the manipulation of human behavior - 1961

8/14/2019 The Manipulation of Human Behavior - 1961

1/274

THE MANIPULATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

-i-

editors

ALBERT D. BIDERMAN

Bureau of Social Science Research, Inc.

HERBERT ZIMMER

Associate Professor of PsychologyUniversity of Georgia

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Ne !or" # $on%on

-ii-

THE MANIPULATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

-iii-

Copyright 1961 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

All rights reserve%. his 'oo" or any (art thereof )ust not 'e re(ro%uce% in any for) ithout theritten (er)ission of the (u'lisher, e*ce(t for any (ur(ose of the Unite% States Govern)ent.

Library of Congress Catalog Car !"#ber$ 61-%669

rinte in the 'nite States of (#erica

-i)-

Contributors

*+* *+/*S L(0, h..Professor of Psychology, University of e*as

*. C. (2IS, h..Professor of Psychology, In%iana University

L+'IS (. /+SC3(L0, 4..Associate Professor of Psychiatry an% Research +oor%inator,e(art)ent of Psychiatry, +incinnati General -os(ital

L(W*!C . 3I!0L, Jr., 4..Associate Professor of +linical e%icine in Psychiatry,Ne !or" -os(ital / +ornell e%ical +enter


2/274

3ILI . 0'5(!S0, h..+hief Psychologist, Boston +ity -os(ital

4(LC+L4 L. 4L5*, h..Staff Psychologist, istrict of +olu)'ia General -os(ital

J(! S. 4+'+!, h..Social Science Research Associate, University of e*as

4(*I! . +*!, 4.., h..eaching 0ello, e(art)ent of Psychiatry,-arvar% University e%ical School

-)-

-)i-toCHARLES E. HUTCHINSON

an%HERMAN J. SANDER

for their lea%ershi( in this area

-)ii-

-)iii-

Acknowledgments

he eiting of this boo7 8as carrie o"t as a proect of the "rea" of Social Science *esearch,Inc. r. *obert . o8er, irector of the "rea", genero"sly ga)e his ti#e an talents to thisproect.

2al"able assistance in eiting the contrib"tors: #an"scripts 8as gi)en by !aine itts, ;ran7 /.a)is, 4erle /olberg, an oris ;. J"lian.

he preparation of the chapters containe in this boo7 8as s"pporte in part by the 'niteStates (ir ;orce "ner Contract 1>? 1@9@ #onitore by the *o#e (ir e)elop#ent Center ofthe (ir *esearch an e)elop#ent Co##an an "ner Contract (; A9 =6B


3/274

-i-

--

ContentsIntrodution !

! T"e P"#sio$o%i&$ St&te o' t"e Interro%&tion Su()et

&s it A''ets Br&in Funtion !*

$arence 1. -in"le, Jr.

+ T"e E''ets o' Redued En,iron-ent&$ Sti-u$&tion

on Hu-&n Be"&,ior A Re,ie/ 0!

Phili( 1. 2u'3ans"y

1 T"e Use o' Dru%s in Interro%&tion *2

$ouis A. Gottschal"

3 P"#sio$o%i&$ Res4onses &s & Me&ns o' E,&$u&tin%

In'or-&tion !3+

R. +. avis

0 T"e Potenti&$ Uses o' H#4nosis in Interro%&tion !2*

artin . 4rne

2 T"e E54eri-ent&$ In,esti%&tion o' Inter4erson&$

In'$uene +!2

Ro'ert R. Bla"e an% Jane S. outon


4/274

-i-

6 Counter-&ni4u$&tion t"rou%" M&$in%erin% +66

alcol) $. elt3er

Aut"or Inde5 170

Su()et Inde5 1!2

-ii-

. . . ollte nur forschen, Raetsel loesen, ein Stuec"chen Wahrheit auf%ec"en. ies )ag vielen ehe, )anchen olgetan ha'en, 'ei%es nicht )eine Schul% un% nicht )ein 5er%ienst.Sig#"n ;re" in a letter to *o#ain *ollan, 4ay

1B 19D6 E

Introduction manipulations of human

behavior

In recent years, concern has been epresse, in both scholarly an pop"lar literat"re, abo"t theangers of scientific e)elop#ents that co"l be "se to control an #anip"late h"#an beha)ior.he fear is freF"ently )oice that techniF"es ha)e been e)elope to an etent 8hich threatensf"na#ental )al"es of Western ci)iliGation.

(nio"s alar#s an ra#atic spec"lations ha)e o)ershao8e reports of sober efforts toeter#ine 8hich angers are real an 8hich i#agine.

his boo7 represents a critical ea#ination of so#e of the conect"res abo"t the application ofscientific 7no8lege to the #anip"lation of h"#an beha)ior. he proble# is eplore 8ithin apartic"lar fra#e of reference$ the interrogation of an "n8illing s"bect. ( n"#ber of scientificareas ha)e fig"re pro#inently in spec"lations regaririg the application of science to the#anip"lation of beha)ior in interrogation =69?. ;or this 8or7, scientists 8ho ha one research ineach of these areas 8ere as7e to re)ie8 the state of rele)ant 7no8lege in their fiels, to consier8hether an ho8 it #ight be applie by interrogators, an to e)al"ate the reco"rse a)ailable tohighly #oti)ate persons for resisting the atte#pte infl"ence. heir reports constit"te the boy ofthis boo7.

(ttention has been foc"se on interrogation beca"se of the central position this topic has ha inrecent p"blic isc"ssions of prisoner-of-8ar beha)ior H iss"es that #ae scientific #ethos of#anip"lating beha)ior a #aor p"blic concern. 4"ch of the 8or7 in this boo7 8as sponsore by


5/274

the '. S. (ir ;orce beca"se of their interest in the proble#s 8hich face the prisoner of 8ar. S"chaspects of prisoner eploitation as ieological con)ersion an the elicitation of false con-

E. L. ;re",Ausgeaehlte Briefe, erlin$ S. ;ischer, 19%9.

-1-

fessions ha)e recei)e relati)ely #ore p"blic an acae#ic isc"ssion than the atte#pts to elicitfact"al infor#ation thro"gh interrogation. !onetheless, the eitors belie)e that there are so#e#aor a)antages to approaching the broaer topic of the #anip"lation of h"#an beha)ior byli#iting attention initially to the latter type of sit"ation. he bac7gro"n of recent concern 8iththese proble#s #ay ill"#inate so#e of the consierations leaing to the partic"lar e#phasis ofthis 8or7.

B&8%round

he notoriety that Co##"nist eploitation of 'nite !ations prisoners of 8ar has recei)e inthe 'nite States ga)e i#pet"s to professional an lay concern 8ith proble#s of the #anip"lationof beha)ior. 2ario"s 8riters ha)e associate the co#pliance effecte by Co##"nist captors 8ithpheno#ena obser)e in the laboratory e.g., effects reporte follo8ing eperi#ental 8or7 inphar#acology, hypnosis, sleep epri)ation, sensory epri)ation, se#i-star)ation, electricalsti#"lation of the brain, as 8ell as in social-psychological in)estigations of pers"asion an gro"pconfor#ity press"res =B, 1>, 1B, 1A, 16, D>, DB, DA, D


6/274

prisoner-of-8ar policy. Concepts s"ch as eter#inis# )s. #oral responsibility are a#ong thephilosophical an )al"e consierations i#plicit in this ebate 8hich ha)e ae consierably tothe proble#s alreay pose by eisting biases. here has been isp"te regaring the etent to8hich ini)i"al repatriate prisoners of 8ar are legally or #orally responsible for e)iations fro#ieal stanars of #ilitary con"ct, especially in the #atter of yieling infor#ation or #a7ing

confessions to the captor =9, D%, B1, B9, A1, A@, A9, %A, 6A?.

( central F"estion of fact has stoo o"t in this contro)ersy, F"ite apart fro# the #oral anphilosophical iss"es raise$ 8hether all ini)i"als, regarless of ho8 strongly #oti)ate to resist,co"l be #ae to co#ply 8ith e#ans for infor#ation, confessions, or other collaboration by#ethos e#ploye by the Co##"nists, pro)ie that the intensity, "ration, an F"ality of thepress"res 8ere s"fficiently great. op"larly, this proposition 8as phrase$ )ery #an has hisbrea7ing point. It gaine acceptance as a pre#ise in policy for#"lation, altho"gh the F"estionre#aine regaring 8hich, if any, of the sit"ations enco"ntere by 'nite States prisoners of 8arin 0orea approache those etre#es of stress that no ini)i"al co"l be epecte to lesist =A>,A


7/274

#eans that #ight occ"r to an interrogator for eliciting infor#ation against the 8ill of his s"bect.heir attention has been #ore on 8hat co"l be one than on 8hat act"ally #ay ha)e been one.

(ll the F"estions that are freF"ently raise abo"t these #ethos cannot be ans8ere by s"ch anapproach, ho8e)er, since #any of the# are not translatable into scientific ter#s.

Ori%in o' Nonr&tion&$ Conern

4any scholars ha)e obser)e that science replaces #agic an 8itchcraft as societies sec"lariGe.he proble#s of li)ing in the present age re#ain #"ch as they ha)e al8ays been, ho8e)er. heygenerate #any of the sa#e 8ishes an terrors. he aspirations an anieties that not so long ago8ere proecte onto conceptions of the 8iGar an 8itch are no8 irecte to the scientist.

8o of the #ost basic of life:s proble#s are lin7e to the ini)i"al:s po8er position )is-K-)ishis fello8 #en$ the inability to #a7e others f"lfill one:s 8ishes an the re)erse, the fear of being

controlle by others, 8ith the conseF"ent loss of the a"tono#y that is belie)e to be f"na#entalto the conception of the self. hese opposites are incongr"o"sly eaggerate in paranoi thin7ing,one of the #ost pre)alent #ental sy#pto#s of Western #an. hey o"btless eist in the fantasy of#ost persons, to etents that iffer fro# paranoia in intensity an per)asi)eness.

he profo"n fascination of the topic "ner consieration #ay ste# fro# the pri#iti)e,"nconscio"s, an etre#e responses to these proble#s, 8hich gain epression in #yth, rea#s,ra#a, an literat"re. +n the one han, there is the rea#-8ish for o#nipotence on the other, the8ish an fear of the loss of self thro"gh its capt"re by another. he c"rrent interest in proble#s of#anip"lation of beha)ior in)ol)es basic a#bi)alences o)er o#nipotence an epenency, 8hich,if proecte, fin a reay target in the o#niscient scientist =B>?.

-A-

M#t" &nd Re&$it#

he #a scientist of the horror #o)ie an no)el has been 8ith "s for #any years. 4orerecent fiction has enliste hi# in the ser)ice of the great nation-state. With the perfection of #ass-estr"ction 8eapons an the elaboration of totalitarian efforts to control h"#an beha)ior, the #ythhas beg"n to con)erge 8ith aspects of reality.

Conect"res concerning the prospects of total annihilation of the h"#an 8ill appear al#ost asfreF"ently as those regaring the threat of #an7in:s total estr"ction by ther#on"clear or si#ilar8eapons. *egaring 8eapons of physical estr"ction, responsible scientific e)ience is offerealong 8ith "ninfor#e an ill-infor#e s"r#ises, both in s"pport of forecasts of oo# an inreb"ttal. In the case of the threats science poses to h"#an a"tono#y, ho8e)er, sensationallyspec"lati)e epressions, li7e those of the Brave Ne Worl% that (lo"s 3"ley =D1? recentlyre)isite, ha)e enoye a near #onopoly. In professional o"rnals an p"blications, as 8ell as in


8/274

state#ents for pop"lar cons"#ption, scientists ha)e so#eti#es contrib"te to "ncritical thin7ingregaring the potential application of scientific e)elop#ents to the control of h"#an beha)ior.So#e scientists ha)e one so in their Geal to #a7e the p"blic a8are of the angero"s tool 8hichthe techniF"es for #anip"lating beha)ior co"l beco#e in the hans of totalitarian an otherirresponsible practitioners. ( co##on error has been to ass"#e that so#e scientific e)elop#ent,

or so#e eplicit scientific theory, 8as being applie by Co##anist brain8ashers an other#anip"lators =D, A, %, 1


9/274

intense connotations for h"#an )al"es, the i#pression #ay be gi)en of eli#inating not only theseetra)agant "g#ents b"t also al#ost all the h"#an significance of these effects. In this 8ay, forea#ple, treachery can beco#e #ere attit"e change or a shift in the s"bect:s fra#e ofreference.

