased production costs. Herbicides have in

some places eliminated rare varieties of seed used in the milpa, along with

edible species of plants and animals.

The side-effects were felt most strongly in small communities. Maize

yields decreased dramatically, production costs rose, lower maize prices

caused lower crop revenues, and in general poverty levels increased (Milpa-

Solar Systems). A large challenge to traditional farming methods comes

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from the United States, where farms are corporate-owned and extensive. An

article from BBC news describes how subsidized farms in the US are

outcompeting their Mexican competitors. Due to the cheaper price of US

corn, Mexican markets sell more of it, dropping the demand for the locally-

grown, more expensive product (US Maize ‘Threat’ to Mexico Farms). The

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) allows the Mexican

government to curb the effects of imported maize through import taxes,

although this is a tool the government does not use, to the disadvantage of

rural farmers.

There is some hope for small scale farming, however. Immigration

issues in the US are causing farmers like Steve Sarconi of California to

examine business options south of the border. Sarconi, who has a $50

million business growing lettuce and broccoli in California, used to rely on

immigrant labor from Mexico, most of it illegal. In 2006, Sarconi began

shifting his business to fields in Mexico, where Mexicans can work the fields

without the risk of deportation (Preston). Although the downsides of this

type of business range from job loss in the US to the spread of genetically

modified crops, the benefits for Mexico include a counter to the excessive

urbanization it is experiencing, along with an increase in knowledge of new

farming techniques and equipment. Importantly, Sarconi’s business keeps

the work local for rural workers, and despite the advent of new farming

technology, Sarconi himself admits “We haven’t come up with a way to tell a

machine what’s a good head [of lettuce] and what’s a bad head” (Preston).

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A challenge faced by a local farmer, Juan Bautista, surfaced when

government agronomists came to his village of Chun-Yah. The agronomists

told Bautista and other local farmers that the pitaya, or dragon fruit, was to

become the local cash crop. The pitaya could easily be grown in the Yucatan

region where Bautista lived, but unfortunately, extensive use of trellises

were needs to support the plants. Without enough government funding to

support the costs of building the trellises, farmers in Chun-Yah had to

improvise. What Bautista and others did was use their milpas to grow the

pitaya. Instead of concrete trellises, the farmers used existing trees to

support the fruit. Generic milpa crops like corn, beans, and squash are also

planted in the “forest garden” creating a well-planned, well-managed

ecosystem (Bahnson). Bautista and other farmers have been very successful

with this type of growing. They not only grow the high-yielding, profitable

pitaya, but they also enjoy the benefits of the milpa system. Ironically, the

agronomists who pushed the farmers to grow the pitaya in the first place

returned to learn the growing secrets of the Chun-Yah farmers. This is proof

of the usefulness of the milpa system in our modern world; evidence that we

can work with, and not in spite of, our environments (Bahnson).

Community Gardening in Modern AmericaThe idea of community gardens is not only found in Mesoamerica. The

European version of community gardening provided areas of land in urban

areas in which multiple people would garden separate plots of land within.

This concept was utilized in the US as well. The big push for individual and

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community garden in the United States

came as a result of World War II. With

most commercial food production being

redirected towards military needs,

citizens were encouraged to grow their

own gardens to avoid food rationing

(Reinhardt). Almost twenty million

Americans planted their own “victory

gardens” in response to the government

request. They not only planted in their own backyards, but neighbors pooled

their resources to create community cooperative gardens that grew all

different kinds of fruits and vegetables. It is estimated that 9-10 million tons

of food were produced in the victory gardens, which equaled the amount of

commercial production of fresh vegetables in the same time (Reinhardt).

Today, 15% of the world’s food is grown in urban areas. Gardens are

grown in backyards, on rooftops, balconies, vacant lots, parks, and other

open spaces. Many Americans keep gardens for economic, social, emotional,

and physical reasons. In some areas, gardens help to combat regular food

shortages that result from economic or social reasons.

Social Benefits It is difficult to find a down-side to community gardens. They promote

healthy communities through the availability of fresh, naturally-grown

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produce. They provide food security for poorer individuals. In urban

environments, the gardens provide a green, open space within city limits.

Gardens fortify community bonds and create recreational and therapeutic

opportunities. They also provide an environmental awareness and education

(Urban Agriculture). Most importantly, community gardens help to

stimulate social interaction, encourage self-reliance, beautify

neighborhoods, reduce food budgets, and conserve resources (ACGA).

What Can We Do?In order for community gardens to produce the benefits listed above,

they need to be created by enterprising members of the community. If there

is already an existing community garden, plots can often be purchased or

rented for a very low price. In the absence of community gardens, many

citizens grow gardens in their backyards. Often, one person’s enthusiasm

for gardening at home can spread to their family, friends, and neighbors.

Another way to promote healthy food options is to consume locally grown

produce. Buying local means that less resources are used in the

transportation of the food product. Buying produce at local farmer’s

markets also helps promote the local economy and generally results in

fresher, more nutritious food products.

ConclusionIt is said that we must study our history in order to improve the

future. This is very true in regards to food production in the modern world.

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By using ancient techniques like the ones used in growing the milpa, we can

produce the required amounts of food with the least amount of

environmental impact. The small scale of the milpa places the responsibility

of self-sufficiency on individuals. By growing naturally and locally,

individuals can offset the global and environmental impacts of commercial

farming that are felt around the world. As communities and families become

self-reliant, social strains like poverty, disease, and famine are alleviated,

leaving governments to focus on other issues. The reward of self-reliance is

more than economical, it is felt mentally. Self-reliance allows individuals to

feel secure and have more hope for their futures.

Works Cited

"ACGA." CommunityGarden.org. American Community Garden Association.

Web. 12 July 2011. <http://www.communitygarden.org/>.

Arias, Luis M. ""Milpa" Agroecosystems in Yucatan, Mexico."

Agroecology.com. 1999. Web. 1 July 2011.

<http://www.agroecology.org/Case%20Studies/milpa.html>.

Armstrong, Brenda. "The Milpa Project." The Milpa Project- Supporting

Sustainable Family Agriculture. Web. 8 July 2011.

<http://www.themilpaproject.com/>.

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Bahnson, Fred. "Mexican Farmers Turn Milpas into Forest Gardens."

Worldwatch Institute. 2011. Web. 1 July 2011.

<http://www.worldwatch.org/node/6382>.

Gilbert, Erik, and Jonathan T. Reynolds. Africa in World History: From

Prehistory to the Present. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice

Hall, 2008. Print.

"Milpa-Solar Systems." Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Web. 1 July

2011.

<http://www.fao.org/nr/giahs/candidate-system/candidate/milpa-solar-

systems/milpa-solar-detailed/en/>.

Nigh, R. Evolutionary ecology of Maya agriculture in highland Chipas,

Mexico. PhD Dissertation, Stanford University. Ann Arbor. 1976.

University Microfilms.

Preston, Julia. "Short on Labor, Farmers in U.S. Shift to Mexico." The New

York Times - Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. 5 Sept.

2007. Web. 7 July 2011.

<http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/05/us/05export.html>.

Reinhardt, Claudia. "Victory Gardens During World War II." The Wessels

Living History Farm, the Story of Agricultural Innovation. Web. 10

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July 2011.

<http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe40s/crops_02.html>.

"Urban Agriculture." Municipal Research and Service Center of

Washington. Web. 3 July 2011.

<http://www.mrsc.org/subjects/parks/ComGarden.aspx>.

"US Maize 'Threat' to Mexico Farms." BBC News. 13 Nov. 2004. Web. 7 July

2011. <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4008205.stm>.

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