Is Contro$ o' Be"&,ior As#-4toti9

iffic"lties inhere in ealing scientifically 8ith a proble# that relates so i##eiately to basich"#an )al"es. (ss"#ptions in this 8or7 hol the person against 8ho# the interrogation efforts are

-6-

irecte H 8ho is esignate follo8ing co##on intelligence "sage as the so"rce H to be highly#oti)ate to safeg"ar the infor#ation an that, at least initially, the so"rce regars enyinginfor#ation to his interrogator as #ore i#portant than life itself. It apparently has not been a

rarity for ini)i"als "nergoing interrogation to say go ahea an shoot in the face of acon)incing threat of eath, an yet to re)eal the infor#ation th"s g"are "ner see#ingly #ilpress"re later =


10/274

-@-

initiati)e, #a7ing choices, preferring, an reecting. he fallacy of belief in the possibility of totalcontrol for any p"rpose stans o"t as biGarre in the etre#e 8hen acte on by those 8hosep"rposes in)ol)e the control of self-initiate beha)ior. (n ea#ple, si#"ltaneo"sly tragic an

riic"lo"s, is the ieological interrogation.

( syste# in 8hich #ental confor#ity is so"ght thro"gh coercion an #anip"lation e#boiesan e)er-present fear on the part of the controllers that confor#ity 8ill be base on opport"nis#rather than con)iction. In oppressi)e ieological syste#s, s"ch as #oern Co##"nis#, 8hiche#an tr"e sincerity fro# their s"bects rather than #ere o"t8ar confor#ity, the inF"isitorialprocess appears to be a nat"ral e)elop#ent. It is a iffic"lt #atter to eter#ine 8hether tho"ghtsare inee tr"e tho"ghts. he inF"isitorial process, being itself highly coerci)e, reinforces theoriginal s"spicion regaring opport"nistic confor#ity. In a )icio"s circle, coercion is "se topro"ce confor#ity, generating fears that the confor#ity pro"ce is insincere, generating in t"rnf"rther coercion to #a7e it sincere. he abhorrence of these practices by those s"becte to the#

#a7es the fears of the controllers 8ell fo"ne an f"rther reinforces the )icio"s circle.

'ner these circ"#stances, the "lti#ate test of the loyalty an sincere e)otion of theini)i"al to the syste# is his acceptance of the inF"isitorial process itself$ the p"rge, coercion,confession, an the entire paraphernalia of enforce con)ersion.alleus aleficaru)=DD, pageD1D? pro)ies an ill"stration of the #anner in 8hich the )icti# is co#pelle to aopt the fra#e ofreference of the inF"isitor$

3e Mthe s"specte 8itchN #"st be as7e if he belie)es that there are s"ch things as 8itches, an that s"ch things as8ere #entione co"l be one, as that te#pests co"l be raise or #en an ani#als be8itche.

!ote that for the #ost part 8itches eny this at first an therefore this engeners a greater s"spicion than if they

8ere to ans8er that they left it to s"perior "g#ent to say. . . . So if they eny it, they #"st be F"estione as follo8s$hen are they innocently cone#ne 8hen they are b"rne (n he or she #"st ans8er. =Cf. 0ri)itG7y, D6, page 1A1.?

+ne final test of loyalty e#ans that the prisoner act as tho"gh he hate hi#self 8ith theintensity of the cri#inal efinition 8hich the syste# has place "pon hi#.

(t the o"tset of the st"y the i#pression of the eitors fro# their prior in)estigation ofinterrogation proble#s 8as that the effecti)eness of scientific inno)ations for controlling h"#anbeha)ior #ay ha)e been eaggerate in #ost p"blic isc"ssions. efore final e)al"ations,alar#ing or other8ise, 8ere )ent"re fro# a h"#an stanpoint regaring the significance of thecontrol o)er beha)ior

-


11/274

an e#otional F"estions raise abo"t the significance of the control 8hich can be eerte, it caninicate that so#e are ill-fo"ne an others pre#at"re. et others relate to )ery real #atters.

his 8or7 oes not represent an atte#pt to #ini#iGe the proble#. he concl"sions reache oin fact sho8 that #any e)elop#ents can co#po"n tre#eno"sly the alreay al#ost ins"perable

iffic"lties confronting the ini)i"al 8ho see7s to resist an interrogator "nrestraine by #oral orlegal scr"ples. +n the other han, it can be sho8n that #any of the #eas"res pop"larly s"ppose torener an interrogator o#nipotent act"ally ha)e no e#onstrable applicability to his p"rposes.+ther #eas"res that appear to ha)e high potential "tility for the control or infl"ence of beha)iorsee# to o8e their effecti)eness to F"ite ifferent 7ins of processes than pop"larly s"ppose.(#ong the latter are placebo #eas"res, the s"ccess of 8hich epens largely "pon theattrib"tion to the# of a noneistent potency by the s"bect, an at ti#es the #anip"lator.0no8lege, it appears, is a t8o-ege s8or in interrogation.

he latter fact is a so"rce of so#e co#fort. Se)eral scientists ha)e reporte on the possibleapplications of scientific 7no8lege that #ight be #ae by the #ost callo"s interrogator or po8er.

he res"lts of their thin7ing are a)ailable here for anyone to "se, incl"ing the "nscr"p"lo"s. healternati)e is to confer on the 8o"l-be #anip"lator a #onopoly of 7no8lege by efa"lt. 3iss"ccess, as the )ario"s chapters of this boo7 ill"strate, epens hea)ily on the ignorance of his)icti#s. S7inner =%


12/274

has achie)e honesty an sincerity, an partic"larly iffic"lt 8hen gi)en the special ieological#eanings s"ch ter#s ha)e for the practitioners of tho"ght-refor#. (s for pro"cing real anf"na#ental changes in the person, the s"perficial an stereotypical concepts abo"t h"#anpersonality on 8hich Co##"nist tho"ght-refor# efforts are preicate #ight lea one to epectthat any f"na#ental changes they pro"ce #"st be acciental rather than a realiGation of a

eliberate obecti)e.

here is no F"estion that it is possible for #en to alter, i#pair, or e)en to estroy the effecti)epsychological f"nctioning of others o)er 8ho# they eercise po8er. he concepts infl"ence,control, an #anip"lation enote a certain 7in of alteration$ the cons"##ation of a p"rpose of theinfl"encer in the beha)ior of the infl"ence. If 8e 8ish to ea#ine scientifically F"estions enoteby the ter#s infl"ence, control, or #anip"lation, 8e #"st be able to obser)e obecti)ely an toefine in precise ter#s both the effects so"ght an those obtaine.

( foc"s on the elicitation of g"are fact"al infor#ation si#plifies the analytical proble#consierably by posing a #oel that in)ol)es s"ch obecti)ely specifiable p"rposes an effects. o

achie)e f"rther si#plicity for p"rposes of this re)ie8, the contrib"tors 8ere as7e to consier astheir pri#ary #oel interrogations 8here the interrogator:s obecti)es consiste of obtainingsi#ple, obecti)e infor#ation regaring the physical 8orl.

-1>-

Interrogators in this age of psychological 8arfare increasingly see7 social an psychologicalintelligence fro# their so"rces. (s in #ost social science inter)ie8ing, the content of this type ofreporting epens on s"ch factors as the s"becti)e state an the personal an c"lt"ral fra#es ofreference of the reporter. Consierable si#plification is achie)e by a)oiing the co#pleproble#s of inter)ie8ing, 8hich in)ol)e infl"encing persons to report psychological an social

infor#ation acc"rately, an the infinitely #ore co#ple F"estion of 8hat constit"tes acc"rateinfor#ation on s"ch topics.

here are )ario"s #oti)ations or )al"es 8hich #ay "nerlie the resistance of a so"rce to aninterrogation atte#pt. he interest here is in any #etho thro"gh 8hich these bases of resistance#ay be change, o"t8eighe, ne"traliGe, or circ"#)ente so that the person co#es to beha)e in a#anner he 8as originally strongly #oti)ate to a)oi. he partic"lar for# of beha)ior to8ar8hich attention is irecte, the i#parting of fact"al infor#ation, has )ario"s pec"liarities. So#e ofthese istincti)e feat"res are consiere in the re)ie8s. ;e8 eperi#ents, ho8e)er, ha)e ealtirectly 8ith atte#pts to elicit precisely this for# of beha)ior. he attention of the contrib"tors8as broaene of necessity to eploit the rele)ance of eperi#ents st"ying interpersonalinfl"ence on other for#s of beha)ior.

his boo7 oes not preten to ea#ine the processes by 8hich f"na#ental an lastingalterations of the )al"e syste# of a s"bect co#e abo"t. !onetheless, in the re)ie8 ofeperi#entation on interpersonal infl"ence =Chapter 6?, it 8as i#perati)e to consier 7no8legee)elope thro"gh eperi#ents that in)ol)e theoretical concepts s"ch as changes in attit"e orbelief. ;ro# the present perspecti)e, the )aliity of s"ch obser)ations oes not epen "pon theegree to 8hich obser)e changes tr"ly reflect stable an lasting changes in the s"bect. When a


13/274

eter#ination is #ae that later beha)ior negates so#e )al"e strongly affir#e earlier in theeperi#ent, or the re)erse, the eperi#ent accors s"fficiently 8ith the F"estions being posehere.

(ltho"gh the 7in of infl"ence atte#pt consiere here represents a consierably si#pler

proble# than the attit"e changes or e)en attit"e reporting "se here for so#e inferences, itnonetheless in)ol)es the pro"ction an obser)ation of co#ple, sy#bolic, learne h"#anbeha)ior. h"s, e)ience regaring the #anip"lations that are possible of the sali)ary response orother si#ple responses of either ani#als or h"#ans 8o"l not pro)ie ans8ers to the F"estionsraise by this re)ie8.

-11-

Sienti'i Pur4ose

We ha)e atte#pte here to co##"nicate scientific infor#ation to scientists, an the 8or7originally "nerta7en for the '. S. (ir ;orce has been re)ise an s"pple#ente to this en.#phasis has been place on etailing the scientific i#plications of both the general an thespecific s"bect #atters, an their )al"e for theory an research. he n"#ber of rele)ant F"estionsleft "nans8ere by the st"y points to the nee for f"rther in)estigation of the proble# "nerconsieration. he contrib"tors represent a )ariety of scientific fiels, an their #aterial eitherseparately or in the aggregate 8ill "no"btely hol interest for specialists in still other fiels. he8riting style here is a7in to the broaer style of papers esigne for presentation at #eetings ofrepresentati)es fro# se)eral ifferent scientific isciplines.

his 8or7 #ight help the ar#e forces to offset the lac7 of 7no8lege that 8as in part hel

responsible for #"ch of the s"ccess Co##"nist captors achie)e in interrogation of 'nite Statesprisoners of 8ar in 0orea =6A?. Its )al"e for this p"rpose is li#ite in that it ass"#es aninterrogator 8ho p"rs"es his obecti)e of e)eloping infor#ation rationally. ast eperienceinicates that practices enco"ntere by prisoners of 8ar are not eter#ine ecl"si)ely byconsierations of logic =%?. ( rational ea#ination of the proble# cannot lea to preictions of anonrational opponent:s actions. 3istorically, there has been freF"ent resort to coerci)e practices foreliciting infor#ation, espite ab"nant e)ience that s"ch #eas"res are relati)ely ineffecti)e.So#e esti#ates of 8hat an opponent is li7ely to o, in aition to those base on consierations of8hat it 8ill be feasible an a)antageo"s for hi# to o, are reF"ire in e)ising #eas"res forth8arting ene#y eploitation atte#pts against prisoners of 8ar.

If the present st"y also recei)es the attention of interrogators, it #ay offset their tenency toaopt the sensational stereotypes of interrogation on 8hich #any of the# appear to ha)e #oeletheir practice in the past.

Soures


14/274

his boo7 is base ecl"si)ely on p"blicly a)ailable scientific #aterial. arallel, b"t secret,in)estigations can be pres"#e to ha)e been "nerta7en by a n"#ber of police an intelligencesyste#s.

-1D-

(ltho"gh the generally a)ailable literat"re 8o"l probably reflect in an o)er-all 8ay theachie)e#ents of secret research, it is concei)able that so#e "n7no8n isco)eries or applications#ay ha)e been #ae. +"r contrib"tors ha)e inicate gaps in specially rele)ant 7no8lege, #anyof 8hich 8o"l not be p"rs"e intensi)ely in the orinary co"rse of scientific e)elop#ent.Largely, ho8e)er, the "nans8ere F"estions that are central to the topic of this boo7 also point tocritical gaps in present scientific 7no8lege.

It sho"l be note that interrogations al#ost in)ariably procee in pri)ate. he t8o #aorso"rces of infor#ation abo"t the# are$ practitioners of the art an their )icti#s. he for#er aregenerally reF"ire to g"ar the etails of their craft as secrets the latter #ay ha)e a li#ite

perception, "nerstaning, an #e#ory of 8hat they ha)e eperience. It is possible that practicein so#e respects has a)ance beyon the le)el of the inferences an conect"res presente here.In other respects, eperience has pro)en that so#e potentialities of interrogation ha)e beeno)eresti#ate. ;ree access to the g"are hanboo7s of interrogators e)ery8here probably 8o"lnot lea to any s"bstantial #oification in the general concl"sions of this re)ie8.

So4e

( thoro"gh re)ie8 has been atte#pte of the scientific areas that ha)e fig"re #ostpro#inently in spec"lations concerning scientific interrogation.

eca"se of its efensi)e application "ring interrogation, one aspect of the proble# recei)ingspecial consieration in this boo7 is the ability of the so"rce to th8art his interrogator by feigningpsychological isorer. 4alingering is a ti#e-honore tactic. Its isc"ssion here ill"strates so#e ofthe i#plications of personality e)al"ation for #anip"lati)e sit"ations.

ersonality e)al"ation historically has been consiere a clinical a"nct to #anip"lation. Itsapplication reF"ires the #anip"lation to be tailor-#ae to the specific ini)i"al ifferencesenco"ntere in the intelligence so"rce. !o co#prehensi)e isc"ssion of this topic has beenatte#pte here for se)eral reasons$ =a? #ost #eans of personality e)al"ation reF"ire the 8illingcooperation of the s"bect, 8hich is not li7ely to be obtainable fro# rel"ctant so"rces =b?

assess#ents not reF"iring the cooperation of the so"rce =e.g., obser)ation, graphology, analysis ofspeech or gest"res? yiel notorio"sly poor agree#ent a#ong inepenent "ges or obser)ers,"nless the beha)ior

-1B-

is categoriGe into #in"tiae that are iffic"lt to interpret #eaningf"lly =c? 7no8lege is lac7ing onho8 to effect #ai#al eploitation by ifferential treat#ent of so"rces on the basis of personality


15/274

infor#ation, if it 8ere a)ailable in reliable for# an finally =? consens"s on a theory ofpersonality, 8hich is critical to the integration an application of personality ata, oes not eist.

"blishe spec"lations that electrical sti#"lation of the brain #ight be e#ploye for p"rposesof nefario"s infl"ence le the eitors to belie)e initially that an ea#ination of this area sho"l

also be incl"e in this boo7. he notion that the action of the brain, an thereby the action of anini)i"al, #ight be controlle irectly is an ancient one. lectrical brain sti#"lation 8as one ofthe #ethos ig rother "se in +r8ell:s 6789to control his s"bects. Scientists, incl"ing Lilly=1B, D9?, 4iller =B9?, +ls =AD, AB? an Sargant =%D?, ha)e inicate that recent eperi#entale)elop#ents gi)e so#e basis to the fiction-8riters: conect"res. +bser)ations, pri#arily fro#ani#al eperi#entation, le to the follo8ing s"r#ises. ;irst, an earliest, 8ere possibilitiess"ggeste by obser)ations of enfiel =A6? that cortical sti#"lation #ight elicit #e#ory anso#e spontaneo"s )erbaliGation of infor#ation. Secon, ani#al eperi#ents raise the possibilitythat s"becti)e eperiences fro# s"bcortical sti#"lation #ight be so intense as to pro)ie a basisfor the a#inistration of reinforce#ents of "npreceente strength. (lso, the possibility 8as raisethat organis#s #ight be #ae #ore teachable by irect inter)entions of this 7in.

he eitors as7e Siney 4ar)in, 4.., Walter *ee (r#y Instit"te of *esearch, 8ho has been8or7ing on s"bcortical sti#"lation for pain relief in h"#an s"bects, to re)ie8 c"rrent 7no8legean techniF"es in this area fro# the perspecti)e of this boo7. Colonel 4ar)in fo"n thateperi#entation ha not progresse s"fficiently to allo8 for other than conect"ral state#entsregaring the F"estions raise. he eitors belie)e it s"fficient for the p"rposes of this )ol"#e toF"ote briefly the general concl"sions of Colonel 4ar)in:s report$

. . . In concl"sion it sho"l be sai that in its c"rrent stat"s$ =1? s"bcortical electrosti#"lation is strictly in theresearch stage of e)elop#ent an that infor#ation is s7etchy an )ariable, =D? precise i#plantation of electroes intoa gi)en brain location is possible only 8ithin O>.% c#, a reasonable esti#ate of the present acc"racy, =B? altho"gha#age to the central ner)o"s syste# by s"ch techniF"es is relati)ely #ini#al an "s"ally re)ersible, still it is a #aor

factor to be consiere, =A? c"rrent 7no8lege an 8or7ing concepts of ne"roanato#y an other relate isciplines areins"fficient. . . .

-1A-

'nless 7no8lege an techniF"es eist far #ore a)ance than those 7no8n to the Western scientific co##"nity,intracranial sti#"lation as presently 7no8n 8o"l not be e#ploye in any rational atte#pt to elicit intelligence.

(lso ecl"e fro# these pages is a consieration of the role of a)lo)ian conitione refletheory in interrogation. he notoriety attaine by this theory, as eplaining the inspiration aneffecti)eness of Co##"nist techniF"es of coerci)e interrogation =D>, BD, B6, %D?, has pro#ptest"ies by other in)estigators. ( n"#ber of st"ents of the s"bect =D, A, 1@, 1? inicate the inaeF"acy of si#ple conitioning #oels to acco"ntfor the 7ins of co#ple beha)ior patterns pro"ce in the co"rse of interrogation.

Contrib"tors ha)e been free to choose eclectically 8hate)er #oels an theories appeare #ostaeF"ate to their respecti)e topics. +n the 8hole, #atters of length, le)el of generality, anorganiGation si#ilarly ha)e been left to the "g#ent of the ini)i"al contrib"tors.


16/274

In those cases 8here the contrib"tors to this boo7 8ere not the#sel)es highly con)ersant 8ithinterrogation practices, the eitors ha)e ra8n on their o8n eperience an on research that theyha)e con"cte on interrogation in a)ising the contrib"tors an in eiting the chapters. heeitors th"s acti)ely so"ght to increase the rele)ance of the re)ie8s to the realities of interrogation.

(L* . I*4(!

3** 5I44*

Washington, . +.

arch 67:;

Re'erenes

1. (i Ss"-ch:i. +n proble#s of ieological refor#.-sueh -si, 19%1, B.

D. a"er *. (. rain8ashing$ sychology or e#onologyJ. soc. Issues, 19%@, 1B=B?, A1-A@.

B. eton W. 3. So)e effects of (erce(tual isolation on hu)an su'?:>6@.

%. ier#an (. . Co##"nist atte#pts to elicit false confessions fro# (ir ;orce prisoners of 8ar. Bull. N. !.Aca%. e%., 19%@, BB, 616-6D%.

6. ier#an. (. . 1ffects of +o))unist in%octrination atte)(ts So)e co))ents 'ase% on an Air 0orce(risoner>of>ar stu%y. Washington, . C.$ +ffice of

-1%-

6. Intelligence *esearch, '. S. ept. of State, +ctober @, 19%@.1*ternal Research Pa(er!o. 1BD.

@. ier#an (. . ffects of Co##"nist inoctrination atte#pts$ So#e co##ents base on an (ir ;orceprisoner-of-8ar st"y. Soc. Pro'l., 19%9, 6, B>A-B1B.

, DB, 1D>-1A@.

9. ier#an (. ., an 4onroe J. L. *eactions to the 0orean +W episoe. ( paper rea at the (nn"alCon)ention of the (#er. sychol. (ss., Washington, . C., Septe#ber 19%. ;arber I. ., 3arlo8 3. ;., an West L. J. rain8ashing, conitioning, an =ebility, epenency anrea?. Socio)etry, 19%@, D>, D@1-D


17/274

1D. /ala#bos *., an 4organ C. . he ne"ral basis of learning. -an%'oo" of Physiology. Washington, . C.$(#er. hysiol. Soc., in press.

1B. /ro"p for the ()ance#ent of sychiatry. 0actors use% to increase the susce(ti'ility of in%ivi%uals toforceful in%octrination 4'servations an% e*(eri)ents. !e8 or7$ /( "blications +ffice, ece#ber 19%6. GAPSy)(osiu)!o. B.

1A. /ro"p for the ()ance#ent of sychiatry. etho%s of forceful in%octrination 4'servations an% intervies.!e8 or7$ /( "blications +ffice, J"ly 19%@. GAP Sy)(osiu)!o. A.

1%. 3ac7er (. ostoe)s7y:s isciples$ 4an an sheep in political theory.J. Politics, 19%%, 1-61B.

16. 3aring J. reface =to special iss"e on rain8ashing?.J. soc. Issues, 19%@, 1B=B?, 1-D.

1@. 3in7le L. ., Jr. In /ro"p for the ()ance#ent of sychiatry, etho%s of forceful in%octrination4'servations an% intervies. !e8 or7$ /( "blications +ffice, J"ly 19%@. GAP Sy)(osiu) No. 9.p. D. 3"nter .Brainashing in Re% +hina. !e8 or7$ 2ang"ar ress, 19%B.

D1. 3"ley (.Brave ne orl% revisite%. !e8 or7$ 3arper ros., 19%


18/274

B1. 4ayer W. . Why i so #any /I capti)es ca)e in U. S. Nes an% Worl% Re(ort, ;ebr"ary DA, 19%6, %6-6D.

BD. 4ayo C. W. estroying (#erican #ins H *"ssians #ae it a science. U. S. Nes an% Worl% Re(ort,!o)e#ber 6, 19%B, 9@-1>1.

BB. 4eerloo J. (. 4. he cri#e of #enticie.A)er. J. Psychiat., 19%1, 1>@, %9A-%9?. It is largely in this #anner that changes in the conition of the #anbeing interrogate #ay affect his ability to gi)e acc"rate infor#ation.

So#e feat"res of the internal #ilie" #ay be consiere briefly in orer to ill"strate so#e of the)"lnerabilities of the brain to eternal infl"ences.

he te#perat"re of the h"#an internal en)iron#ent is #aintaine )ery near B@.%P C. ( rise inte#perat"re abo)e AAP C =11DP ;? =1>, BB, 1D1?, or a fall belo8 DAP C =@%P ;? =@B, 116? #aya#age the brain per#anently or be fatal. (n ele)ation of boy te#perat"re to A1P C =1>6P ;? orabo)e H 8hich #ay occ"r "ring the fe)er acco#panying

-D>-

isease or "ring heat stro7e H nearly al8ays i#pairs brain f"nction. So#eti#es s"ch i#pair#ent

appears at #"ch lo8er te#perat"res. Si#ilarly, a epression of boy te#perat"re to approi#atelyB1P C =


22/274

of the )ario"s ele)ations, epressions, or relati)e isproportions of these s"bstances beyon 8hichan i#pair#ent of brain f"nction #ay occ"r. In practice no single change occ"rs, b"t rather aist"rbance of the concentration of se)eral. ( )ariety of rather co##on conitions #ay pro"ces"ch ist"rbances. (#ong these are ecessi)e s8eating, epri)ation of 8ater, iets eficient insalt, ingestion of ecessi)e a#o"nts of 8ater or other nonsalty be)erages o)er a short perio of

ti#e, ingestion of ecessi)e a#o"nts of salt in foo 8hen 8ater is restricte, ingestion of sea 8aterin the absence of other 8ater, poison-

1he a878ar ter# Qbrain f"nctionR is "se here beca"se there is no other that enotes all of the co#pleacti)ities that the higher centers of the brain #a7e possible. =We shall isregar its less co#ple an )egetati)eacti)ities.? er#s s"ch as Q#entation,R Q#ental acti)ity,R an Qthin7ingR are inaeF"ate. Consier all the h"#anf"nctions that are absent 8hen the higher centers of a #an:s brain are inacti)e, an he is in Qco#a.R he ter# Qbrainf"nction,R as here "se, refers to all of these.

-D1-

ings of )ario"s sorts, )o#iting or iarrhea fro# any ca"se, b"rns, shoc7 ca"se by in"ries,

he#orrhage, an i#pair#ent of 7iney f"nction =1A, B>, AD, AB, 1>>, 1BA?. )en )ery rapibreathing, 8hich so#eti#es occ"rs in people 8ho are anio"s or afrai, #ay lea to che#icalchanges in the bloo that ca"se ist"rbances of brain f"nction =1@, B6, @@, 96?.

4any of the cr"e proce"res that interrogators ha)e "tiliGe fro# ti#e to ti#e to #a7einfor#ants tractable an to #a7e the# tal7 ha)e an a)erse effect "pon the co#position ofboy fl"is$ the hot bo or s8eat bo the epri)ation of 8ater the salty iet the 8atertreat#ent the "se of e#etics to pro"ce )o#iting an the "se of cathartics s"ch as castor oil topro"ce iarrhea. hese proce"res ha)e been "se by both "ropean an +riental interrogators inthe historical past. hey 8ere also in "se F"ite recently in Co##"nist co"ntries, an perhaps stillare. (#erican prisoners of 8ar enco"ntere so#e of the# "ring Worl War II an the 0orean

War, an it is li7ely they 8ill enco"nter so#e of the# again in the f"t"re.

he brain, li7e other organs, #aintains its f"nctions by constant #etabolic acti)ity. he basisfor this acti)ity is energy obtaine by the oiation of the organic che#icals a)ailable fro# foo.h"s, a constant s"pply of oygen #"st be bro"ght to the brain by the bloo in the a#o"nt ofapproi#ately %> cc per #in"te =A>, 66, 1>D?. he #ost co##on 8ay by 8hich the brain beco#esepri)e of oygen is by fail"re of the circ"lation =6%?, 8hich #ay be bro"ght abo"t by loss ofbloo fro# he#orrhage, by shoc7 res"lting fro# in"ry =8hich has an effect on the circ"lationF"ite si#ilar to that of he#orrhage?, or by illness. S"ch fail"re of the circ"lation #ay occ"r also8hen a #an is force to stan still in a fie position for a long ti#e. It is responsible for theco##on pheno#enon of the solier 8ho faints 8hile staning at attention =D>, DD, , 1>@?.

ransient circ"latory fail"re is also in)ol)e in e#otional fainting, 8hich occ"rs as a res"lt of anac"te fall in bloo press"re pro"ce by an e#otional sti#"l"s. ;ail"re of the circ"lation hasother a)erse effects on cerebral #etabolis# in aition to the effects pro"ce by relati)e anoia.

'nli7e other organs, the brain cannot "se proteins an fats as so"rces of energy, an th"s #"strely on carbohyrates =6%?. It is, therefore, pec"liarly sensiti)e to eficiencies in its s"pply ofs"gar, a s"bstance nor#ally present in bloo. S#all increases in s"gar concentration, 8hich


23/274

"s"ally occ"r after #eals, ha)e no iscernible effect on brain f"nction, b"t relati)ely s#allecreases in concentration

-DD-

#ay ha)e a istinct effect on #oo an beha)ior. S#all ecreases set in #otion ho#eostaticprocesses that lea to feelings of ner)o"sness, restlessness, s8eating, an inability to concentrate=D@, B6, 9D?. ( fall in bloo s"gar occasionally occ"rs in people 8ho are anio"s or fearf"l, ansee#s to contrib"te to their sy#pto#s. ( serio"s eficiency of bloo s"gar profo"nly i#pairsbrain f"nction =6%?. his is one of the ter#inal e)ents of star)ation, an it contrib"tes to the finalst"por of the star)e #an =%A, 6@?.

he brain is not epenent on the i##eiate le)el in the bloo of any foost"ff other thans"gar, b"t it oes "lti#ately s"ffer if it is epri)e of other foos o)er a long perio of ti#e. heprolonge eficiency of protein an fat, 8hich is "s"al in general star)ation, )ery probablycontrib"tes to changes in brain f"nction occ"rring "ner these circ"#stances =1, 1


24/274

ho#eostatic ist"rbance, or by any physical or che#ical assa"lt "pon the brain H is re#ar7ably"nifor# in #any of its feat"res. )en tho"gh the sy#pto#s pro"ce by any gi)en ho#eostaticist"rbance =s"ch as o)erbreathing or ehyration, for ea#ple? #ay ehibit certain iiosyncraticfeat"res =s"ch as #"scle cra#ps or thirst?, there are f"na#ental co##on ele#ents in theist"rbances of brain f"nction 8hich follo8 fro# all these types of assa"lt.

M&ni'est&tions o' Disordered Br&in Funtion Produed (# Distur(&nes o' Ho-eost&sis

(ll se)ere an "nco#pensate ist"rbances of ho#eostasis pro"ce a synro#e of ist"rbebrain f"nction 8hich, in ci)ilian life, is #ost co##only enco"ntere in hospitals. his synro#e=officially, the brain synro#e? Docc"rs in ac"te an chronic for#s =1D


25/274

ti#e he sho8s an increase an at ti#es frantic concern for his #ore i##eiate boily nees s"chas foo, 8ater, sleep, rest, an the alle)iation of pain.

In this early stage of the synro#e, the only o"t8ar #anifestations of ist"rbe beha)ior,other than those irectly associate 8ith illness, in"ry, or epletion, are li7ely to be a slight

eterioration of ress, speech, an personal appearance. he s"bect:s perfor#ance on short-ter#tas7s, incl"ing psychological tests of #oerate co#pleity, #ay not be o"tsie the nor#al range=DA, D%?, especially if he is highly #oti)ate at the ti#e. et, espite his ability to rise to a short-ter# challenge, his perfor#ance on tas7s generally 8ill be slo8e, less acc"rate, an less effecti)e.If his pre#orbi le)el is "n7no8n, a #oerate eficit #ay be "netecte. ;ran7 isorientation #aybe absent. 3e is #ore li7ely to be )ag"e an forgetf"l abo"t ti#e, place, an person, to ha)e to bere#ine, or to #a7e a conscio"s effort to re#e#ber.

eople 8ho are in"re, ill, or eplete by co#bat or epos"re are often interrogate if theysee# to be in goo conition an capable of p"lling the#sel)es together. 'ner thesecirc"#stances they #ay be s"bect to ist"rbe brain f"nction in this earlier an s"btler for#. he

presence of this conition #ay not be recogniGe by either the interrogator or the #an beinginterrogate, e)en tho"gh the so"rce #ay 8ish to cooperate 8ith his interrogator an #ay appear

-D%-

to be #entally nor#al. 3o8e)er, the s"bect:s #e#ory #ay be especially ecepti)e. here #aybe a istinct hiat"s in his #e#ory, 8itho"t its being notice either by the so"rce or by one 8hoea#ines hi#. 4ore often he is )ag"e, "ncertain abo"t etails, an has te#porary bloc7s of#e#ory, especially for the n"ances, or the finer =an so#eti#es the #ost i#portant? etails.

In this state, the s"bect #ay ha)e no fran7 ill"sions, hall"cinations, or el"sions, b"t he

o)er)al"es s#all e)ents, #isinterprets, bla#es others, an accepts eplanations an for#"lations8hich he #ight reect as patently abs"r "ner ifferent circ"#stances. 3e oes not confab"late,b"t he #ay be 8illing to state that a report is clearly tr"e, or that an e)ent act"ally occ"rre,8hen in fact the report #erely co"l be tr"e, or the e)ent #ight ha)e occ"rre. 3is intellect"alf"nctions, his "g#ent, an his insight ecline to a si#ilar egree.

(s the brain synro#e e)elops, the s"bect:s ress, beha)ior, an speech eteriorate f"rther.3is orientation for ti#e, place, an person beco#es increasingly eficient. Initially he #ay ha)ebeen F"ite a8are of the i#pair#ent of his #ental fac"lties, an his a8areness potentiates theapprehension that he #ay eperience. he s"bect is especially prone to beco#e fearf"l if hisillness is precipitate rather s"enly by ac"te infection, in"ry, poisoning, or ehyration. When it

co#es on #ore slo8ly or is "e to star)ation, his #oo #ay be one of apathy or epression.

he s"bect is F"ite li7ely to ha)e thin7ing iffic"lties an sensory eperiences, ill"sions,el"sions, hall"cinations, an proecti)e or paranoi thin7ing. ;reF"ently these contain nai)elytransparent ele#ents of 8ishf"l thin7ing. If star)e, he #ay belie)e that he is abo"t to recei)e alarge #eal or he #ay see it before hi#. S"ch eperiences #ay be frightening. If the synro#ee)elops gra"ally, he #ay perse)erate, or pointlessly repeat a frag#ent of thin7ing, speech, orbeha)ior or he #ay confab"late an create fig#entary #e#ories to co)er "p act"al efects in


26/274

his #e#ory. S"ch confab"lation #ay occ"r e)en if the s"bect has a rep"tation for the "t#ostaherence to )eracity. Since he #ay be #ore than "s"ally s"ggestible =1B1?, the co#bination ofconfab"lation an s"ggestibility #ay #a7e it possible to elicit fro# hi# a pla"sible story that islargely fig#entary.

+ther #ental acti)ities eteriorate also. 3is intellect"al f"nctions fall off. 3is capacity tocalc"late, to abstract, to esti#ate ti#e, to recall ite#s, igits, or stories is i#paire. /eneralinfor#ation that one #ight epect hi# to 7no8 is not a)ailable to hi#. 3is "g-

-D6-

#ent is fa"lty. (ltho"gh he #ay at first ha)e ha so#e insight into the fact that he has lost hisfac"lties, later he #ay ha)e none at all. 3is #e#ory beco#es efecti)e, at first for recent orspecial e)ents, an later for all sorts of e)ents an topics. he s"bect:s a8areness is increasinglyclo"e, an he beco#es #ore an #ore ro8sy as the process a)ances to the borerline of thepathological.

he state "st escribe is not "nco##on a#ong #en 8ho ha)e been thro"gh prolongeco#bat =11A? or thro"gh prolonge an epleting acti)ities of any sort =A, B9,


27/274

he brain of #an is an organ that eals 8ith infor#ation, "sing this ter# in the technicalsense as it is "se in co##"nications theory =1B%?. he acc"#"lation an trans#ission ofinfor#ation in this sense is a characteristic of all li)ing organis#s. he ner)o"s syste# of thehigher ani#als is a specialiGe apparat"s capable of ealing 8ith infor#ation in co#ple 8ays anthereby greatly increasing the general aapti)e capacities of the ani#al. he eceeingly co#ple

ner)o"s syste# of #an has this f"na#ental f"nction. It ta7es in infor#ation fro# the organs ofspecial sense, an fro# the sensory ner)e enings 8ithin the boy an its s"rfaces, an trans#itsthis infor#ation to the brain. here it is analyGe, organiGe, e)al"ate, store, an "se as a basisfor organiGing the acti)ities of the #an as a 8hole. We #ight say that infor#ation arising fro#the config"rations of #in"te a#o"nts of energy is the s"bstrate for the acti)ities of the brain, inso#e8hat the sa#e sense that foo is the s"bstrate for the acti)ities of the gastrointestinal tract.

epri)e of infor#ation, the brain oes not f"nction nor#ally. It #"st ha)e a certain F"antityof patterne, #eaningf"l, sensory inp"t fro# the eternal en)iron#ent, an so#e opport"nity toorganiGe its o"tp"t as beha)ior =B1, 6>, @A,


28/274

epri)ation are applicable to o"r "nerstaning of the reaction of the ini)i"al to prolongeisolation. It is 8ell 7no8n that prisoners, especially if they ha)e not been isolate before, #aye)elop a synro#e si#ilar in #ost of its feat"res to the brain synro#e =%@, %


29/274

8ith the passage of ti#e =B%, A6, 6A, @D, 9


30/274

-B1-

fatig"e #an, after co#bat or #ilitary operations, or after prolonge interrogation, sho8s aeterioration of his speech, ress, an general beha)ior, e#otional lability an bl"nting, conf"sion,isorientation, efects of #e#ory, hall"cinations, el"sions, ill"sions, paranoi thin7ing,

i#pair#ent of intellect"al f"nctions, loss of "g#ent, an )ery little insight =A, %@, 11A?.erse)eration an confab"lation #ay occ"r "ner these circ"#stances, as they also #ay after sleeploss =11A?. In aition, profo"n aniety is often ehibite by those 8ho ha)e been in prolongeco#bat an 8ho ha)e "nergone terrifying eperiences =11A?.

THE MANIFESTATIONS OF DISORDERED BRAIN FUNCTION PRODUCED B; ISOLATION< SLEEP

DEPRIVATION< AND FATI=UE

he sy#pto#s of isorere brain f"nction that occ"r "ner these conitions iffer little, eceptin etail, fro# those of the brain synro#e, as this is pro"ce by ist"rbances of ho#eostasis. Itis easy to ifferentiate a #an 8ho has been long isolate or 8ho is profo"nly sleepy or tire fro#one 8ho is s"ffering the effects of pne"#onia, g"nshot 8o"ns, or star)ation b"t this

ifferentiation is #ae "pon the basis of sy#pto#s an signs other than #anifestations ofist"rbe brain f"nction. It is not profitable to arg"e 8hether or not the sy#pto#s pro"ce byisolation, fatig"e, an sleep epri)ation sho"l properly be classifie "ner the brain synro#e.3o8e)er, if one ass"#es that the effecti)e perfor#ance of co#ple tas7s, alertness, orientation,#e#ory, iscri#ination, an "g#ent are epenent "pon the f"nction of the brain, then there canbe no o"bt that isolation, fatig"e, an sleep epri)ation pro"ce ist"rbances of brain f"nction. Ifone accepts that the f"nction of the brain is al8ays associate 8ith electroche#ical e)entsocc"rring 8ithin it, then these changes in brain f"nction are, in fact, organic, as are all brainf"nctions. So far as organicity is concerne, the effects of isolation, fatig"e, an sleepepri)ation "pon the brain are ifferent fro# those pro"ce by pne"#onia, star)ation, or g"nshot8o"ns pri#arily in the rapiity of their occ"rrence an the etent to 8hich they can be re)erse.

!ot all of the pheno#ena that #ay occ"r as a part of the brain synro#e ha)e yet been escribeas occ"rring "ring isolation, fatig"e, or sleep loss, b"t this see#s to be a f"nction of the li#iten"#ber of obser)ations that ha)e been #ae on people 8ho are s"bect to these conitions inetre#e egree.

+n the other han, there is a ifference in the preictability of the point at 8hich ist"rbe brainf"nction 8ill be pro"ce by these )ario"s circ"#stances. +ne can state 8ithin rather narro8li#its the

-BD-

le)els of boy te#perat"re, bloo gl"cose, or oygen sat"ration, beyon 8hich a se)ereist"rbance of brain f"nction can be epecte. Isolation, sleep loss, an fatig"e, ho8e)er, presentno s"ch narro8 li#its. It is probably correct to say that if any of these are carrie on long eno"ghthey 8ill isorganiGe the brain f"nction of anyone b"t the ifferences in the ability of #an to8ithstan these conitions are )ery 8ie. 'ner eperi#ental conitions, so#e people ha)es"cc"#be to sensory epri)ation 8ithin one-an-a-half ho"rs, 8hereas others ha)e #aintaineaeF"ate f"nction for thirty-si ho"rs or #ore =1D6?. 'ner prison isolation, as this has beencarrie o"t by *"ssian an astern "ropean state police, #ost prisoners e)elope sy#pto#s of


31/274

isorganiGation 8ithin three to si 8ee7s =%@? b"t so#e ha)e been 7no8n to en"re this for #any#onths =1%, @%?, an so#e ha)e s"cc"#be 8ithin ays. (fter forty-eight ho"rs 8itho"t sleep,so#e people beco#e isorganiGe an ineffecti)e, 8hereas others ha)e been 7no8n to go as longas a h"nre ho"rs 8ith their f"nctions largely intact =B%, 6A?. ( tas7 that 8ill fatig"e so#e #en8ithin a short 8hile can be carrie on by others for #any ho"rs 8ith no e)ience of fatig"e =A, BD?.

It #"st be concee that these ifferences in the ability of #en to 8ithstan isolation, fatig"e,an sleep epri)ation #ay be base on s"btle ifferences in their genetically inheritecharacteristics b"t if this be tr"e, no e)ience has yet been bro"ght for8ar to s"bstantiate it. +nthe other han, there is ab"nant e)ience to inicate that the personality of a #an an his attit"eto8ar the eperience that he is "nergoing affect his ability to 8ithstan it. eople 8ho enterprison 8ith attit"es of foreboing, apprehension, an helplessness generally o less 8ell thanthose 8ho enter 8ith ass"rance an a con)iction that they can eal 8ith anything that they #ayenco"nter. hose 8ho reaily 8ithra8 into a life of #eaningf"l fantasy an intellect"al acti)itysee# to o better than those 8ho are epenent "pon acti)ity an interaction 8ith other people.So#e people 8ho are afrai of losing sleep, or 8ho o not 8ish to lose sleep, soon s"cc"#b to

sleep loss others, con)ince that they can stay a8a7e inefinitely, ha)e one so for 8ell o)er ah"nre ho"rs =6A?. ( great n"#ber of reports fro# in"stry, an fro# eperi#ental obser)ations,inicate that the attit"e of 8or7ers an eperi#ental s"bects is as i#portant in eter#ining therate at 8hich they fatig"e as are the tas7s they "nerta7e =A,


32/274

physical contests intensely painf"l conitions #ay pass F"ite "nnotice an #ay not i#pairperfor#ance. When the attention is foc"se else8here by )ario"s #eans, s"ch as hypnosis, thepain of chilbirth or of s"rgical operations #ay be 8ithstoo an not be re#ar7e "pon =1>B, 1D%?.he reaction to pain is therefore F"ite )ariable =B, 6, @, D


33/274

the ini)i"al. (ltho"gh it is F"ite possible that this state is irectly responsible for theerange#ent in brain f"nction 8hich ta7es place, the ist"rbances of beha)ior an of #oo 8hichocc"r "ring the

-B%-

early part of star)ation are present long before any significant erange#ent of the internal #ilie"can be e#onstrate =1, %D, 11>, 1BD, 1BB?. he sensation of pain see#s to be ro"ghly eF"al in all #en, that isto say, all people ha)e approi#ately the sa#e threshol at 8hich they begin to feel pain, an8hen caref"lly grae sti#"li are applie to the#, their esti#ates of se)erity are approi#ately the

sa#e =6, D


34/274

i#pair#ent of ecision #a7ing, loss of efficiency, an iffic"lty in esti#ating ti#e =


35/274

he sa#e consierations that 8ere applie to the reactions to isolation, fatig"e, an sleep lossapply also to those of pain, h"nger, an threats. Insofar as #oo, tho"ght, an beha)ior aref"nctions of the brain, the ist"rbances of #oo, tho"ght, an beha)ior that occ"r in reaction topain, h"nger, or threat are ist"rbances of brain f"nction. Insofar as all brain f"nctions areconco#itants of electroche#ical e)ents in the brain, these ist"rbances are organic. et the

i#paire f"nction associate 8ith aniety is isting"ishe fro# the brain synro#e beca"se ofits re)ersibility, an beca"se of the relati)ely greater ist"rbance of #oo an beha)ior than ofintellect"al f"nctions, #e#ory, or orientation that "s"ally occ"r 8ith aniety. et i#paire brainf"nction, not entirely isting"ishable fro# the organic reaction pattern, an in effect per#anent,#ay in so#e cases be pro"ce by aniety alone =DA, D%?.

"ite asie fro# the F"estion of 8hether or not the reaction to threats, h"nger, an pain #ay beirectly associate 8ith changes in brain f"nction, there is no o"bt that it #ay be associate 8ithnotable changes in the f"nction of other organs. When en)iron#ental conitions pose a threat,aapti)e #echanis#s are capable of creating i#portant changes in the internal econo#y =%9, 1D9,1B>?. 4anifestations of ist"rbe f"nction of the gastrointestinal an cario)asc"lar syste#s are

#ost freF"ently reporte by prisoners =%@?, b"t ist"rbance of any organ syste# #ay occ"r. In theabsence of other ca"ses of isease, ysf"nctions pro"ce in this #anner are not "s"ally fatal,altho"gh they #ay be. When co#bine 8ith the effects of isolation, loss of sleep, or star)ation,they lea to rapi eterioration an so#eti#es to eath. )en if one 8ere to o)erloo7 entirely the

-B


36/274

Within the cerebral he#ispheres are #any iscrete path8ays 8hich ha)e to o 8ith lo8er le)elf"nctions, incl"ing those of sight, hearing, an the #otor f"nctions that ha)e been #entione.hese lo8er le)el f"nctions are relati)ely localiGe. a#age to their path8ays can i#pair the#te#porarily. "t the highest le)el f"nctions, those necessary for the aeF"ate epression of h"#annees, appetites, an ri)es, those 8hich pro)ie the #echanis#s for sy#bolic acti)ity

=#e#ory, abstraction, cognition, integration, reason, an so on?, an those 8hich enable#en to tolerate fr"stration, to eal effecti)ely 8ith threats, an to #aintain effecti)e an 8ell-#o"late efense reactions, o not appear to be localiGe 8ithin the he#ispheres =DA, D%?.

In carrying o"t these highest integrati)e f"nctions, the cerebral he#ispheres beha)e so#e8hatin the #anner of a ata-processing #achine that has igital =or co"nting? an analog"e =or#eas-

-B9-

"ring? characteristics, as 8ell as #any other characteristics not yet "plicate by #an-#ae

apparat"s =D6?. he cerebral he#ispheres ha)e no specific path8ays associate 8ith abstraction,cognition, integration, reason, or si#ilar #ental acti)ities. *ather, they incl"e a #aGe ofpotential path8ays, o)er any of 8hich the co#ple patterns of acti)ity associate 8ith the highestintegrati)e f"nctions #ay be set "p. h"s, 8hen any part of the he#ispheres is a#age, none ofthe highest integrati)e acti)ities are entirely lost, b"t the capacity to perfor# all is i#paire toso#e etent. It is for this reason, "no"btely, that anything that i#pairs the f"nction of thecerebral he#ispheres-irect in"ry, r"gs, toins, iseases, ho#eostatic ist"rbance of all sorts,isolation, sleep loss, fatig"e, an so#e reactions to pain, h"nger, an threats H "lti#atelypro"ces a global i#pair#ent of the highest integrati)e acti)ities.

et it is also tr"e that so#e high le)el f"nctions of the brain are #ore )"lnerable than others. It

see#s to be a characteristic of the central ner)o"s syste# that those f"nctions that are ne8est an#ost co#ple, those 8hich ha)e appeare #ost recently in e)ol"tionary e)elop#ent, are #ost)"lnerable an rop o"t first 8hen the f"nction of the brain is i#paire. he cerebral he#ispherespro)ie no eception to this general r"le. When they are i#paire, the first f"nctions lost are thosethat are tho"ght to be the #ost co#ple an to ha)e been acF"ire #ost recently by ci)iliGe #an$the capacity to carry o"t the highest creati)e acti)ities, to #eet ne8, challenging, an co#plesit"ations, to eal 8ith trying interpersonal relations, an to cope 8ith repeate fr"stration =DA, D%?.*elati)ely s#all egrees of ho#eostatic erange#ent, fatig"e, pain, sleep loss, or aniety #ayi#pair these f"nctions.

(s i#pair#ent of brain f"nction contin"es, so#e8hat less co#ple acti)ities eteriorate. hereis a lessening of the spee an efficiency 8ith 8hich the orinary tas7s of aily life are carrie o"t.Concern abo"t acc"racy, propriety, #oral rectit"e, honor, an feelings of other people,an si#ilar socially oriente beha)ior falls a8ay, an an increase concern abo"t sleep, rest,co#fort, foo, an other boily nees beco#es apparent =DA, D%, %A, 6@?. here is less aherenceto niceties in speech, beha)ior, an ress. #otional isplays lose so#e of their social orientation.J"g#ent an insight are less ac"te. hese co#ple aspects of brain f"nction #ay be istinctlyi#paire, 8hereas orientation, #e#ory, recall, an the capacity to perfor# 8ell on psycho#otortests are still intact.


37/274

Sy#pto#s of i#paire orientation appear as i#pair#ent procees. 4e#ory beco#es fa"lty, thecapacity to recall re#ote e)ents being re-

-A>-

taine after #e#ory for recent e)ents is lost. iffic"lty in si#ple co#p"tations beco#es e)ient,an i#pair#ent of perfor#ance on tests beco#es F"ite noticeable.

With still f"rther i#pair#ent a8areness beco#es clo"e. It is at this point that#isinterpretations, ill"sions, el"sions, an hall"cinations #ay appear, an eliri"# #ay occ"r.Large efects in #e#ory an profo"n i#pair#ent of iscri#ination an "g#ent are e)ient. (sthey e)elop, confab"lation #ay ta7e place an perse)eration is li7ely.

With f"rther eterioration of brain f"nction, loss of contact 8ith reality an finally loss ofconscio"sness occ"r.

It is notorio"s that threats, press"res, an epri)ations, s7illf"lly #anip"late by police aninterrogators 8ith long practice in their "se, 8ill brea7 al#ost any #an, soften hi# "p, #a7ehi# cooperate, an #a7e hi# tal7. hey s"ccee beca"se the #ost co#ple, the #ostci)iliGe, an the #ost socially eter#ine aspects of h"#an beha)ior are #ost affecte bythese proce"res. he less ci)iliGe beha)ior patterns, irecte at co#fort an s"r)i)al, arebro"ght to the fore in a #an 8hose capacity for "g#ent an iscri#ination is i#inishe.3onor, bra)ery, sec"rity, loyalty, an patriotis# then ha)e less 8eight in eter#ining hisbeha)ior pain, fear, an conf"sion ha)e #ore. *ationaliGations co#e easier to hi#, an points thatonce see#e i#portant are no8 "ni#portant. 3e beco#es #ore 8illing to gi)e infor#ation.

Willingness to gi)e infor#ation is an attit"e, a #ental set, an increase propensity of

the ini)i"al to react in a gi)en #anner. It is not, in itself, a iscrete f"nction of the brain it is astate#ent abo"t the li7elihoo that a gi)en pattern of reaction 8ill occ"r, pro)ie this reactionpattern can occ"r. 2ario"s egrees of 8illingness eist so long as the brain has any ability8hatsoe)er to gi)e infor#ation. he ability to gi)e infor#ation is a state#ent abo"t the capacityof the brain to f"rnish infor#ation$ the possibility that it can o so "ner any circ"#stances.Willingness an ability are not necessarily parallel.

It is easy to see 8hy )ario"s police proce"res often increase the 8illingness of #en to gi)einfor#ation. So far as one can tell, the 8illingness to gi)e infor#ation is not eter#ine by anyconstit"tional factor or by the irect action of any agent fro# the o"tsie, b"t by infor#ationalreay 8ithin the brain, 8hat #ight be calle its irections for action. 4ost of the irections

8hich call for a prisoner to 8ithhol infor#ation 8ere i#plante there by his society. hey are thes"# total of those learne reactions that ha)e

-A1-

to o 8ith loyalty, honor, propriety, sec"rity, an so on. (s brain f"nction is i#paire,infor#ation eri)e fro# past eperience generally beco#es less potent as a g"ie for action,8hereas infor#ation eri)e fro# the i##eiate eperience, pain, thirst, isco#fort, an threats to


38/274

life, beco#es #ore potent. he attit"e is li7ely to change, an the #an beco#es #ore 8illingto o 8hate)er is necessary to sec"re his co#fort an s"r)i)al.

he ne8 attit"e, the ne8ly increase propensity, is irecte to8ar oing 8hate)er isnecessary to sec"re co#fort an s"r)i)al. It is irecte to8ar co#pliance, to8ar oing 8hat

the sit"ation see#s to e#an. his ne8 state of the infor#ant #ay be a trap to an interrogator,especially if he is a )igoro"s an persistent #an 8ith a goo hypothesis as to 8hat he #ight"nco)er. 3e is no8 ealing 8ith a #an 8ho is li7ely to ha)e lost so#e of his finer capacity foriscri#ination an "g#ent, 8hose insistent physiologic nees i#pel hi# to8ar reay sol"tionsthat #ay ser)e to relie)e hi# of his isco#fort, 8hose #e#ory for etails #ay be f"GGy anconf"se, an 8ho is #ore than "s"ally reay to accept a pla"sible s"ggestion. he so"rce is,inee, #ore prepare to tal7, b"t he is also #ore li7ely to be inacc"rate an to gi)e false,#isleaing, inco#plete, or ineact infor#ation, of a type li7e that 8hich his interrogator happensto be see7ing. he fact that the gi)ing of this infor#ation oes not reo"n to his creit or to hislong-ter# self-interest an the fact that he is prepare to state that it is tr"e, an later to efen hisstate#ents, sho"l not be ta7en as e)ience of its acc"racy.

!ote that these are state#ents of probability they are not absol"te. Willingness is notnecessarily enhance as ability eteriorates. +"r si#ple hierarchical o"tline of the 8ay that brainf"nction falls off is generally tr"e. (ll the ist"rbing infl"ences that 8e ha)e #entione can beacco#panie by the brain synro#e, an can "lti#ately ca"se isorganiGation an"nconscio"sness. 3o8e)er, one cannot #a7e a #ore eact state#ent, beca"se the precise nat"re ofthe sy#pto#s an the facility 8ith 8hich they are pro"ce are epenent "pon the personality ofthe prisoner, 8hat has happene to hi# before, an ho8 he )ie8s the circ"#stances in 8hich hefins hi#self at the ti#e =DA, D%, 1B1?. hese factors ha)e a great eal to o 8ith the for# of thebrain synro#e pro"ce by ist"rbances in ho#eostasis. hey eter#ine 8hether a #anbeco#es garr"lo"s or 8ithra8n, anio"s or angry, paranoi or tr"sting. hey li7e8ise eter#ine

the for# of the brain synro#e pro"ce by isolation, sleep loss, an fatig"e, an they f"rtherha)e an i#portant infl"ence "pon his ability to 8ithstan pain an h"nger, an they

-AD-

approach being an absol"te eter#inant of 8hether or not a threat 8ill pro"ce a isorganiGingreaction.

'n8illingness to gi)e infor#ation is a #ental set. If it is strongly i#bee in a #an before hiscapt"re, it #ay contin"e to go)ern one aspect of his beha)ior right "p to the point of eliri"# or"nconscio"sness, no #atter 8hat sy#pto#s he #ay e)elop. So#e people -cri#inals ahering tothe coe of the "ner8orl =1D@? as 8ell as prisoners of 8ar ahering to the finest #ilitarytraitions =119? H o not gi)e infor#ation altho"gh they reach the point of isorganiGation oreath. he e)ience s"ggests that a learne reaction pattern, if s"fficiently reinforce, canso#eti#es go)ern a specific aspect of beha)ior as long as a #an retains the capacity to carry o"tthat beha)ior.

;ro# the theoretical point of )ie8 it is har to escape the concl"sion that a #an is best able togi)e acc"rate infor#ation 8hen he is in an opti#al state of health, rest, co#fort, an alertness, an


39/274

8hen he is "ner no threat. his 8o"l see# to be the opti#al sit"ation for interrogation. (nyatte#pt to pro"ce co#pliant beha)ior by proce"res 8hich pro"ce tiss"e a#age, ist"rbancesof ho#eostasis, fatig"e, sleep epri)ation, isolation, isco#fort, or ist"rbing e#otional statescarries 8ith it the haGar of pro"cing inacc"racy an "nreliability.

3o8e)er, it is often necessary for the interrogator to F"estion people 8ho are eperiencing#oerately se)ere effects of illness, in"ry, fatig"e, isco#fort, or aniety. ( boy of practicaleperience inicates that relati)ely reliable infor#ation can be obtaine fro# #ost s"ch people, ifthe infor#ation so"ght is neither co#ple nor etensi)e. he interrogator faces t8o specialhaGars "ner these circ"#stances. ;irst, the so"rce #ay ha)e a fairly serio"s egree of #entalist"rbance that is not i##eiately e)ient an it #ay escape the interrogator:s attention. Secon,any infor#ant in a threatening sit"ation is liable to say 8hate)er 8ill please his captors, e)entho"gh he #ay not o so intentionally. hese e)er-present haGars of interrogation are enhance"ner a)erse circ"#stances. It #ay be ass"#e, in the absence of e)ience to the contrary, thatthe si#pler, the briefer, an the #ore reaily )erifiable the infor#ation that is so"ght, the #oreli7ely is the e)ience of the so"rce to be of )al"e.

+n the other han, granting that )ario"s proce"res esigne to #a7e #en #ore co#pliant 8illi#pair their ability to gi)e acc"rate infor#ation, o these proce"res not ca"se #en to gi)e #oreinfor#ation than they #ight other8ise ha)e gi)en Cannot a #an be #ae to re)eal infor#ationagainst his 8ill

-AB-

isorere brain f"nction is inee easily pro"ce in any #an. !o a#o"nt of 8ill po8er canpre)ent its occ"rrence. It can be pro"ce 8itho"t "sing physical #eans, that is, by fatig"e or sleepepri)ation. Since it #ay be associate 8ith #ental clo"ing, conf"sion, lac7 of iscri#ination,

i#paire "g#ent, an increase s"ggestibility, it is probably tr"e that #ost #en can be bro"ghtto a state 8here they 8ill agree to state#ents that are "bio"s, inco#plete, or F"ite inacc"rate.'ner these conitions so#e #en 8ill #a7e "p entirely fictitio"s stories incri#inating the#sel)es.herefore, it is "s"ally not iffic"lt to obtain signe confessions that are biase, inco#plete,inacc"rate, or e)en totally "ntr"e. his is the #eans by 8hich Co##"nist state police ha)epro"ce false confessions 8ith great reg"larity =%@?, altho"gh not 8ith "ni)ersal s"ccess =1D, 1>1,1>6, 11@, 119?.

4ost people 8ho are epose to coerci)e proce"res 8ill tal7 an "s"ally re)eal so#einfor#ation that they #ight not ha)e re)eale other8ise. 3o8e)er, there is no e)ience that a #an#"st al8ays re)eal a specific ite# of infor#ation that he possesses. ist"rbe brain f"nction of thes"bect oes not allo8 the interrogator to abstract infor#ation at 8ill. (n interrogator #ayoccasionally tric7 a ist"rbe #an into re)ealing bits of infor#ation that he ha intene toconceal, b"t infor#ation so re)eale is li7ely to be li#ite an intersperse 8ith "nreliablestate#ents. If he elects to o so, a prisoner #ay en"re to eath or isorganiGation 8itho"tre)ealing 8hat he 7no8s. 2ery fe8 #en, ho8e)er, can hol the#sel)es to s"ch rigoro"s beha)iorthro"gh all the )icissit"es of capti)ity.


40/274

Re'erenes

1. (ginger J., an 3e##ager . 'n"s"al ne"ral conitions follo8ing h"nger perio of 19A%-A6.Arch. Psychiat.,19%1, 19.

@. eecher 3. 0., 0eats (. S., 4osteller ;., an Lasagna L.1ffectiveness of oral analgesics F)or(hine, co%eine,acetylsalicylic aci% an% (ro'le) of (lace'o HreactorsH an% Hnon>reactors.HJ. Phar). e*(. hera(eutics, 19%B, 1>9,B9B-A>>.

-AA-


41/274

D>. r"n C., 0n"sen . +. ., an *aascho" ;. he influence of (osture on the "i%ney function. Acta. e%.Scan%., 19A%, 1DD, B1%-BB1.

D1. +arlson, A. J., an-oel3e$ 0.Allege% %isa((earance of hunger %uring starving. Science, 19%D, 11%, %D6-%D.

DD. Chal#ers . 4., an SF"ires *. . 4'servations on the renal res(onse to )otionless stan%ing. J. Physiol.,

19%B, 1DD, %


42/274

A>. ;aGe7as J., 0leh J., an ;innerty ;. (. Influence of age an% vascular %isease on cere'ral he)o%yna)ics an%)eta'olis).A)er. J. e%., 19%%, 1-A9A.

%D. 3a"gen ;. ., an Li)ingston W. 0.1*(eriences ith -ar%y>Wolff>Goo%ell %olori)eter.Anesthesiology, 19%B,1A, 1>9-116.

%B. 3ebb . +., 3eath . S., an St"art . (. 1*(eri)ental %eafness. +ana%. J. Psychol., 19%A, , 1B-1


43/274

%@. 3in7le L. ., Jr., an Wolff 3. /. Co##"nist interrogation an inoctrination of ne#ies of the State.(nalysis of #ethos "se by the Co##"nist state police. =Special *eport?, A..A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 19%6, @6,11%-1@A.

%>-61%.

%9. 3in7le L. ., Jr., an Wolff 3. /. he nat"re of #an:s aaptation to his total en)iron#ent an the relation ofthis to illness.A..A. Arch. int. e%., 19%@, 99, AAD-A6>.

6>. 3o"ston ;., an *oyse (. . *elationship bet8een eafness an psychotic illness. J. )ent. Sci., 19%A, 1>>,99>-99B.

61. 3"ltgren 3. . risoners of 8ar clinical an laboratory obser)ations in se)ere star)ation. Stanfor% e%.Bull., 19%1, 9, 1@%-191.

6D. J"lian +. C., ye W. S., /ro)e W. I., et al. 3ypother#ia in open heart s"rgery. A..A. Arch. Surg., 19%6, @B,A9B-%>D.

6B. 0arp ., an "rns . . *esponses to painf"l sti#"l"s in schiGophrenic patients before an after loboto#y.reat. Serv. Bull., 19%A, 9, 1%-B9.

6A. 0atG S. ., an Lanis C. sychologic an physiologic pheno#ena "ring prolonge )igil. A..A. Arch.Neurol. Psychiat., 19B%, BA, B>@-B1@.

6%. 0ety S. S. Circ"lation an #etabolis# of the h"#an brain in health an isease. A)er. J. e%., 19%>, %-D1@.

66. 0ety S. S., an Sch#it C. ;. he eter#ination of cerebral circ"lation in #an by the "se of nitro"s oie inlo8 concentrations.A)er. J. Physiol., 19A%, 1AB, %B-%6.

6@. 0eys (., et al. he 'iology of hu)an starvation. 4inneapolis$ 'ni)er. of 4inn. ress, 19%>. D )ols.

6D-D1D.

@D. Laslett 3. *. (n eperi#ent on the effects of loss of sleep.J. e*(. Psychol., 19DA, @, A%-%1-1D1D.

@A. Leier#an 3., 4enelson J. 3., Weler ., an Solo#on . Sensory epri)ation clinical aspects. A..A.Arch. int. e%., 19%1, B


44/274

@6. Le)in 4. Chronic eliri"# in organic e#entia.J. nerv. )ent. is., 19A%, 1>D, D%6-D%9.

@@. Le8is . I. he hyper)entilation synro#e.Ann. int. e%., 19%B, B>.

>.


45/274

9A. iercy 4., lithorn (., ratt *. . C., an Cross7ey 4. (niety an a"tono#ic reaction to pain. J. Neurol.Neurosurg. Psychiat., 19%%, 1.

9@. *o#ano J., an ngel /. L. eliri"#.A..A. Arch. Neurol. Psychiat., 19AA, %1, B%6-B%@.

9, A-1A.

1>>. Saphir W. Chronic hypochlore#ia si#"lating psychone"rosis.J. A)er )e%. Ass, 19A%, 1D9, %1>-%1D

1>1. Schein . 3. he Chinese inoctrination progra# for prisoners of 8ar a st"y of atte#pte brain8ashing.Psychiatry, 19%6, 19, 1A9-1@D

1>D. Scheinberg ., lac7b"rn I., *ich 4., an Saslo8 4. ffects of )igoro"s physical eercise on cerebralcirc"lation an #etabolis#.A)er. J. e%., 19%A, 16, A

1>B. Schnec7 J. 4. St"ies in scientific hypnosis.Nerv. an% )ent. is. onogra(hs, !e8 or7, 19%A, !o. A. Schnit7er 4. (., 4att#an *. ., an liss . L. Clinical st"y of #aln"trition in Japanese prisoners of 8ar.Ann. int. e%., 19%1, B%, 69-96

1>%. Segal 3. (. Initial psychiatric finings of recently repatriate prisoners of 8ar. A)er. J. Psychiat., 19%A,111, B%6. Segal J. 0actors relate% to the colla'oration an% resistance 'ehavior of U. S. Ar)y PWDs in 2orea.Washington, . C.$ 3"#an *eso"rces *esearch +ffice, /eorge Washington 'ni)er., ece#ber 19%6. 3"#**+echnical *eport BB

1>@. Soffer (. angers of inacti)ity "ring a"to#obile tra)el.A)er. J. )e% Sci., 19%%, DD9, A@%-A@6

1>, A9-@9


46/274

11B. Strass#an 3. ., haler 4argaret ., an Schein . 3. ( prisoner of 8ar synro#e$ (pathy as a reaction tose)ere stress.A)er. J. Psychiat., 19%6, 11D, 99>B

11A. S8an7 *. L. Co#bat eha"stion escripti)e an statistical analysis of ca"ses, sy#pto#s an signs. J. nerv.)ent. is., 19A9, 1>9, A@%-%>A-B>@

1B6. 5is7in . Isolation stress in #eical an #ental illness.J. A)er. )e% Ass., 19%


48/274

Partial assistance for the preparation of this report was provided by the Office of Naval Research,Contract Nonr. 1866(2!. "he a#thor wo#ld also li$e to than$ R. R. %olt and P. %. &eider'an for their criticalreadin of the 'an#script and their 'any helpf#l s#estions.

-%1-

abo"t this proble#, an =c? to re)ie8 briefly its i#plications for o"r general "nerstaning ofbeha)ior.

B&8%round

Interest in these proble#s by i)erse gro"ps long anteates the c"rrent concern. S#all =@1?, in19>>, s"##ariGe a great eal of ata rele)ant to the relationship bet8een social life an solit"e.3e offere the generaliGation that

(ll 7no8lege of self an things is relati)e. ersonal orientation epens largely on obects in the )is"al fiel. Inthe presence of a esert, a prairie, a sea, or the s7y in an absol"tely ar7 ca)ern, or on the s"##it of a #o"ntain, afeeling of isproportionateness bet8een the #an an 8hat he sees o)er8hel#s conscio"sness. aralysis of associationres"lts. *etrogression to a half-)egetati)e state li7e that of infancy follo8s. If the eyes be open, they o not see. heyha)e neither fiation point nor acco##oation. heir gaGe is as )acant as in the early ays after birth, as stoli as thefroGen stare that follo8s eath. (ll the life that there is, lies 8ithin. When that 8hich has see#e real, abiing ancertain in the obecti)e fiel beco#es a blan7, the psychic conition passes rapily thro"gh a change 8hose nearestanalog"e is the blaer of air in a recei)er fro# 8hich the air is being eha"ste. In the effort to epan itself to therange of its ne8 conitions, the self fins itself only a loosely relate #ass of reflees fro# eperience, istr"sts theircoherence an their affinities, sees the flitting nat"re of conscio"sness, loses tself in the 'n7no8n. =1@, page B9.?

'ntil recently o"r pri#ary so"rces of ata on this proble# ha)e been the a"tobiographicalacco"nts of prisoners, eplorers, an ship8rec7e sailors. hey ha)e reporte rather ra#atic,

often gripping acco"nts of the response to isolation in narro8 an cra#pe prison F"arters, inenless ays at sea, or in star7 an esolate polar regions. *eports by o#bar =11?, yr =1%?,*itter =6B?, an "rney =1B?, to #ention only a fe8, escribe the ineorable #onotony of theseconitions an report "n"s"al changes in thin7ing, feeling, an perception. 3all"cinationli7eeperiences see#e F"ite co##on an a #ar7e h"nger for contact 8ith people an things 8ere#anifest. hese acco"nts, as 8ell as a )ariety of other anecotal literat"re, s"ggeste the 7ey roleof a )arie eternal en)iron#ent against 8hich to )erify internally arising percepts an ieas. 8orecent re)ie8s ha)e s"##ariGe these so#e8hat scattere, largely a"tobiographical reports =%>,@D?.

In recent years, interest in a syste#atic st"y of these proble#s has heightene consierably.

his increase of interest can be at-

-%D-

trib"te to con)erging infl"ences co#ing fro# three #aor so"rces. he first of these so"rces hasbeen the rapi pace of e)elop#ent in se)eral scientific isciplines. ()ances in ne"rophysiologyha)e le to a gra"al re)ision in o"r conception of the ner)o"s syste# an ha)e pro"ce ata thatpro)ie changing physiological #oels for psychological e)ents =B@?. here are no8 a)ailable


49/274

increasingly sophisticate electrophysiological #ethos of #eas"ring ne"ral f"nction at )ario"sle)els of the ner)o"s syste#. *ecent reports =D9, 61? ha)e e#onstrate electrical changes in thecentral ner)o"s syste# follo8fag re"ce sensory inp"t. hese changes are belie)e to ha)eche#ical conseF"ences. !e"roche#istry has beg"n to pro)ie techniF"es for e)al"ating the nat"reof these conseF"ences.

sychoanalysis is another iscipline in 8hich interest in these iss"es is gro8ing. 3ere,increasing e#phasis is place on the i#portance of "nerstaning ego f"nctioning an its role in#eiating beha)ior. ;ro# this )ie8point, the F"estion #ay be raise, If the ego is the eec"ti)easpect of personality, enabling the ini)i"al to cope 8ith reality, 8hat beco#es of ego f"nctionsin the absence of an eternal en)iron#ent 8ith 8hich to cope (ltho"gh ;re" =B1? ealt 8iththese iss"es early in his 8or7, interest in an eperi#ental approach to this proble# is relati)elyrecent. he 8or7 of 3art#ann =B6? in elaborating the theoretical basis of ego psychology isi#portant in this e)elop#ent.

( secon #aor so"rce of interest in h"#an response to restricte en)iron#ents has co#e fro#

the #ilitary establish#ent. echnological e)elop#ents, as seen in a )ariety of #ilitaryapplications, ha)e gi)en the p"rs"it of these F"estions a ne8 "rgency. With the a)ent of spacecraft, isolate raar stations, an a generally increase reliance on a"to#ate eF"ip#ent, theproble# of efficient f"nctioning in se)erely restricte, #onotono"s en)iron#ents is no longer#erely of theoretical or acae#ic interest. he proble# of efficient personnel selection an"tiliGation, in a 8ie )ariety of these circ"#stances, has pro)ie #ar7e i#pet"s to the initiationan e)elop#ent of research progra#s ealing 8ith reactions to li#ite sensory an socialen)iron#ents.

In this connection, the eperience of prisoners of 8ar 8ith Co##"nist tho"ght-refor# hasha si#ilar effects. he re)elation that isolation #ay be one factor in the s"sceptibility of h"#ans

to raical changes in c"sto#ary beha)ior an beliefs has heightene interest in the st"y ofisolation. he shoc7e fascination of the general p"blic, not ecepting the scientific co##"nity,has ser)e to highlight the nee for a syste#atic "nerstaning of the effects of physical an

-%B-

social isolation on beha)ior. Literat"re on #ethos of tho"ghtrefor# or ieological refor# hasatte#pte to place these proce"res in a contet 8hich e#phasiGes the fact that they are 8ell7no8n an not the res"lt of ne8 isco)eries or #agical inno)ations on the part of the Co##"nists=9, 1>, AD, A9, 6@?. In these proce"res, solitary confine#ent an #onotono"s, barren s"rro"ningsplay an i#portant role in #a7ing the prisoner #ore recepti)e an s"sceptible to the infl"ence ofthe interrogator. he "se of this techniF"e rests not on laboratory science b"t is part of thee#pirical 7no8-ho8 of police an #ilitary interrogation.

( thir #aor so"rce of interest in these pheno#ena, altho"gh perhaps less ra#atic than theforegoing, has co#e fro# e)elop#ents 8ithin acae#ic psychology. +ne s"ch e)elop#ent hasta7en place in the area of #oti)ation, in 8hich a n"#ber of eperi#enters =1A, BA, %


50/274

ri)e, 8e fin that this research has arisen in a contet 8hich see7s to ref"te the strongly pre)alent)ie8 of the organis# as a passi)e receptacle of eperience one 8hich respons only to ri)e-rele)ant sti#"lation. (s for#"late by 3ebb, Characteristically, sti#"l"s response theory hastreate the ani#al as #ore or less inacti)e "nless s"bect to special conitions of aro"sal. =B@,page DAA.? In contrast to this approach, st"ies ealing 8ith the rele)ance for beha)ior of a

c"riosity or eploratory ri)e inicate that the organis# has an acti)e nee for eperience, aninitiates an str"ct"res acti)ity in accorance 8ith that nee. St"ying h"#an response torestricte en)iron#ents #ay inicate the #oe of operation of the nee for eperience.

(nother e)elop#ent 8ithin acae#ic psychology has contrib"te to the c"rrent concern 8iththe effects of restricte en)iron#ents on h"#an s"bects. St"ies of sensory epri)ation early inthe life of ani#als, an the effects "pon s"bseF"ent e)elop#ent an learning, ha)e a relati)elylong history 8ithin psychology. +riginally esigne to e)al"ate the relati)e infl"ence of innateorganiGational processes =as oppose to learning? on perception, these researches ha)e since been#ore irectly foc"se on the general effects of early epri)ation "pon a )ariety of s"bseF"entbeha)iors. (ltho"gh eperi#ental 8or7, beca"se of ethical consierations, has of necessity been

confine to ani#al in)estigations, clinical an anecotal e)ience s"ch as the reports of SpitG =@B,@A, @%? an others =DD, DB, D6, D@?, an those on feral #an =@>, @1? ha)e s"pple#ente thesest"ies. hese reports

-%A-

ha)e highlighte the i#portance of a f"ll range of early en)iron#ental eperience to thee)elop#ent of nor#al a"lt f"nctioning. he occ"rrence of serio"s an irre)ersible isr"ptions ofnor#al e)elop#ent an beha)ior has been reporte. eca"se this 8or7 is beyon the scope of thepresent chapter, the reaer is referre to each an Jayne:s =%? re)ie8 of this literat"re.

Met"odo$o%i&$ Consider&tions

efore t"rning to an ea#ination of the eperi#ental finings, it #ay be 8ell to consier so#eof the #ethoological an concept"al proble#s raise by research in this area. he i)ersity of)ariables in)ol)e in a syste#atic st"y of response to re"ce en)iron#ental sti#"lation #a7esfor consierable co#pleity. It 8ill be "sef"l to ta7e a brief o)er)ie8 of proce"res e#ploye by)ario"s in)estigators.

hree eperi#ental approaches ha)e been ientifie in the literat"re =@D?. In the first of these,efforts 8ere irecte to8ar an a'solute re%uctionof inp"t to the organis# fro# the eternal

8orl. Lilly =%>? i##erse t8o s"bects "p to three ho"rs in a tan7 of slo8ly circ"lating tepi8ater, 8earing nothing b"t a hea #as7 that co)ere eyes an ears. here 8as #ini#al )is"al,a"itory, or tactile sti#"lation. S"bects recei)e an initial set of training epos"res to o)erco#efear of the sit"ation. +n the ay of the eperi#ent, they 8ere place in the tan7 an 8ereinstr"cte to inhibit all #o)e#ent so far as possible. he "se of a so"nproof, ar7ene roo# =6%,@9? as a #etho for achie)ing sensory epri)ation is si#ilar in intent :o the foregoing proce"re.he s"bect:s ar#s an hans are enclose in carboar c"ffs an glo)es. l"gs are place in the


51/274

ears to re"ce f"rther le)els of sti#"lation. (ltho"gh absol"te re"ction in sensory inp"t is thegoal here, this latter #etho places less of a restriction on #otor acti)ity.

( secon approach to re"cing sensory sti#"lation 8as "se by eton, 3eron an Scott =


52/274

o"r 7no8lege, it is "nclear as to 8hether there are ifferent beha)ioral conseF"ences of sensoryas oppose to percept"al epri)ation, in the sense "se abo)e. It is possible to concei)e of thisrange of sti#"l"s conitions as a co#ple contin""#.

In )ie8 of the "niF"e co#pleities presente by research in this area, it is clear that so#e8hat

arbitrary choices of proce"re ha)e been #ae. hese choices #"st be e)al"ate in ter#s of theli#itations they i#pose on the res"lts obtaine. h"s the obser)ation of cogniti)e an percept"alf"nctioning an the escriptions of e#otional an affecti)e changes #a7es si#"ltaneo"s )erbalreports of eperience in the eperi#ental sit"ation #ost esirable. *etrospecti)e reports raiseiffic"lt F"estions abo"t their acc"racy an #a7e it i#possible to st"y the conc"rrence ofphysiological e)ents an )erbal beha)ior. +n the other han, )erbal reports of eperiences by thes"bect "ring the eperi#ent pro)ie a co#ple feebac7 sit"ation. he testing of percept"al ancogniti)e f"nctions "ring the eperi#ent constit"tes a efinite #oification of proce"re.

+ne for# of control o)er the s"bect:s sensory eperience has been achie)e in #anyeperi#ents by restricting his #obility. his is acco#plishe by restraining the s"bect, li#iting

the space a)ailable to hi# or by instr"ctions to re#ain still. his li#itation of #obility re"ces7inesthetic an propriocepti)e inp"t. It is iffic"lt to 7no8 8hether the res"lts obtaine are af"nction of the aitional sense of confine#ent or restriction 8hich goes beyon re"ction insensory sti#"lation.

4ost st"ies in this fiel ha)e stri)en for absol"te isolation of the s"bect fro# other h"#ancontact by a)oiing all co##"nication bet8een s"bect an eperi#enter. (ltho"gh socialisolation contrib"tes to re"ce sensory inp"t, 8hether this re"ction is pri#arily effecti)e inter#s of loss of social contact per se, loss of patterne sti#"lation fro# speech, absol"te re"ctionof sensory sti#"lation, or so#e co#bination of these is still to be eter#ine.

;"rther#ore, the social isolation in these eperi#ental settings is artificial an li#ite in thatthe s"bect 7no8s there is an obser)er 8ho is intereste in his perfor#ance. 3e "s"ally has gooreason to s"spect that this obser)er has strong #oti)ation to pre)ent the occ"rrence of any longlasting or profo"nly ebilitating effects. hese i#plicit aspects of the s"bect-eperi#entercontract #ay be #aor factors in the pres"#e social isolation seen in eperi#ental st"ies. heseli#itations to isolation o not apply to sit"ations s"ch as those of the prisoner or ship8rec7esailor. In the for#er case there are the aitional i#plications of the stat"s of ene#y 8hich

-%@-

"no"btely also infl"ences the ini)i"al:s response. he escape at 8ill cla"se present in

laboratory st"ies constit"tes a #aor ifference fro# the #oti)ational conitions of real lifeisolation sit"ations.

hese factors, along 8ith the "se of )ol"nteers in eperi#ental st"ies, constit"te serio"sli#itations to the laboratory testing of hypotheses regaring responses to real life isolation ansensory epri)ation. We are "nable to assess the effects of coercion or the "lti#ate conseF"encesof prolonge confine#ent in a epri)e en)iron#ent. hese conitions "no"btely ha)e aprofo"n effect on the #oti)ational aspects of the sit"ation an th"s infl"ence response. he


53/274

inability to replicate these conitions in the laboratory #"st li#it o"r generaliGations fro# theeperi#ental ata. In )ie8 of these consierations these ata #"st be interprete ca"tio"sly.

E-4iri&$ Findin%s.

he first eperi#ental 8or7 8hich foc"se on the response of #an epose to re"ceen)iron#ental sti#"lation per se 8as beg"n in 19%1 in the laboratory of . +. 3ebb at 4c/ill'ni)ersity =@,


54/274

sensory inp"t 8ill be callesensory %e(rivation.In a n"#ber of eperi#ental proce"res ele#entsof both are present.

Perceptual and Motor Abilities

he proble#s of )igilance "ner conitions of percept"al epri)ation ha)e been st"ie by4ac78orth =%D?. (itional literat"re in this area 8as re)ie8e by 3ollan =AA?, 8ho s"##ariGethese st"ies as sho8ing a greater o)er-all percentage of etection 8hen the n"#ber of signals pereperi#ental session increases, an a #ore eF"i)ocal fining of an increase probability ofetection for longer intersignal ti#es. 3e interprete )igilance beha)ior as a proble# ofreinforce#ent sche"ling an probability of response. In this contet, signal etections ser)e asreinforce#ents for obser)ing responses. 3is o8n finings confir#e the earlier reports that 8ithina gi)en session, espite ini)i"al ifferences, the "se of a larger n"#ber of signals increaseresponse rate. 3e calls attention to the rather precise control eerte by the en)iron#ent o)er theh"#an operator:s obser)ing beha)ior =page 6@?.

-%9-

3ochberg, riebel, an Sea#an =AB?, 8or7ing 8ith a ifferent eperi#ental interest, perfor#ea series of st"ies on the percepts obtaine "ner conitions of spatially ho#ogeneo"s coloreill"#ination o)er the entire )is"al fiel. hese st"ies 8ere esigne to test the hypothesis that acolore Gan3fel%8o"l lose its color "ner these conitions. 'tiliGing eyecaps #ae fro# hal)etable-tennis balls, these in)estigators fo"n that co#plete isappearance of color 8as obtaine in#ost cases, espite consierable ini)i"al ifferences in the co"rse of the aaptation process anin the pheno#enal content "ring aaptation.

Si#ilarly, restricting sti#"l"s inp"t to ho#ogeneo"s )is"al sti#"lation, W. Cohen anCa8allaer =D>? st"ie the effects of "nifor# )is"al sti#"lation "tiliGing a ifferent apparat"s.S"bects: epos"re to these conitions laste fro#

the manipulation of human behavior - 1961

Documents